title: Force Publique

text: During the Free State period, the "Force Publique" suffered from institutional problems. During the early years of the force, mutinies of black soldiers occurred several times. By the early 1890s, much of the eastern portion of the Free State was under the control of Arab ivory and slave traders (though the Government was able to re-establish control over the east by the mid-1890s). Organizational problems were also quite prevalent during the Free State era. With many "Force Publique" detachments being stationed in remote areas of the territory, some officers took to using soldiers under their control to further private economic agendas rather than focusing on military concerns. By the end of 1891, the force had 60 officers, 60 non-commissioned officers, and 3,500 black soldiers. Friendly tribes and militias were often used to help exert control over the outermost parts of the Free State. By 1900, the Force Publique numbered 19,000 men.


title: Force Publique

text: Following the takeover of the Free State by the Belgian government in 1908, the new authorities reorganised the "Force Publique". This process was rather slow, however, and was only completed during the First World War. Though the new Belgian administration was "more enlightened" than its predecessor, it still tried to keep the cost of the colonial army low. As result, the proportion of commissioned Belgian officers to askaris (about one to a hundred) was very low by the standards of most colonial armies of this period. The weaponry of the "Force Publique" also remained mostly outdated due to the tight budgetary constraints on the colonial administration. Most askaris were armed with single shot 11 mm Albini-Braendlin rifles, though the white cadres and units in Katanga were given better Mauser Model 1889 rifles. Other weapons included Maxim machine guns, smaller numbers of Madsen machine guns, Nordenfelt 4.7 cm and Krupp 7.5 cm cannons.


title: Force Publique

text: The uniforms of the old Free State remained in use among the "Force Publique" until the First World War: Belgian officers wore white uniforms until late 1914, while the blue uniform (with red trim around the neck and down the front opening), red fez and sash of the askaris was phased out in a series of changes during 1915–1917. Thereafter, officers and askaris wore a variety of khaki uniforms.


title: Force Publique

text: The "Force Publique" was organised into 21 separate companies (originally numbered but later known only by their names) each between 225 and 950 men strong, along with an artillery and an engineers unit. The entire force numbered over 12,100 men. The companies were as follows: Aruwimi, Bangala, Bas-Congo, Cateracts, Équateur, Ituri, Kasai, Kwango, Lac Léopold II, Lualaba, Lulongo, Makrakas, Makua-Bomokandi, Ponthiérville, Rubi, Ruzizi-Kivu, Stanley Falls, Stanley Pool, Ubangi, and Uele-Bili. There were also six recruit training camps containing over 2,400 men.


title: Force Publique

text: The separate companies comprising the "Force Publique" eventually grew to over 600 men each. Their constituent units, known as detachments, were so widely scattered that the force had no real military value. Rather the bulk of these sub-units consisted of small garrisons in fixed locations, with local policing functions.


title: Force Publique

text: It was intended that each administrative company form a "Compagnie Marche" of 150 men. Each "Marche" or field company was intended to have four Belgian officers and NCOs plus between 100 and 150 askaris. In principle, companies comprised two or three 50-man platoons. There were supposed to be enough companies to form three "Marche" battalions. Eight Congolese soldiers were promoted to NCO.


title: Force Publique

text: The 2,875 men of the "Troupes du Katanga" constituted a semi-autonomous force of six companies: four "de marche" and two other infantry, plus a cyclist company and a battalion headquarters. In addition, there was the "Compagnie d'Artillerie et de Génie" (Artillery and Engineers Company) manning Fort de Shinkakasa at the mouth of the Congo River in Boma. The fort contained eight 160mm guns manned by 200 men, plus an equal-sized auxiliary force, which saw little or no service during the war.


title: Force Publique

text: In 1914, the "Force Publique", including the Katanga companies, totalled about 17,000 askaris with 178 white officers and 235 white NCOs. The majority served in small static garrisons called "poste" with primarily a police role. With the outbreak of the First World War, the Katangese units were organised in battalions (Ie, IIe, and IIIme) for military service in Northern Rhodesia and the eastern frontier districts of the Belgian Congo. The "Force Publique" was able to assemble another battalion from smaller units; originally called the IIIe, but changed to the 11e to avoid confusion with the Katanga IIIme battalion.


title: Force Publique

text: During the First World War (1914–18), an expanded "Force Publique" served against German colonial forces in Kamerun and German East Africa (Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi), as part of the East African campaign. The "Force Publique" performed well on the battlefield, winning the respect of their British and Portuguese allies, as well as that of their German opponents. From 1916 onwards, the "Force Publique" grew to reach a strength of three mobile "Groupes" (brigades), Kivu, Ruzizi, and Tanganyika, comprising a total of 15 battalions, from the static garrison and police force of 1914. However, it did take until late 1915 for the "Force Publique" to finish preparations for a large scale offensive on German East Africa. The allied powers, the British Empire and Belgium, launched a coordinated attack on the German colony; by 1916 the Belgian commander of the "Force Publique", Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, had assembled an army of 15,000 men supported by local bearers and advanced to Kigali. Kigali was taken by 6 May 1916. The German army stationed in Urundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army, and by 17 June 1916, Ruanda-Urundi was occupied. The "Force Publique" and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora, an administrative centre of central German East Africa. The army went on to take Tabora on 19 September after heavy fighting. At the time of the Battle of Tabora in September 1916, about 25,000 men were under arms; during the war their actions were supported by more than 260,000 local bearers. In 1916, Tombeur was made Military Governor of the Belgian Occupied East African Territories. After the Mahenge offensive and the capture of Mahenge in 1917, the Belgian Congolese army controlled roughly one-third of German East Africa.


title: Force Publique

text: After the First World War, as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to cede "control" of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium. On 20 October 1924, Ruanda-Urundi (1924–1945), which consisted of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, became a League of Nations mandate territory under Belgian administration, with Usumbura as its capital.


title: Force Publique

text: On 10 May 1919, the Belgian colonial administration issued a decree formally reorganising the "Force Publique" into two branches. The "troupes campées" was tasked with guarding the border and protecting the colony from external aggression, while the "troupes en service territoriale" was responsible for maintaining internal security. Battalions from the latter were assigned to every provincial capital, while companies were stationed at each district headquarters.


title: Force Publique

text: After Belgium had surrendered to Nazi Germany on 28 May 1940, Governor-General Pierre Ryckmans decided that the colony would continue to fight on the side of the Allies. With Belgium occupied, the contribution to the Allied cause by the Free Belgian forces from the Belgian Congo was primarily an economic one providing copper, wolfram, zinc, tin, rubber, cotton and more. Already prior to the war uranium from the Shinkolobwe mine had been shipped to New York; it was later used in the Manhattan Project to produce the atomic bomb for Hiroshima. The military contribution was also important: the "Force Publique" grew to 40,000 in the course of the War, formed into three brigades, a river force and support units. It provided detachments to fight Italian forces during the East Africa campaign and serve as garrisons in West Africa and the Middle East.


title: Force Publique

text: At the end of 1940, the XI Battalion of the "Force Publique" was placed at the disposal of the British forces in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The 3rd Brigade of the "Force Publique", together with the XI battalion (5,700 men), took part in the campaign in Abyssinia in Italian East Africa, arriving from the Congo via the Sudan. The troops took Asosa and Gambela with little resistance, and shelled Italian forces at Saïo on 8 June 1941. Their retreat cut off, the Italian troops surrendered to General Auguste-Édouard Gilliaert on 7 July 1941, and included nine generals, among them General Pietro Gazzera and Count Arconovaldo Bonaccorsi, 370 officers, and 2,574 noncoms and 1,533 native soldiers. About 2,000 additional native irregulars were sent home. The "Force Publique" lost about 500 men during the East Africa Campaign, among them 4 Belgians.


title: Force Publique

text: The "Force Publique" then helped to establish an overland route from Lagos through Fort Lamy and the Sudan to Cairo. Between 1942 and 1943, an expeditionary force of 13,000 was sent to Nigeria. Nine thousand of these troops served in Egypt and Palestine. They returned to the Belgian Congo at the end of 1944 without having seen active service.


title: Force Publique

text: The "Force Publique" also sent the 10th Belgian Congo Casualty Clearing Station to the battle zone. Between 1941 and 1945, some 350 Congolese and 20 Belgians, under the command of Medical Colonel Thomas, worked together with the British medical services in Abyssinia, Somaliland, Madagascar and Burma. They especially proved their value serving with the Indian XXXIII Corps on the Upper Chindwin, where they were attached to the 11th (East Africa) Division. During the confusion inherent in jungle fighting, the Belgian medical unit found itself on one occasion in advance of the front line troops. This incident was later used by British officers to motivate the fighting troops to greater efforts ("even a hospital can do better").


title: Force Publique

text: At the end of 1940, the "FP" headquarters, recognising the need for aviation support for the force, began forming the "Aviation militaire de la Force Publique" equipped with requisitioned civilian machines and based at N'Dolo Airport in Leopoldville. The first machine purchased for the force was a de Havilland DH.85 Leopard Moth that entered service on 9 October 1940.


title: Force Publique

text: For the remainder of the period of Belgium's rule, the "Force Publique" continued its joint military and police role, split into territorial units, charged with maintaining public order, and mobile units (between the wars known as "unites campees") charged with territorial defence. There was a mutiny by the XIV battalion at Luluabourg in 1944.


title: Force Publique

text: In 1945, the "FP" mobile units consisted of 6 battalions of infantry (the V battalion at Stanleyville, the VI battalion at Watsa, the VIII battalion at Luluabourg, the XI battalion at Rumangabo, the XII battalion at Elizabethville, and the XIII battalion at Léopoldville), 3 reconnaissance units, military police units, a brigade under training at Camp Hardy, still under construction at Thysville, 4 coastal defence guns, and a small aviation element including 2 De Havilland DH.104 Doves.


title: Force Publique

text: Between 1945 and 1960, Belgium continued to organise the "Force Publique" as an entity cut off from the people that it policed, with recruits serving in tribally mixed units and no more than a quarter of each company coming from the province in which they served. Tightly disciplined and drilled, the "Force Publique" impressed visitors to the Belgian Congo with its smart appearance, but a culture of separateness, encouraged by its Belgian officers, led to brutal and unrestrained behaviour when the external restraints of colonial administration were lifted in 1960. The infamous "chicote" was only abolished in 1955. The Belgian Government made no effort to train Congolese commissioned officers until the very end of the Colonial period, and there were only about 20 African officer cadets at military schools in Belgium on the eve of Independence. A separate gendarmerie was organised in 1959 drawn from the Territorial Service Troops of the "FP". By July 1959, a total of 40 companies and 28 platoons of gendarmerie were either formed or in training.


title: Force Publique

text: In 1960, the "Force Publique" comprised 3 "groupements" (Groups) each of which covered two provinces. The 1st "groupement" had its headquarters at Elisabethville in Katanga Province, according to Louis-Francois Vanderstraeten. The 2nd groupement covered Léopoldville and Equateur. The 3rd groupement, commanded by a colonel whose headquarters was at Stanleyville, grouped F.P. units in Kivu and Orientale Province (PO). It comprised 3 infantry battalions (each of approximately 800 men), seemingly including 6 Battalions at Watsa (under Lieutenant Colonel Merckx in 1960), 2 battalions of Gendarmerie (each of approximately 860 men), a reconnaissance squadron (jeeps, trucks and armoured M8 Greyhound vehicles – approximately 300 men), a transport company, a military police company (approximately 100 men), a heavy mortar platoon, a combat engineer company and a training centre at Lokandu.


title: Force Publique

text: Total strength of the Force Publique immediately prior to independence was 22,403 Congolese regular soldiers and NCOs, 599 European NCOs, and 444 European officers.


title: Force Publique

text: On 5 July 1960, five days after the country gained independence from Belgium, the "Force Publique" garrison in Léopoldville mutinied against its white officers (who had remained in complete command) and attacked numerous European and Congolese targets. The immediate incident sparking the mutiny was reported to have been a tactless speech made by the Belgian general commanding the "FP" to African soldiers in a mess hall at the main base outside Léopoldville, in which he stated that Independence would not bring any change in their status or role. Lieutenant General Émile Janssens's intention may only have been to stress the need for continued discipline and obedience to orders, but the impact on the soldiers, unsettled by the demands of maintaining order during Independence celebrations and fearful that they would be excluded from the benefits of the new freedom, was disastrous. The outbreak caused fear amongst the approximately 100,000 Belgian and other European civilians and officials still resident in the Congo and ruined the credibility of the new government as it proved unable to control its own armed forces. For example, the white community in Luluabourg was besieged in improvised fortifications for three days until rescued by a Belgian Army paratroop drop.


title: Force Publique

text: This violence immediately led to a military intervention into Congo by Belgium in an ostensible effort to secure the safety of its citizens (the earlier Luluabourg intervention had been against orders). The re-entry of these forces was a clear violation of the national sovereignty of the new nation, as it had not requested Belgian assistance.


title: Force Publique

text: Soon afterwards, after an extraordinary meeting of ministers of the new Congolese Government at Camp Leopold on 8 July, the "FP" was renamed as the Congolese National Army ("Armée Nationale Congolaise" ("ANC")), and its leadership was Africanised.


title: Force Publique

text: The chain of events this started eventually resulted in Joseph Mobutu (Mobutu Sésé Seko), a former Sergeant-Major in the "FP" who had been promoted to Chief of Staff of the "ANC" by Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, gaining power and establishing his dictatorial kleptocracy. His regime was to remain in power until May 1997.


title: Force Publique

text: Prior to independence, the air component of the Force Publique (Avi / or Avimil, "Aviation militaire de la Force publique") was based mainly at the N'Dolo airport, Leopoldville. Avimil's roles included the transportation of passengers, medical supplies and other goods, as well as undertaking connecting flights and recognition duties. Between 1944 and 1960 the following unarmed aircraft and helicopters were used by Avimil:


title: Force Publique

text: At independence on 30 June 1960, Avimil was placed under the control of the new government of the Republic of the Congo, and continued its missions until 20 July 1960. On this date the chief of Belgian forces in the Congo ordered the assembly of non-Congolese personnel and operational aircraft ('des appareils en état de vol') at the Belgian base at Kamina. On 23 August they were transferred to Elizabethville, and on 26 August officially turned over to the secessionist State of Katanga.


title: Expansion card

text: In computing, an expansion card (also called an expansion board, adapter card, peripheral card or accessory card) is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an electrical connector, or expansion slot (also referred to as a bus slot) on a computer's motherboard (see also backplane) to add functionality to a computer system. Sometimes the design of the computer's case and motherboard involves placing most (or all) of these slots onto a separate, removable card. Typically such cards are referred to as a riser card in part because they project upward from the board and allow expansion cards to be placed above and parallel to the motherboard.


title: Expansion card

text: Expansion cards allow the capabilities and interfaces of a computer system to be extended or supplemented in a way appropriate to the tasks it will perform. For example, a high-speed multi-channel data acquisition system would be of no use in a personal computer used for bookkeeping, but might be a key part of a system used for industrial process control. Expansion cards can often be installed or removed in the field, allowing a degree of user customization for particular purposes. Some expansion cards take the form of "daughterboards" that plug into connectors on a supporting system board.


title: Expansion card

text: In personal computing, notable expansion buses and expansion card standards include the S-100 bus from 1974 associated with the CP/M operating system, the 50-pin expansion slots of the original Apple II computer from 1977 (unique to Apple), IBM's Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) introduced with the IBM PC in 1981, Acorn's tube expansion bus on the BBC Micro also from 1981, IBM's patented and proprietary Micro Channel architecture (MCA) from 1987 that never won favour in the clone market, the vastly improved Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) that displaced ISA in 1992, and PCI Express from 2003 which abstracts the interconnect into high-speed communication "lanes" and relegates all other functions into software protocol.


title: Expansion card

text: Vacuum-tube based computers had modular construction, but individual functions for peripheral devices filled a cabinet, not just a printed circuit board. Processor, memory and I/O cards became feasible with the development of integrated circuits. Expansion cards make processor systems adaptable to the needs of the user by making it possible to connect various types of devices, including I/O, additional memory, and optional features (such as a floating point unit) to the central processor. Minicomputers, starting with the PDP-8, were made of multiple cards communicating through, and powered by, a passive backplane.


title: Expansion card

text: The first commercial microcomputer to feature expansion slots was the Micral N, in 1973. The first company to establish a "de facto" standard was Altair with the Altair 8800, developed 1974–1975, which later became a multi-manufacturer standard, the S-100 bus. Many of these computers were also passive backplane designs, where all elements of the computer, (processor, memory, and I/O) plugged into a card cage which passively distributed signals and power between the cards.


title: Expansion card

text: Proprietary bus implementations for systems such as the Apple II co-existed with multi-manufacturer standards.


title: Expansion card

text: IBM introduced what would retroactively be called the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus with the IBM PC in 1981. At that time, the technology was called the PC bus. The IBM XT, introduced in 1983, used the same bus (with slight exception). The 8-bit PC and XT bus was extended with the introduction of the IBM AT in 1984. This used a second connector for extending the address and data bus over the XT, but was backward compatible; 8-bit cards were still usable in the AT 16-bit slots. Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) became the designation for the IBM AT bus after other types were developed. Users of the ISA bus had to have in-depth knowledge of the hardware they were adding to properly connect the devices, since memory addresses, I/O port addresses, and DMA channels had to be configured by switches or jumpers on the card to match the settings in driver software.


title: Expansion card

text: IBM's MCA bus, developed for the PS/2 in 1987, was a competitor to ISA, also their design, but fell out of favor due to the ISA's industry-wide acceptance and IBM's licensing of MCA. EISA, the 32-bit extended version of ISA championed by Compaq, was used on some PC motherboards until 1997, when Microsoft declared it a "legacy" subsystem in the PC 97 industry white-paper. Proprietary local buses (q.v. Compaq) and then the VESA Local Bus Standard, were late 1980s expansion buses that were tied but not exclusive to the 80386 and 80486 CPU bus. The PC/104 bus is an embedded bus that copies the ISA bus.


title: Expansion card

text: Intel launched their PCI bus chipsets along with the P5-based Pentium CPUs in 1993. The PCI bus was introduced in 1991 as a replacement for ISA. The standard (now at version 3.0) is found on PC motherboards to this day. The PCI standard supports bus bridging: as many as ten daisy chained PCI buses have been tested. Cardbus, using the PCMCIA connector, is a PCI format that attaches peripherals to the Host PCI Bus via PCI to PCI Bridge. Cardbus is being supplanted by ExpressCard format.


title: Expansion card

text: Intel introduced the AGP bus in 1997 as a dedicated video acceleration solution. AGP devices are logically attached to the PCI bus over a PCI-to-PCI bridge. Though termed a bus, AGP usually supports only a single card at a time (Legacy BIOS support issues). From 2005 PCI Express has been replacing both PCI and AGP. This standard, approved in 2004, implements the logical PCI protocol over a serial communication interface. PC/104(-Plus) or Mini PCI are often added for expansion on small form factor boards such as Mini-ITX.


title: Expansion card

text: For their 1000 EX and 1000 HX models, Tandy Computer designed the PLUS expansion interface, an adaptation of the XT-bus supporting cards of a smaller form factor. Because it is electrically compatible with the XT bus (a.k.a. 8-bit ISA or XT-ISA), a passive adapter can be made to connect XT cards to a PLUS expansion connector. Another feature of PLUS cards is that they are stackable. Another bus that offered stackable expansion modules was the "sidecar" bus used by the IBM PCjr. This may have been electrically comparable to the XT bus; it most certainly had some similarities since both essentially exposed the 8088 CPU's address and data buses, with some buffering and latching, the addition of interrupts and DMA provided by Intel add-on chips, and a few system fault detection lines (Power Good, Memory Check, I/O Channel Check). Again, PCjr sidecars are not technically expansion cards, but expansion modules, with the only difference being that the sidecar is an expansion card enclosed in a plastic box (with holes exposing the connectors).


title: Expansion card

text: Laptops are generally unable to accept most expansion cards intended for desktop computers. Consequently, several compact expansion standards were developed.


title: Expansion card

text: The original PC Card expansion card standard is essentially a compact version of the ISA bus. The CardBus expansion card standard is an evolution of the PC card standard to make it into a compact version of the PCI bus. The original ExpressCard standard acts like it is either a USB 2.0 peripheral or a PCI Express 1.x x1 device. ExpressCard 2.0 adds SuperSpeed USB as another type of interface the card can use. Unfortunately, CardBus and ExpressCard are vulnerable to DMA attack unless the laptop has an IOMMU that is configured to thwart these attacks.


title: Expansion card

text: One notable exception to the above is the inclusion of a single internal slot for a special reduced size version of the desktop standard. The most well known examples are Mini-PCI or Mini PCIe. Such slots were usually intended for a specific purpose such as offering "built-in" wireless networking or upgrading the system at production with a discrete GPU.


title: Expansion card

text: Most other computer lines, including those from Apple Inc. such as the (Apple II and Macintosh), Tandy, Commodore, Amiga, and Atari, offered their own expansion buses. The Amiga used Zorro II. Apple used a proprietary system with seven 50-pin-slots for Apple II peripheral cards, then later used both variations on Processor Direct Slot and NuBus for its Macintosh series until 1995, when they switched to a PCI Bus.


title: Expansion card

text: Generally speaking, most PCI expansion cards will function on any CPU platform which incorporates PCI bus hardware provided there is a software driver for that type. PCI video cards and any other cards that contain their own BIOS or other ROM are problematic, although video cards conforming to VESA Standards may be used for secondary monitors. DEC Alpha, IBM PowerPC, and NEC MIPS workstations used PCI bus connectors. Both Zorro II and NuBus were plug and play, requiring no hardware configuration by the user.


title: Expansion card

text: Other computer buses were used for industrial control, instruments, and scientific systems. One specific example is HP-IB (or Hewlett Packard Interface Bus) which was ultimately standardized as IEEE-488 (aka GPIB). Some well-known historical standards include VMEbus, STD Bus, SBus (specific to Sun's SPARCStations), and numerous others.


title: Expansion card

text: Even many video game consoles, such as the Nintendo Entertainment System and the Sega Genesis, included expansion buses in some form; In at least the case of the Genesis, the expansion bus was proprietary. In fact the cartridge slots of many cartridge-based consoles (not including the Atari 2600) would qualify as expansion buses, as they exposed both read and write capabilities of the system's internal bus. However, the expansion modules attached to these interfaces, though functionally the same as expansion cards, are not technically expansion cards, due to their physical form.


title: Expansion card

text: The primary purpose of an expansion card is to provide or expand on features not offered by the motherboard. For example, the original IBM PC did not have on-board graphics or hard drive capability. In that case, a graphics card and an ST-506 hard disk controller card provided graphics capability and hard drive interface respectively. Some single-board computers made no provision for expansion cards, and may only have provided IC sockets on the board for limited changes or customization. Since reliable multi-pin connectors are relatively costly, some mass-market systems such as home computers had no expansion slots and instead used a card-edge connector at the edge of the main board, putting the costly matching socket into the cost of the peripheral device.


title: Expansion card

text: In the case of expansion of on-board capability, a motherboard may provide a single serial RS232 port or Ethernet port. An expansion card can be installed to offer multiple RS232 ports or multiple and higher bandwidth Ethernet ports. In this case, the motherboard provides basic functionality but the expansion card offers additional or enhanced ports.


title: Expansion card

text: One edge of the expansion card holds the contacts (the edge connector or pin header) that fit into the slot. They establish the electrical contact between the electronics on the card and on the motherboard. Peripheral expansion cards generally have connectors for external cables. In the PC-compatible personal computer, these connectors were located in the support bracket at the back of the cabinet. Industrial backplane systems had connectors mounted on the top edge of the card, opposite to the backplane pins.


title: Expansion card

text: Depending on the form factor of the motherboard and case, around one to seven expansion cards can be added to a computer system. 19 or more expansion cards can be installed in backplane systems. When many expansion cards are added to a system, total power consumption and heat dissipation become limiting factors. Some expansion cards take up more than one slot space. For example, many graphics cards on the market as of 2010 are dual slot graphics cards, using the second slot as a place to put an active heat sink with a fan.


title: Expansion card

text: Some cards are "low-profile" cards, meaning that they are shorter than standard cards and will fit in a lower height computer chassis. (There is a "low profile PCI card" standard that specifies a much smaller bracket and board area). The group of expansion cards that are used for external connectivity, such as network, SAN or modem cards, are commonly referred to as input/output cards (or I/O cards).


title: Expansion card

text: A daughterboard, daughtercard, mezzanine board or piggyback board is an expansion card that attaches to a system directly. Daughterboards often have plugs, sockets, pins or other attachments for other boards. Daughterboards often have only internal connections within a computer or other electronic devices, and usually access the motherboard directly rather than through a computer bus. Such boards are used to either improve various memory capacities of a computer, enable the computer to connect to certain kinds of networks that it previous could not connect to, or to allow for users to customize their computers for various purposes such as gaming.


title: Expansion card

text: Daughterboards are sometimes used in computers in order to allow for expansion cards to fit parallel to the motherboard, usually to maintain a small form factor. This form are also called riser cards, or risers. Daughterboards are also sometimes used to expand the basic functionality of an electronic device, such as when a certain model has features added to it and is released as a new or separate model. Rather than redesigning the first model completely, a daughterboard may be added to a special connector on the main board. These usually fit on top of and parallel to the board, separated by spacers or standoffs, and are sometimes called mezzanine cards due to being stacked like the mezzanine of a theatre. Wavetable cards (sample-based synthesis cards) are often mounted on sound cards in this manner.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: The "Kokuryūkai" was founded in 1901 by martial artist Uchida Ryohei as a successor to his mentor Mitsuru Tōyama's "Gen'yōsha". Its name is derived from the translation of the Amur River, which is called Heilongjiang or "Black Dragon River" in Chinese (黑龍江), read as "Kokuryū-kō" in Japanese. Its public goal was to support efforts to keep the Russian Empire north of the Amur River and out of East Asia.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: The "Kokuryūkai" initially made strenuous efforts to distance itself from the criminal elements of its predecessor, the "Gen'yōsha". As a result, its membership included Cabinet Ministers and high-ranking military officers as well as professional intelligence operatives. However, as time passed, it found the use of criminal activities to be a convenient means to an end for many of its operations.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: The Society published a journal, the "Kokuryū Kaiho" (Amur Bulletin) and operated an espionage training school, from which it dispatched agents to gather intelligence on Russian activities in Russia, Manchuria, Korea and China. Ikki Kita was sent to China as a special member of the organization. It also pressured Japanese politicians to adopt a strong foreign policy. The "Kokuryūkai" also supported Pan-Asianism, and lent financial support to revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen and Emilio Aguinaldo.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: During the Russo-Japanese War, annexation of Korea and Siberian Intervention, the Imperial Japanese Army made use of the "Kokuryūkai" network for espionage, sabotage and assassination. They organized Manchurian guerrillas against the Russians from the Chinese warlords and bandit chieftains in the region, the most important being Marshal Zhang Zuolin. The Black Dragons waged a very successful psychological warfare campaign in conjunction with the Japanese military, spreading disinformation and propaganda throughout the region. They also acted as interpreters for the Japanese army.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: The "Kokuryūkai" assisted the Japanese spy, Colonel Motojiro Akashi. Akashi, who was not directly a member of the Black Dragons, ran successful operations in China, Manchuria, Siberia and established contacts throughout the Muslim world. These contacts in Central Asia were maintained through World War II. The Black Dragons also formed close contact and even alliances with Buddhist sects throughout Asia.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: During the 1920s and 1930s, the "Kokuryūkai" evolved into more of a mainstream political organization, and publicly attacked liberal and leftist thought. Although it never had more than several dozen members at any one time during this period, the close ties of its membership to leading members of the government, military and powerful business leaders gave it a power and influence far greater than most other ultranationalist groups. In 1924, retired naval captain Yutaro Yano and his associates within the Black Dragon Society invited Oomoto leader Onisaburo Deguchi on a journey to Mongolia. Onisaburo led a group of Oomoto disciples, including Aikido founder Morihei Ueshiba.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: Initially directed only against Russia, in the 1930s, the "Kokuryūkai" expanded its activities around the world, and stationed agents in such diverse places as Ethiopia, Turkey, Morocco, throughout Southeast Asia and South America, as well as Europe and the United States.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: The "Kokuryūkai" was officially disbanded by order of the American Occupation authorities in 1946. According to Brian Daizen Victoria's book, "Zen War Stories", the Black Dragon Society was reconstituted in 1961 by Ōmori Sōgen as the Black Dragon Club ("Kokuryū-Kurabu") with the aim to "succeed to the spirit of the [prewar] Black Dragon Society and promote the [Shōwa] restoration." According to Victoria, the Kokuryū-Kurabu never attracted more than 150 members.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: The Ethiopian Pacific Movement and the Peace Movement of Ethiopia (both African-American black nationalist organizations) claimed they were affiliated with the Black Dragon Society.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: As part of their effort to support such organizations, the Black Dragon Society sent an agent, Satokata Takahashi, to promote pan-Asianism and claim that Japan would treat them as racial equals. He would become a patron of Elijah Muhammed and the Nation of Islam, as well as the Pacific Movement of the Eastern World. Sankichi Takahashi may have also been a member.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: Mittie Maude Lena Gordon, who lead the Peace Movement of Ethiopia, claimed to be personally affiliated with the "Kokuryūkai".


title: Black Dragon Society

text: On March 27, 1942, FBI agents arrested members of the Black Dragon Society in the San Joaquin Valley, California.


title: Black Dragon Society

text: In the Manzanar Internment Camp, a small group of pro-Imperial Japanese flew Black Dragon flags and intimidated other Japanese inmates.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: Festy Oseiwe Ebosele (born 2 August 2002) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a right-back or winger for Serie A club Udinese.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: Ebosele was born in the town of Enniscorthy in County Wexford, Ireland to a Nigerian family. He began playing football for Moyne Rangers in 2010 before joining the academy of League of Ireland side Bray Wanderers when he was 14-years-old. Two years later in 2018, he signed for English Championship side Derby County.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: Ebosele made his debut for Derby County as a substitute in a 2–0 FA Cup loss to Chorley on 9 January 2021. He was one of fourteen players from Derby County's academy to make their debut in the game, after the entirety of Derby's first team squad and coaching team were forced to isolate due to a COVID-19 outbreak. He made his league debut as a substitute in a 1–0 loss to Norwich City on 10 April 2021. On 6 November 2021, Ebosele scored a first senior goal in a 1–1 draw at Millwall. In January 2022, Ebosele was linked to a move to Derby County's rivals Nottingham Forest, however Ebosele was said to have rejected the prospect of a move.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: In March 2022, with Derby being unable to offer Ebosele new contract terms due to the restrictions put on the club by the EFL whilst in administration, it was confirmed that Ebosele would join Udinese at the end of his Derby contract in summer 2022, signing a five year deal with the Serie A club. In the weeks following the transfer, Derby manager Wayne Rooney questioned Ebosele's attitude and had him training with the Under-23 squad. Ebosele later got back into the team and finished the season with 37 appearances in all competitions, scoring 2 goals.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: On 21 March 2022, it was announced that Ebosele would join Italian Serie A club Udinese on a five-year contract starting in the summer of 2022. The transfer was confirmed by Derby County on 4 July, as the club was also entitled to compensation due to Ebosele's homegrown status.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: Born in Ireland, Ebosele is of Nigerian descent, so he could choose to represent both the respective countries at international level. He has represented the Republic of Ireland at U16, U17, U19 and U21 levels ever since.


title: Festy Ebosele

text: He then received his first call-up to the Irish senior national team on 25 May 2022, ahead of their UEFA Nations League games against Armenia, Ukraine and Scotland.


title: BBCode

text: BBCode ("Bulletin Board Code") is a lightweight markup language used to format messages in much Internet forum software, first introduced in 1998. The available "tags" of BBCode are usually indicated by square brackets (codice_1 and codice_2) surrounding a keyword, and are parsed before being translated into HTML.


title: BBCode

text: BBCode is typically implemented by applying a series of regular expression string-replace operations upon the input. Because regular expressions are limited in analyzing the structure of text input, this has the artifact that any non-hierarchical BBCode input will be transformed into invalid non-hierarchical HTML without error.


title: BBCode

text: Applying traditional parsing techniques is made difficult by ambiguities in the markup, such as in , where the input can either be interpreted as "text" quoted from someone called , or the bolded text "text" surrounded by and , i.e. codice_3.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Return to Monkey Island is a point-and-click adventure game developed by Terrible Toybox and published by Devolver Digital. The sixth "Monkey Island" game, it was released for macOS, Nintendo Switch, and Windows on September 19, 2022, for Linux on October 26, 2022, and for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S on November 8, 2022. It was the first "Monkey Island" game by the series' creator, Ron Gilbert, since "" (1991).


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Gilbert worked on the first two "Monkey Island" games before leaving the development company, LucasArts, in 1992. Further installments were developed by LucasArts and Telltale Games without him. The Walt Disney Company acquired the rights to "Monkey Island" when it purchased Lucasfilm in 2012; in 2019, Gilbert negotiated to create a new "Monkey Island" with the designer Dave Grossman, who had worked on the first two games. "Return to Monkey Island" was announced in April 2022. Dominic Armato reprised his role as the protagonist, Guybrush Threepwood. The game received generally positive reviews.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: "Return to Monkey Island" is a 2D point-and-click adventure game. The objective is to move the story forward by solving narrative-based puzzles. This can be done by exploring locations, talking to non-player characters to acquire information, collecting items and using them at the right time. The player controls the pirate Guybrush Threepwood, who sails the seas and visits islands.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The user interface is different from previous 2D "Monkey Island" games. Tooltips over screen hotspots guide the player's actions: when the cursor is moved over an interactive zone of the scene, a brief phrase appears, suggesting what action Guybrush will take. The inventory uses a drag and drop interface to easily use and combine items and the interface has been designed to work with controllers or mice.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The game includes a hint system designed to discourage players from looking for walkthroughs online and make sense "in the fantasy" of the game. The game also includes a simplified mode called "casual mode" for less experienced players.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: "Return to Monkey Island" takes place on fictional islands in the Caribbean around the Golden Age of Piracy, as with previous games of the franchise. The game features a frame story that continues from the ending of "LeChuck's Revenge", while the primary narrative is set after "Tales of Monkey Island" and follows Guybrush's journey to finally find the secret of Monkey Island. Along the way, Guybrush revisits iconic locations from the series, such as Mêlée Island (which is now under new management) and Monkey Island. He also lands on islands that have never been explored before in previous games, like the chilly "Brr Muda" and "Terror Island".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Several of the main characters of the series return for the game: the pirate Guybrush Threepwood (Dominic Armato), his wife Elaine Marley (Alexandra Boyd) and his arch-enemy zombie pirate LeChuck (Jess Harnell). Other returning characters include Murray the Demonic Talking Skull (Denny Delk), mapmaker Wally B. Feed (Neil Ross), used ship salesman Stan S. Stanman (Gavin Hammon), Mêlée governor and former swordmaster Carla (Leilani Jones Wilmore), and the mysterious Voodoo Lady (Wilmore). New characters include Captains Madison (Alix Wilton Regan), Lila (Annie Q.), and Trent (LeQuan Bennett), the three new Pirate Leaders competing with Guybrush and LeChuck to find the secret.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Guybrush and Elaine's son Boybrush (Ava Hauser) is playing with his friend Chuckie (Courtenay Taylor) at an amusement park, re-enacting his father's adventures. At Boybrush's prompting, Guybrush decides to tell him the story of how he found the secret of Monkey Island.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Having learned that LeChuck has obtained a map to the exact location of the secret, Guybrush travels to Mêlée Island in an attempt to gather a crew and ship to get there first, but the new Pirate Leaders Madison, Lila, and Trent refuse to back his venture. With his options limited, Guybrush obtains a magical eyepatch that disguises him as a zombie, allowing him to infiltrate LeChuck's crew before they shove off. Along the way, the potion used to guide the ship to Monkey Island is ruined, but Guybrush discovers the Pirate Leaders are also heading for Monkey Island and secretly completes their potion so LeChuck's ship can follow them. As they approach the Island, Guybrush takes LeChuck's map and replaces it with a fake, but accidentally removes his eyepatch and LeChuck throws Guybrush overboard.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: After washing up on Monkey Island, Guybrush follows the map but falls into a trap by the Pirate Leaders, who had intended it for LeChuck. As they have the real map but it is magically-encrypted, they agree to a truce to find the secret's location. With Guybrush's help, the map reveals the secret to be at the International House of Mojo on Mêlée Island. The Pirate Leaders betray Guybrush and throw him off a cliff before setting sail; LeChuck, realizing the deception, pursues them. Elaine arrives to help Guybrush, and they escape the island by rebuilding his old ship, the "Sea Monkey". While at sea, LeChuck battles the Pirate Leaders before eventually agreeing to a truce to find the secret.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Arriving at the International House of Mojo, Guybrush learns the secret is hidden inside a safe locked by five golden keys, which have been scattered. Following a series of clues, Guybrush travels the Caribbean to find each of the keys, frequently leaving a trail of destruction in his wake due to his single-minded obsession with the secret. In his absence, LeChuck and the Pirate Leaders attempt to use magic to open the safe instead, but they eventually turn on one another. After obtaining the last key, Guybrush opens the safe, only to find a locked chest. LeChuck appears and steals the chest, taking it back to Monkey Island to perform the necessary ritual to open it and obtain the secret. Guybrush and Elaine follow, though Elaine repeatedly questions if the secret could live up to his expectations.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Descending beneath Monkey Island, Guybrush follows the catacombs and opens a hidden door. He emerges in a theme park recreation of Melee Island, revealing LeChuck and the others to all be animatronics. Guybrush opens the chest containing the secret and finds a novelty T-shirt inside. Boybrush finds this ending unsatisfying. Elaine arrives and invites Guybrush to join her on a new adventure.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Ron Gilbert, the creator of the "Monkey Island" series, worked on the first two "Monkey Island" games before leaving the development company, LucasArts, in 1992. He often dreamt of making a new "Monkey Island" game but did not own the intellectual property rights. Further "Monkey Island" games were developed without Gilbert by LucasArts and Telltale Games.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: In 2012, the Walt Disney Company acquired the rights to "Monkey Island" when it purchased Lucasfilm. At PAX 2019, Nigel Lowrie, founder of Devolver Digital, mentioned to Gilbert that he knew John Drake, who was in charge of licensing at Disney. Drake wanted to approach Disney about a new "Monkey Island" game. In December, Gilbert invited Dave Grossman, who had worked on the first two "Monkey Island" games, to work on a new installment.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Gilbert and Grossman met in Seattle in January 2020 to discuss ideas, and felt confident that they could create a good game. Lowrie approached Drake to pitch the game and Disney was willing to talk about it. Gilbert had "lengthy conversations" with Disney to make sure his team would have creative freedom, allowing him to "build the game I wanted to build".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: "Return to Monkey Island" was developed for two years in secrecy. Gilbert said: "I did not tell anybody. If you were not actually working on this project, you didn't know about it. I didn't tell my best friend. I didn't tell my mother, I didn't tell my sister". The team worked remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. At its peak, the development team consisted of 25 people. Compared to "Thimbleweed Park" (2017), Gilbert's previous commercial game, the team working on "Return to Monkey Island" was bigger mainly because there were more artists on staff, such as animators and a dedicated storyboard artist.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: It was important to Gilbert that "Return to Monkey Island" begins after the ending of "Monkey Island 2", which is a cliffhanger showing Guybrush as a child at an amusement park. Gilbert left LucasArts after completing "Monkey Island 2." Though he said that the later games "did their best" to resolve it, he wanted to "tackle it head on".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Gilbert described the position of "Return to Monkey Island" in the series timeline as "amorphous". He and Grossman discussed if and how the game should embrace the events of the other games. They attempted to follow the existing canon where possible, but would ignore elements if it prevented them from telling a good story. Gilbert felt that some of the "Monkey Island" games had become too whimsical, and he wanted the new game to just be a pirate adventure, focusing on Guybrush sailing the seas and visiting islands.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Unlike the extemporaneous approach to writing that Grossman had early in his career, he now did things in more stages, working from the top down. He began with planning the big aspects and then moved on to the smaller details. To do this, he did a thumbnail pass where he tried to go through and quickly scribble out the entire game. During this process jokes pop into his head, which he made note of. He believed that by taking this approach, it would preserve the freshness of humor without sacrificing the planning that was needed in guiding other aspects of the game, such as artwork and puzzle design.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The art style differs from previous "Monkey Island" games. The team considered using pixel art, but did not want to make a "throwback" game. Gilbert said that they had a lot more freedom and flexibility to not make it a pixel art game.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Searching for an art director, Gilbert recalled a drawing of a stylized Guybrush sent to him by the artist Rex Crowle in 2007, and discovered that Crowle had been a designer on the game "LittleBigPlanet" and the art director of Double Fine's "Knights and Bikes". Gilbert hired Crowle to create an innovative style for "Return to Monkey Island" as the art director.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Crowle, who played "The Secret of Monkey Island" as a child, took inspiration from other "Monkey Island" games and other 1990s LucasArts games such as "Day of the Tentacle". For "Return to Monkey Island" he defined a style reminiscent of a picture book or a pop-up book because it matched well with the main topics of the game: "We've taken something from all of the games, while making something new and specifically tailored to the story that Ron Gilbert and Dave Grossman wanted to tell. An art style has to connect with the core themes of the game you're making, its not an interchangeable thing that you apply like a Photoshop filter, and for this adventure a picture-book style was the right fit".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Composers Michael Land, Peter McConnell, and Clint Bajakian, who already worked on previous installments of the "Monkey Island" franchise, were hired to compose the game soundtrack. In an interview with "Adventure Gamers", Dave Grossman pointed out how easy it was to work with musicians who already knew the franchise very well. Having them back for the sequel was beneficial because they were already familiar with what was expected of them. The rest of the team could simply sit back and watch them create, knowing that they would deliver quality work.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Dominic Armato, the voice actor for Guybrush Threepwood in the previous games, was signed on to reprise the role and was happy to accept the offer. Gilbert met with Armato to have a chat about an unspecified "new game" and the voice actor was baffled when he discovered that the game in question was a "Monkey Island" game: "We got together, we had coffee, and I think he was very interested in the new game, almost kind of wondering whether maybe he could have a voice part in it. And then I told him that it was the new "Monkey Island", and he was just floored".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Alexandra Boyd and Denny Delk returned to voice Elaine and Murray the Talking Skull. Earl Boen, the original voice of LeChuck, had retired from acting in 2017 and gave the developers his blessing to recast the role. Jess Harnell provided the new voice.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The team spent time making "Return to Monkey Island" enjoyable with a controller without making the experience worse for players who use a mouse, which point-and-click adventure games typically use. One of the goals was "not distracting or detracting from what the mouse play is".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The user interface differs from the clickable verbs or the pop-up action menu of "The Curse of Monkey Island" (1997). When the cursor stops over a screen hotspot, a brief message of what Guybrush is thinking appears, suggesting the action he will take if the player clicks.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Gilbert revamped the game engine he used for "Thimbleweed Park". The development of his free game "Delores: A Thimbleweed Park Mini-Adventure", released in May 2020, worked as a testbed for the new engine. The developers added the ability to do camera zooms, pans, and pulls to draw attention to specific elements, which would have been difficult in the early 1990s.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: On April Fools' Day 2022, Gilbert announced on his blog that he was working on a "Monkey Island" game, surprising the industry. On April 4, Devolver Digital published a teaser video on their YouTube channel and opened the official website. The website was updated in June to show an example of the game's dialogue-based gameplay. Visitors could ask Stan, a regular character in the series, about the new game.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The game was advertised on the official website as "the exciting conclusion of the Monkey Island series", which led to speculation as to whether it would be the final chapter in the series. This was refuted when the developers described it as marketing text not written by them.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: Starting from July 11, Gilbert and Grossman shared on Twitter a video clip of the game every Monday, calling the initiative "Monkey Island Monday". The clips revealed new locations, new characters and how the dialogue system and part of the user interface looked like.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: The game was released on September 19, 2022, which coincided with International Talk Like a Pirate Day. Preorders were opened on Steam and Nintendo eShop. As a pre-order bonus, players would get an in-game horse armor item that stays in their inventory and has no function, a humorous reference to a controversial downloadable content (DLC) for "".


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: In May 2022, after the first teaser video and a few screenshots of "Return to Monkey Island" were released, the art style drew criticism from fans online. Gilbert wrote a post on his blog explaining why the style was chosen and expressing his disappointment in the response.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: A gameplay trailer was released on June 28 as part of a Nintendo Direct event. This reignited the backlash, leading some people to insult and harass Gilbert on social media and his blog. As a result, Gilbert closed down the comments in the blog and said that he would not talk further about "Return to Monkey Island". Several game developers called out the abusive behavior from users and supported Gilbert and his team, including Cory Barlog of Santa Monica Studio and Neil Druckmann of Naughty Dog.


title: Return to Monkey Island

text: "Return to Monkey Island" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. The website Pixel Bandits' review of the title lauded the game's commitment to the series, saying that "Return really captures the spirit of the original games and delivers an outstanding 21st century point and click adventure". The article and video also make specific reference to the highly-changed art style, saying that "I thought I was going to hate the new art style, but when you get in game it’s actually very fluid and well crafted".


title: Perilla

text: Perilla is a genus consisting of one major Asiatic crop species "Perilla frutescens" and a few wild species in nature belonging to the mint family, Lamiaceae. The genus encompasses several distinct varieties of Asian herb, seed, and vegetable crop, including "P. frutescens" (deulkkae) and "P. frutescens" var. "crispa" (shiso). The genus name "Perilla" is also a frequently employed common name ("perilla"), applicable to all varieties. Perilla varieties are cross-fertile and intra-specific hybridization occurs naturally. Some varieties are considered invasive.


title: Perilla

text: The classification of "Perilla" is confused, partly because botanists struggled with distinguishing the two distinct cultigens as different species or variations. Until a few decades ago, "P. frutescens" var. "crispa" was regarded as a species in its own right, distinct from "P. frutescens", although it was well established that these types readily cross-pollinate. An early example of dividing the two cultigens into different species is found in Matsumura's 1884 nomenclature book, where the synonym "P. arguta" is applied to "P. frutescens" var. "crispa", and the synonym "P. ocymoides" was applied to "P." frutescens. The species name "P. ocymoides" or "P. ocimoides" has historically been used to denote "P. frutescens" var. "crispa", especially by the Japanese, therefore it should not be considered an interchangeable synonym for either cultigen. Recent genetic research confirms that the cultigens are of a common gene pool, corroborating the taxonomists' claim for consolidating the two crops into one species.


title: Perilla

text: Possible "Perilla" species with insufficient description and without known herbarium specimens include:


title: Perilla

text: The past legacies and subsequent reclassification of taxa has led to confusion of nomenclature. The red or purple leafed variety of "P. frutescens" var. "crispa" had been dubbed "P. nankinensis", and this label was used throughout the 19th century in the West following the introduction of the species for ornamental planting. Whether green-leafed or red-leafed, the perillaldehyde factor that characterizes the unique "P. frutescens" var. "crispa" fragrance may turn out to be present or absent in the individual or population, and this is not differentiable from outward appearance alone. Chemical studies classify the genus into different chemotypes, depending on the essential oils they contain. Three wild species that are endemic to Japan are recognized as genetically distinct from the cultivated "P. frutescens" var. "crispa", however, some references treat, e.g., "P. frutescens var. hirtella" as the same species as the "P. frutescens" var. "crispa".


title: Perilla

text: Perilla varieties are cultivated and consumed mainly in Korea, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam. "P. frutescens" leaves, seeds, and seed oil are used extensively in Korean cuisine, while "P. frutescens" var. "crispa" leaves, seeds, and sprouts are used in Japanese and Vietnamese cuisines.


title: Perilla

text: Perilla is one of the 50 fundamental herbs in Traditional Chinese Medicine. It is called "zi su" (紫苏/紫蘇), and is used to disperse wind-cold, bloating, and stomach and lung problems. It is sometimes paired with Tu Huo Xiang or Guang Huo Xiang to dispel dampness and tonify qi.


title: Al Jean

text: Alfred Ernest Jean III (born January 9, 1961) is an American screenwriter and producer. Jean is well known for his work on "The Simpsons". He was raised near Detroit, Michigan, and graduated from Harvard University in 1981. Jean began his writing career in the 1980s with fellow Harvard alum Mike Reiss. Together, they worked as writers and producers on television shows such as "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson", "ALF" and "It's Garry Shandling's Show".


title: Al Jean

text: Jean was offered a job as a writer on the animated sitcom "The Simpsons" in 1989, alongside Reiss, and together they became the first members of the original writing staff of the show. They served as showrunners during the show's third (1991–92) and fourth (1992–93) seasons, though they left "The Simpsons" after season four to create "The Critic", an animated show about film critic Jay Sherman. It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 (then aired its second season on Fox in March 1995) and was well received by critics, but did not catch on with viewers and only lasted for two seasons.


title: Al Jean

text: In 1994, Jean and Reiss signed a three-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to produce other television shows for ABC, and the duo created and executive-produced "Teen Angel", which was canceled in its first season. Jean returned full-time to "The Simpsons" during the tenth season (1998–99). He became showrunner again with the start of the thirteenth season in 2001, without Reiss, and he stayed in that position until thirty-three. Jean was also one of the writers and producers who worked on "The Simpsons Movie", a feature-length film based on the series, released in 2007.


title: Al Jean

text: Alfred Ernest Jean III was born in Detroit, Michigan on January 9, 1961. He was raised in Farmington Hills, Michigan, graduated from Harrison High School, and is of Irish ancestry. After working at his father's hardware store, Jean arrived at Harvard University when he was sixteen years old and graduated in 1981 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics. Daryl Libow, one of Jean's freshman roommates, said he was a "math whiz" when he arrived at Harvard but "soon blossomed and found his comedic feet." In Holworthy Hall at Harvard, Jean met fellow freshman Mike Reiss; they befriended one another and collaborated in their writing efforts for the humor publication "Harvard Lampoon". Jeff Martin, another writer for the "Lampoon", said "they definitely loomed large around the magazine. They were very funny guys and unusually polished comedy writers for that age. We were never surprised that they went on to success." Jean has also stated that the duo spent most of their time at the "Lampoon", adding that "it was practically my second dorm room." He eventually became vice-president of the publication.


title: Al Jean

text: The humor magazine "National Lampoon" hired Jean and Reiss after they graduated in 1981. During the 1980s, the duo began collaborating on various television material. During this period, they worked as writers and producers on television shows such as "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson", "ALF", "Sledge Hammer!" and "It's Garry Shandling's Show". In 1989, Jean was offered a job as a writer on the animated sitcom "The Simpsons", a show created by Matt Groening, James L. Brooks and Sam Simon that continues to air today. Many of Jean's friends were not interested in working on "The Simpsons" because it was a cartoon and they did not think it would last long. Jean, however, was a fan of the work of Groening, Brooks and Simon, and therefore took the job together with Reiss.


title: Al Jean

text: The duo became the first members of the original "Simpsons" writing staff and worked on the thirteen episodes of the series' first season (1989–90). While watching the first episode of the show, "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire", premiering on television in December 1989, Jean opined to himself that the series was the greatest project he had been involved with and desired to continue working on it for the rest of his professional career. What he enjoyed most about "The Simpsons" at the time was something he recognized from Brooks' previous work: although the show was largely based on humor, it had depth and warmth.


title: Al Jean

text: Although Jean has been credited as the sole writer of several episodes, he considers the process to be mainly collaborative: "the principal writer [of an episode] has, at most, written 40% of the script. It's a real team effort." The writer credited in the episode's opening credits is the person that came up with the idea for the episode and wrote the first draft, even if he or she only contributed to a small part of the final script. Jean has stated that Lisa Simpson is one of his favorite characters to write for. She is the character he relates to the most because of their similar childhoods and the fact that he has a daughter.


title: Al Jean

text: Jean became showrunner of "The Simpsons" at the start of the third season (1991–92) together with Reiss. A showrunner has the ultimate responsibility of all the processes that an episode goes through before completion, including the writing, the animation, the voice acting and the music. According to Jean, when he began his tenure as showrunner, the only thing he thought to himself every day was "Don't blow it and screw up this thing everyone loves." The first episode Jean and Reiss ran was "Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington" (aired September 26, 1991), and they felt pressured to make it good, so much so that they did six to seven rewrites of the script in order to improve its humor. Jean said he "kept thinking 'It's not good enough. It's not good enough.'" Reiss added that "we were definitely scared. We had never run anything before, and they dumped us on this."


title: Al Jean

text: Jean and Reiss served as showrunners until the end of the fourth season in 1993. Since the show had already established itself in the first two seasons, they were able to give it more depth during their tenure. Jean believes this is one of the reasons that many fans and critics regard season three and four as the best seasons of "The Simpsons". Bill Oakley, another "Simpsons" writer, has commented that "Mike and Al are responsible for the best thing that ever appeared on television, which was the third season of "The Simpsons"." Comedy writer Jay Kogen has said that "those years with Al Jean and Mike Reiss running it were pretty darn good. And then the ones after that maybe not so much. Some people ran it better than others."


title: Al Jean

text: Jean and Reiss left "The Simpsons" after its fourth season in order to create "The Critic", an animated show about film critic Jay Sherman (voiced by Jon Lovitz); the show was executive produced by Brooks. It was first broadcast on ABC in January 1994 and was well received by critics, but did not catch on with viewers and was put on hiatus after six weeks. It returned in June 1994 and completed airing its initial production run. "The Critic" was moved to the Fox network for its second season. Since "The Simpsons" also aired on that network, Brooks was able to create a crossover between it and "The Critic."


title: Al Jean

text: Said crossover occurred through the "Simpsons" episode "A Star Is Burns" (1995). Groening was not fond of the crossover, publicly citing it as a thirty-minute advertisement for "The Critic". Brooks said, "for years, Al and Mike were two guys who worked their hearts out on this show, staying up until 4 in the morning to get it right. The point is, Matt's name has been on Mike's and Al's scripts and he has taken plenty of credit for a lot of their great work. In fact, he is the direct beneficiary of their work. "The Critic" is their shot and he should be giving them his support." Reiss stated that he was a "little upset" by Groening's actions and that "this taints everything at the last minute. [...] This episode doesn't say 'Watch "The Critic" all over it." Jean added "What bothers me about all of this, is that now people may get the impression that this "Simpsons" episode is less than good. It stands on its own even if "The Critic" never existed." On Fox, "The Critic" was again short-lived, broadcasting ten episodes before its cancellation. A total of only 23 episodes were produced, and it returned briefly in 2000 with a series of ten Internet broadcast webisodes. The series has since developed a cult following thanks to reruns on Comedy Central and its complete series release on DVD.


title: Al Jean

text: In 1994, Jean and Reiss signed a three-year deal with The Walt Disney Company to produce other television shows for ABC. The duo created and executive produced "Teen Angel", which was canceled in its first season. Reiss said "It was so compromised and overworked. I had 11 executives full-time telling me how to do my job." The pair periodically returned to work on "The Simpsons"— for example, while under contract at Disney they were allowed to write and produce four episodes of the show, including season eight's "Simpsoncalifragilisticexpiala(Annoyed Grunt)cious" (1997).


title: Al Jean

text: Jean returned full-time to "The Simpsons" during the tenth season (1998–99). He once again became showrunner with the start of the thirteenth season in 2001, this time without Reiss. Jean called it "a great job with a lot of responsibility," and cited "the fact that people love it so much" as "great." He adds, however, that "the hardest thing at this point is just thinking of fresh ideas. People are so on top of things that we've done before, so the challenge now is to think of an idea that's good, but hasn't been seen." Jean's return was initially welcomed, with MSNBC's Jon Bonné stating: "Jean, who took the show's helm from executive producer Mike Scully in 2001, has guided the show away from its gag-heavy, Homer-centric incarnation...these are certainly brighter days for the show's long-time fans." However, some critics have argued that the show's quality has continued to decline in recent years during Jean's tenure. Jean has responded to this criticism by saying: "Well, it's possible that we've declined. But honestly, I've been here the whole time and I do remember in season two people saying, 'It's gone downhill.' If we'd listened to that then we would have stopped after episode 13. I'm glad we didn't."


title: Al Jean

text: Jean was one of the writers and producers who worked on "The Simpsons Movie", a feature-length film released in 2007. The show's voice cast was signed on to do the film in 2001, and work then began on the script. The "Simpsons" producers were initially worried that creating a film would have a negative effect on the show, as they did not have enough crew to focus their attention on both projects. As the show progressed, additional writers and animators were hired so that both the show and the film could be produced at the same time. Groening and Brooks were therefore able to invite Jean (who continued to work as show runner on the television show) to produce the film with them.


title: Al Jean

text: Jean frequently appears on the "Simpsons" DVD audio commentaries for episodes which he has collaborated on. He told IGN that he enjoys doing them because he has not seen some of the episodes in ten to fifteen years, and "it's kind of like a reunion to see some of the people that I worked with before, so it's a really pleasant experience."


title: Al Jean

text: As of 2020 he is joint showrunner with Matt Selman. He has co-written/produced a number of Simpsons shorts including “Maggie Simpson in ‘The Longest Daycare’” (Oscar nominated) “The Force Awakens From its Nap” (emmy nominated), “When Billie Met Lisa” (emmy nominated) and “Simpsons : Balenciega” (won Clio).


title: Al Jean

text: Jean has received nine Emmy Awards and two Peabody Awards for his work on "The Simpsons". In 1997, he and Reiss won an Annie Award in the "Best Producing in a TV Production" category for the "Simpsons" episode "The Springfield Files". In 1991 they shared the Writing A Comedy Series CableAce Award for the It's Garry Shandling's Show Episode "My Mother The Wife". In 2006, the duo was given the Animation Writers Caucus Animation Award which is given by the Writers Guild of America to writers that "advanced the literature of animation in film and/or television through the years and who has made outstanding contributions to the profession of the animation writer."


title: Al Jean

text: As of 2005, Jean lives in Los Angeles, California, with his wife, television writer Stephanie Gillis. Jean also has two daughters.


title: Circular breathing

text: Circular breathing is a technique used by players of some wind instruments to produce a continuous tone without interruption. It is accomplished by breathing through the nose while simultaneously pushing air through the mouth using air stored in the cheeks.


title: Circular breathing

text: The technique was developed independently by several cultures and is used for many traditional wind instruments.


title: Circular breathing

text: In the 13th century, Mongolian metalsmiths who specialized in gold and silver used circular breathing techniques for crafting various decorative and ornamental items. In crafting such items, craftsmen were required to blow continuously to the flame through a pipe with a needle-like hole to make the hard metal melt or soften. From that necessity, craftsmen mastered a circular cycle of breathing by simultaneously inhaling through their noses while they blew without any pauses.


title: Circular breathing

text: The introduction of the circular breathing technique in the art of ancient windplayers was a productive invention in its performing technique.


title: Circular breathing

text: It is used extensively in playing the Eastern zurna, the Mongolian limbe, the Sardinian launeddas, the Egyptian arghul, the Australian didgeridoo, as well as many traditional oboes and flutes of Asia and the Middle East. A few jazz and classical wind and brass players also use some form of circular breathing.


title: Circular breathing

text: Although many professional wind players find circular breathing highly useful, few pieces of European orchestral music composed before the 20th century actually require its use. However, the advent of circular breathing among professional wind players has allowed for the transcription of pieces originally composed for string instruments which would be unperformable on a wind instrument without the aid of circular breathing. A notable example of this phenomenon is "Moto Perpetuo", transcribed for trumpet by Rafael Méndez from the original work for violin by Paganini.


title: Circular breathing

text: In 1997, a Guinness World Record was set for longest held musical note. Kenny G used circular breathing to sustain an E-flat on a saxophone for 45 minutes and 47 seconds. In February 2000, Vann Burchfield set a new Guinness world record for circular breathing, holding one continuous note for 47 minutes, 6 seconds, surpassing Kenny G's record. Mark Atkins on "Didgeridoo Concerto" (1994) plays for over 50 minutes continuously.


title: Circular breathing

text: On Sunday, 14 May 2017, Nigerian saxophonist Femi Kuti broke Mark Atkins' record by playing for 51 minutes, 38 seconds; after successfully breaking Kenny G's record the previous week.


title: Circular breathing

text: The musician inhales fully and begins to exhale and blow. When the lungs are nearly empty, the last volume of air is blown into the mouth, and the cheeks are inflated with part of this air. Then, while still blowing this last bit of air out by squeezing the cheeks, the musician must very quickly fill the lungs by inhaling through the nose prior to running out of the air in the mouth. If done correctly, by the time the air in the mouth is nearly exhausted the musician can begin to exhale from the lungs once more, ready to repeat the process again. Essentially, circular breathing bridges the gap between exhalations with air stored in the cheeks, an extra air reserve to play with while sneaking in a breath through the nose.


title: Circular breathing

text: The usual first difficulty is to inhale through the nose while blowing out air stored in the cheeks. To some this may be a big hurdle, to others it is no problem at all. This technique may be practiced by holding a finger in front of a thin air stream out of the lips and listening to the wind sound.


title: Circular breathing

text: The next difficulty is to switch between cheek air and lung air without an unwelcome and uncontrolled jolt in the air pressure; this is achieved by learning to use the cheeks and the throat as a system of shock absorbers. A very simple method by which this is practiced is using a thin straw to blow on to the surface of a cup of water from just above water level, and watching the depression that the air stream creates on the water's surface. The aim is to blow continually and switch between cheek air and lung air without any change in the depth of this depression or groove or hole on the water's surface.


title: Circular breathing

text: The traditional method of learning in zurna groups is to have one elder player lead as the chanter zurna and asking the younger players to hold the unchanging "drone tone"s. Professional zurna groups may play non-stop for as long as the party lasts, and a drone tone may be held for the whole evening. This is possible thanks to the disk that the lip may lean and rest against, because otherwise, the lip muscles that resist the air pressure get tired first.


title: Faye Webster

text: Faye Webster (born June 25, 1997) is an American singer-songwriter from Atlanta, Georgia. She has released four studio albums, "Run and Tell" (2013), "Faye Webster" (2017), "Atlanta Millionaires Club" (2019), and "I Know I'm Funny Haha" (2021).


title: Faye Webster

text: Faye Webster was born in Atlanta. Her grandfather was a bluegrass music guitarist in Texas, her mother was guitarist and fiddle player, and her oldest brother played in a rock band in high school. By age 14, she was writing music. She attended Henry W. Grady High School in Atlanta, where she and a group of friends formed a rap group. After watching her perform at open mic nights, her dad advised to her to record her music so that people can take it home with them.


title: Faye Webster

text: After graduating high school, she enrolled in Belmont University in Nashville to study songwriting, but soon dropped out and moved back to Atlanta after deciding that she was "wasting time and money". She made a deal with her parents that she would live at home for a year and if she was not successful as a musician, she would return to college.


title: Faye Webster

text: In April 2017, she embarked on a 12-city tour with Sean Rowe followed by the release of her second album, the self-titled "Faye Webster" in May 2017.


title: Faye Webster

text: Webster released her third full-length album, "Atlanta Millionaires Club", in May 2019 via Secretly Canadian.


title: Faye Webster

text: Her song "Better Distractions" was featured in an article in "Pitchfork" in September 2020 and was chosen by President Barack Obama in December 2020 as one of his favorite songs of the year.


title: Faye Webster

text: In April 2021, she released the single "Cheers" and announced her fourth studio album "I Know I'm Funny Haha", which was released on June 25, 2021.


title: Faye Webster

text: In October 2021, Webster released an EP titled "Live at Electric Lady", as part of a Spotify exclusive series of the same name. Recorded at Electric Lady Studios in New York City, the EP features live recordings of songs from her previous two studio albums, as well as a cover version of the song "If You Need to, Keep Time on Me" by Fleet Foxes.


title: Faye Webster

text: Webster is dating Boothlord, a member of Danger Incorporated, a rap duo based in Atlanta. They met when they were both signed to Awful Records and they moved in together during the COVID-19 pandemic. She is passionate about the Atlanta Braves, would leave school early to attend games, and wears team jerseys regularly. She had a crush on Ronald Acuña Jr., a Braves player the same age as her, which inspired her to write at least one song, but the crush dissipated after a meeting with him was "anticlimactic". She got to sing the "Star-Spangled Banner" at a Braves game. Her other hobbies include "Pokémon" and yo-yo; she has attended the World Yo-Yo Contest. Her photography of local rappers, including classmate Lil Yachty and Shelley FKA DRAM, has been published in media outlets including "Billboard", "Rolling Stone", and Spotify.


title: Aleks Paunovic

text: Aleks Paunovic (born June 29, 1969) is a Canadian actor. Paunovic is from Winnipeg, Manitoba, and "three generations of fighters" are in his family. His father is of Serbian descent, and his mother is of Croatian ancestry. His grandfather, father and uncle were all champion boxers in Yugoslavia, and he was a champion boxer until a shoulder injury ended his career. Paunovic was in a rock band before he got an acting job at his first audition.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The South Shetland Islands are a group of Antarctic islands with a total area of . They lie about north of the Antarctic Peninsula, and between southwest of the nearest point of the South Orkney Islands. By the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, the islands' sovereignty is neither recognized nor disputed by the signatories and they are free for use by any signatory for non-military purposes.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The islands have been claimed by the United Kingdom since 1908 and as part of the British Antarctic Territory since 1962. They are also claimed by the governments of Chile (since 1940, as part of the Antártica Chilena province) and Argentina (since 1943, as part of Argentine Antarctica, Tierra del Fuego Province).


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Several countries maintain research stations on the islands. Most of them are situated on King George Island, benefitting from the airfield of the Chilean base Eduardo Frei.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: There are sixteen research stations in different parts of the islands, with Chilean stations being the greatest in number.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The islands were discovered by the British mariner William Smith, in , in 1819. Although it has been postulated that Dutch mariner Dirck Gerritsz in 1599 or Spanish Admiral Gabriel de Castilla in 1603 might have sighted the South Shetlands, or North or South American sealers might have visited the archipelago before Smith, there is insufficient historical evidence to sustain such assertions. Smith's discovery, by contrast, was well documented and had wider historical implications beyond its geographic significance.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Chilean scientists have claimed that Amerinds visited the islands, due to stone artifacts recovered from bottom-sampling operations in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, and Discovery Bay, Greenwich Island; however, the artifacts – two arrowheads – were later found to have been planted. In 1818 Juan Pedro de Aguirre obtained permission from the Buenos Aires authorities to establish a base for sealing on "some of the uninhabited islands near the South Pole".


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Captain William Smith in the British merchant brig "Williams", while sailing to Valparaíso, Chile in 1819 deviated from his route south of Cape Horn, and on 19 February 1819 sighted Williams Point, the northeast extremity of Livingston Island. Thus Livingston Island became the first land ever discovered farther than 60° south. Smith revisited the South Shetlands, landed on King George Island on 16 October 1819, and claimed possession for Britain.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Meanwhile, the Spanish Navy ship "San Telmo" sank in September 1819 whilst trying to go through the Drake Passage. Parts of her presumed wreckage were found months later by sealers on the north coast of Livingston Island. The crew of "San Telmo" and the troops onboard, led by brigadier Rosendo Porlier (a total of 644 men), are believed to be the first known humans to land in Antarctica.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: From December 1819 to January 1820, the islands were surveyed and mapped by Lieutenant Edward Bransfield on board the "Williams", which had been chartered by the Royal Navy.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: On 15 November 1819, the United States agent in Valparaíso, Jeremy Robinson, informed the United States Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Smith's discovery and Bransfield's forthcoming mission, and suggested dispatching a United States Navy ship to explore the islands where "new sources of wealth, power and happiness would be disclosed and science itself be benefited thereby".


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The discovery of the islands attracted British and American sealers. The first sealing ship to operate in the area was the brig "Espirito Santo", chartered by British merchants in Buenos Aires. The ship arrived at Rugged Island off Livingston Island, where its British crew landed on Christmas Day 1819, and claimed the islands for King George III. A narrative of the events was published by the brig's master, Joseph Herring, in the July 1820 edition of the "Imperial Magazine". The "Espirito Santo" was followed from the Falkland Islands by the American brig "Hersilia", commanded by Captain James Sheffield (with second mate Nathaniel Palmer), the first US sealer in the South Shetlands.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The first wintering over in Antarctica took place on the South Shetlands, when at the end of the 1820–1821 summer season eleven British men from the ship "Lord Melville" failed to leave King George Island, and survived the winter to be rescued at the beginning of the next season.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Having circumnavigated the Antarctic continent, the Russian Antarctic Expedition of Fabian von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev arrived at the South Shetlands in January 1821. The Russians surveyed the islands and named them, landing on both King George Island and Elephant Island. While sailing between Deception and Livingston islands, Bellingshausen was visited by Nathaniel Palmer, master of the American brig "Hero", who informed him of the activities of dozens of American and British sealing ships in the area.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The name "New South Britain" was used briefly, but was soon changed to South Shetland Islands (in reference to the Shetland Islands in the north of Scotland). The name South Shetland Islands is now established in international usage. The two island groups lie at similar distances from the equator, but the South Shetlands are much colder. (See section Climate)


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Seal hunting and whaling was conducted on the islands during the 19th and early 20th century. The sealing era lasted from 1820 to 1908 during which time 197 vessels are recorded visiting the islands. Twelve of those vessels were wrecked. Relics of the sealing era include iron try-pots, hut ruins and inscriptions.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Beginning in 1908, the islands were governed as part of the Falkland Islands Dependency, but they have only been permanently occupied by humans since the establishment of a scientific research station in 1944. The archipelago, together with the nearby Antarctic Peninsula and South Georgia Island, is an increasingly popular tourist destination during the southern summer.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: As a group of islands, the South Shetland Islands are located at . They are within the region 61° 00'–63° 37' South, 53° 83'–62° 83' West. The islands lie south of the Falkland Islands, and between (Deception Island) and (Clarence Island) northwest and north from the nearest point of the Antarctic continent, Graham Land.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The South Shetlands consist of 11 major islands and several minor ones, totalling of land area. Between 80 and 90% of the land area is permanently glaciated. The highest point on the island chain is Mount Irving on Clarence Island at above sea level.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The South Shetland Islands extend about from Smith Island and Low Island in the west-southwest to Elephant Island and Clarence Island in the east-northeast.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Various volcanoes with activity in the Quaternary exist in the islands. These volcanoes are associated with the tectonics of Bransfield Rift. From west to east known volcanoes are Sail Rock, Deception Island, Rezen Knoll, Gleaner Heights, Edinburgh Hill, Inott Point, Penguin Island, Melville Peak and Bridgeman Island. Most of the volcanic rock and tephra is of basalt or basaltic andesite. An exception is the tephra of Deception Island which is of trachyte and basaltic trachyandesite, richer in potassium and sodium.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Quaternary volcanic products of the islands tend to have less potassium and sodium at a given silica range, and lower Nb/Y ratios, than those associated with the Larsen Rift on the Antarctic Peninisula.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The islands are the same distance from the equator as the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic, but their proximity to Antarctica means that they have a much colder climate. The sea around the islands is closed by ice from early April to early December and the monthly average temperature is below for eight months of the year (April to November).


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The islands have experienced measurable glacier retreat during recent years, but despite this, they remain more than 80% snow and ice covered throughout the summer.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The climate is cloudy and humid all year round and very strong westerly winds blow at all seasons. Some of the sunniest weather is associated with outbreaks of very cold weather from the south in late winter and spring. Mean summer temperatures are only about and those in winter are about . The effect of the ocean tends to keep summer temperatures low and prevent winter temperatures from falling as low as they do inland to the south.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: Despite the harsh conditions, the islands do support vegetation and are part of the Scotia Sea Islands tundra ecoregion, along with South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the South Orkney Islands and Bouvet Island. All of these islands lie in the cold seas below the Antarctic Convergence. These areas support tundra vegetation consisting of mosses, lichens and algae, while seabirds, penguins, and seals feed in the surrounding waters.


title: South Shetland Islands

text: The Russian names above are historical, and no longer the official Russian names. (See the end of the article for a complete list of islands.)


title: CEGEP

text: A CEGEP ( or ; ), also written cégep, CÉGEP and cegep, is a publicly funded college providing technical, academic, vocational or a mix of programs; they are exclusive to the province of Quebec's education system. A loanword from French, it originates from the French acronym for , sometimes known in English as a "General and Vocational College"—it is now considered a word in itself.


title: CEGEP

text: Although all colleges in Quebec are colloquially referred to as CEGEPs, only public colleges are officially referred to by that name. Both public (CEGEPs) and private colleges have the same function in Quebec. Although they may occasionally be compared to junior colleges or community colleges, CEGEPs differ in that a Diploma of College Studies (or , DEC) is required for university admission in Quebec, unless a student enters as a mature student, which typically means a minimum age of 21, with other requirements. A student in Quebec typically cannot enter university with only a secondary diploma, unless the diploma was earned in another province or country. However, some private English schools in Quebec offer Grade 12 which does allow access to university without needing to earn a DEC.


title: CEGEP

text: Pre-university programs are typically two years in duration, filling the gap between secondary school and undergraduate degrees, which are both one year shorter in Quebec relative to elsewhere in Canada. Technical programs are typically three years in duration, with specialization in courses leading to a career right after graduation. Depending on the university, students with DEC diplomas from a technical program can continue their studies at a university for higher education.


title: CEGEP

text: The purpose of a separate collegiate education level is to make post-secondary education more accessible in Quebec. It also ensures that students have a proper academic preparation to succeed at university. There are both public subsidized and private colleges, with the public CEGEPs having little or no tuition fee.


title: CEGEP

text: A product of the Quiet Revolution, the CEGEP system was started in 1967 by the Quebec provincial government and originally consisted of 12 CEGEPs. Today, 48 CEGEPs operate in Quebec, of which five use English as their medium of instruction. There are also College Centres (), small public post-secondary education colleges very similar to CEGEPs, often secondary stand alone campuses of CÉGEPs, like the "Centre d'études collégiales à Chibougamau", part of the Cégep de Saint-Félicien.


title: CEGEP

text: CEGEPs network was created in 1967 under the responsibility of the first Minister of Education Paul Gérin-Lajoie, the Father of CEGEPs. The legislation was proposed following the Parent Report's recommendation criticising the difficult and discriminatory access to higher education and the under-schooling of French-Canadians. Before the reform, 2-3 more years were necessary for French-Canadians to attain university than for English-Canadians. Moreover, urban residents had far greater chance to receive post-secondary education than people living in rural area, at the time post-secondary education was divided into numerous parallel schools, such as nursing school, normal schools, classical colleges, etc.


title: CEGEP

text: CEGEPs were henceforth created in order to harmonise the education system in Quebec. One of the innovations of CEGEPs was the integration of pre-university and vocational programs within the same institution, which was merged from existing schools, and which would be implemented throughout the province. This transitory phase between high school and university, or between high school and the job market, also improves access to university or the job market.


title: CEGEP

text: In 1993, the Robillard Reform launched a revision or programmes of study defined by the Ministry of Education. These programmes were reevaluated according to the expectations of the industry. A committee evaluating college teachers was created.


title: CEGEP

text: Students in Quebec who intend to pursue post-secondary education must attend a college (i.e., CEGEP) before enrolling in a Quebec university. Students who follow a general studies program in Quebec complete six years of primary school (grades 1 through 6), followed by five years of secondary school (called "grades 7 through 11" or "secondary 1 to secondary 5" in English and "1 secondaire au 5 secondaire" in French). Quebec students complete one grade fewer in total than other North American students before beginning post-secondary studies, completing high school at grade 11 instead of grade 12. CEGEP programs are typically two years in length with the exception of certain technical programs that are three years in length; the latter programs are generally for those wishing to enter a technical profession. Following successful completion of CEGEP, most in-province undergraduate programs are three years in length for Quebec students; hence, the total number of years of study for Quebec students from primary school through a bachelor's degree is the same as for other students in North America. For example, a Quebec student who has completed a CEGEP diploma would begin a 3-year Quebec-based university program in Year 1 whereas an out-of-province student who has completed grade 12 would instead begin the same Quebec-based university program in Year 0. Contrarily, students who possess a CEGEP diploma may also generally attend out-of-province universities in which case diplomas are treated by universities in the same manner as the 2-year college diplomas (associate degree) or are awarded with one year of advanced standing. Some advanced courses at the CEGEP level may be assessed as equivalent to introductory courses at university.


title: CEGEP

text: For students intending on completing their post-secondary studies outside of Quebec, there are three options. First, several Quebec-based secondary schools have a specialized curriculum for students who wish to enter directly into out-of-province post-secondary programs. In these instances, students may take one year of courses at high schools that offer this option in order to fulfill the grade 12 requirements of the institution to which they are applying. Second, students may complete one year of CEGEP courses prior to transferring to an out-of-province university so as to begin in the first year of an out-of-province post-secondary degree. For example, students wishing to attend an Ontario university may complete one year of CEGEP and apply as a regular applicant who has completed grade 12 in Ontario. Third, students who have completed two years of CEGEP may apply for admission with one year of advanced standing to post-secondary institutions outside of Quebec.


title: CEGEP

text: Most, but not all colleges offer two types of programs: pre-university and technical. The pre-university programs take two years to complete, whereas the technical programs take three. These programs share a core curriculum, consisting of 14 courses: four first language and two second language courses (either English or French), three Humanities courses (Philosophy in French CEGEPs), three Physical Education courses and two complementary courses (elective courses unrelated to the program of study).