title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Michael Cassidy was elected leader, but being the most left-wing of the three leadership candidates, he was not fully trusted by the party establishment. Cassidy's policy advisor in the leadership campaign was James Laxer, a former leader of The Waffle NDP faction which Lewis had expelled from the party in 1972. Some members of the NDP caucus considered Cassidy's election as a serious mistake, and encouraged him to resign before contesting an election. Cassidy ignored this advice, and remained as leader. The NDP declined further in the 1981 provincial election and Cassidy stepped down.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The party's fortunes turned around under the leadership of Bob Rae. The NDP captured two by-elections at the cost of the Liberals. In late 1984, polls showed Rae's NDP ahead of the David Peterson-led Liberals.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The 1985 provincial election resulted in a minority legislature: the Tories under incumbent Premier Frank Miller won 52 seats, the Liberals won 48, and the NDP 25. The New Democrats entered negotiations with both the Tories and the Liberals. The NDP signed a two-year accord with the Liberals, in which the Liberals would form government with the NDP's support in exchange for the implementation of a number of NDP policies. This was not a coalition government as the NDP declined an offer to sit in Cabinet, preferring to remain in opposition. The governing Tories were defeated by a non-confidence motion and Miller resigned.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: When the accord expired in 1987, Premier David Peterson called an early provincial election and the Liberals were re-elected with a large majority. The NDP lost seats but emerged as the largest opposition party, with Bob Rae becoming Leader of the Opposition.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Shortly before the 1990 provincial election, the governing Liberals held a solid lead in the polls, though their popularity had tailed off from 1987. However, Peterson's government was soon mired in scandals and many regarded the early election call as cynical. Under Rae, the NDP ran a strong campaign, which was also aided by a successful showing for federal New Democratic Party a couple years earlier. Although the NDP finished only three percentage points ahead of the Liberals, they managed to take many seats in the Greater Toronto Area away from the Liberals. As a result, the NDP won a large majority government of 74 seats while the Liberals suffered the worst defeat in their history.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Bob Rae became Premier of Ontario during the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression. In government, the NDP disappointed supporters by abandoning much of its ambitious program, including the promise to institute a public auto insurance system. As the recession worsened, the NDP implemented what it called the Social Contract – this was a package of austerity measures that:


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The Social Contract resulted in a major breach in the NDP's alliance with the labour movement as several trade unions turned against the party. Rae's government passed employment equity legislation and amended the province's labour law to ban the use of replacement workers during strikes, but this did not win back union support.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: At one point, the NDP fell to a low of six percent support in polling. An ominous sign for the party came in the 1993 federal election. All 10 of the federal NDP's Ontario MPs lost their seats to Liberal Party of Canada challengers by large margins. It was obvious by the 1995 provincial election that Rae's government would not be re-elected. The official opposition Ontario Liberals under Lyn McLeod were initially the beneficiaries of the NDP's unpopularity, but their poor campaign saw the momentum swing to the resurgent Tories under Mike Harris, who vaulted from third in the legislature to win a large majority. The NDP fell down to 17 seats, third place in the Legislative Assembly. In 1996, Rae stepped down as party leader and resigned his seat in the legislature.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Despite these shortcomings, the Rae years did witness a number of reforms in the field of social welfare being enacted. In 1991, the Rae government increased basic social assistance rates by 7% and shelter rates by 10%. Single parents were uploaded from the municipalities and all lone parents were raised to the same income standard. In 1992 and 1993, the Rae government implemented successive increases to social assistance.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Rae since joined the Liberal Party of Canada and was an unsuccessful candidate for party leadership in December 2006 and December 2008, but went on to serve as interim leader following Michael Ignatieff's resignation in 2011 until Justin Trudeau was chosen in 2013.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Rae was succeeded by Bud Wildman as interim leader in 1996, until Howard Hampton defeated Frances Lankin, a member of Rae's inner circle, for the party leadership that same year.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Under Hampton, the party has largely repudiated Rae's policies and renewed its commitment to a moderate form of socialism. Shortly after the 1999 provincial election, Hampton cited the Swedish model of social democracy as closely reflecting his own beliefs. However, the party has never fully healed the breach with organized labour that resulted from the Social Contract, nor has it been able to regain the popularity it enjoyed in the late 1980s.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Ontario NDP support fell even further in the 1999 provincial election, leaving the party with just nine seats. However, this was largely due to tactical voting in which NDP supporters voted Liberal in hopes of removing Harris and the Tories from power. As a result, Hampton was not blamed for this severe defeat and stayed on as leader.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Under the rules of the Legislative Assembly, a party would receive official party status, and the resources and privileges accorded to officially recognized parties, if it had 12 or more seats; thus, it initially appeared the NDP would lose caucus funding and the ability to ask questions in the House. However, the governing Progressive Conservatives changed the rules after the election to lower the threshold for party status from 12 seats to 8. The Progressive Conservatives had reduced the size of the legislature, so provincial ridings now had the same boundaries as the federal ones, and so the official party status threshold was lowered. Some suggested that the Tories helped the NDP so they could continue to split the vote with the Liberals, although the Progressive Conservatives had stated before the election campaign even began that reducing official party status to eight seats was part of the seat reduction plan from the very beginning.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: In the 2003 election, the party emphasized their "Public Power Campaign", which had two key issues, primarily publicly owned electricity generation and distribution, and publicly run auto insurance. As well, the Public Power Campaign also dealt with rolling-back the social program cuts from the Harris government's Common Sense Revolution. Many media outlets – including "The Globe and Mail" – thought that party leader Howard Hampton performed strongly in the televised leaders' debate. Despite Hampton's debate performance and a 2.4% increase in the popular vote, the party lost two seats, once again losing official party status and their previous speaking privileges and funding. One of the problems that likely affected NDP support was strategic voting, not unlike that of the 1999 election. Dozens of NDP voters voted Liberal in order to ensure that the Tories would be defeated. This voting practice did do damage to the NDP's electoral fortunes because it was interpreted as a call for blanket support for Liberal candidates over NDP candidates, with no real thought to which candidate had a better chance to defeat a PC in any individual riding. Several unions, such as the Canadian Auto Workers (CAW), promoted strategic voting to their membership and the public, which further added to the party's woes. The newly elected Liberal government offered to give the NDP caucus research funding if their members agreed to sit as independents. Hampton refused and disrupted the government Throne Speech in protest.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The first by-election in the 38th Legislative Assembly of Ontario, was in the riding of Hamilton East, caused by the untimely death of the riding's MPP, Dominic Agostino, on 24 March 2004. This tragic event, in conjunction with a recent and unpopular tax increase by the Liberals, provided the NDP with an opportunity to regain party status. A by-election was called for 13 May 2004, in which the new Liberal candidate, Agostino's brother Ralph, was challenged by NDP candidate Andrea Horwath, a Hamilton city councillor. In a fight for its political life, the NDP ran an all-out campaign to win the seat, aided by the city's large base of unionized steelworkers. On election night, Horwath took 63.8 per cent of the vote in the seat, bringing the NDP back to eight seats in the Legislature and allowing them to regain official party status.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The Ontario NDP's representation in the Legislature was again reduced to seven seats when Marilyn Churley resigned her seat to run in the 2006 federal election. However, the Liberals reversed their position and declared that the NDP would retain party status even if they lost the upcoming Toronto—Danforth by-election. Some opposition sources believed the Liberals, mindful of their humiliating defeat to Horwath, had loosened their interpretation of the rules so that whomever ran for the NDP in Toronto—Danforth couldn't use the threat of lost status in a campaign. This issue became moot when, on 30 March 2006, NDP candidate Peter Tabuns won the by-election in the Toronto—Danforth riding by a 9% margin over the Liberals' Ben Chin, alleviating another party status crisis.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The NDP scored a surprise victory over the Liberals in the late summer of that year in the riding of Parkdale—High Park. Liberal Education Minister Gerard Kennedy resigned on 5 April 2006 to run for the Federal Liberal Party leadership. The government took an unusually long time to call the by-election, waiting until 16 August to drop the writ. It turned into one of the most vicious elections in recent Ontario memory, almost on par with Jolliffe's 1945 "Gestapo" campaign. This time though, the NDP were not making the accusations; NDP candidate Cheri DiNovo's credibility was put to the test by what most of the media considered to be unworthy and underhanded personal attacks launched by the Liberals. The tactic backfired; on 14 September 2006, DiNovo defeated Liberal candidate – and incumbent Toronto city councillor – Sylvia Watson by taking 41% of the popular vote to Watson's 33%.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: In the riding of York South—Weston, adjacent to Parkdale—High Park and once the seat of former leaders Bob Rae, Donald C. MacDonald and Ted Jolliffe, the NDP continued its string of recent by-election successes by taking away another Liberal stronghold. On 8 February 2007, Paul Ferreira narrowly defeated Liberal candidate Laura Albanese by 358 votes, or 2%. This victory increased the NDP caucus' seat total to ten, up by three since the October 2003 general election.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: In the 2007 provincial election, the party increased its share of the popular vote by two percent but did not make any gains in the Legislature, with the loss of Paul Ferreira in York South—Weston being offset by the victory of Paul Miller in Hamilton East—Stoney Creek. France Gélinas also successfully retained the riding of Nickel Belt, following the retirement of Shelley Martel. The other eight NDP ridings were all retained by their incumbent MPPs.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Early polling in September 2006 showed the party with 27% support, its highest recorded level since 1992. By early 2007 support had fallen to 17% support, further behind the two front-running parties but still slightly ahead of the party's 15% result in the 2003 election. September 2007 polling had the NDP at 14%, while the 29 September Ipsos poll had them at 17%, meaning that NDP's support had been constant for a year within the margin of error. Though the same Ipsos poll suggested that the NDP would elect 12 members to the Legislature, the party would eventually elect only 10.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: On 14 June 2008, Hampton announced he would be stepping down as leader at the 2009 leadership election.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: On 7 November 2008, Andrea Horwath officially launched her campaign to win the party's leadership. Horwath advocated heavy investment in light rail. In party matters, she emphasised a closer relationship to unions and the hiring of regional organisers. The leadership election was held 6–8 March 2009. Horwath led on the first two ballots, and won on the third ballot with 60.4% of the vote.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: In the lead-up to the 2011 election, Horwath began to campaign on tax incentives for businesses that create jobs in the province, making investments that improve health-care wait times, and cutting the Harmonized Sales Tax from necessities such as home-heating and gas. Instead of providing broad corporate tax cuts, Horwath would have focused on tax cuts for small businesses and companies that make investments in Ontario. Her campaign also criticized the McGuinty government for not soliciting competitive bids for green energy projects, and pledged to have a public bidding process where preference is given to local providers.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Horwath distanced the ONDP from former Premier Bob Rae, then the interim leader of the federal Liberal Party of Canada, by pointing out that he is the exception to the rule of NDP Premiers in other provinces who have been able to balance provincial budgets. At the official televised leaders' debate, her political rivals criticized the ONDP's handling of the economy in the early 1990s, but Horwath further distanced the New Democratic Party from Mr. Rae by pointing out his current allegiance to the federal Liberals as interim leader of the (federal) Liberal Party. Her campaign largely refrained from mudslinging and personal attacks, and she led her party to an increase from 10 seats to 17 seats in the legislature. The Liberals were re-elected with a minority government giving Horwath's NDP the balance of power in the legislature.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: At an automatic leadership review held at the party's provincial convention in April 2012, 76.4% of delegates voted in favour of Horwath's continued leadership.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: In September 2012, NDP candidate Catherine Fife won a by-election in the riding of Kitchener—Waterloo after the resignation of former Progressive Conservative MPP Elizabeth Witmer. Fife's victory increased the ONDP caucus to a total of 18 seats in the provincial legislature.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Further by-election victories in ridings formerly held by the Liberals included Peggy Sattler in London West and Percy Hatfield in Windsor—Tecumseh in August 2013, and Wayne Gates in Niagara Falls. This increased the ONDP caucus to 21 members in the Legislative Assembly.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: At the 2018 provincial election, the ONDP ended 23 years of third party status, winning 40 seats to become the official opposition–the party's best showing since winning government in 1990. Notably, they took all of Old Toronto (i. e., what was the city of Toronto before the 1999 amalgamation of Metro Toronto) and took eight seats in northern Ontario. They also took all but one seat each in Hamilton and Niagara.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: At the leadership review held in June 2019 during a policy convention, Horwath received support from 84% of delegates.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Horwath resigned after the party lost seats in the 2022 Ontario general election. Peter Tabuns was chosen interim leader on June 28, 2022.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Marit Stiles is set to become the next leader by acclamation, pending a ratification vote by the party in 2023. Stiles was the only candidate to meet all of the party's requirements, including getting 100 nominating signatures from four of the six regions the New Democrats use to divide the province electorally and raising a $55,000 fee.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The party was known as the Ontario section of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation until the New Democratic Party's founding convention on 8 October 1961, at which point Donald C. MacDonald ceased to be the CCF leader and became the Ontario NDP leader.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: Results include those of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). The CCF essentially became the New Democratic Party (NDP) on 8 October 1961.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The officers of the Ontario NDP are the leader, the party president, six vice-presidents and the treasurer. Apart from the leader, the party officers are elected at the party's biennial convention. The leader is head of the parliamentary party and leads the party caucus in the Ontario legislature and is the party's presumed candidate to lead an NDP government should the party be called upon to form a government. The Provincial Secretary is an employee of the party and manages the day to day party organization outside of the legislature. The Provincial Secretary is hired by the party executive with the ratification of the provincial council.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The party's provincial executive is composed of the party's officers, six men and six women elected on a regional basis, three women and three men elected at large, one woman and one man elected by the Ontario New Democratic Youth, two women representing the Women's Committee, one woman and one man representing the Lesbian, Gay and Trans-identified Committee, one woman and one man representing the party's ethnic committees, one woman and one man representing the Disability Rights Committee and one woman and one man representing the Aboriginal Section.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The highest decision making body of the party is the provincial convention held once every two years. The convention is made up of delegates elected by riding associations, sections of the party (ONDY, Women's, LGBT, Ethnic, Aboriginal, Disability), affiliates such as labour unions and other bodies.


title: Ontario New Democratic Party

text: The Provincial Council is the next highest decision making level and meets between conventions, usually three or four times a year. the Provincial Council is made up of the provincial executive, two representatives of the party's provincial caucus, delegates elected from each riding association, representatives of regional party bodies, representatives of sections of the party and party affiliates.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: The Books of Jacob () is an epic historical novel by Olga Tokarczuk, published by Wydawnictwo Literackie in October 2014. It is Tokarczuk's ninth novel and is the product of extensive historical research, taking her seven years to write.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: "The Books of Jacob" is a 912-page novel divided into seven books. It begins in 1752 in Rohatyn and ends in Holocaust-era Korolówka. Its title subject is Jacob Frank, a Polish Jew who claimed to be the messiah. The novel combines dozens of third-person perspectives of those connected to Jacob Frank.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: Upon publication, it was an instant best-seller and won Poland's most prestigious literary prize, the Nike Award. By October 2015, the novel's circulation had reached 100,000 copies. When Tokarczuk was awarded the 2018 Nobel Prize in Literature, the Nobel Committee said that it was "very impressed" by "The Books of Jacob". An English translation by Jennifer Croft was published by Fitzcarraldo Editions on 15 November 2021. Croft won a 2015 PEN/Heim Translation Fund Grant for "The Books of Jacob". A US publication by Riverhead Books was released on 1 February 2022.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: Writing for "Gazeta Wyborcza", wrote that the novel "revolutionizes the image of religious life in the 18th century, but also changes the perception of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth."


title: The Books of Jacob

text: Writing for "Polityka", wrote that "Tokarczuk proved that it is possible to write an over 900-page novel, full of pictorial descriptions, religious disputes and letters, which keeps you in suspense" and called it an "extremely interesting panorama of 18th-century Poland."


title: The Books of Jacob

text: In regard to the historical and ideological divides of Polish literature, the novel has been characterized as anti-Sienkiewicz. It was soon acclaimed by critics and readers alike, but its reception has been hostile in some Polish nationalistic circles and Olga Tokarczuk became a target of an internet hate and harassment campaign.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: Upon publication in the UK, the book garnered critical acclaim. In "The Guardian", Marcel Theroux writes that, "[d]ense, captivating and weird, "The Books of Jacob" is on a different scale from either" of her previous novels translated into English. "It is a visionary novel that conforms to a particular notion of masterpiece – long, arcane and sometimes inhospitable. Tokarczuk is wrestling with the biggest philosophical themes [...]." He goes on to compare it to John Milton's "Paradise Lost" and concludes that the novel is one that "will be a landmark in the life of any reader with the appetite to tackle it." Anthony Cummins of "The Observer" writes that the book is a "panorama of early Enlightenment Europe that doubles as an open-minded study in the mysteries of charisma, it is perhaps above all – and aptly – a gargantuan act of faith, a novel in which your reading has barely begun by the time you’ve turned the last of its 900 pages."


title: The Books of Jacob

text: Catherine Taylor, writing for "Prospect", calls "The Books of Jacob" an "extraordinary 1,000-page novel", comparing it to Leo Tolstoy's "War and Peace" and Hilary Mantel's Thomas Cromwell trilogy. Of the English translation, Taylor has the following to say: "Huge credit must be given to Croft, whose magnificent, lively translation is also a work of pure scholarship: the multiple voices, styles, landscapes and inventories she renders into English bring this lost world vividly to life." Concluding, she singles out the subject of Jewish life in Poland of Frank's time as being at the core of the novel: "Tokarczuk's determination in this tremendous work to recast and restore to Poland's past its vanished Jewish culture has never been more necessary." Antonia Senior, in "The Times", calls the book "a work of genius."


title: The Books of Jacob

text: "The Books of Jacob" was awarded the 2015 Nike Award Jury prize, Poland's most prestigious literary prize. It also received Nike's Audience award for 2015.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: The Swedish translation by was awarded in 2016 with the first international prize awarded by the Stockholm institution .


title: The Books of Jacob

text: The French translation by Maryla Laurent was awarded the 2018 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature, the 2018 Prix Transfuge for Meilleur roman européen and the 2019 Prix Laure Bataillon. It was also a finalist in the second selection for the 2018 Prix Femina étranger.


title: The Books of Jacob

text: In 2020, an audiobook adaptation was released by Wydawnictwo Literackie (). It has a runtime of 40 hours and 44 minutes. The novel's seven books are narrated by seven Polish actors and actresses: Danuta Stenka, Wiktor Zborowski, Jan Peszek, Agata Kulesza, Maja Ostaszewska, Adam Ferency and .


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In atomic physics, hyperfine structure is defined by small shifts in otherwise degenerate energy levels and the resulting splittings in those energy levels of atoms, molecules, and ions, due to electromagnetic multipole interaction between the nucleus and electron clouds.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In atoms, hyperfine structure arises from the energy of the nuclear magnetic dipole moment interacting with the magnetic field generated by the electrons and the energy of the nuclear electric quadrupole moment in the electric field gradient due to the distribution of charge within the atom. Molecular hyperfine structure is generally dominated by these two effects, but also includes the energy associated with the interaction between the magnetic moments associated with different magnetic nuclei in a molecule, as well as between the nuclear magnetic moments and the magnetic field generated by the rotation of the molecule.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Hyperfine structure contrasts with "fine structure", which results from the interaction between the magnetic moments associated with electron spin and the electrons' orbital angular momentum. Hyperfine structure, with energy shifts typically orders of magnitudes smaller than those of a fine-structure shift, results from the interactions of the nucleus (or nuclei, in molecules) with internally generated electric and magnetic fields.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In 1935, H. Schüler and Theodor Schmidt proposed the existence of a nuclear quadrupole moment in order to explain anomalies in the hyperfine structure.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The theory of hyperfine structure comes directly from electromagnetism, consisting of the interaction of the nuclear multipole moments (excluding the electric monopole) with internally generated fields. The theory is derived first for the atomic case, but can be applied to "each nucleus" in a molecule. Following this there is a discussion of the additional effects unique to the molecular case.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The dominant term in the hyperfine Hamiltonian is typically the magnetic dipole term. Atomic nuclei with a non-zero nuclear spin formula_1 have a magnetic dipole moment, given by:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: There is an energy associated with a magnetic dipole moment in the presence of a magnetic field. For a nuclear magnetic dipole moment, μ, placed in a magnetic field, B, the relevant term in the Hamiltonian is given by:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In the absence of an externally applied field, the magnetic field experienced by the nucleus is that associated with the orbital (ℓ) and spin (s) angular momentum of the electrons:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Electron orbital angular momentum results from the motion of the electron about some fixed external point that we shall take to be the location of the nucleus. The magnetic field at the nucleus due to the motion of a single electron, with charge –"e" at a position r relative to the nucleus, is given by:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: where −r gives the position of the nucleus relative to the electron. Written in terms of the Bohr magneton, this gives:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Recognizing that "m"v is the electron momentum, p, and that r×p/"ħ" is the orbital angular momentum in units of "ħ", ℓ, we can write:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: For a many-electron atom this expression is generally written in terms of the total orbital angular momentum, formula_10, by summing over the electrons and using the projection operator, formula_11, where formula_12. For states with a well defined projection of the orbital angular momentum, "L", we can write formula_13, giving:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The electron spin angular momentum is a fundamentally different property that is intrinsic to the particle and therefore does not depend on the motion of the electron. Nonetheless it is angular momentum and any angular momentum associated with a charged particle results in a magnetic dipole moment, which is the source of a magnetic field. An electron with spin angular momentum, s, has a magnetic moment, μ, given by:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: where "g" is the electron spin "g"-factor and the negative sign is because the electron is negatively charged (consider that negatively and positively charged particles with identical mass, travelling on equivalent paths, would have the same angular momentum, but would result in currents in the opposite direction).


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The first term gives the energy of the nuclear dipole in the field due to the electronic orbital angular momentum. The second term gives the energy of the "finite distance" interaction of the nuclear dipole with the field due to the electron spin magnetic moments. The final term, often known as the "Fermi contact" term relates to the direct interaction of the nuclear dipole with the spin dipoles and is only non-zero for states with a finite electron spin density at the position of the nucleus (those with unpaired electrons in "s"-subshells). It has been argued that one may get a different expression when taking into account the detailed nuclear magnetic moment distribution.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: If hyperfine structure is small compared with the fine structure (sometimes called "IJ"-coupling by analogy with "LS"-coupling), "I" and "J" are good quantum numbers and matrix elements of formula_21 can be approximated as diagonal in "I" and "J". In this case (generally true for light elements), we can project N onto J (where J = L + S is the total electronic angular momentum) and we have:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: with formula_24 being the hyperfine-structure constant which is determined by experiment. Since I·J = {F·F − I·I − J·J} (where F = I + J is the total angular momentum), this gives an energy of:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Atomic nuclei with spin formula_26 have an electric quadrupole moment. In the general case this is represented by a rank-2 tensor, formula_27, with components given by:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: where "i" and "j" are the tensor indices running from 1 to 3, "x" and "x" are the spatial variables "x", "y" and "z" depending on the values of "i" and "j" respectively, "δ" is the Kronecker delta and "ρ"(r) is the charge density. Being a 3-dimensional rank-2 tensor, the quadrupole moment has 3 = 9 components. From the definition of the components it is clear that the quadrupole tensor is a symmetric matrix ("Q" = "Q") that is also traceless (Σ"Q" = 0), giving only five components in the irreducible representation. Expressed using the notation of irreducible spherical tensors we have:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The energy associated with an electric quadrupole moment in an electric field depends not on the field strength, but on the electric field gradient, confusingly labelled formula_30, another rank-2 tensor given by the outer product of the del operator with the electric field vector:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Again it is clear this is a symmetric matrix and, because the source of the electric field at the nucleus is a charge distribution entirely outside the nucleus, this can be expressed as a 5-component spherical tensor, formula_33, with:


title: Hyperfine structure

text: A typical atomic nucleus closely approximates cylindrical symmetry and therefore all off-diagonal elements are close to zero. For this reason the nuclear electric quadrupole moment is often represented by "Q".


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The molecular hyperfine Hamiltonian includes those terms already derived for the atomic case with a magnetic dipole term for each nucleus with formula_37 and an electric quadrupole term for each nucleus with formula_38. The magnetic dipole terms were first derived for diatomic molecules by Frosch and Foley, and the resulting hyperfine parameters are often called the Frosch and Foley parameters.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In addition to the effects described above, there are a number of effects specific to the molecular case.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Each nucleus with formula_37 has a non-zero magnetic moment that is both the source of a magnetic field and has an associated energy due to the presence of the combined field of all of the other nuclear magnetic moments. A summation over each magnetic moment dotted with the field due to each "other" magnetic moment gives the direct nuclear spin–spin term in the hyperfine Hamiltonian, formula_40.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: where "α" and "α" are indices representing the nucleus contributing to the energy and the nucleus that is the source of the field respectively. Substituting in the expressions for the dipole moment in terms of the nuclear angular momentum and the magnetic field of a dipole, both given above, we have


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The nuclear magnetic moments in a molecule exist in a magnetic field due to the angular momentum, T (R is the internuclear displacement vector), associated with the bulk rotation of the molecule, thus


title: Hyperfine structure

text: A typical simple example of the hyperfine structure due to the interactions discussed above is in the rotational transitions of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in its ground vibrational state. Here, the electric quadrupole interaction is due to the N-nucleus, the hyperfine nuclear spin-spin splitting is from the magnetic coupling between nitrogen, N ("I" = 1), and hydrogen, H ("I" = ), and a hydrogen spin-rotation interaction due to the H-nucleus. These contributing interactions to the hyperfine structure in the molecule are listed here in descending order of influence. Sub-doppler techniques have been used to discern the hyperfine structure in HCN rotational transitions.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The dipole selection rules for HCN hyperfine structure transitions are formula_44, formula_45, where is the rotational quantum number and is the total rotational quantum number inclusive of nuclear spin (formula_46), respectively. The lowest transition (formula_47) splits into a hyperfine triplet. Using the selection rules, the hyperfine pattern of formula_48 transition and higher dipole transitions is in the form of a hyperfine sextet. However, one of these components (formula_49) carries only 0.6% of the rotational transition intensity in the case of formula_48. This contribution drops for increasing J. So, from formula_48 upwards the hyperfine pattern consists of three very closely spaced stronger hyperfine components (formula_44, formula_53) together with two widely spaced components; one on the low frequency side and one on the high frequency side relative to the central hyperfine triplet. Each of these outliers carry ~formula_54 ( is the upper rotational quantum number of the allowed dipole transition) the intensity of the entire transition. For consecutively higher- transitions, there are small but significant changes in the relative intensities and positions of each individual hyperfine component.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Hyperfine interactions can be measured, among other ways, in atomic and molecular spectra and in electron paramagnetic resonance spectra of free radicals and transition-metal ions.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: As the hyperfine splitting is very small, the transition frequencies are usually not located in the optical, but are in the range of radio- or microwave (also called sub-millimeter) frequencies.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Carl Sagan and Frank Drake considered the hyperfine transition of hydrogen to be a sufficiently universal phenomenon so as to be used as a base unit of time and length on the Pioneer plaque and later Voyager Golden Record.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In submillimeter astronomy, heterodyne receivers are widely used in detecting electromagnetic signals from celestial objects such as star-forming core or young stellar objects. The separations among neighboring components in a hyperfine spectrum of an observed rotational transition are usually small enough to fit within the receiver's IF band. Since the optical depth varies with frequency, strength ratios among the hyperfine components differ from that of their intrinsic (or "optically thin") intensities (these are so-called "hyperfine anomalies", often observed in the rotational transitions of HCN). Thus, a more accurate determination of the optical depth is possible. From this we can derive the object's physical parameters.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: In nuclear spectroscopy methods, the nucleus is used to probe the local structure in materials. The methods mainly base on hyperfine interactions with the surrounding atoms and ions. Important methods are nuclear magnetic resonance, Mössbauer spectroscopy, and perturbed angular correlation.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) process uses the hyperfine splitting between optical transitions in uranium-235 and uranium-238 to selectively photo-ionize only the uranium-235 atoms and then separate the ionized particles from the non-ionized ones. Precisely tuned dye lasers are used as the sources of the necessary exact wavelength radiation.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The hyperfine structure transition can be used to make a microwave notch filter with very high stability, repeatability and Q factor, which can thus be used as a basis for very precise atomic clocks. The term "transition frequency" denotes the frequency of radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the atom, and is equal to , where is difference in energy between the levels and is the Planck constant. Typically, the transition frequency of a particular isotope of caesium or rubidium atoms is used as a basis for these clocks.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: Due to the accuracy of hyperfine structure transition-based atomic clocks, they are now used as the basis for the definition of the second. One second is now "defined" to be exactly cycles of the hyperfine structure transition frequency of caesium-133 atoms.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: On October 21, 1983, the 17th CGPM defined the meter as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of of a second.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The hyperfine splitting in hydrogen and in muonium have been used to measure the value of the fine-structure constant α. Comparison with measurements of α in other physical systems provides a stringent test of QED.


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The hyperfine states of a trapped ion are commonly used for storing qubits in ion-trap quantum computing. They have the advantage of having very long lifetimes, experimentally exceeding ~10 minutes (compared to ~1s for metastable electronic levels).


title: Hyperfine structure

text: The frequency associated with the states' energy separation is in the microwave region, making it possible to drive hyperfine transitions using microwave radiation. However, at present no emitter is available that can be focused to address a particular ion from a sequence. Instead, a pair of laser pulses can be used to drive the transition, by having their frequency difference ("detuning") equal to the required transition's frequency. This is essentially a stimulated Raman transition. In addition, near-field gradients have been exploited to individually address two ions separated by approximately 4.3 micrometers directly with microwave radiation.


title: Buck Meek

text: Buck Meek (born Alexander Buckley Meek, July 10, 1987) is an American musician from Wimberley, Texas, best known as the guitarist and backing vocalist of Big Thief.


title: Buck Meek

text: Meek was raised in Texas and was introduced to the guitar at a young age, playing blues and folk at local venues in his youth. Similarly to the other members of Big Thief, Meek attended Berklee College of Music, but he did not form a band with his future bandmates until after they had graduated. After Berklee, Meek moved to New York City, busking at the 14th Street-Union Square and Bedford Avenue subway stations to pay his rent.


title: Buck Meek

text: In 2014, Meek released two EPs with Adrianne Lenker, "a-sides" and "b-sides." The following year Meek formed Big Thief with Lenker and Max Oleartchik after they met Oleartchik in Bushwick, Brooklyn, recognising him from Berklee College. Meek has recorded four studio albums with Big Thief to critical acclaim. Their 2019 album "U.F.O.F." was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album. Meek released an eponymous debut solo album in May 2018, and "Two Saviors" in January 2021. "Two Saviors" was recorded at the corner of Royal and Desire in New Orleans, LA alongside producer Andrew Sarlo, who also worked on all of Big Thief's studio albums.


title: Buck Meek

text: Meek appeared in the Alma Har'el-directed Bob Dylan concert film "", which debuted on Veeps.com on July 18, 2021.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: The Gospel of Philip is a non-canonical Gnostic Gospel dated to around the 3rd century but lost in medieval times until rediscovered by accident, buried with other texts near Nag Hammadi in Egypt, in 1945.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: The text is not closely related to the canonical gospels and is not accepted as canonical by the Christian church. Although it may have some relationship to the beliefs expressed in the Gospel of Thomas, scholars are divided as to whether it should be read as a single discourse or as a collection of otherwise unrelated Valentinian sayings. Sacraments, in particular the sacrament of marriage, are a major theme. As in other texts often associated with what has been referred to as "Gnosticism," such as the Gospel of Thomas and Gospel of Mary, the Gospel of Philip defends a tradition that gives Mary Magdalene a special relationship and insight into Jesus' teaching.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: The gospel's title appears at the end of the Coptic manuscript in a colophon; the only connection with Philip the Apostle within the text is that he is the only apostle mentioned (at 73,8). The text proper makes no claim to be from Philip, though the four New Testament gospels make no explicit internal claim of authorship. Most scholars hold a 3rd-century date of composition.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: A single manuscript of the "Gospel of Philip", in Coptic (CG II), was found in the Nag Hammadi library, a cache of documents that was secreted in a jar and buried in the Egyptian desert at the end of the 4th century. The text was bound in the same codex that contained the better-known Gospel of Thomas.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: From the mix of aphorisms, parables, brief polemics, narrative dialogue, biblical exegesis (especially of "Genesis"), and dogmatic propositions, Wesley W. Isenberg, the editor and translator of the text, has attributed seventeen sayings ("logia") to Jesus, nine of which characterizes as citations and interpretations of those found in the canonical gospels The new sayings, "identified by the formula introducing them ('he said', 'the Lord said', or 'the Saviour said') are brief and enigmatic and are best interpreted from a gnostic perspective.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: Much of the Gospel of Philip is concerned with Gnostic views of the origin and nature of mankind and the sacraments it refers to as baptism, unction and marriage. It is not always clear whether these are the same literal rituals known in other parts of the early Christian movement and since, or ideal and heavenly realities. The Gospel emphasizes the sacramental nature of the embrace between man and woman (or ideas represented by these as types) in the "nuptial chamber," which is an archetype of spiritual unity. Many of the sayings are identifiably related to other texts referred to by scholars as Gnostic, and often appear quite mysterious and enigmatic (these are from the translation by ):


title: Gospel of Philip

text: One saying in particular appears to identify the levels of initiation in gnosticism, although what exactly the "bridal chamber" represented in gnostic thought is a matter of debate:


title: Gospel of Philip

text: One possibility is that the bridal chamber refers symbolically to the relationship of trust and singular devotion that should exist between God (bridegroom) and humankind or believer (bride) – just as the marriage relationship (bedchamber) implies a devotion of husband and wife to each other that is expected to exclude all other parties. This symbolic meaning is found for example in the Parable of the Ten Virgins – , "Then shall the kingdom of heaven be likened unto ten virgins, which took their lamps, and went forth to meet the bridegroom".


title: Gospel of Philip

text: Another interpretation of the Gospel of Philip supported by scholar Marvin W. Meyer, emphasizes Jesus as central focus of the text. Some quotations from the gospel could be inferred as placing Jesus in a central position:


title: Gospel of Philip

text: According to Meyer, without Jesus, the rituals and mysteries mentioned in this gospel would have no context.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: Furthermore this text seems to be related to others connected with the Valentinian Christian sect, who worshipped a Christ interpreted through "gnostic" ideas, and is often linked to what is sometimes thought to be Valentinius' own composition, the Gospel of Truth.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: Much of the Gospel of Philip is dedicated to a discussion of marriage as a sacred mystery, and two passages directly refer to Mary Magdalene and her close relationship with Jesus:


title: Gospel of Philip

text: In different places in the Gospel of Philip, Mary Magdalene is called Jesus's companion, partner or consort, using Coptic variants of the word "koinōnos" (κοινωνός), of Greek origin, or the word "hōtre", of Egyptian origin. In this passage "koinōnos" is used. "Koinōnos" has a range of possible meanings: at root, it denotes a "person engaged in fellowship or sharing with someone or in something", but what exactly a "koinōnos" "can share with his or her partner can take many forms, ranging from a common enterprise or experience to a shared business". In the Bible, "koinōnos" is sometimes used to refer to a spouse (; cf. ), but is also used to refer to a "companion" in faith (), a co-worker in proclaiming the Gospel (), or a business associate (). The Gospel of Philip uses cognates of "koinōnos" and Coptic equivalents to refer to the literal pairing of men and women in marriage and sexual intercourse, but also metaphorically, referring to a spiritual partnership, and the reunification of the Gnostic Christian with the divine realm. And importantly, there are occasions in the Gospel of Philip when the regular Coptic word for "wife" is used directly in reference to people who are clearly spouses, suggesting that the term "koinônos" is "reserved for a more specific usage" in the Gospel of Philip.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: That passage is also interesting for its mention of Jesus's sister (Jesus's unnamed sisters are mentioned in the New Testament at ), although the text is confusing on that point: she appears to be described first as the sister of Jesus's mother Mary (also mentioned in the Gospel of John, possibly the same person as Mary of Clopas), then as the sister of Jesus, although this may be a translation problem.


title: Gospel of Philip

text: The other passage, purportedly referring to Jesus kissing Mary Magdalene, is incomplete because of damage to the original manuscript. Several words are missing. Guesses as to what they were are shown below in brackets. Most notably there is a hole in the manuscript after the phrase "and used to kiss her [often] on her..." But the passage appears to describe Jesus kissing Magdalene, apparently described as "barren" and "the mother of the angels" at the beginning of the relevant paragraph and using a parable to explain to the disciples why he loved her more than he loved them:


title: Gospel of Philip

text: Some scholars speculate that "hand" is the word after "kiss her... on her". But it may have been cheek, forehead or feet to simply show respect. translates it as "on her mouth".


title: Gospel of Philip

text: The "Gospel of Philip" is a text that reveals some connections with Early Christian writings of the Gnostic traditions. It is a series of "logia" or aphoristic utterances, most of them apparently quotations and excerpts of lost writings, without any attempt at a narrative context. The main theme concerns the value of sacraments. Scholars debate whether the original language was Syriac or Greek. Wesley W. Isenberg, the text's translator, places the date "perhaps as late as the 2nd half of the 3rd century" and places its probable origin in Syria due to its references to Syriac words and eastern baptismal practices as well as its ascetic outlook. The online Early Christian Writings site gives it a date c. 180–250. Meyer gives its date as "2nd or 3rd century".


title: Gospel of Philip

text: The text has been interpreted by as a Christian Gnostic sacramental catechesis. Bentley Layton identified it as a Valentinian anthology of excerpts, and Elaine Pagels and Martha Lee Turner have seen it as possessing a consistent and Valentinian theology. It is dismissed by Catholic author Ian Wilson who argues that it "has no special claim to an early date, and seems to be merely a Mills and Boon-style fantasy of a type not uncommon among Christian apocryphal literature of the 3rd and 4th centuries".


title: Gospel of Philip

text: Latter-Day Saint (Mormon) scholar Richard O. Cowan sees a parallel between the "bridal chamber" that is a central theme in the Gospel and the Mormon doctrine of "the new and everlasting covenant of marriage", or "eternal marriage".


title: Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin

text: Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin ( "Suʿūd ibn Muḥammad Āl Muqrin"; 1640–1726) was the eponymous ancestor of the House of Saud, otherwise known as the Al Saud.


title: Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin

text: Saud was from the family of Al Muqrin that traces its origin to the Arabian tribe of 'Amir ibn Saasaa. Saud was the leader of the oasis of Diriyah from 1720 to 1726.


title: Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin

text: The Al Saud originated as a leading family in a town called Diriyah, close to the modern city of Riyadh, near the center of Najd. Sometime in the early 16th century, ancestors of Saud bin Muhammad took over some date groves, one of the few forms of agriculture the area could support, and settled there. Over time, the groves grew into a small town, and the clan came to be recognized as its leaders.


title: Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin

text: Two decades after his death, Saud's son Muhammad ibn Saud made his historic pact with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, leading to their conquest of Arabia and the establishments of the First Saudi State. Sheikh Muhammad's patronymic "Ibn Saud" eventually gave the clan its name of Al Saud.


title: Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin

text: Saud had other sons, Thunayyan, Mishari and Farhan. He died in 1726 and was succeeded by his son, Muhammad. However, one of Saud's brothers, Muqrin, was killed by Muhammad bin Saud which caused an intrafamilial struggle and therefore, Zaid bin Farhan found an opportunity to control the rule of Diriyah.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The New Zealand telephone numbering plan describes the allocation of telephone numbers in New Zealand and the Pitcairn Islands.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: By the 1970s, New Zealand's telephone network consisted primarily of step-by-step telephone exchanges or, in the main centres, a mixture of rotary and step-by-step exchanges, with a few rural areas still served by manual exchanges. Local telephone number lengths varied from 3 to 6 digits depending on the size of exchange and population of the local calling area. Numerous complex dialling instructions appeared in the front of telephone books explaining the number sequences needed to reach subscribers in local "free calling" areas, and in a few cases for short-distance toll calls (usually to the local city or town), which were recorded on manually read meters in some step-by-step local exchanges. Local calls were free (and still are for residential customers). Long distance (toll) calls required the manual intervention of an operator, who had access to toll circuits, either via an operator's cord board or a toll exchange (switch). Access to the toll operator was by dialling 0. Local directory service could be accessed via 100, telephone faults via 120, and emergency services by dialling 111.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: Subscriber toll dialling (STD) was introduced in the New Zealand telephone network in the mid-1970s, a result of the introduction of NEC crossbar-based toll exchanges and their ability to perform number translation. One still needed to dial 0 to make a toll call, but instead of calling the operator, one could then dial the STD number directly. Access to the operator was via 010, while other service numbers remained unchanged.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The original STD codes were numbered roughly south to north, with a few exceptions. A complete list of STD codes from 1987 is below:


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: STD codes were assigned with larger areas having short STD codes (e.g. Auckland - 09), while smaller areas had longer STD codes and shorter local numbers (e.g. Shannon - 06927). The total number length, that is STD code and local number excluding the first 0, usually totalled seven digits, but could vary up to nine, as exchanges often increased the length of local numbers to accommodate new lines.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: With the introduction of NEC stored program control exchanges in the New Zealand telephone network during the 1980s, and the rapid growth in demand, the breakup of the New Zealand Post Office and the creation of Telecom, local telephone numbers were standardised to seven digits. In many parts of the country, the old area code was incorporated into the new number, however in some areas the numbers changed completely.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: At the same time, the opportunity was taken to move directory service from 100 to 018 and charge for directory service calls. The justification for doing so was the introduction of a directory service computer system that gave access to current New Zealand telephone number listings, not just those printed in the telephone book, and the need for a separate user pays revenue stream for Telecom Directory Services, which was separate to the 5 regional (local) telephone companies, TNI and Telecom Mobile that Telecom had split itself into, as part of the sale of Telecom and deregulation of New Zealand telecommunications services.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: Since 1993, land-line telephone numbers in New Zealand consist of a single-digit area code and a seven-digit local number, of which the first three digits generally specify the exchange and the final four specify the subscriber's unique line at that exchange.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The long-distance trunk prefix, "0", which is prepended to national numbers, is not part of the international number.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The minimum number length after the international prefix is three digits. Most numbers, other than service numbers have at least eight digits.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The maximum number length after the international prefix is nine digits, except numbers starting with "210" (which have ten digits).


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: New Zealand follows an open numbering plan. The country code is "64". The long distance dialing prefix is "0" and the international prefix is "00".


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: New Zealand landline phone numbers have a total of eight digits, excluding the leading 0: a one-digit area code, and a seven-digit phone number (e.g. 09 700 1234), beginning with a digit between 2 and 9 (but excluding 900, 911, and 999 due to misdial guards).


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: There are five regional area codes: 3, 4, 6, 7, and 9. These must be dialled, along with the domestic trunk prefix, when calling a recipient outside the local calling area of which the caller is located. For example, one calling Dunedin from Christchurch must dial 03, even though Christchurch is 03 as well.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The first few digits of the local number can specify the general area of the telephone numbers. Note the names below are of the local calling areas.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: Telephone numbers for mobile phones begin with 02, followed by seven to nine digits (usually eight). The first few digits after the 02 indicate the original mobile network that issued the number.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: Telephone numbers must always be dialled in full for mobile phones. In the late 1990s however, Telecom mobile phones could dial other Telecom mobile phones without the (then) 025 prefix, making 025 act like a landline area code.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The introduction of mobile number portability on meant that an increasing number of mobiles would be operating on a different network from that which originally assigned the number.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: To find out whether a particular number belongs to a specific network provider, one can text the mobile number of interest to 300. It is a free service provided by 2degrees. A reply will be sent to verify whether the number is operating on their network or not. , this service will work for Vodafone and Spark Active.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: Local-rate numbers, such as Internet access numbers, have the prefix 08"xx", and are usually followed by five digits.


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: The "1" codes are used for local services, including activating exchange features. The emergency services number is "111".


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: New Zealand has no dedicated series of fictional telephone numbers. Television shows and movies generally use any available range of numbers (e.g. the TVNZ soap opera "Shortland Street" uses the unassigned (09) 4299 number range.).


title: Telephone numbers in New Zealand

text: In the future, there are additional proposed area codes of New Zealand separating for most regions: 02 (for Southland, West Coast and Tasman District), 05 (for Hawke's Bay, Gisborne and Wairarapa), 07 (for Waikato) and 08 (for the Bay of Plenty).


title: Kothari Commission

text: National Education Commission (1964-1966), popularly known as Kothari Commission, was an ad hoc commission set up by the Government of India to examine all aspects of the educational sector in India, to evolve a general pattern of education and to advise guidelines and policies for the development of education in India. It was formed on 14 July 1964 under the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, then chairman of the University Grants Commission. The terms of reference of the commission was to formulate the general principles and guidelines for the development of education from primary level to the highest and advise the government on a standardized national pattern of education in India. However, the medical and legal studies were excluded from the purview of the commission. The tenancy of the commission was from 1964 to 1966 and the report was submitted by the commission on 29 June 1966.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The commission, under the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, was the sixth commission in India post independence and the first commission with comprehensive terms of reference on education. It was composed of a member secretary, an associate secretary and fifteen members. Apart from the core group, the commission had a panel of overseas consultants numbering twenty and nineteen task forces, their sub groups and special panels of invitees.


title: Kothari Commission

text: A panel of 20 consultants, selected from various parts of the world and deemed experts in education, was constituted for consultative assistance to the commission.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The main front line activities were handled by nineteen task forces or working groups, each handling a specific area of activity.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group's main objective was the eradication of illiteracy by focusing on adult education. The group was composed of three foreign members, J. F. McDougall, Welthy Fischer and Hans Simons and fifteen Indian members, V. S. Jha, Abdul Qadir, G. K. Chandiramani, A. R. Deshpande, Durgabai Deshmukh, K. L. Joshi, D. R. Kalia, T. A. Koshy, M. S. Mehra, A. R. Moore, J. P. Naik, M. S. Randhawa, K. G. Saiyidain, Sohan Singh and group secretary, S. M. S. Chari.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group had 15 members of which two were foreign members, J. F. McDougall and R. W. Cummings. The Indian members included B. P. Pal, Hashim Amir Ali, Anant Rao, Chintamani Singh, V. M. Dandekar, K. C. Kanungo, A. B. Joshi, S. N. Mehrotra, S. K. Mukherji, J. P. Naik, K. C. Naik, N. K. Panikar, C. S. Ranganathan, S. C. Verma and secretary, S. Ramanujam. The group focused on the development of agricultural education.


title: Kothari Commission

text: This twelve member group examined the shortcomings on the educational administration and had Prem Kirpal, A. C. Deve Gowda, V. Jagannadham, M. V. Mathur, S. N. Mukherjee, J. P. Naik, H. M. Patel, D. M. Sen, J. D. Sharma, V. D. Sharma, Rudra Dutt Singh and S. Rajan (secretary) as its members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The task before the group was to examine the existing set up with regard to educational finance and identify ways to overcome the shortfalls. The group had M. V. Mathur, D. A. Dabholkar, B. Dutta, R. A. Gopalaswami, K. L. Joshi, D. T. Lakdawala, Gautam Mathur, Atmanand Misra, Sadashiv Misra, J. P. Naik, K. A. Naqvi, Pritam Singh and Gurbax Singh (secretary) as its members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group's objective was to coordinate the higher education system in India and advise on ways of improvement. The group was one of the largest and had 20 members, including three overseas members, J. F. McDougall, Hans Simons and H. J. Taylor. The Indian members were K. G. Saiyidain, J. W. Airan, P. K. Bose, Chandrahasan, V. S. Jha, A. C. Joshi, K. L. Joshi, C. L. Kapur, D. S. Kothari, M. V. Mathur, P. G. Mavlankar, J. P. Naik, P. J. Philip, A. B. Shah, Amrik Singh, R. K. Singh and S. Rehman (secretary).


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group had twelve members which included R. A. Gopalaswami, Abdul Qadir, K. L. Joshi, M. V. Mathur, J. P. Naik, R. Prasad, T. Sen and S. P. Aggarwal. The group had its mandate to examine the recruitment and training of teaching and non teaching staff.


title: Kothari Commission

text: This seventeen member task force was entrusted with the designing of the functional mechanics of the educational system. The members were V. S. Jha, G. K. Athalye (later replaced by S. L. Ahluwallia), M. L. Bharadwaj, A. R. Dawood, S. Dutt, C. L. Kapur, S. S. Kulkarni, J. C. Mathur, J. F. McDougall, S. K. Mitra, J. P. Naik, Paul Neurath, S. Panandikar, Albert J. Perrelli, S. Rehman, J. M. Ure (later replaced by D. A. Smith) and S. M. S. Chari, who served as the Secretary.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group trained its focus on the professional and vocational courses. The group had sixteen members including the associate secretary, J. F. McDougall. The other members were T. Sen, S. K. Bose, G. K. Chandiramani, L. S. Chandrakant, D. R. Dhingra, R. N. Dogra, V. G. Garde, R. A. Gopalaswami, K. L. Joshi, P. K. Kelkar, S. G. Pendse, S. C. Sen, R. K. Srivastav, H. C. Visvesvaraya and secretary, S. Venkatesh.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The mandate of the group was to focus on the science education excluding medical education and consisted of D. S. Kothari, S. Deb, B. D. Jain, P. Florence Nightingale, R. C. Paul, R. N. Rai, T. S. Sadasivan, D. Shankernarayan, Shantinarayan, A. R. Verma, R. D. Deshpande and I. C. Menon (secretary).


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group worked on the modalities of school education excluding primary education in India. It consisted of twelve members including the commission secretary, J. P. Naik along with A. R. Dawood, K. L. Gupta, G. S. Khair, K. Kuruvila Jacob, D. R. Mankad, P. N. Mathar, R. Muralidharan, S. Panandikar, H. Radhakrishna, S. N. Saraf, and S. Doraiswami (secretary).


title: Kothari Commission

text: The welfare aspects of the students including scholarships and other measures of incentives were attended to by this group which had A. R. Dawood, V. S. Jha, D. R. Mankad, M. S. Mehta, Perin H. Mehta, J. P. Naik, Prem Pasricha, V. Ramakrishna, A. S. Raturi, D. S. Reddy, S. L. Saruparia, Vikram Singh and S. Doraiswami (secretary) as its members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group inspected the proficiency of the teachers and their remuneration packages. One of the tasks before the group was to standardize the public and private sector compensation packages and also to design a machinery for continuous on-job training of the teachers. The members of the group were S. Panandikar, S. P. Aggarwal, Reginald Bell, A. C. Deve Gowda, G. N. Kaul, J. P. Naik, S. Natarajan, K. G. Saiyidain, Salamatullah and M. D. Paul (secretary).


title: Kothari Commission

text: This group had its focus on the educational infrastructure and had several construction and infrastructure experts among its fifteen members. The members were A. R. Dawood, R. K. Chhabra, Dinesh Mohan, B. V. Doshi, J. F. McDougall, M. M. Mistri, J. P. Naik, M. H. Pandya, C. B. Patel, S. Rahaman, J. L. Sehgal, T. S. Vedagiri, H. C. Visvesaraya, H. Williams and S. Venkatesh (secretary).


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group had fifteen members and was mandated to focus on the education of the scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and other backward communities in India. L. M. Shrikant, Sashimeren Aier, N. V. Bapat, S. R. Bhise, P. D. Kulkarani, J. Lakra, D. J. Naik, J. P. Naik, V. Rajlakshmi, T. Sanganna, S. C. Sen Gupta, Manikya Lal Verma, Vimal Chandra, N. M. Wadiwa and the secretary of the group, Gurbax Singh were the members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group provided the statistical tools for the commission and had J. P. Naik, S. P. Aggarwal, R. K. Chhabra, G. P. Khare, D. Natarajan, H. Webster and Gurbax Singh (secretary) as members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: This group was intended to work on the primary education and its standardization as the primary education till that time was unorganized with several different schools such as basic primary and Montessori systems in practice. The group had ten women, S. Panandikar, Bilquis Ghufran, L. Jesudian, Shalini Moghe, A. Pakrashi, Grace Tucker, P. K. Varalakshmi, Amrita Varma and R. Muralidharan and two men, M. C. Nanavatty and Shesh Namle as members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group composed of L. R. Desai, Hulbe, V. S. Jha, H. B. Majumder, P. N. Mathur, J. P. Naik, M. C. Nanavatty, H. Radhakrishna, K. G. Saiyidain, R. K. Singh and M. P. Balakrishnan (secretary) worked on the extra curricular ambience and activities of the education.


title: Kothari Commission

text: This group had one of the major tasks of the commission which included the design and development of a standardized curriculum to be used across the country. S. Panandikar, J. P. Naik, A. R. Dawood, L. S. Chandrakant, A. J. Perrelli and B. Ghosh (secretary) were the members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The group, consisting the chairman, D. S. Kothari and the commission secretary, J. P. Naik, had Durgabai Deshmukh, Rajammal Devadas, P. N. Mathur, S. Panandikar, K. G. Saiyidain, Raksha Saran, Premlila V. Thackersey and S. Rajan (Secretary) as members.


title: Kothari Commission

text: Besides the task forces, the commission had twenty one sub groups assisting the task forces on specific assignments. They were:


title: Kothari Commission

text: C. Gilpatric, M. S. Mehta, Prof. M. Mehrotra, H. H. Howes, Nauhria Ram and Olive 1. Reddick served as special invitees of the sub groups.


title: Kothari Commission

text: 9000 individuals covering educators, scholars and scientists were interviewed and 2400 memorandums were examined by the commission, during a period spanning 21 months. The commission submitted its 287-page report on 29 June 1966 to M. C. Chagla, the then minister of education. The report had four sub sections:


title: Kothari Commission

text: One of the main recommendations of the commission was the standardization of educational system on 10+2+3 pattern, across the country. It advised that the pre-primary education which had different names such as kindergarten, Montessori and pre-basic should be renamed as pre-primary and the primary education (renamed as lower primary) to be up to the 4th standard. It further classified the schooling as upper primary or higher primary and high school (up to standard X). The under graduate education was identified as XI and XII standards under the name, higher secondary or pre university. The graduate studies were recommended to be standardized as a three-year course. The educational system up to eighth standard was categorized as first (primary education), second (secondary education up to XII) and third levels of education (higher studies).


title: Kothari Commission

text: The commission recommended that a common public education system should be introduced and then it should be vocationalized in general and special streams by introducing work experience as a part of education. It further stressed on the need to make work experience and social/national service as an integral part of education. Specialization of subjects were advised to be started from higher secondary levels.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The days of instruction were recommended to be increased to 234 for schools and 216 for colleges and the working hours to be fixed at not less than 1000 hours per academic year, preferably higher at 1100 or 1200 hours. It also advised for reduction of national holidays. Linking of colleges to a number of schools in the neighborhood, utilization of school facilities 8 hours a day all through the year, establishment of book banks, identification of talents and provision of scholarships, setting up of day study and residential facilities and opportunities for students to earn while studying were some of the other recommendations of the commission. It also emphasized on free education up to and including lower secondary level of education.


title: Kothari Commission

text: Commission laid stress on women education and advised setting up of state and central level committees for overseeing women education. It suggested establishing schools and hostels for women and urged to identify ways to find job opportunities for women in the educational sector. Focusing on equalization of opportunities to all irrespective of caste, religion and gender and to achieve social and national integration, the schools were advised to provide education to backward classes on a priority basis and the minimum level of enrollment at a secondary school were advised to be not less than 360 every year. Two sets of curricula were prescribed, one at state level and one at the national level and the schools were recommended to experiment with the curriculum. It also proposed that three or four text books to be prescribed for each subject and moral and religious education be made a part of the curriculum. The curriculum prescribed by the commission was:


title: Kothari Commission

text: It also recommended the establishment of guidance and counselling centres and a new approach in the evaluation of student performances. The commission suggested the "neighbourhood school" system without social or religious segregation and a "school complex system" integrating primary and secondary levels of education. It put forward the suggestion that state and national boards of examination be set up and state level evaluation machinery be put in place.


title: Kothari Commission

text: The commission recommended the establishment of "Indian Education Service", along the lines of Indian Administrative Service, to bring in professional management to education sector. It proposed standardization and revision of the pay scales of the teaching, non teaching and administrative staff and prescribed minimum pay levels based on their locations. It also advised standardization of pay scales working under different managements such as government, private and local bodies. The minimum scale was suggested to be in the ratio of 1:2:3 for teachers in the primary, secondary and higher levels of educational sector. Another proposal was for the establishment of a machinery for continuous on job training of the teaching staff and for efforts to raise the status of the teachers to attract talents into the profession. It urged laws to be passed to legalize the educational standards and the educational expenditure to be raised from the then level of 2.9 percent of the GDP to 6 percent, to be achieved by the fiscal year, 1985–86. A significant suggestion was the issuance of a National Policy on Education by the Government of India which should serve as a guideline for the state and local bodies in the design and implementation of their educational plans.


title: Kothari Commission

text: Formulation of a National Policy on Education was one of the important recommendations of the commission and in 1968, the fourth Lok Sabha elected to office in 1967 under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, passed the bill. The policy covered many recommendations of the Kothari Commission such as free and compulsory education, Status and pay scale revision of teachers, equalization of educational opportunity and science education.


title: Kothari Commission

text: Another recommendation of the commission for the alignment of the educational system on 10+2+3 pattern has been achieved by the government on a national level. The education has been modeled as per commission's recommendation to stratify the sector with state and national bodies and a central board, "Board of Higher Secondary Education" was set up in 1986.


title: Kothari Commission

text: Kothari commission, fourth education commission in the independent India, and its recommendations are also reported to have influenced the 1986 revision of the National Policy on Education by the Rajiv Gandhi ministry. The guidelines laid out by the commission were revisited by the National Knowledge Commission headed by Sam Pitroda in 2005.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: Military coups or martial laws in Pakistan began in 1958. There have been numerous successful attempts since 1951. Since its creation in 1947, Pakistan has spent several decades under military rule (1958 – 1971, 1977 – 1988, 1999 – 2008).


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: In 1953, the Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad dismissed the government of the Prime Minister Khawaja Nazimuddin despite it enjoying the support of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan; then in 1954 he dismissed the Constituent Assembly itself to prevent it changing the constitution to restrict the Governor-General's powers. The failure of the courts to support representative institutions in "Federation of Pakistan v. Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan" provided a pattern which latter led to more open military intervention against elected governments to be justified using a doctrine of necessity.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: In 1958, the first Pakistani President Major General Iskander Mirza dismissed the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan and the government of Prime Minister Feroz Khan Noon, appointing army commander-in-chief Gen. Ayub Khan as the Chief martial law administrator. Thirteen days later, Mirza himself was exiled by Ayub Khan, who appointed himself president.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: Operation Fair Play was the code name for the coup d'etat conducted at midnight on July 4, 1977, by the Pakistan military, led by Chief of Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq, against the government of then-Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. General Zia ordered the arrest of Bhutto, his ministers and other leaders of both the Pakistan People's Party and the Pakistan National Alliance. In a nationally televised address, General Zia announced that the National Assembly of Pakistan and all provincial assemblies were dissolved, and that the Constitution of Pakistan was suspended.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: The martial law enforced by President General Zia introduced the strict but modern form of conservatism which promoted the nationalistic and religious programmes. Under Zia's dictatorship a heavy islamization of the country took place (the emblem of which were the so called Hudood Ordinances), which steered the country away from Muhammad Ali Jinnah's non-sectarian vision.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: In October, 1999 senior officers loyal to army chief Gen. Pervez Musharraf arrested prime minister Nawaz Sharif and his ministers after thwarting the Sharif regime's attempt to dismiss Musharraf and prevent his plane from landing in Pakistan as he returned from a visit to Sri Lanka.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: The death of Zia-ul-Haq led to the appointment of Ghulam Ishaq Khan as President. Khan had vast, unchecked Presidential powers and was known to be close to the Pakistani military. Khan had dismissed both Benazir Bhutto in 1990 and Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister in 1993, though the latter resulted in his own resignation and is known in Pakistan as the Waheed Kakar formula.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: There have been numerous unsuccessful coup attempts in Pakistani history. The first noted attempt was the Rawalpindi conspiracy in 1951 led by Maj. Gen. Akbar Khan along with left-wing activists and sympathetic officers against the government of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first prime minister. Prominent poet-intellectual Faiz Ahmed Faiz was suspected of involvement.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: In 1980, a plot by Maj. Gen. Tajammul Hussain Malik to assassinate Zia-ul-Haq on Pakistan Day on March 23, 1980, was exposed and thwarted.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: In 1995, a coup attempt against the government of Benazir Bhutto led by Maj. Gen. Zahirul Islam Abbasi with the support of Islamic extremists was foiled.


title: Military coups in Pakistan

text: An alleged coup attempt planned by Mustafa Khar during his exile during General Zia ul Haq's reign was thwarted beforehand due to Seth Abid playing double agent and informing the military about the plot. Allegedly, some disgruntled army officers were provided details of a safe house where weapons procured from India directly by Mustafa Khar after negotiating with an Indian agent in their London High Commission. This has been discussed in great length and detail by Tehmina Durrani in her award-winning book 'My Feudal Lord' where she admits to playing a passive role under duress of her then husband Mustafa Khar.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Macomb County ( ) is a county located in the eastern portion of the U.S. state of Michigan, bordering Lake St. Clair, and is part of northern Metro Detroit. As of the 2020 Census, the population was 881,217, making it the third-most populous county in the state. The county seat is Mt. Clemens. Macomb County is part of the Detroit-Warren-Dearborn, MI Metropolitan Statistical Area. The city of Detroit is located south of the county's southern border. Macomb County contains 27 cities, townships and villages, including three of the top ten most-populous municipalities in Michigan as of the 2010 census: Warren (#3), Sterling Heights (#4) and Clinton Township (#10). Most of this population is concentrated south of Hall Road (M-59), one of the county's main thoroughfares.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: The Ojibwe lived in the area for centuries before European contact and were preceded by other cultures of ancient indigenous peoples.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: The first European colonizers were French, and they arrived in the area during the 17th century. Other early settlers were French fur trappers, who sometimes married Ojibwe women, and Jesuit missionaries. A Moravian colony was established in the county in the late 18th century. In addition to the original French and English settlers, later immigrants included Germans, Belgians, and others from Europe. In the 19th century, the county received many European-American migrants from New York and New England, who were attracted to the area for land and booming jobs in the lumber and other resource industries.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Macomb County was formally organized on January 15, 1818, as the third county in the Michigan Territory. The county was named in honor of Detroit-born Alexander Macomb, Jr., a highly decorated veteran of the War of 1812 and hero of the Battle of Plattsburg. He was made Commanding General of the U.S. Army in 1828.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: As was typical in development, the county at first encompassed a much larger area than at present. As population increased in the area, the state legislature removed territory in 1819 and 1820 to form the counties of Oakland, Lapeer, Genesee, and St. Clair.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: In May 2008, Macomb County voters approved the inclusion of a County Executive in a new charter to be submitted to the voters by 2010. A charter commission was elected in November 2008 to draft a charter for submission to Governor Granholm, which was submitted and approved and placed on the November 2009 ballot. The Charter passed with a 60.4% to 39.6% margin.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (16%) is water. The county's southeastern border with Canada is located across Lake St. Clair.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Macomb County is mostly considered a part of Southeast Michigan. However, the far northern parts of the county, including Richmond and Armada, are often considered to be part of Michigan's Thumb region.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: The county comprises mostly rural/agricultural communities to the north and a mix of suburban and urban areas to the south.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 840,978 people living in the county. 85.4% were White, 8.6% Black or African American, 3.0% Asian, 0.3% Native American, 0.6% of some other race and 2.1% of two or more races. 2.3% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race). 14.8% were of German, 14.3% Polish, 11.1% Italian, 6.5% Irish and 5.9% American ancestry.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: In 2000, 87.6% of county residents spoke only English at home; 1.7% spoke Italian, 1.4% Polish, 1.2% Spanish, 1.1% Arabic, and 1.1% Syriac.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: European ethnic groups that have settled in Macomb County since the late 20th century include Albanians and Macedonians.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Among Asian ethnic groups, eight numbered over 1,000 people in Macomb County. They were Arabs, Asian Indians, Chaldeans, Filipinos, Chinese, Koreans, Vietnamese, and Hmong. Pakistanis are also represented in Macomb County's population.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: In 2000, there were 309,203 households, out of which 31.10% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.30% were married couples living together, 10.10% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.80% were non-families. 26.90% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.09.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: In 2000, the age distribution of the county was as follows: 24.10% under the age of 18, 8.00% from 18 to 24, 31.50% from 25 to 44, 22.80% from 45 to 64, and 13.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.90 males.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: The median income for a household in the county was $52,102, and the median income for a family was $62,816. Males had a median income of $48,303 versus $30,215 for females. The per capita income for the county was $24,446. About 4.00% of families and 5.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.00% of those under age 18 and 6.40% of those age 65 or over.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: According to the 2006 American Community Survey, the average family size was 3.15. The population of 25 and over was 571,463. 86.9% of that population had graduated from high school, and 21% of the population had a Bachelor's degree or higher. About 14.3% of that population was disabled. 12.5% of Macomb's population could speak another language at home.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Of Michigan's five largest counties, Macomb experienced the most population growth (102.5%) in the postwar years of accelerating suburban development, between 1950 and 1960. Its population has continued to grow to the present day, albeit at a slower pace since 1980.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Macomb County is home to more than 130 parks covering managed by the state, regional, county, and local government. There are four major public parks in the County - Freedom Hill County Park, Macomb Orchard Trail, Lake St. Clair Metropark, and Stony Creek Metropark. The county also has 31 miles of shoreline and over 100 marinas.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: The county government operates the jail, maintains rural roads, operates the major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and other social services. The county board of commissioners, which for the 2019–21 term is chaired by Bob Smith, controls the budget and creates and adopts ordinances and resolutions related to County functions. In Michigan, most local government functions — police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc. — are the responsibility of individual cities and townships.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Macomb County has shown Republican tendencies in statewide elections, while tending to favor Democratic candidates at the federal and local level. Since the 2010s, Macomb County has shifted towards the Republicans, and after the 2020 elections the party gained control of the Board of Commissioners for the first time as well as four of the five countywide offices. The county gained fame in the 1980s and '90s as a bellwether of state and national politics. Macomb's large cohort of middle-class, socially conservative whites gave it one of the nation's most prominent concentrations of "Reagan Democrats". Outsider candidates with a conservative-populist bent have done well there in the past, such as Pat Buchanan in 1992 and Donald Trump in 2016 and 2020. Macomb County voters were primarily responsible for the failure of the Regional Transit Authority proposal to create a public transit system in the Metropolitan Detroit region.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: The more populated communities south of M-59 (Warren, Sterling Heights, Clinton Charter Township), closer to Detroit city proper are friendlier to Democrats. Warren leans Democratic, while Sterling Heights, after voting for Barack Obama in 2012, voted for Trump by about 12 points in both 2016 and 2020, but in 2018, voted for Gretchen Whitmer and Debbie Stabenow by 3 points, and Clinton Charter Township after voting for Obama in 2012, voted for Trump in 2016, but swung back to Whitmer and Stabenow in 2018 and Joe Biden in 2020. The communities north of M-59 further removed from Detroit are more strongly Republican, all backing Trump in 2016 and 2020 and Bill Schuette in 2018.


title: Macomb County, Michigan

text: Into the end of the 1950s the New York Central Railroad operated multiple trains from Mackinaw City at the north end of Michigan's Lower Peninsula, with stops at Warren station. The last Bay City to Detroit passenger train through Warren stopped on March 19, 1964.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: The Battle of Gazala (near the village of ) was fought during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War, west of the port of Tobruk in Libya, from 26 May to 21 June 1942. Axis troops of the ( Erwin Rommel) consisting of German and Italian units fought the British Eighth Army (General Sir Claude Auchinleck, also Commander-in-Chief Middle East) composed mainly of British Commonwealth, Indian and Free French troops.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: The Axis troops made a decoy attack in the north as the main attack moved round the southern flank of the Gazala position. Unexpected resistance at the south end of the line around the Bir Hakeim box by the Free French garrison, left with a long and vulnerable supply route around the Gazala Line. Rommel retired to a defensive position backing onto Allied minefields (the Cauldron), forming a base in the midst of the British defences. Italian engineers lifted mines from the west side of the minefields to create a supply route through to the Axis side.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Operation Aberdeen, an attack by the Eighth Army to finish off the , was poorly co-ordinated and defeated in detail; many British tanks were lost and the regained the initiative. The Eighth Army withdrew from the Gazala Line and the Axis troops overran Tobruk in a day. Rommel pursued the Eighth Army into Egypt and forced it out of several defensive positions. The Battle of Gazala is considered the greatest victory of Rommel's career.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: As both sides neared exhaustion, the Eighth Army checked the Axis advance at the First Battle of El Alamein. To support the Axis advance into Egypt, the planned attack on Malta (Operation Herkules) was postponed. The British were able to revive Malta as a base for attacks on Axis convoys to Libya, greatly complicating Axis supply difficulties at El Alamein.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Following Operation Crusader, in late 1941, the British Eighth Army had relieved Tobruk and driven the Axis forces from Cyrenaica to El Agheila. The Eighth Army advance of over-stretched its supply lines and in January 1942, the Allies reduced the front line garrison for work on lines of communication and supply dumps, preparatory to another westwards advance against Tripolitania. The elimination of Force K from Malta, which ran into an Italian minefield off Tripoli in mid-December and the arrival of II in Sicily, neutralised Allied air and naval forces in Malta, allowing more Axis supplies to reach Libya. After a two-month delay, German and Italian forces in Libya began to receive supplies and reinforcements in men and tanks, which continued until the end of May, when II was transferred to the Russian front.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: While aware from signals intelligence of these reinforcements, GHQ in Cairo underestimated their significance and Axis fighting strength, having greatly exaggerated the casualties inflicted on the Axis during Operation Crusader. In an appreciation made in January 1942, Auchinleck alluded to an Axis fighting strength of 35,000 men, when the true figure was about 80,000 (50,000 German and 30,000 Italian troops). The Eighth Army expected to be ready by February and GHQ Cairo believed that the Axis would be too weak and disorganised to mount a counter-offensive in the meantime. On 21 January, Rommel sent out three strong armoured columns to make a tactical reconnaissance. Finding only the thinnest of screens, Rommel changed his reconnaissance into an offensive, recaptured Benghazi on 28 January and Timimi on 3 February. By 6 February, the Allies had fallen back to a line from Gazala to Bir Hakeim, a few miles west of Tobruk, from which the Italo-Germans had retired seven weeks before. The Allies had from 21 January, lost knocked out, another damage and breakdowns and forty field guns.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Between Gazala and Timimi, just west of Tobruk, the Eighth Army was able to concentrate its forces sufficiently to turn and fight. By 4 February, the Axis advance had been halted and the front line stabilised from Gazala on the coast west of Tobruk, to an old Ottoman fortress at Bir Hakeim inland to the south. The Gazala line was a series of defensive boxes accommodating a brigade each, laid out across the desert behind minefields and wire, watched by regular patrols between the boxes. The Free French were to the south at the Bir Hakeim box, south of the 150th Infantry Brigade box, which was south of the 69th Infantry Brigade box. The line was not evenly manned, with a greater number of troops covering the coast road, leaving the south less protected but the line was behind deep minefields and a longer line would make an attack around the southern flank harder to supply. Behind the Gazala line were defensive boxes known as Commonwealth Keep or Hill 209 at Ras El Madauur on the main defence line of Tobruk, about west-south-west of the port. Acroma, Knightsbridge, south of Acroma and El Adem, were sited to block tracks and junctions. A box at Retma was finished just before the Axis offensive but work on boxes at Point 171 south-east of Bir Hakeim and Bir el Gubi did not begin until 25 May.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Churchill pressed Auchinleck to attack to push the Axis out of Cyrenaica and relieve the pressure on Malta, which Churchill felt was essential to the war effort,


title: Battle of Gazala

text: The Eighth Army received new equipment, including tanks equipped with 75 mm guns, and large numbers of 6-pounder anti-tank guns. Rommel thought that Allied minefields ended well north of Bir Hakeim and did not know of the "mine marsh" surrounding the box. The Eighth Army was in the process of reorganising, changing the relationship between infantry and artillery, while the RAF commander Arthur Tedder concentrated the efforts of the Desert Air Force (DAF) on supporting the troops on the ground. Army commanders lost the power to direct air operations, which was reserved for the air commanders. A new fighter-bomber concept was developed and Air Vice-Marshal Arthur Coningham, commander of the DAF, moved his headquarters to the Eighth Army HQ to improve communication.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Axis commanders knew that the entry of the United States into the war would give the Eighth Army access to an increase in materiel but sought to forestall an Allied offensive before these supplies could influence events. By late May, the 1st South African Division was on the Gazala line nearest the coast, the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division to the south and the 1st Free French Brigade furthest south at Bir Hakeim. The 1st and 7th Armoured Divisions waited behind the main line as a mobile counter-attack force, the 2nd South African Division formed a garrison at Tobruk and the 5th Indian Infantry Division (which had arrived in April to relieve the 4th Indian Infantry Division) was held in reserve. The Allies had and


title: Battle of Gazala

text: The Axis retreat to El Agheila after Operation Crusader reduced the supply distance from Tripoli to . The discovery of of fuel at Tripoli eased the supply crisis, despite the delivery of only of supplies in January. The had a much shorter supply line and the British were burdened by an over-extended supply line. II in Sicily had also regained air superiority for the Axis. Rommel asked for another but this unrealistic demand was rejected and Rommel was warned that an advance would cause another supply crisis. On 29 January, the recaptured Benghazi and next day ammunition supply to the front line failed. By 13 February, Rommel agreed to stop at Gazala, from Tripoli.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Until May, monthly deliveries averaged , less than the smaller Axis force received from June–October 1941 but sufficient for an offensive. The advance to Gazala succeeded because Benghazi was open, reducing the transport distance for about 33 percent of the supplies of the to . The Italians tried to restrain Rommel by advocating the capture of Malta, which would postpone another offensive in Africa until the autumn but agreed to an attack on Tobruk for late May. An advance would stop at the Egyptian frontier, another east and the would redeploy for Operation Herkules. The capture of Malta would not alter the constraints of port capacity and distance; protecting convoys and a large port close to the front, would still be necessary for victory.


title: Battle of Gazala

text: Air attacks directed by Kesselring against Malta greatly reduced its offensive capacity, allowing supply convoys from Italy to reach Axis forces in Africa with increased regularity. (Operation Venice), the Axis plan of attack, was for armoured forces to make a flanking manoeuvre south of the fortified "box" at Bir Hakeim. On the left flank, the 132nd Armoured Division "Ariete" would neutralise the Bir Hakeim box and on the right flank, the 21st Panzer Division and 15th Panzer Division would advance north behind the Eighth Army defences, to destroy the Allied armour and cut off the infantry divisions on the Gazala line. On the far right of the attack, a (battle group) from the 90th Light "Afrika" Division was to advance to El Adem, south of Tobruk and cut the line of supply from the port to the Gazala line while holding Allied troops at Tobruk.