title: Mouth breathing

text: Jason Turowski, MD of the Cleveland Clinic states that "we are designed to breathe through our noses from birth — it's the way humans have evolved." Thus, the impact of chronic mouth breathing on health is a research area within orthodontics (and the related field of myofunctional therapy) and anthropology. It is classified into three types: obstructive, habitual, and anatomic.


title: Mouth breathing

text: Nasal breathing produces nitric oxide within the body, while mouth breathing does not. In addition, the Boston Medical Center notes that the nose filters out particles that enter the body, humidifies the air we breathe and warms it to body temperature. In contrast, however, mouth breathing "pulls all pollution and germs directly into the lungs; dry cold air in the lungs makes the secretions thick, slows the cleaning cilia, and slows down the passage of oxygen into the bloodstream." As a result, chronic mouth breathing may lead to illness. In about 85% of cases, it is an adaptation to nasal congestion, and frequently occurs during sleep. More specialized causes include: antrochoanal polyps; a short upper lip which prevents the lips from meeting at rest (lip incompetence); and pregnancy rhinitis which tends to occur in the third trimester of pregnancy.


title: Mouth breathing

text: Conditions associated with mouth breathing include cheilitis glandularis, Down syndrome, anterior open bite, tongue thrusting habit, cerebral palsy, ADHD, sleep apnea, and snoring. In addition, gingivitis, gingival enlargement, and increased levels of dental plaque are common in persons who chronically breathe through their mouths. The usual effect on the gums is sharply confined to the anterior maxillary region, especially the incisors (the upper teeth at the front). The appearance is erythematous (red), edematous (swollen) and shiny. This region receives the greatest exposure to airflow during mouth breathing, and it is thought that the inflammation and irritation is related to surface dehydration, but in animal experimentation, repeated air drying of the gums did not create such an appearance.


title: Mouth breathing

text: Breathing through your mouth decreases saliva flow. Saliva has minerals to help neutralize bacteria, clean off the teeth, and rehydrate the tissues. Without it, your risk of gum disease and cavities increases.


title: Mouth breathing

text: Chronic mouth breathing in children may affect dental and facial growth. It may also lead to the development of a long, narrow face, sometimes termed long face syndrome. Conversely, it has been suggested that a long thin face type, with corresponding thin nasopharyngeal airway, predisposes to nasal obstruction and mouth breathing.


title: Mouth breathing

text: George Catlin was a 19th-century American painter, author, and traveler, who specialized in portraits of Native Americans in the Old West. Travelling to the American West five times during the 1830s, he wrote about, and painted portraits that depicted, the life of the Plains Indians. He was also the author of several books, including "The Breath of Life" (later retitled as "Shut Your Mouth and Save Your Life") in 1862. It was based on his experiences traveling through the West, where he observed a consistent lifestyle habit among the Native American communities he encountered: a preference for nose breathing over mouth breathing. He also observed that they had perfectly straight teeth. He repeatedly heard that this was because they believed that mouth breathing made an individual weak and caused disease, while nasal breathing made the body strong and prevented disease. He also observed that mothers repeatedly closed the mouth of their infants while they were sleeping, to instill nasal breathing as a habit.


title: Mouth breathing

text: Yogis such as B. K. S. Iyengar advocate both inhaling and exhaling through the nose in the practice of yoga, rather than inhaling through the nose and exhaling through the mouth, using the phrase, "the nose is for breathing, the mouth is for eating."


title: Cleisthenes

text: Cleisthenes ( ; ), or Clisthenes (c. 570c. 508 BC), was an ancient Athenian lawgiver credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. For these accomplishments, historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy." He was a member of the aristocratic Alcmaeonid clan. He was the younger son of Megacles and Agariste making him the maternal grandson of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He was also credited with increasing the power of the Athenian citizens' assembly and for reducing the power of the nobility over Athenian politics.


title: Cleisthenes

text: In 510 BC, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratus. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras. But his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BC, but could not stop Cleisthenes and his Athenian supporters. Through Cleisthenes' reforms, the people of Athens endowed their city with isonomic institutions—equal rights for all citizens (though only free men were citizens)—and established ostracism as a punishment.


title: Cleisthenes

text: Historians estimate that Cleisthenes was born around 570 BC. Cleisthenes was the uncle of Pericles' mother, Agariste, and of Alcibiades' maternal grandfather, Megacles. Cleisthenes came from the family of the Alcmaeonidae. He was the son of Agariste and grandson of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. Unlike his grandfather who was a tyrant, he adopted politically democratic concepts. When Pisistratus took power in Athens as a tyrant, he exiled his political opponents and the Alcmeonidae. After Pisistratus' death in 527 BC, Cleisthenes returned to Athens and became the eponymous archon. A few years later, Pisistratus' successors, Hipparchus and Hippias, again exiled Cleisthenes. In 514 BC, Harmodius and Aristogeiton assassinated Hipparchus, causing Hippias to further harden his attitude towards the people of Athens. This led Cleisthenes to ask the Oracle of Delphi to persuade the Spartans to help him free Athens from tyranny. Cleisthenes' plea for assistance was accepted by the Oracle as his family had previously helped rebuild the sanctuary when it was destroyed by fire.


title: Cleisthenes

text: With help from the Spartans and the Alcmaeonidae (Cleisthenes' "genos", "clan"), he was responsible for overthrowing Hippias, the tyrant son of Pisistratus. After the collapse of Hippias' tyranny, Isagoras and Cleisthenes were rivals for power, but Isagoras won the upper hand by appealing to the Spartan king Cleomenes I to help him expel Cleisthenes. He did so on the pretext of the Alcmaeonid curse. Consequently, Cleisthenes left Athens as an exile, and Isagoras was unrivalled in power within the city. Isagoras set about dispossessing hundreds of Athenians of their homes and exiling them on the pretext that they too were cursed. He also attempted to dissolve the Boule (βουλή), a council of Athenian citizens appointed to run the daily affairs of the city. However, the council resisted, and the Athenian people declared their support of the council. Isagoras and his supporters were forced to flee to the Acropolis, remaining besieged there for two days. On the third day they fled the city and were banished. Cleisthenes was subsequently recalled, along with hundreds of exiles, and he assumed leadership of Athens. Promptly after his instatement as leader, He commissioned a bronze memorial from the sculptor Antenor in honour of the lovers and tyrannicides Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whom Hippias had executed.


title: Cleisthenes

text: After this victory, Cleisthenes began to reform the government of Athens. In order to forestall strife between the traditional clans, which had led to the tyranny in the first place, he changed the political organization from the four traditional tribes, which were based on family relations, and which formed the basis of the upper-class Athenian political power network, into ten tribes according to their area of residence (their "deme",) which would form the basis of a new democratic power structure. It is thought that there may have been 139 demes (though this is still a matter of debate), each organized into three groups called "trittyes" ("thirds"), with ten "demes" divided among three regions in each trittyes (a city region, "asty"; a coastal region, "paralia"; and an inland region, "mesogeia"). D.M Lewis argues that Cleisthenes established the "deme" system in order to balance the central unifying force that a tyranny has with the democratic concept of having the people (instead of a single person) at the peak of political power. Another by-product of the "deme" system was that it split up and weaken his political adversaries. Cleisthenes also abolished patronymics in favour of "demonymics" (a name given according to the "deme" to which one belongs), thus increasing Athenians' sense of belonging to a "deme". This and the other aforementioned reforms had an additional effect in that they worked to include (wealthy, male) foreign citizens in Athenian society.


title: Cleisthenes

text: He also established sortition – the random selection of citizens to fill government positions rather than kinship or heredity. It is also speculated that, in another move to lower the barriers of kinship and heredity when it comes to participation in Athenian society, Cleisthenes made it so foreign residents of Athens were eligible to become legally privileged. In addition, he reorganized the Boule, created with 400 members under Solon, so that it had 500 members, 50 from each tribe. He also introduced the bouletic oath, "To advise according to the laws what was best for the people". The court system (Dikasteria – law courts) was reorganized and had from 201–5001 jurors selected each day, up to 500 from each tribe. It was the role of the Boule to propose laws to the assembly of voters, who convened in Athens around forty times a year for this purpose. The bills proposed could be rejected, passed or returned for amendments by the assembly.


title: Cleisthenes

text: Cleisthenes also may have introduced ostracism (first used in 487 BC), whereby a vote by at least 6,000 citizens would exile a citizen for ten years. The initial and intended purpose was to vote for a citizen deemed to be a threat to the democracy, most likely anyone who seemed to have ambitions to set himself up as tyrant. However, soon after, any citizen judged to have too much power in the city tended to be targeted for exile (e.g., Xanthippus in 485–84 BC). Under this system, the exiled man's property was maintained, but he was not physically in the city where he could possibly create a new tyranny. One later ancient author records that Cleisthenes himself was the first person to be ostracized.


title: Cleisthenes

text: Cleisthenes called these reforms "isonomia" ("equality vis à vis law", "iso-" meaning equality; "nomos" meaning law), instead of "demokratia". Cleisthenes' life after his reforms is unknown as no ancient texts mention him thereafter.


title: Cleisthenes

text: In 507 BC, during the time Cleisthenes was leading Athenian politics, and probably at his instigation, democratic Athens sent an embassy to Artaphernes, brother of Darius I, and Achaemenid Satrap, of Asia Minor in the capital of Sardis, looking for Persian assistance in order to resist the threats from Sparta. Herodotus reports that Artaphernes had no previous knowledge of the Athenians, and his initial reaction was "Who are these people?" Artaphernes asked the Athenians for "Water and Earth", a symbol of submission, if they wanted help from the Achaemenid king. The Athenian ambassadors apparently accepted to comply, and to give "Earth and Water". Artaphernes also advised the Athenians that they should receive back the Athenian tyrant Hippias. The Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias. Nevertheless, the Athenians preferred to remain democratic despite the danger from the Achaemenid Empire, and the ambassadors were disavowed and censured upon their return to Athens.


title: Cleisthenes

text: There is a possibility that the Achaemenid ruler now saw the Athenians as subjects who had solemnly promised submission through the gift of "Earth and Water", and that subsequent actions by the Athenians, such as their intervention in the Ionian revolt, were perceived as a break of oath, and a rebellion to the central authority of the Achaemenid ruler.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana is an international transborder agglomeration, straddling the border of the adjacent North American coastal cities of San Diego, California, United States and Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico. The 2012 population of the region was 4,922,723, making it the largest bi-national conurbation shared between the United States and Mexico, the second-largest shared between the US and another country. In its entirety, the region consists of San Diego County in the United States and the municipalities of Tijuana, Rosarito Beach, and Tecate in Mexico. It is the third most populous region in the California–Baja California region, smaller only than the metropolitan areas of Greater Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The largest centers of the urban area maintain global city status and as a whole the metropolitan region is host to 13 consulates from Asian, European, North American, Oceanian, and South American nations. Over fifty million people cross the border each year between Tijuana and San Diego, giving the region the busiest land-border crossing in the world. Since the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, San Diego–Tijuana has become a dominant commercial center in the United States and Mexico. The economic success of globalization has allowed San Diego–Tijuana to grow to the third richest region in the former Californias region, with a GDP of $136.3 billion in 2002. Renowned for natural beauty, tourism is a leading industry in the region and its coastal environs have been paramount factors in the growth of action sports-lifestyle companies. Other key industries include military, biotech, and manufacturing.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana traces its European roots to 1542 when the land was explored by Portuguese explorers on behalf of imperial Spain. In 1601 it was mandated by the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City that safe ports be found, one of which would be San Diego Bay, for returning Spanish trade ships from Manila to Acapulco. During this mission, explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno was also told to map the California coast in great detail, leading to the further exploration of the modern-day site of San Diego–Tijuana. Since 2010, statewide droughts in California and in northern Mexico have further strained the San Diego–Tijuana binational region's water security.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The Kumeyaay, referred to as Diegueño by the Spanish, are the original inhabitants of San Diego County and northern Baja California. The Kumeyaay lived in this region for over 10,000 years as hunter-gatherers and horticulturists. The boundaries of the Kumeyaay lands once extended from the Pacific Ocean, south to Ensenada, Baja California, east into the Imperial Valley and north to Warner Springs. The Payomkawichum, or the Luiseño, also had a presence in modern-day North County San Diego.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Western exploration of the Californias dates back to the 16th century when in 1535 Hernán Cortés first visited the Baja California Peninsula in his search for Calafia. Subsequent exploration in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo brought the western explorers to what is now the California-Baja California region. Cabrillo first named San Diego, San Miguel.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Initial expeditions by the west to the Californias were followed by pacification and conversion efforts by the Spanish Empire and the Catholic Church. The first Catholic religious order to visit the region was the Jesuits in 1683, followed by the Franciscans in 1768, and the Dominicans in the 1770s. The California mission system is a reminder of the Pacific Coast's colonial era.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In 1769 Father Junípero Serra founded San Diego after occupying the Kumeyaay village of Kosa'aay and created the first of the California missions, Mission San Diego de Alcalá. The Valley of Tijuana was explored the same year by Juan Crespí. In 1829 Santiago Argüello, a Californio and a major Mexican land grant ranchos owner, obtained ownership of a parcel of land known as Rancho Tía Juana and in 1889 was Tijuana officially founded on this parcel when descendants of Argüello and Agustin Olvera, an early Los Angeles pioneer, agreed to develop the city.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The metropolitan region was historically united as part of the province of Alta California under the Viceroyalty of New Spain. In 1821 Mexico won its independence from the Spanish crown and kept the area under the jurisdiction of Alta California. From the late 1860s Mission lands were granted as ranchos to Californio gentry. These distributions of lands accelerated after the Missions were secularized in 1833, ending the dominance of the Missions in the economy. San Diego Bay became a port of call for whalers and hide traders from the United States.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The region started depopulating, as settlements in the region began to be raided between 1836 and 1842 by the Kumeyaay resistance, with both Rancho Tía Juana (1839) and San Diego (~1840 & 1842) raided during that period.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In 1846, the Mexican–American War began and the United States continued to expand its borders under the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. As the war came to California, the Battle of San Pasqual was fought in the northern areas of modern-day San Diego. In 1848 the war ended with the Fall of Mexico City and boundaries were redrawn which created a border between San Diego and Tijuana, south of San Diego Bay. 1919 saw the implementation of Prohibition and the rapid growth of Tijuana tourism. Americans flocked to the city, which had become a major destination for the Hollywood elite, which led to the construction of the Agua Caliente Tourist Complex which in turn spurred the rise of hotels and overall growth in the city.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana urbanity stretches along the coastline from the northernmost city of Oceanside to the southernmost city of Rosarito Beach. The urban area of San Diego–Tijuana is the 72nd largest in the world and 11th largest in North America, with a population of 5,330,000.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The highest population densities are located in the San Diego neighborhoods of University City, La Jolla, Mission Valley, Pacific Beach the Downtown San Diego district of the East Village among others, and areas of Tijuana. An area of 116 census tracts in the North County region of the conurbation has a population of 615,092 and a per capita income of $44,131 which is about 50 percent more than that of California and the entire United States. This area contains nearly all of the area located in the cities of Carlsbad, Encinitas, Solana Beach, and Del Mar. Apart of this region are the communities of Rancho Santa Fe, Carmel Valley and La Jolla which have consistently been among the ranks of some of the richest neighborhoods in the United States.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Outside of the urban centers, older regions of San Diego County south of the San Diego River, as well as La Jolla and Pacific Beach, are built on a street grid. Suburban growth north of the San Diego river were built as master planned suburban communities on top of mesas with the "city of villages" concept in mind, built around car-dependency. Tijuana's suburban landscape is made up densely packed low-density mixed land uses, with patches of street grids east of the city and more organic growth influenced by topography. Cities like Tecate and Rosarito are built on street grid systems.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The metropolitan region is situated along the Pacific Coast, on the border between the United States and Mexico. The region lies just south of Orange County and west of Imperial County, and shares borders with Greater Los Angeles. The area has a varied topography with over seventy miles of coastline and snow-capped mountains that rise to the northeast, in San Diego County. The terrain includes flood plains, canyons, steep hills, and mesas. The region has its eastern terminus in the Colorado Desert and Imperial Valley regions, where another conurbation – Mexicali–Calexico – is formed. The urbanized area where San Diego and Tijuana meet is known as San Ysidro on the American side of the border and Colonia Federal/Colonia Libertad on the Mexican side. East from the coast , the Tijuanense boroughs of Mesa de Otay and Centenario are heavy urbanized whereas the corresponding American area of Otay Mesa is composed of primarily dispersed industrial and distribution facilities. At the Pacific Ocean region of the border, the border is urbanized on the Mexican side while the adjacent American side is an estuarine preserve, and thus not urbanized.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, San Diego County has a total area of , of that of it is land and of it (7.20%) is water. The area of Tijuana Municipality is ; the municipality includes part of the Coronado Islands, located off the coast of the municipality in the Pacific Ocean. This combined area, with the additional areas of Tecate, , and Rosarito Beach, , place the area of San Diego–Tijuana at .


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego is by far the most populated county though population density is much higher in the immediate border area adjacent to the south in Baja California than it is in San Diego County. Urban growth is currently developing regions to the east of Tijuana Municipality and south of Rosarito Beach, where developers are building many new residential communities while in San Diego it is observed to the northeast along the Interstate 15 corridor to Temecula and Murrieta.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Greater Ensenada is more frequently than not considered part of the region given its proximity and inter-connectivity with the metropolitan area. While it is from the cities of San Diego and Tijuana respectively, recent developments between the port city and Rosarito Beach including upscale, Americanized subdivisions and resorts such as Punta Azul, Baja Mar, and La Salina have greatly increased the urbanity of the corridor between Rosarito Beach and Ensenada. Transportation infrastructure increasingly binds the region, as the under-construction Ensenada International Airport is expected to serve as the third major airport of the metropolitan region, offering flights to Europe, South America, and East Asia.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana straddles a Mediterranean climate and Semi-arid climate area. The Mediterranean climate is characterized by generally warm, dry summers on the near coastal regions while with a slight temperature increase westward, and relatively cool, mild, wet winters; this is the climate that dominates northern San Diego–Tijuana. In southern San Diego–Tijuana, the semi-arid climate is observed, though characteristics of the Dry-Summer Subtropical Mediterranean climate are present, with most of the annual precipitation falling in the winter. The Peninsular Ranges assist in containing moisture to the coastal areas and create a rain shadow to the east as they are west-facing mountains.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The climate of the area often varies significantly due to the abundance of microclimates characterizing the region. San Diego–Tijuana's topography, bays, coastal hills, mountains, canyons and gorges maintain their own climates while being relatively near to each other. During the May gray and June gloom seasons, a dense cloak of coastal clouds, known as marine layer, covers the coastal areas, keeping the area cool and moist to up to inland. This coastal cloud cover is frequently observed reaching as far inland as Poway and in some cases, San Diego Country Estates. Yet once outside this cloud, the weather in sharp contrast can be warm and sunny. In some cases, June gloom lasts into July, creating cloudy skies over the coastal regions for entire days.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: An example of the regional temperature fluctuations is shown in the varying averages of downtown San Diego, averaging January lows of 50 °F and August highs of 78 °F; El Cajon, just northeast of downtown San Diego, averaging January lows of 42 °F and August highs of 88 °F; Tijuana, averaging January lows of 45 °F and August highs of 78 °F. The differences are even more observed in North County, where coastal Oceanside maintains an average January low of 45 °F and August highs of 73 °F, while inland Escondido maintains average January lows of 42 °F and August highs of 89 °F.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana is also subject to El Niño weather events. In extreme cases, the overwhelming fall of rain creates mudslides and greatly increases the flow of urban rivers. This sudden influx of water has the potential to flood populated places and drown out wetland habitat; measures have been taken to reduce this potential negative affect while simultaneously restoring the rivers and their watersheds to a pristine and natural state.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: This regional climate supports a chaparral and woodlands ecoregion that is further divided in three sub-regions where two are observed in San Diego–Tijuana. These are the coastal sage and chaparral and montane chaparral and woodlands ecoregions. In the montane region, fire serves a unique purpose as a medium of change, and while fire typically can threaten urban development, it is essential for the historically annual cleanse of the woodlands and reproduction of pyrophytes.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Southern coastal sage scrub is further observed on the coast. This is an ecoregion with extremely high levels biodiversity where its endemic species are endangered by human encroachment. In this terrestrial ecoregion, the coastal lowlands are within a semi, semi-arid Mediterranean climate, inhabited by low-growing aromatic, and drought-deciduous shrubs.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In the water, the Intertidal, estuary and kelp forest biomes dominate the aquatic world; home to an equally diverse set of flora and fauna. The cool nutrient-rich waters of the north Pacific are able to provide kelp forests with millions of plankton – the base of the aquatic food chain – due to an upwelling of water from the deep sea in the stormy, winter months.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Trees of San Diego–Tijuana included chamise, scrub oak, manzanita, live oak, lodgepole pine, black oak and closed-cone pine forests. Lowland shrubs included California sagebrush, black sage, white sage, California buckwheat, as well as cacti and succulents.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Terrestrial mammals included the mountain lion, bobcat, bighorn sheep, mule deer as well as a variety of rodents and lagomorphs including the California ground squirrel, San Diego kangaroo rat, and brush rabbit. Black bears, jaguars and sea otters historically populated the area, but their range has been restricted by human encroachment and the jaguar and the sea otter are now rarely, if ever, observed. Aquatic mammals included the gray whale, a seasonal migratory animal, as well as the bottlenose dolphin, great white shark, killer whale, and California sea lion and on rare occasion, Guadalupe fur seal. In recent times the region has seen the rebound of artiodactyls such as the Peninsular bighorn sheep, a distinct population segment of the desert bighorn sheep.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Reptiles include olive ridley sea turtle, western fence lizard, various rattlesnake species and species of blind snake and gopher snake. Amphibians included the barred tiger salamander and California tree frog. With a mostly arid climate, reptile species outnumber amphibians by a margin of seven to one.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Bird species popular to the region are the California quail, California condor, California least tern, peregrine falcon and golden eagle. Introduced parrot species such as the red-crowned amazon parrot have also been found living and breeding in San Diego County and parts of Tijuana Metro.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The waters off of the coast of San Diego–Tijuana are densely populate by the denizens of the kelp forests. Kelp forests are found to a great extent and are populated by Garibaldi, leopard sharks, gobies, rockfish, and sculpins. Great white sharks have been observed in the waters off the coast, while there are numerous documentations of their occurrence in the waters off Guadalupe Island. From the confines of the forests, ocean-going species such as the Ocean sunfish are observed.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Environmental research in climate and biodiversity is conducted at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and by the Biodiversity Research Center of the Californias of the San Diego Natural History Museum.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The land on which San Diego–Tijuana sits is due west of a major transform fault. The transform fault, known as the San Andreas Fault was created during the Cenozoic Era by the movements of the Pacific Plate and North American Plate. The region experiences earthquakes and felt the shocks of the 2009 Gulf of California earthquake and 2010 Baja California earthquake.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The main mountain ranges of the Peninsular Ranges ridging eastern San Diego–Tijuana are the Palomar Mountains, Laguna Mountains, Sierra de Juárez, and the peaks of the Cuyumacas including Cuyamaca Peak. The highest points are located in the Lagunas at 6,378 feet (1,944 m) and in the Cuyumacas at 6,512 feet (1,985 m) while the highest is the peak of Hot Springs Mountain at 6,535 feet (1,992 m). These mountain ranges constitute part of the Salinian Block, a largely granitic terrane dating back to the Mesozoic era and thus explaining the abundance of such stone throughout the region. Once part of the North American Plate, the Salinian block broke off due to the formation of the San Andreas Fault and rift resulting in the Gulf of California and its extension of the Salton Trough.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The faults nearest the urban area are the Elsinore and Laguna Salada faults, both secondary to the San Andreas fault.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The region is set with many natural coastal harbors, estuaries, inlets, lagoons, and bays. These included the major water bodies known as:


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The populace of the San Diego–Tijuana is cosmopolitan in that many cultures and ethnic groups are present. A large transitory population exists due to Tijuana's border proximity to the United States. This location draws many Latin Americans, including Argentines, Cubans, Guatemalans, and Andean nationalities, as well as Chinese, Korean, and Japanese people; Italian, French, Spanish and Lebanese also reside in the region. With a population of approximately five million people, the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area accounts for 40% of the United States – Mexico border population. The metropolitan area experiences the largest rates of growth in an urban area that stretches from Los Angeles to Tijuana. An analysis of age groups in the region found a relatively older population lives on the San Diegan side of the border while a relatively younger population the Tijuana side. The Tijuana region also maintains a population largely composed of people born outside of Baja California.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego is located at , just north of Tijuana. The city is divided into eight districts by the municipal government of the City of San Diego in accordance with policing and community service areas. The city lies south of North County, and west of East County, while also being north of parts of South Bay. Though the city boundaries grace Tijuana's, Centre City lies approximately north of Tijuana. San Diego has deep canyons separating its mesas, creating small pockets of natural parkland scattered throughout the city. This makes San Diego a hilly city. The Coronado and Point Loma peninsulas separate San Diego Bay from the ocean.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The international border between the United States and Mexico runs from San Diego–Tijuana eastward towards the Gulf of Mexico. The Pacific Ocean terminus of the border was defined as a line passing from the confluence of the Colorado and Gila rivers (now the southeastern corner of the U.S. State of California) to the Pacific Ocean such that it would pass one Spanish league south of the southern end of San Diego Bay. This ensured that the United States received the natural harbor at San Diego.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: There are three existing border crossings in San Diego–Tijuana, with two more planned. San Ysidro/El Chaparral is the busiest border crossing in the world; In 2019 alone, more than 77.2 million people entered the U.S. through this port. There are maximum 30 vehicle border crossing lanes at the San Ysidro Port of Entry into the United States and 6 or 8 lanes into Mexico from San Ysidro. The San Diego/Tijuana border is also a major point of entry for trafficking, where 50 brothels of trafficked Mexican girls exist in San Diego County.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The majority of cross-border trips into the United States are those made by commuters into the Greater San Diego area and Southern California as a whole. There is a thriving reverse traffic for entertainment in Tijuana and affordable goods and services.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The San Ysidro port of entry is the main border crossing for non-commercial traffic. Crossing times are notoriously slow at San Ysidro, particularly for those entering the U.S. in cars. Given delays frequently experienced upon entry to Mexico, many cross-border travelers choose to cross on foot. Infrastructure on both sides of the border delivers travelers and commuters to border crossings via respective public transportation systems of which includes the San Diego Trolley blue line that runs from downtown San Diego to the border crossing.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Leading industries in San Diego–Tijuana are trade, services, electronics, tourism, life sciences, high-tech and defense sectors. In 2002 San Diego and Tijuana had a gross regional product of $136.3 Billion; and in 2007 this figure increased to $176 Billion. The greater San Diego area has a knowledge-based economy that is only growing; Tijuana's sub-metropolitan region is reliant on a diversified manufacturing sector. Leading private employers to the metropolitan region are Qualcomm, SAIC, Sempra Energy, Sony, Kyocera, Pfizer Global Research & Development, Callaway Golf, Sharp Healthcare, Scripps Health, Sanyo, Hitachi, Panasonic Corporation, Samsung, Hyundai, Mattel, Honeywell, Pioneer Corporation, Maxell, Douglas Furniture, and International Rectifier.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: On the 2020 Globalization and World Cities classification, San Diego was rated as Beta - level global city up from Gamma level, while Tijuana was rated as a high sufficiency city.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The economy of the urban area is influenced by the Port of San Diego which gives the region a strong maritime sector; the conurbation is the location of the only major submarine and shipbuilding yards on the West Coast and of the largest naval fleet in the world. The cruise ship industry, which is the second largest in the California-Baja California region, generates an estimated $2 million annually from the purchase of food, fuel, supplies, and maintenance services. In California alone, the port is the fastest-growing port in terms of cruise ship dockings and the second largest behind the Port of Los Angeles.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Manufacturing accounts for a large part of the regional economy more-so observed in Tijuana. The focus of manufacturing in the region is on soft and hard technological products. In metropolitan Tijuana, manufacturing has historically allotted for a large sector of the economy and San Diego County's economy has increasingly focused on manufacturing which 2002 allotted for $25 billion of the county's economic income. The 2000s decade saw Tijuana overtake the Twin Cities as medical device manufacture capital of North America. The amount of diverse and numerous manufacture companies in the area have made the metropolitan region one of the world's largest concentrated manufacturing areas.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana is ground zero for a transborder tech sector. Engineers and entrepreneurs in the entirety of the border region are fueling the growth of this economic industry in which a symbiotic relationship exists between think-tanks in the north and manufacturing heads in the south that creates a healthy environment for startup companies. San Diego alone was rated by Forbes in 2014 as one of the best places to start a tech company.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Several areas of San Diego are home to offices and research facilities for numerous biotechnology companies and pharmaceutical companies. Among American metropolitan areas, metropolitan San Diego is the third largest concentrated area of high technology and biotechnology businesses. The presence of University of California, San Diego and other research institutions helped fuel biotechnology growth. In June 2004, San Diego was ranked the top biotech cluster in the U.S. by the Milken Institute. San Diego is home to companies that develop wireless cellular technology. Qualcomm Incorporated was founded and is headquartered in San Diego; Qualcomm is the largest private-sector technology employer (excluding hospitals) in San Diego County. Due to San Diego's military influence, major national defense contractors, such as General Atomics and Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), are or have been headquartered in San Diego.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Business districts include the Core Columbia district of Downtown San Diego, the Rio Zone in Tijuana, the Rancho Bernardo, Carmel Valley, Mission Valley, Sorrento Mesa, and University City neighborhoods of San Diego. Notability among business districts extends to Rancho Bernardo, the site of Sony US corporate headquarters.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Tourism is a major industry of the region, owing much to the area's mild Mediterranean climate. Tijuana alone is the most visited city in the Western Hemisphere, second only to New York City. 50,000,000 people visit the city each year and about 300,000 visitors cross by foot or car from the San Ysidro point of entry to Tijuana every day. Balboa Park, the San Diego Zoo, SeaWorld, the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, Legoland, the city's beaches, and golf tournaments hosted in the region such as the Farmers Insurance Open are just some of the major tourist destinations in the conurbation. Mexico's drinking age of 18 and legal and regulated prostitution make Tijuana a common weekend destination for many young Southern Californians and sex tourists.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Many large luxury hotels line the San Diego Bay and coast at Playas de Tijuana. The Bay and its marinas are surrounded by more than fifteen hotels while historic buildings such as the Hotel del Coronado and Rosarito Beach Hotel lie on the Coronado Peninsula and Rosarito coast. In Playas, Baja Mar, and Baja Malibu, several luxury hotels and condominiums can be found lining the coast in customary beach resort fashion, including Park Towers and AQUA condominiums.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The North American Free Trade Agreement has a great influence on transborder trade in the San Diego–Tijuana economy. Of all the goods exchanged to the north 20% transported are destined for San Diego, 60% are destined for other California counties, and the remaining 20% are destined to other American states. The metropolitan economy has become increasingly integrated as the NAFTA process has reduced trade and investment barriers which facilitates the trade and extensive sales services via cross-border exchange. San Diego–Tijuana is a critical commercial link to the United States. In Tijuana, companies that have established assembly plants in industrial parks referred to as "maquiladoras" include Sony, Toyota, Samsung, Kodak, Matsushita/Panasonic, Nabisco, Philips, Pioneer, Plantronics, Pall Corporation, Tara Labs, and Sanyo, while San Diego supports the expansion of its own industrial parks in Otay Mesa. Additionally some of these companies, such as Samsung, source the development of items locally.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Even prior to the implementation of NAFTA, Tijuana was home to many businesses selling products and services at a lower rate than in the United States. Today businesses such as auto detailing, medical services, dentistry and plastic surgery are heavily marketed and located near Tijuana's border with San Diego. In addition, there are high-tech firms and telemarketing companies, including Medtronic Inc., in the city. This influx of companies is drawing skilled people from the United States with technical trades and college degrees to Tijuana transforming the city economy into a knowledge-based one.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In San Diego, the San Diego Trolley's Blue Line goes from the San Ysidro Border Crossing, roughly along Interstate 5 to Downtown and Old Town. As the trolley travels it also serves as a means of transportation for the southern suburbs. Passengers may transfer at the 12th & Imperial station to an Orange Line trolley, serving the eastern suburbs. Another option is to transfer at the Old Town Trolley Station to a Green Line trolley serving Mission Valley and the campus of San Diego State University.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Free parking is available in plenty at the Qualcomm Stadium station on days when the stadium is not hosting events. All trolley stations also provide connection points to MTS bus services, as MTS has designed the trolley to be the backbone of the local public transit system.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In Tijuana there is currently no public rail system, although, there is a system of buses that operate in the area. However, it was reported by the San Diego Union-Tribune that San Diego officials desired that the California High-Speed Rail be extended to Tijuana and South Bay in order to capitalize on the potential economic benefits.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Many businesses in South Bay offer Mexican car insurance on a short-term, prepaid basis. Most large car rental companies in San Diego do permit their vehicles to be taken across the border but generally require a hefty fee, sometimes costing more than the rental, for Mexican auto insurance. Visitors to the region should note that automobile insurance does not travel across the international border. Vehicles registered in Mexico may also require separate insurance for use in the United States. In California Automobile insurance is required by the State.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana is at the junction of major interstates, state routes and federal highways. The region is at the terminus of ten major Interstates and Federal Highways. Radiating to the east and south are connections to the Imperial Valley, Mexicali Valley, and the Arizona Sun Corridor via Interstate 8, the Inland Empire, the Las Vegas Strip and metropolitan area and Salt Lake City via Interstate 15; and to the Greater Ensenada area via Federal Highway 1D. To the north and west the area is connected to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, Northern California, and Cascadia via Interstate 5. Interstate 5 and Federal Highway 1 are critical highways for commercial and international trade due to their junction at the San Ysidro Port of Entry, linking major industrial regions along the British Columbia Coast, West Coast of the United States, and the Gold Coast of Baja California at the busiest port of entry in the world. The metropolitan area is linked by Federal Highway 2 and State Route 111 to Gulf of Mexico cities.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Within the metropolitan region, there are many transportation routes via highway. These included Interstate 805, connecting Tijuana to Del Mar. Many highways have a terminus in South Bay and run north and west towards other agglomerations such as the Inland Empire and Los Angeles metropolitan area. State Routes that link to these urban areas include State Route 79 and State Route 78. San Diego–Tijuana is linked to Ensenada by various ways as well; including Federal Highway 3, Federal Highway 1 and Federal Highway 1D, running from the border cities of Tijuana and Tecate to the "Cinderella of the Pacific".


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In addition to the extensive highway system, the cities and regions within San Diego–Tijuana are interconnected by many state routes as well. State Route 52 connects communities in northern San Diego, State Route 905 connects the Otay Mesa Port of Entry with South Bay cities, State Route 125 connects South Bay with East County, State Route 94 connects South Bay with the Mountain Empire, and State Route 78 connects North County Coastal with North County Inland, as well as to the mountain communities of the San Diego County Peninsular Ranges.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego has a major network of roads, predominantly free Highways with several toll roads, and Interstates. Interstate 5 runs south from the Canadian-border city of Vancouver and terminates at the San Ysidro International border where it becomes Federal Highway 1. Another major freeway is Interstate 8 that runs west from the Arizona Sun Corridor at Casa Grande, Arizona and terminates at Ocean Beach in San Diego. The roadway system in Tijuana is very low end compared to the quality of streets in the United States. The majority of the roads are in desperate need of repair with many newly constructed off ramps being set up in an impractical method often requiring sharp and hard turns. When it comes to long-distance travel through Baja California, many people use the toll roads that are well maintained and are at a standard comparable to that of U.S. roads.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana's only deepwater port is both a container port and cruise ship destination. The Port of San Diego has recreation terminals and docked ships at the Maritime Museum of San Diego, which is located at the Embarcadero. The port is serviced by nine cruise lines including Carnival Cruise Line and Royal Caribbean International. A new cruise terminal was recently constructed at the Port to compensate for the increased levels of maritime tourism.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Cargo and container terminals are located to the south of the Embarcadero where two marine cargo facilities are administered. The Port of San Diego was ranked by the United States' Bureau of Transportation Statistics as one of America's top 30 U.S. container ship ports in 2007. The Port also serves as the primary port of entry for larger car corporations including Honda, Volkswagen, and Nissan into the United States of America. The nearby Port of Ensenada also serves as a transport point where cruise ships arrive and depart from Southern Californian, European, and Central American ports. Cargo arriving at the Port of Ensenada is also transported to the metropolitan region via the Tijuana-Ensenada Freeway.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The Port of Punta Colonet is being planned as an alternative port to the West Coast ports of the United States and Canada; though the port is not without its negative environmental impacts. south of Tijuana, the port is intended to compete with the twin ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles, Once completed the port would serve as the primary dock for Asian vessels unloading shipping containers. and would have a rail line to San Diego–Tijuana.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana is the home base of two major international airports: the San Diego International Airport (Lindbergh Field) and Tijuana International Airport (General Abelardo L. Rodríguez), and McClellan-Palomar Airport (Carlsbad).


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego International Airport is located northwest of Centre City and from Tijuana. Operated by the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority, the San Diego International airport is the second busiest single-runway commercial airport in the world, behind only London Gatwick. SAN has approximately 600 departures and arrivals, carrying 50,000 passengers, each day. As of October 2010, San Diego International Airport is served by 20 passenger airlines.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In 2010 the Tijuana International Airport served 3,649,500 passengers. It is the fifth busiest airport in Mexico and serves as the focus city for Aeroméxico including flights to Shanghai, China. Cross Border Xpress consists of a pedestrian toll bridge which directly links the terminal in Mexico with the CBX terminal on the U.S. side – the only airport in the world with terminals on the territory of two countries.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: McClellan-Palomar Airport is located near the central business district of Carlsbad, serving North County.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The top ten flights in 2010 and 2009 from all three airports were to San Francisco with 737,000 passengers, Phoenix with 618,000 passengers, Denver with 571,000 passengers, Los Angeles with approximately 408,000 passengers, Chicago with 402,000 passengers, Dallas with 394,000 passengers, Guadalajara with 382,429, Oakland with 380,000 passengers, Las Vegas with 375,000 passengers, and Mexico City with 358,241.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In 2008 it was reported that construction will begin on Ensenada International Airport along the Tijuana-Ensenada Scenic Tollway, between La Mision and El Suazal. The airport is intended to serve Greater Ensenada, Rosarito Beach Municipality, and the westernmost borough of Tijuana. The airport will have a runway and will be capable of serving Boeing 747s and Airbus A380s. Service is being planned to Singapore, Tokyo, Shanghai, Frankfurt, Bogotá, among other large transit hubs. The bankers group of investors for Ensenada International Airport are from all over the globe maintaining residency in Canada, the United States and Europe. In addition to serving as a new domestic transportation hub, the main customer for the new international airport is going to be the air package delivery company DHL.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In 2002, according to the San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG), the number of trucks driving north through the Otay Mesa Port of Entry numbered over 725,710, representing approximately $20 billion worth of freight. Over time congestion has increased as the population of the region has grown at a high rate. San Diego and Tijuana have both begun collaborative renovation plans in order to ease border congestion. The San Ysidro Land Port of Entry Expansion Project involves adding ten lanes to the San Ysidro border crossing and the creation of the El Chaparral Port of Entry. Another plan includes adding an extra border crossing to the east of Otay Mesa with completion estimated for the year 2015. Projects such as these will attempt to reduce the loss of millions of dollars per day due to waiting at the border.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: There are currently three ports of entry serving the metropolitan region. The San Ysidro Port of Entry/El Chaparral expansion projects, and the opening of the new Otay Mesa East Port of Entry, will add significant capacity. The most trafficked port of entry is the San Ysidro Port of Entry—the busiest international crossing in the world. It serves as the primary entry point for the commuting populace of the metropolitan region. The Cross Border Xpress pedestrian border crossing, which opened December 9, 2015, is for the exclusive use of ticketed passengers at Tijuana International Airport. Further east, the Otay Mesa Port of Entry deals with high volumes of commercial traffic as it is located in the manufacturing zone of the region. The Otay Mesa Port accounts for billions of dollars worth of product. Further east, the Otay Mesa East Port of Entry is planned. And the farthest east, the Tecate Port of Entry is the smallest port of entry and is not designed for dealing with large volumes of traffic as it follows a long winding road through the Mountain Empire.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The region is home to over twenty higher education schools including numerous universities, private, and state colleges and maintains an excellent educational infrastructure. Tijuana is home to high ranked national colleges and universities and San Diego is ninth most educated city in the United States.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Notable schools included the Autonomous University of Baja California (Tijuana campus); Ibero-American University (Tijuana campus); CETYS University (Tijuana campus); University of San Diego (USD); San Diego State University; University of California, San Diego (UCSD); California Western School of Law; and Thomas Jefferson School of Law. Of the colleges in San Diego–Tijuana, UCSD is the highest ranked college; ranking as 14th best university in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities and in 2010 ranking as the top university in the United States by "The Washington Monthly".


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Telephonic communication between the two cities requires international calling. To call Tijuana from the United States, "011" (the US international call prefix) must be dialed followed by Mexico's country calling code "52"; to call San Diego from Mexico, "00" (the ITU prefix) must be dialed followed by "1" (the North American Numbering Plan calling code). Then the caller will in both cases proceed to dial the area code and the local number.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Broadcasting is shared between the two cities as necessary, as is the case along both land U.S. borders. Frequency coordination means that all broadcast stations must be approved by both countries before making any major changes. In this case, approval is required by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the U.S. and Federal Telecommunications Institute in Mexico. Additionally, the FCC requires a permit to supply programming to a foreign broadcaster for transmission back into the U.S.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Cooperative frequency coordination between both city regions is quite common; an example is XETV-TV 6, a Tijuana-based television station used to target audiences in San Diego until its US-based studio closure in 2017, where the "K" being replaced by the "X" as an indicator that it is a Mexican-licensed station. These stations were not required to shut down their NTSC analog TV operations in June 2009, as full-powered FCC-licensed stations must. In 2007, a bill in the U.S. Congress called the DTV Border Fix Act was introduced, which would have allowed all stations in San Diego, and all television stations within of the Mexican border, to keep their analog signals active for another five years, delaying the television transition that the rest of the United States would be going through; while the bill passed the Senate, it did not pass the House.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Under FCC regulations, San Diego is the largest media market in the United States that is legally unable to support a duopoly between two full-power television stations; by law, duopolies are not allowed in any U.S. market with fewer than nine full-power stations and once a duopoly is formed, there must be eight unique station owners that remain in a single market. The California side of the market does not fall under either requirement as there are only seven full-power stations in that part of the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. Though two sister stations existed (the E. W. Scripps Company group of KGTV and KZSD-LD, and the NBC Owned Television Stations group of KNSD and KUAN-LD), they are not considered duopolies under the FCC's legal definition as common ownership between full-power and low-power television stations in the same market is permitted regardless to the number of stations licensed to the area. The Mexico-licensed stations in the market are not subject to the duopoly rules as two or more full-power television stations are allowed to be owned by the same company under Mexican telecommunications law (American-based TelevisaUnivision owns three stations in Tijuana: XETV-TV, XHUAA-TV and XEWT-TV, while Entravision Communications and TV Azteca each own two stations: XHAS-TV and XHDTV-TV, and XHJK-TV and XHTIT-TV, respectively).


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: On radio, relaying programming across the border is even more common, with stations like XHITZ-FM 90.3 and XHMORE-FM 98.9 being programmed by U.S. broadcast groups, while being owned by Mexican companies (as required under Mexican law) and operating under Mexican broadcast law. Other American stations relayed via Mexico through local marketing agreements (LMAs) are XEPE AM 1700, XEPRS AM 1090 and simulcast XHPRS-FM 105.7, XESPN AM 800, XESURF AM 540, XETRA FM 91.1, XHRM FM 92.5, XEWW-AM 690, XHA-FM 94.5, XHFG-FM 107.3, XHGLX-FM 91.7, XHLNC-FM 104.9, and XHTY-FM 99.7. All of these stations are authorized to simulcast digitally in HD Radio, as are other stations within of the U.S. border.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Because many stations in the reserved band (FM below 92 MHz) are used by Mexican stations, other specific allotments are reserved for non-commercial educational (NCE) radio stations in the San Diego area. However, the lack of such allotments still leaves the area with no college radio stations available except via Internet radio, cable radio, LPAM, and TV SAP. These are KCR from San Diego State University, and KSDT from University of California, San Diego.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Under Mexican law, radio stations located in Mexico must broadcast the Mexican National Anthem twice daily and broadcast public affairs program La Hora Nacional on Sunday evenings.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The metropolitan region has developed many utilities which have primary focus on energy and environmental health. A focal point of cross-border environmental relations is the care of the Tijuana River Estuary. The International Boundary Wastewater Treatment Plant (IWTP) was developed by the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC) as a joint project between the US and Mexico in the mid-1990s following substantial environmental studies regarding the polluting effects of the river system from run-off and untreated water on the Tijuana side of the border region. The facility now treats sewage flows exceeding the capacity of the present Tijuana sewage treatment system. The plant directly assists in the restoration of the Tijuana River Valley. Another collaborative effort between the two cities was the environmentally friendly development of paved roads – created by placing concrete blocks on dirt roads – in the San Bernardo neighborhood of northwestern Tijuana. Whilst being a good example for overall development of Tijuana, it served to retain water in the earth and prevented possible negative impacts from floodwater.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana relies heavily on water from the Colorado River. Approximately half of San Diego–Tijuana's fresh water is used for non-drinking purposes, including landscape irrigation, commercial enterprise, and industrial processing. Methods such as saltwater desalination provides options for obtaining fresh water. Cities in the metropolitan region such as Carlsbad have begun desalination projects of their own, without a bi-national conference. The Carlsbad desalination plant is the largest desalination plant in the United States. It was opened in December 2015, and produces 50-million gallons a day; enough water to supply 10% of San Diego region residents with drinking water.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The policies shared between San Diego and Tijuana are addressed in a binational way as the effects of actions on one side of the border, with regard to infrastructure, are felt on the neighboring side. In the past decade San Diego–Tijuana has developed new cooperative strategies to make energy consumption more efficient and effectively supply energy. In 2000 Sempra Energy constructed a natural gas pipeline to provide energy to a thermal power plant in Rosarito; also the principle plant in Baja California. The region was able to reduce levels of air pollution substantially when the conversion to a natural gas fired electrical generation facility was completed. In the Baja California subregions, unleaded gasoline has also replaced leaded fuel as means for transportation, helping regional air quality. The new strategies also included plans that worked with the nearby capital of Mexicali, where the pipeline shared between the two states was constructed to supply natural gas to its metropolitan area with energy supplied by Sempra and Proxima. Sempra Energy has been applauded for its initial development of this cross-border infrastructure.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: On April 19, 2011, it was reported by the San Diego Union-Tribune that San Diego Gas and Electric signed a twenty-year deal with Sempra Generation to obtain power generated by the Energia Sierra Juarez Project, a wind farm of 450 wind turbines, taking up an area predominantly in the Tecate region of Baja California larger than Anza Borrego Desert State Park. Energia Sierra Juarez is slated for construction in 2012, though the deal has yet to be approved by the California Public Utilities Commission.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The sister cities of the metropolitan region have a complex and rich cultural exchange. The binational art communities are the most progressive yet least funded when compared to other international communities.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The cultural activities present on both sides of the border provide artists a benefited cultural activity sector. Art organizations on both sides of the border have binational programs. Mainly Mozart (Festival Binacional de Mozart) performs, for both cities of California and Baja California, with internationally known musicians and orchestras. In San Diego, the Opera's Ensemble tours the metropolitan region every year performing over 150 performances in the regions educational institutions, cultural centers, and concert venues. Additionally, the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego actively promotes the binational arts culture in the area and has displayed exhibitions highlighting the border experience.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The metropolitan region has become a magnet for artists from abroad. Musicians and visual artists from Russia, Mexico, and Eastern Europe are now found in organizations such as the Orchestra of Baja California.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The cultural region is the home of many museums and landmarks. The regions cultural institutions and landmarks are in part comprised by the many institutions of Balboa Park, Tijuana Cultural Center, the Maritime Museum of San Diego – a collection of large historic American vessels, Cabrillo National Monument, Christ of the Sacred Heart, Mission San Diego de Alcalá, Mission San Luis Rey de Francia, Old Town San Diego State Historic Park, and museum at San Pasqual Battlefield State Historic Park. Local beach culture is in part represented by the California Surf Museum.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In a region where Mexican traditional culture and American contemporary culture clash, native artists benefit from the manifested diverse cultural influences.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Tijuana's adjacent location to San Diego fuels its intrigue for artists and art curators. A growing number of artists and musicians have begun challenging the sometimes negative stereotype of Tijuana through exhibitions displaying the city as a place of contingency and creativity. San Diego–Tijuana has been considered ""one of the hottest interfaces between first and third worlds"." Artists attraction to San Diego–Tijuana's arts and culture scene was accredited by the Tucson Weekly to the environment created by one of the richest and most developed cities – San Diego – border proximity to a once third world type city – Tijuana.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Food in the region has been greatly attributed from its position on the US-Mexican border. The region has also been influenced by immigrants who migrated to the area.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The region is also home to many wineries and craft breweries scattered throughout the region, with San Diego's craft brewery industry, Tijuana's proximity to the wineries in Valle de Guadalupe, and Tecate's Cerveza Tecate owned by Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma Brewery. Tijuana and Tecate's growth could be attributed to the influx of American alcohol tourism in the 1920s to evade the US prohibition of alcohol.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: The culture of San Diego–Tijuana is international and cosmopolitan, reflecting the values of each city. Tijuana's emerging vibrant culture scene plays and undeniable role in the art enrichment of its neighborhoods. The metropolitan regions southern anchor city, Tijuana, was identified by Newsweek International as one of the top eight creative cities in the world. It was recognized for its amalgamation of traditional Mexican Norteño music by cities as far away as Tokyo and Berlin. Berlin's Haus der Kulturen der Welt attributed Tijuana as the ""cradle of Mexican rock... where the music of the future is being born in Mexico."" According to Britain's Guardian Newspaper, ""Tijuana is in the middle of an artistic flowering in which artists are re-examining the city's hybrid binational culture."" Tijuana has been gaining recognition as a culinary center for the Baja Med fusion cuisine.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In the five years prior to 2004 Tijuana's visual arts were sought out by European exhibitions, and received notable focus from Germany. An international exhibition in Hamburg titled "Unlikely Encounters in Urban Space" portrayed the developed environment in Eastern Tijuana as well as in New Delhi, Mar de Plata, Milan, Berlin, Munich, and Hamburg.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Additionally, the metropolitan area is home to many cultural enclaves from around the world not including American and Mexican enclaves they have of each other.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: San Diego–Tijuana is an avid sports community. Popular sports include association football, American football, baseball, and, to a lesser extent, bloodless bullfighting. The region has professional teams involved in Major League Baseball and the Liga MX. In a sign of binational friendship, San Diegans – Team USA – and Tijuanenses – Team Mexico – engaged in a friendly game of border volleyball at Border Field State Park in which volleyballs were passed over the international border fence splitting the beach. This was the first game of international border volleyball and garnered attention from tourists and the media.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: Watersports and boardsports also form a large part of San Diego–Tijuana sports culture. Sailing is a popular hobby in the San Diego Bay and Mission Bay areas. The San Diego–Ensenada International Yacht Race is hosted by the Southwestern Yacht Club of San Diego and takes place annually as over 100 contestants from Southern and Baja California race from San Diego Bay to Bahia de Todos Santos. The region is known for its avid surf scene. Surfers take to the water in the beaches of North County and Rosarito; well-known destinations include Swami's, Cardiff-by-the-Sea, and Baja Malibu.


title: San Diego–Tijuana

text: In the mid-2000s, the Binational Organizing Committee (BiNOC) of San Diego–Tijuana made it known that the sister-cities were interested in making a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics. The proposed bid intentionally rivaled L.A.'s bid for the 2016 games. However, the U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC) decided against the binational bid and made it clear San Diego would not receive the opportunity to host the Summer Games in 2016. Furthermore, USOC member Bob Ctvrtlik stated the International Olympic Committee has never been inclined to consider a dual-city Games.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: Dotdash Meredith (formerly About.com) is an American digital media company based in New York City. The company publishes online articles and videos about various subjects across categories including health, home, food, finance, tech, beauty, lifestyle, travel, and education. It operates brands including Verywell, Investopedia, The Balance, Byrdie, MyDomaine, "Brides", The Spruce, Simply Recipes, Serious Eats, Liquor.com, Lifewire, TripSavvy, "TreeHugger", and ThoughtCo. In August 2012, About.com became a property of IAC, owner of Ask.com and numerous other online brands, and its revenue is generated by advertising. In addition to its Manhattan headquarters, Dotdash Meredith also maintains offices elsewhere in the New York metropolitan area, as well as in Des Moines, Iowa and Birmingham, Alabama.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: Founded in 1996 as The Mining Company, the site was launched on April 21, 1997 by Scott Kurnit, owner of General Internet, Bill Day, and a group of other entrepreneurs in New York City. The original goal was to maintain 1,800 topic areas, but after five years of operation, this number was reduced to around 700.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: The company changed its name to "About Inc.", and the website address from "miningco.com" to "about.com" in May 1999. The company was acquired by Primedia, Inc. in 2000 through a deal valued at US$690 million, whereby Primedia swapped 45.2 million shares for About, Inc.'s 18.1 million shares. At the time of the acquisition announcement, About Inc. was measured at US$133 million in cash and no debt (Sept. 30, 2000), while the Media Metrix company tallied 21 million unique monthly visitors—making it the seventh-most-visited "network of sites" at the time—a network of over 700 topic sites, sorted into 36 areas and 50,000 subjects, and approximately 4,000 advertisers. Following the purchase, which was finalized in the first quarter of 2001, the combined company was called "Primedia" and Kurnit remained chief executive officer (CEO).


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: In February 2005, The New York Times Company (Times Co.) announced it was buying About.com, a purchase that was completed in the first half of the year for US$410 million. Google and Yahoo! were reportedly among the other bidders. Following the Times Co. acquisition, Peter C. Horan was appointed as About Inc.'s president and CEO, but he was soon replaced by Scott Meyer in May 2005.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: In March 2007, About.com's patronage was measured at 33.5 million unique visitors. On May 7, 2007, About Inc. acquired ConsumerSearch.com—a site that generated 3 million unique monthly visitors during the first quarter of 2007—for US$33 million in cash following two other purchases that were made in the preceding eight-month period: UCompareHealthCare.com and Calorie-Count.com.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: Initially conceived of in January 2007, About.com's first fully owned foreign venture, the China-based Abang.com, debuted in December 2007. At the time of the launch, the company had a Japan-based online entity, Allabout.co.jp, but it functioned under a licensing agreement. By January 2008, the China site consisted of around 25 employees, as well as 80 guides who were responsible for article production within seven categories: Fashion, Food, Health, Hobbies, Pets, Digital, and Travel. As part of the localization process, the China initiative—led by Matt Roberts, who became the CEO of Abang.com, and Wen-Wei Wang, the vice president of technology for the launch—was named "Abang" because the Chinese character "bang" refers to the concept of a group or community.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: The About Group generated US$102.7 million in 2007, which represented a 135-percent increase from the time of the Times Co. acquisition. Meyer stepped down from the chief executive role in March 2008 and was replaced by Cella Irvine, who previously worked for Hearst Corp. and Microsoft Corp. In April 2011, Irvine launched the About en Español website, which was About's first-ever Spanish-language channel and initially featured nine topics, including movies and makeup, that were to be expanded by around 100 by the start of 2012. The launch was part of an overall strategy that included a redesigned About.com homepage, a doubling of the number of "how-to" and do-it-yourself videos on About.com's 24 channels, and new outlets on About.com for advertisers.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: The significant impact of the global financial crisis upon online advertising was experienced shortly after Irvine's appointment and, despite her focus on video content and Hispanic consumers, she was removed from the CEO role after three years and three consecutive quarters in which revenue decreased. Martin Nisenholtz, SVP of digital operations, temporarily replaced Irvine following her departure in May 2011.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: In July 2011, Darline Jean was named CEO of the About Group, after the company's second-quarter revenues totaled US$27.8 million. Jean previously served as About's chief financial officer (CFO) and was promoted on September 1, 2011.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: A media report published in August 2012 indicated that Answers.com had reached a preliminary agreement to acquire About.com for US$270 million. However, on August 26, Barry Diller's IAC announced that it would acquire About.com instead for US$300 million in cash. A source for TechCrunch later confirmed that Answers.com's offer was reportedly valued at US$270 million, but consisted of debt and equity in Answers.com.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: In the corresponding press release, IAC explained that the acquisition would help bolster and accompany its existing properties, such as the Ask.com web search engine. Jean fulfilled her role as chief executive during the transition period, while ownership was transferred to IAC, and then left About shortly after the sale was finalized. At the time of the IAC acquisition, which was signed on August 26, 2012, About.com consisted of nearly 1,000 topic sites and over three million unique articles, while, in traffic terms, Alexa ranked the site as number 37 in the U.S. and 80 in the global context.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: On April 2, 2013, Neil Vogel became the new CEO of About.com. Up until March 2003, Vogel was a key executive member of the marketing and media company Alloy Inc., a role that he left to cofound the Recognition Media marketing business that is responsible for producing the annual Webby Award event, as well as the Internet Week NY and Europe events. Vogel was selected by "Business Insider" for its 2012 "The Coolest People In New York Tech This Year" list, for his work as a venture partner of FirstMark Capital. , About.com was receiving about 84 million unique monthly visitors.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: Following his appointment, Vogel's overall plan for About focused on social, mobile, and user experience, with an emphasis on increasing the amount of time that users remain on the site, rather than attracting people in the first instance. Vogel also stressed the importance of monetization in his numerous post-appointment interviews and he included a summary of About's revenue model as part of his discussion of the future with "Bloomberg":


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: [We make money] one way, in general: we're advertising-supported. And that's monetized two ways: we do a lot of display advertising, and we do a lot of people clicking on links that we get paid for from Google and from others ... If we have all this traffic, and we have all this content, if we can make people engage content more, and spend more time here [About.com], and do more things, we're going to have more page views and much more of an opportunity to monetize About.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: Vogel further explained that IAC has been able to create "compelling" content that manages to successfully engage Internet users, while About's content, in particular, is favored by the Google search engine. Furthermore, Vogel stated that native advertising is a marketing initiative that he would like to explore with caution, as "it's a really big opportunity to let marketers talk to our audience in the voice that they're already comfortable with."


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: In April 2014, Vogel revealed to the media that the About.com team had grown from 100 employees to 176, and the number of site contributors had increased by 20 percent. In terms of the website, the company's developers updated the backend technology so that it is capable of handling a greater degree of interactivity at the front end, while a major emphasis was placed on responsive web design, as the traffic from mobile devices and tablets was measured at nearly 40 percent.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: The About.com website was relaunched in September 2014, following a significant redesign that expanded upon the new homepage that debuted in July 2014. Based on an analysis of the needs of both users and advertisers, the redesign sought to create an improved user experience and facilitate social sharing, including the addition of social media buttons that were not featured at the time of Vogel's appointment.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: On May 2, 2017, IAC announced that they had renamed About.com to Dotdash, after about a year of transition. CEO Neil Vogel said that the company had lost mind share and needed to change their marketing strategy. According to WIRED, About.com was done away with despite its profitability, in order to make way for a new business model. The company refocused on vertical markets through niche websites it has: The Balance (personal finance), Lifewire (tech), The Spruce (home and food), VeryWell (health), TripSavvy (travel), and ThoughtCo (education).


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: On March 29, 2018, Dotdash won Digiday's Publisher of the Year. In July of the same year, Investopedia joined the Dotdash family of brands. On October 15, TripSavvy launched the Editors' Choice Awards.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: On January 8, 2019, Dotdash announced the acquisition of Byrdie (beauty) and MyDomaine (women's lifestyle) from Clique Brands. On May 15, Dotdash announced the acquisition of Brides from Conde Nast. In the spring of 2019, Dotdash's home site, The Spruce, announced the launch of their first-ever paint collection, The Spruce Best Home, in partnership with KILZ and sold exclusively on Amazon. On October 1, Dotdash announced the acquisition of Liquor.com.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: On February 4, 2020, Dotdash announced the acquisition of TreeHugger and Mother Nature Network. In June, Dotdash was named Digiday's Publisher of the Year in Digiday's Media Awards 2020. The Spruce won for Best User Experience and CEO Neil Vogel won Executive of the Year. On September 22, Dotdash announced that it acquired Simply Recipes and Serious Eats from Fexy Media.


title: Dotdash Meredith

text: On October 6, 2021, Dotdash announced the acquisition of Meredith's magazine and other non-broadcast assets for $2.7 billion, forming a new entity called Dotdash Meredith. The transaction was finalized on December 1. On February 9, 2022, Dotdash CEO Neil Vogel issued a memo revealing that six former Meredith Corporation magazines (Entertainment Weekly, InStyle, EatingWell, Health, Parents, and People en Español) would cease having print circulation and switch to a digital-only format.


title: Győr

text: Győr ( , ; ; ) is the main city of northwest Hungary, the capital of Győr-Moson-Sopron County and Western Transdanubia region, and – halfway between Budapest and Vienna – situated on one of the important roads of Central Europe. It is the sixth largest city in Hungary, and one of its seven main regional centres. The city has county rights.


title: Győr

text: The area along the Danube River has been inhabited by varying cultures since ancient times. The first large settlement dates back to the 5th century BCE; the inhabitants were Celts. They called the town "Ara Bona" "Good altar", later contracted to "Arrabona", a name which was used until the eighth century. Its shortened form is still used as the German ("Raab") and Slovak ("Ráb") names of the city.


title: Győr

text: Roman merchants moved to Arrabona during the 1st century BCE. Around 10 CE, the Roman army occupied the northern part of Western Hungary, which they called "Pannonia". Although the Roman Empire abandoned the area in the 4th century due to constant attacks by the tribes living to the east, the town remained inhabited.


title: Győr

text: Around 500 the territory was settled by Slavs, in 547 by the Lombards, and in 568–c. 800 by the Avars, at that time under Frankish and Slavic influence. During this time it was called "Rabba" and later "Raab". Between 880 and 894, it was part of Great Moravia, and then briefly under East Frankish dominance.


title: Győr

text: The Magyars occupied the town around 900 and fortified the abandoned Roman fortress. Stephen I, the first king of Hungary, founded an episcopate there. The town received its Hungarian name "Győr", which likely derives from Old Hungarian personal name Győr, who could be the county's first count. The town was affected by all the trials and tribulations of the history of Hungary: it was occupied by Mongols during the Mongol invasion (1241–1242) and then was destroyed by the Czech army in 1271.


title: Győr

text: After the disastrous battle of Mohács, Baron Tamás Nádasdy and Count György Cseszneky occupied the town for King Ferdinand I while John Zápolya also was attempting to annex it. During the Ottoman occupation of present-day central and eastern Hungary (1541 - late 17th century), Győr's commander Kristóf Lamberg thought it would be futile to try to defend the town from the Turkish army. He burned down the town and the Turkish forces found nothing but blackened ruins, hence the Turkish name for Győr, "Yanık kale" ("burnt castle").


title: Győr

text: During rebuilding, the town was surrounded with a castle and a city wall designed by the leading Italian builders of the era. The town changed in character during these years, with many new buildings built in Renaissance style, but the main square and the grid of streets remained.


title: Győr

text: In 1594, after the death of Count János Cseszneky, captain of Hungarian footsoldiers, the Ottoman army occupied the castle and the town. In 1598 the Hungarian and Austrian army took control of it again and occupied it. During the Turkish occupation the city was called Yanık Kala (burned place, as a reference to the enormous damages caused by the siege).


title: Győr

text: During the following centuries, the town became prosperous. In 1743 Győr was elevated to free royal town status by Maria Theresa. The religious orders of Jesuits and Carmelites settled there, building schools, churches, a hospital, and a monastery.


title: Győr

text: On 14 June 1809, during the War of the Fifth Coalition, this was the site of the Battle of Győr (Battle of Raab), where the army of Eugène de Beauharnais defeated the Hungarian "noble insurrection" (militia) and an Austrian corps under the Archdukes Joseph and Johann. Napoleon's forces occupied the castle and had some of its walls blown up. The leaders of the town soon realized that the old ramparts were not useful any more. Most of the ramparts were destroyed, allowing the town to expand.


title: Győr

text: In the mid-19th century, Győr's role in trade grew as steamship traffic on the River Danube began. The town lost its importance in trade when the railway line between Budapest and Kanizsa superseded river traffic after 1861. The town leaders compensated for this loss with industrialisation. The town prospered until World War II when several buildings were destroyed. Some large-scale strategic bombing devastated industrial and residential areas as well as the airport. It was targeted because the Rába factory was a main tank (Turán) and aeroplane (Bf 109) producer. One of these raids destroyed some parts of the maternity hospital.


title: Győr

text: The 1950s and '60s brought more change: only big blocks of flats were built, and the old historical buildings were not given care or attention. In the 1970s the reconstruction of the city centre began; old buildings were restored and reconstructed. In 1989 Győr won the European award for the protection of monuments.


title: Győr

text: A 100-year-old Raba factory on the River Danube close to the historical centre is to be replaced by a new community called Városrét. The mixed-use community will have residential and commercial space as well as schools, clinics and parks.


title: Győr

text: The city's main theatre is the National Theatre of Győr, finished in 1978. It features large ceramic ornaments made by Victor Vasarely.


title: Győr

text: The city has several historical buildings, for example the castle, and the Lutheran Evangelic church.


title: Győr

text: The ancient core of the city is Káptalan Hill at the confluence of three rivers: the Mosoni-Danube, Rába, and Rábca. Püspökvár, the residence of Győr's bishops, can be easily recognized by its incomplete tower. Győr's oldest buildings are the 13th-century dwelling tower and the 15th-century Gothic Dóczy Chapel. The cathedral, originally in Romanesque style, was rebuilt in Gothic and Baroque style.


title: Győr

text: Audi AG subsidiary company Audi Hungaria Zrt. has a large factory in Győr, where the Audi TT sports car, the A3 Cabriolet, A3 Limousine, and many engines (1,913,053 engines in 2007) are built. The factory opened in 1994, at first producing inline-four engines for the Audi marque. Business then grew to assembling the Audi TT Coupé and TT Roadster. Eventually, V6 and V8 engines were also included, and after the acquisition of Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A., Audi then began to build V10 engines. The V10s for Audi vehicles are fully assembled here, but only the cylinder blocks for the Lamborghini V10. Engines are also supplied to other Volkswagen Group marques, but over 90% of Audi vehicle engines are made here. By 2020, the factory has a 12 MW solar roof, producing 9.5 GWh/year.


title: Győr

text: The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 23 members (1 Mayor, 16 Individual constituencies MEPs and 6 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:


title: Győr

text: The city is a national hub for rail and road traffic. The transport-geographical position of Győr is excellent. The most important railway connections are the Vienna-Budapest railway line, but the Győr-Sopron railway line owned by the Győr-Sopron-Ebenfurt railway company, as well as the Győr-Celldömölk railway line and the Győr-Veszprém railway run by MÁV. In Győr, several main transport routes meet each other (M1, M19, 1, 14, 81, 82, 83, 85), and the motorway is accessible from several parts of the city. Győr-Pér Airport can be reached from the city on Highway 81, 15 kilometers towards Székesfehérvár. At the 1734 km section of the Danube lies the port of Győr-Gönyű with its fully equipped 25 hectare serving terminal.


title: Győr

text: Győr is the home of the Győri ETO Sport Club, which has many sport divisions. The most popular sport in the city is handball, with the Győri ETO KC being the city's main team. ETO won the Champions League in 2013, 2014, 2017, 2018 and in 2019 and also reached the final in 2009, 2012 and in 2016. In addition, Győr reached the final of the EHF Cup Winners' Cup in 2006 and the final of the EHF Cup in 1999, 2002, 2004 and 2005.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (27 April 81 BC – September 43 BC) was a Roman general and politician of the late republican period and one of the leading instigators of Julius Caesar's assassination. He had previously been an important supporter of Caesar in the Gallic Wars and in the civil war against Pompey. Decimus Brutus is often confused with his distant cousin and fellow conspirator, Marcus Junius Brutus.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: Decimus was probably son of the Roman senator Decimus Junius Brutus and his notorious wife Sempronia, one of the participants in the conspiracy of Catilina in 63 BC. His birthday seems to have been 27 April, and he was probably born in the year 81 BC, perhaps slightly earlier. Decimus was of distinguished ancestry: his father, grandfather and great-grandfather had all been consuls, and his mother was likely descended from Gaius Gracchus, the ill-fated popular reformer. He was also adopted by a patrician named Postumius Albinus, one of the last members of the ancient noble house which bore that name. Although some ancient sources accordingly refer to Decimus as 'Albinus', and the name also appears on some coins he himself minted, Decimus does not seem to have changed his name to reflect the adoption, as was customary, and his contemporaries continued referring to him by his birth name, even in official contexts.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: On several occasions Julius Caesar expressed how he loved Decimus Brutus like a son. Syme argued that if a Brutus was the natural son of Caesar, Decimus was more likely than Marcus Brutus. Decimus was named an heir in the second degree in Caesar's will and was designated to become guardian of any child Caesar would have. Roman historian Appian interpreted this as being an adoption of Decimus by Caesar.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: Decimus Brutus spent his youth mainly in the company of Publius Clodius Pulcher, Gaius Scribonius Curio, and Marcus Antonius.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: He served in Caesar's army during the Gallic wars and was given the command of the fleet in the war against the Veneti in 56 BC. In a decisive sea battle, Decimus Brutus succeeded in destroying the Veneti's fleet. Using sickle-like hooks fitted on long poles, Decimus Brutus attacked the enemy's sails, leaving them immobilized and easy prey to Roman boarding parties. He also served against Vercingetorix in 52 BC.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: When the Republican Civil War broke out, Decimus Brutus sided with his commander, Caesar, and was entrusted once again with fleet operations. Richard Billows argued that Caesar loved Decimus Brutus almost as a son. In 50 BC he married Paula Valeria, the sister of Gaius Valerius Triarius, a friend of Cicero who later fought alongside Pompey at Pharsalus.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: The Greek city of Massilia (present-day Marseille) sided with Pompey the Great, and Caesar, hastening to reach Hispania and cut Pompey off from his legions, left Decimus Brutus in charge of the naval blockade of Massilia. Within thirty days, Decimus Brutus built a fleet from scratch, defeated the Massilian fleet twice, and together with Gaius Trebonius (who commanded the siege) secured the capitulation of Massilia.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: When Caesar returned to Rome as dictator after the final defeat of the Conservative faction in the Battle of Munda (45 BC), Marcus Brutus joined the conspiracy against Caesar, after being convinced by Cassius and Decimus.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In 44 BC, Decimus was made Praetor Peregrinus by personal appointment of Caesar and was designated to be the governor of Cisalpine Gaul in the following year.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: On the Ides of March (March 15), when Caesar decided not to attend the Senate meeting in the curia at the theatre of Pompey due to the concerns of his wife. He was persuaded to attend by Decimus Brutus, who escorted him to the senate house, and neatly evaded Mark Antony, who wished to tell Caesar of the assassination plot. After Caesar was attacked by the first assassin, Servilius Casca, Decimus and the rest of the conspirators attacked and killed him. In all, Caesar suffered approximately 23 stab wounds. According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Decimus struck him through the thigh.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: The assassins received an amnesty the next day, issued by the senate at the instigation of Mark Antony, Caesar's fellow consul. But the situation was not peaceful; Rome's population and Caesar's legionaries wanted to see the conspirators punished. The group decided to lie low, and Decimus used his office of Praetor Peregrinus to stay away from Rome. Decimus was named an heir in the second degree in Caesar's will.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: The climate of reconciliation soon passed, and slowly the conspirators were starting to feel the strain of the assassination. Already in March 44, Decimus Brutus found his (earlier) allocation of the province of Cisalpine Gaul opposed by Antony. Nevertheless, by the autumn, Decimus Brutus was campaigning against local tribes in the province assigned to him by Caesar as propraetor, with his own troops. He was ordered by the Senate to surrender his province to Antony but refused, an act of provocation to which Antony was only too happy to respond. Defeating Decimus Brutus was a way for Antony to regain his ascendancy and get control of the strategically important Italian Gaul; while conversely Cicero encouraged the former to destroy Antony and thereby restore the commonwealth.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In 43 BC Decimus Brutus occupied Mutina, laying in provisions for a protracted siege. Antony obliged him, and blockaded Decimus Brutus' forces, intent on starving them out.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: Nevertheless, the consuls of the year, Aulus Hirtius and Gaius Pansa, marched northward to raise the siege. Guided by Cicero (whose "Philippics" date from this time), the Senate was inclined to view Mark Antony as an enemy. Caesar Octavian, the nineteen-year-old heir of Caesar, and already raised to the rank of propraetor, accompanied Gaius Pansa north. The first confrontation occurred on April 14 at the battle of Forum Gallorum, where Antony hoped to deal with his opponents piecemeal. Antony defeated the forces of Gaius Pansa and Octavian, which resulted in Pansa suffering mortal wounds; however, Antony was then defeated by a surprise attack from Hirtius. A second battle on 21 April at Mutina resulted in a further defeat for Antony and Hirtius' death. Antony withdrew, unwilling to become the subject of a double circumvallation as Vercingetorix had done to Caesar at Alesia.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: With the siege raised, Decimus Brutus cautiously thanked Octavian, now commander of the legions that had rescued him, from the other side of the river. Octavian coldly indicated he had come to oppose Antony, not aid Caesar's murderers. Decimus Brutus was given the command to wage war against Antony, but many of his soldiers deserted to Octavian.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: With Cicero's support, however, Decimus Brutus crossed the Alps to join Plancus in the war against Antony; but when Plancus switched sides his position became untenable and he was forced to flee. He attempted to reach Macedonia, where Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius had stationed themselves, but was executed "en route" in mid-September by a Gallic chief loyal to Mark Antony.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: Several letters written by Decimus Brutus during the last two years of his life are preserved among Cicero's collected correspondence.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: Decimus' legacy is not as notable as that of the other Brutus who was among the conspirators, Marcus Brutus, whom he is often confused for, or merged with, in depictions.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar", Decimus Brutus is mistakenly called "Decius". He also appears in the play "Cato, a Tragedy" by Joseph Addison also here under the name "Decius". He appears with his actual name in the play "The Tragedy of Cicero".


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In Allan Massie's 1993 book entitled "Caesar", Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus narrates his story and reason for joining in Caesar's assassination while being held captive by the Gallic chief.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In Colleen McCullough's novels "Caesar" and "The October Horse" (of her Masters of Rome series) Decimus Brutus is an important character. In these novels, he and Gaius Trebonius are portrayed as the real leaders of the assassination conspiracy.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In Conn Iggulden's "Emperor" series of books the historical figures of Decimus Brutus and Marcus Brutus are blended together into the one character named Marcus Brutus.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In Ben Kane's books "The Forgotten Legion", "The Silver Eagle", and "Road To Rome", Decimus Brutus is shown as a fairly major character to the plot and the rest of the book as Fabiola's lover.


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In Robert Harris' novel, "Dictator", it is Decimus, not Marcus, who is the Brutus targeted during Caesar's assassination by Caesar's alleged accusatory words, "Even you?". The phrase, more often rendered as "Et tu", is immortalized in Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar".


title: Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus

text: In S.J.A Turney's series of novels titled "Marius Mules", Decimus Brutus is heavily featured as a brilliant naval commander and one of Caesar's most loyal officers.


title: Michael O'Neill (actor)

text: O'Neill was born and raised in Montgomery, Alabama. He attended Capitol Heights Junior High and Robert E. Lee High School, graduating in 1969. In high school he played basketball and was elected class beau and a class favorite. He graduated from Auburn University in 1974. While at Auburn, O'Neill was inducted as a brother of Lambda Chi Alpha. After attending Auburn, he spent time under the tutelage of actor Will Geer and one of Geer's daughters, the actress Ellen Geer, at Theatricum Botanicum in Los Angeles before moving to New York to pursue his career there.