title: Bird Box (novel)

text: Film rights to "Bird Box" were optioned by Universal Studios in 2013, prior to the book's release. Scott Stuber and Chris Morgan were initially set to produce the film, with Andy Muschietti ("It, Mama") as director and Eric Heisserer in negotiations to pen the script. Netflix then acquired the rights of the book with Sandra Bullock and John Malkovich in starring roles, Morgan co-producing, Heisserer writing, and Susanne Bier as the director.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The 2019 Hell in a Cell was the 11th annual Hell in a Cell professional wrestling pay-per-view and livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on October 6, 2019, at Golden 1 Center in Sacramento, California.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Nine matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The main event, which was a Universal Championship Hell in a Cell match between defending champion Seth Rollins and "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt, ended by referee stoppage. In the other Hell in a Cell match, Becky Lynch defeated Sasha Banks by submission to retain the Raw Women's Championship in the opening bout. Other prominent matches saw Daniel Bryan and Roman Reigns defeat Erick Rowan and Luke Harper in a tornado tag team match, and Charlotte Flair defeated Bayley by submission to win her record fifth SmackDown Women's Championship and her record tenth championship overall on WWE's main roster.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The event was met with a mixed-to-negative reception from both critics and fans. Although the first two opening matches were generally praised, the main event was universally panned due to its conclusion.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Hell in a Cell is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event produced by WWE since 2009, generally held in October. The concept of the show comes from WWE's established Hell in a Cell match, in which competitors fight inside a 20-foot-high roofed cell structure surrounding the ring and ringside area. The main event match of the card is contested under the Hell in a Cell stipulation. The 2019 event was the 11th event under the Hell in a Cell chronology. It was held on October 6 at Golden 1 Center in Sacramento, California and featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown brands.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The show comprised nine matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, "Monday Night Raw" and "SmackDown Live" (with the latter renamed to "Friday Night SmackDown" two days prior to the event).


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Amid speculation that Bray Wyatt would challenge for the Universal Championship at Hell in a Cell, Wyatt seemingly confirmed the rumors in a "Firefly Fun House" segment on the September 2 episode of "Raw". Following Seth Rollins' successful title defense at Clash of Champions, Wyatt appeared as his sinister alternate persona The Fiend and attacked Rollins with a Sister Abigail and the Mandible Claw. The following night on "Raw", Rollins addressed The Fiend's attack and announced that he would be defending the Universal Championship against The Fiend in a Hell in a Cell match at the event.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: At Clash of Champions, the Raw Women's Championship match between defending champion Becky Lynch and Sasha Banks ended in a disqualification win for Banks; thus Lynch retained as titles do not change hands via disqualification unless stipulated. Following the match, Lynch and Banks brawled throughout the arena. The following night on "Raw", Banks challenged Lynch to a rematch at Hell in a Cell which Lynch accepted with the added stipulation that the match will be contested in a Hell in a Cell match.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Prior to Clash of Champions, Erick Rowan attacked Roman Reigns backstage and lied to Daniel Bryan about it, resulting in him and Bryan splitting as a tag team. Rowan then defeated Reigns in a No Disqualification match at Clash of Champions thanks to the returning Luke Harper, reforming their tag team. On the following "SmackDown", Rowan explained that he began to target Reigns to scare him and to show that Reigns was not the dominant figure he was presumed to be. Rowan also claimed that he had been overlooked, underappreciated, and disrespected and that he was not Bryan's equal, but better than him. Bryan later stated that regardless if he was a face or a heel, he never used to lie, and he thought of Rowan as his friend. Bryan was interrupted by Rowan and attacked by Harper. Reigns came out to Bryan's aid, only for Rowan and Harper to dominate Bryan and Reigns. The following week, Rowan defeated Bryan; following the match, Harper and Rowan attacked Bryan. Reigns again came to Bryan's aid, where they eventually overcame Rowan and Harper. Bryan and Reigns then challenged Rowan and Harper to a tag team match at Hell in a Cell which was made official. On "SmackDown's 20th Anniversary" on October 4, Reigns defeated Rowan in a lumberjack match and Bryan shook Reigns' hand out of mutual respect. The day of the event, the match stipulation was changed to a tornado tag team match.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: At Clash of Champions, Bayley controversially defeated Charlotte Flair by slamming her head into an exposed turnbuckle to retain the SmackDown Women's Championship. Their feud would continue on subsequent episodes of "Raw" and "SmackDown", also involving Sasha Banks and Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch. On "SmackDown's 20th Anniversary" on October 4, Flair and Lynch defeated Bayley and Banks when Flair forced Bayley to submit to the Figure Eight Leglock. Due to this win, Flair earned herself a rematch for the SmackDown Women's Championship at Hell in a Cell.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: In the King of the Ring final on the September 16 episode of "Raw", Baron Corbin defeated Chad Gable to win the tournament, subsequently changing his ring name to King Corbin. The following night on "SmackDown" after Corbin insulted Gable, Gable attacked Corbin. A rematch between the two on the September 23 "Raw" ended in a disqualification after Corbin attacked Gable with his scepter. Another rematch was scheduled for Hell in a Cell.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: On the September 16 episode of "Raw", The O.C. (United States Champion AJ Styles, Luke Gallows, and Karl Anderson) defeated Cedric Alexander and The Viking Raiders (Ivar and Erik) in a six-man tag team match. Following the match, The O.C. attacked Alexander and The Viking Raiders. The following week, The Viking Raiders defeated Gallows and Anderson in a tag team match. On October 6, a match featuring The Viking Raiders and a partner of their choosing against all three members of The O.C. was scheduled for Hell in a Cell.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The day of the event, Alexa Bliss and Nikki Cross were scheduled to defend the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship against The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane). Bliss and Cross last eliminated The Kabuki Warriors in a fatal four-way tag team elimination match to win the titles back in August.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: After weeks of feuding, a match between Natalya and Lacey Evans was scheduled for the Hell in a Cell Kickoff pre-show.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: During the Hell in a Cell Kickoff pre-show, Natalya faced Lacey Evans. In the climax, as Evans attempted a Moonsault, Natalya avoided it and forced Evans to submit to the Sharpshooter to win the match.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Also on the pre-show, Randy Orton and Ali had a confrontation which lead to Ali challenging Orton to a match which would take place on the main card.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The actual pay-per-view began with Becky Lynch defending the Raw Women's Championship against Sasha Banks in a Hell in a Cell match. Before the match began, Banks attacked Lynch, leading to the two fighting outside the cell, where Banks gained the upper hand. After Banks gloated inside the cell, Lynch slammed the cell door into Banks, and once both superstars were inside the ring, the match officially started. Throughout the match, various weapons were used, including chairs, kendo sticks, a ladder, and a table. Notable moments included Banks performing a Meteora from the ring apron on Lynch into the ladder that was leaning against the cell wall, Lynch performing a dropkick from the ring apron on Banks, who was seated on a chair being held up by kendo sticks wedged into the corner of the cell, and Banks performing a Meteora on Lynch through the table inside the ring, but all resulted in nearfalls. In the end, Banks threw several chairs in the ring and struck Lynch multiple times with one of the chairs. However, while Banks was on the middle rope, Lynch intercepted Banks with a chair shot and followed up with an Exploder suplex onto the chairs. Lynch applied the Dis-arm-her, and Banks submitted after attempting to grab Lynch's hair to escape. As a result, Lynch retained the title.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Next was the Tornado Tag Team match where Daniel Bryan and Roman Reigns faced Erick Rowan and Luke Harper. During the match, after Harper and Rowan dominated, they attempted to powerbomb Bryan through an announce table, but Bryan performed a hurricanrana on Harper and Reigns speared Rowan through the table. Later, Harper blocked another hurricanrana from Bryan and performed a middle-rope Powerbomb for a nearfall. In the end, Reigns performed a Superman Punch on Harper, followed by Bryan performing a Running Knee and Reigns performing a Spear to win the match. Following the match, Reigns attempted to shake Bryan's hand out of respect, only for Bryan to insist on a hug and the two eventually embraced.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: After that, Randy Orton faced Ali. In the end, Orton attempted an RKO, but Ali blocked with a handstand before rolling up Orton for a nearfall. As Ali went for a facebuster, Orton countered into an RKO to win the match.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: In the fourth match, Alexa Bliss and Nikki Cross defended the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship against The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane). In the climax, Sane distracted Bliss outside the ring while Asuka spat green mist in Cross' face and pinned her after a Roundhouse Kick to win the titles.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: After that, The O.C. (United States Champion AJ Styles, Luke Gallows, and Karl Anderson) faced The Viking Raiders (Ivar and Erik) and a partner of their choosing, which was revealed to be Braun Strowman. In the end, after Strowman dominated The O.C., the trio attacked Strowman and were eventually disqualified. After the match, Styles attempted a Phenomenal Forearm, but Strowman knocked him out with a right hand.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: In a backstage segment, Tamina (in her first appearance since WrestleMania 35) rolled up Carmella to win the WWE 24/7 Championship.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Next, King Corbin faced Chad Gable. In the climax, Corbin attempted to use his scepter on Gable, who avoided it and rolled up Corbin to win the match, with the ring announcer announcing him as Shorty Gable (upon Corbin's request).


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: After that, new 24/7 champion Tamina emerged from backstage to hide among the international broadcast teams. In a scuffle involving Funaki, Carmella performed a superkick on Tamina, followed by R-Truth pinning Tamina to win the 24/7 Championship for a record 20th time.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: In the penultimate match, Bayley defended the SmackDown Women's Championship against Charlotte Flair. In the end, Bayley blocked a Big Boot and attempted to roll Flair up while using the ropes for leverage, but the referee caught her. Flair took advantage by performing a Big Boot and forced Bayley to submit to the Figure Eight Leglock to win the title for a record fifth time, and her overall record tenth women's championship on WWE's main roster.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: In the main event, Seth Rollins defended the Universal Championship against "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt in a Hell in a Cell match, which was bathed in red lighting. After The Fiend dominated, Rollins performed a Frog Splash on The Fiend through a table and followed up with The Stomp, but The Fiend got right back up and countered a second Stomp attempt into Sister Abigail for a nearfall. Outside the ring, The Fiend used a gigantic mallet on Rollins, who recovered and performed another Stomp, this time onto the mallet. Rollins followed up with three more Stomps, a Pedigree, and a sixth Stomp for a one count. Rollins performed five more Stomps to make it eleven, and retrieved a chair, which he used to hit The Fiend in the face for another one count. Rollins placed the chair on The Fiend and slammed a ladder onto it for a two count. Rollins then placed the ladder on top of The Fiend and used a toolbox to repeatedly smash it. In the climax, Rollins obtained a sledgehammer, but the referee urged him to not use it. After contemplation, Rollins slammed the sledgehammer on top of the weapons over The Fiend, and the referee called for the bell to stop the match without a winner. After the cage was raised, paramedics tended to The Fiend, who got up and attacked Rollins with the Mandible Claw before throwing him outside the ring, where he performed Sister Abigail. The Fiend pulled up the ringside covering and then performed another Sister Abigail, this time on the exposed concrete, before incapacitating Rollins with the Mandible Claw with blood pouring from Rollins' mouth. The event ended with The Fiend's laughter echoing throughout the arena.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Hell in a Cell received mixed-to-negative reviews, with the Raw Women's Championship and tornado tag team matches receiving the most praise but the main event match being the overwhelming focus of criticism. Of note, the crowd rejected the perceived illogical finish of the main event match (a referee stoppage of a match under no disqualification rules that traditionally would not end in such a manner). The crowd soon started roaring thunderous “boos” whilst also chanting "bullshit", "refund", "restart the match", and also "AEW", in reference to All Elite Wrestling, a rival wrestling company. On social media, the event ended up trending "for the wrong reasons", as WWE fans made "memes about the ending to Hell in a Cell while questioning the logic behind the promotion's booking". Also trending after the event was #CancelWWENetwork. According to Dave Meltzer on "Wrestling Observer Radio", the main event was perceived by WWE as "a disaster, and that’s an understatement". WWE Hall of Famer X-Pac, who appeared on WWE's live reaction talk show "Watch Along", reacted indignantly to the end of the main event. Acknowledging that WWE may not invite him back to such reaction shows, X-Pac nevertheless questioned: "how the hell do you get DQ'd in a Hell in a freakin' Cell?" Former WWE referee Jim Korderas also did not like the ending, since during the Hell in a Cell match "all of the rules are thrown out the window and in this match there needs to be a finality. This match was designed to negate stuff like a ref stoppage."


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Dave Meltzer, on the "Wrestling Observer Radio", stated that from a "decision making" and "mental booking standpoint", Hell in a Cell was "one of the worst" professional wrestling pay-per-views of all time. Alternatively, from a "wrestling execution standpoint", Hell in a Cell was a "better than okay" show, with two opening matches being "really good" and the middle being "fine", but it was just "killed by the last match". On the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter", the event was described as a "disaster". Meltzer rated the two opening matches 4 stars, and the main event -2 stars. The latter was described as "perhaps the worst main event in pro wrestling history where the fault doesn't at all lie in either of the competitors", due to "the tinting of the visual, the overly long match, the babyface who the crowd was rejecting more-and-more and a finish that can't be explained". Meltzer also criticized the "wonky match order", as after the first two big matches were over, the crowd "was just waiting for the main event" (only three matches were promoted on TV), resulting in a "blah" middle of the show that seemed like it "took forever".


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Philip Martinez of "Newsweek" stated that Hell in a Cell "may go down in history for one of the more disappointing finishes in modern WWE history." Daniel van Boom of CNET called Hell in a Cell "a "bad" show", "as bad as it gets" for any show with "two great matches on them" (the Raw women's title match and the tornado tag team match), as most of the show was "skippable, and the ending was fantastically stupid".


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Mike Tedesco of "WrestleView" declared Hell in a Cell to be the worst WWE PPV held in 2019 within the United States thus far. Tedesco wrote that the main event's "bad storytelling" hurt the perception of its participants and the Hell in a Cell match gimmick. Banks-Lynch was "slow at times with some mistimed spots, but they were innovative in this and worked hard," while Orton-Ali "was pretty damn good" for an unannounced match. The tornado tag match and Bayley-Charlotte were "decent." The trios match was "really, really bad", the women's tag title match was "painfully dull", and Gable-Corbin was "just there".


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Jason Powell of "Pro Wrestling Dot Net" stated the "show peaked with the first two matches, but that awful main event finish is one that will be talked about for years to come." It "was one of the most idiotic finishes" he'd "ever seen." Powell also criticized the finishes to the trios match and Bayley-Charlotte. Wade Keller of "Pro Wrestling Torch" called the main event a "disaster start to finish," stating that it was "stupid" that a Hell in A Cell match was ended because it got too violent. Therefore, Keller declared AEW the winner of the main event. As for the rest of the show, Keller described Lynch-Banks as "tremendous," 4.25 stars out of 5, and the tornado tag match as "excellent," 4 stars. Corbin-Gable as their "least inspired effort so far," the 24/7 title events as "really flat" including "stereotypical zany comedy antics" by the former Japanese wrestler Funaki, and lastly, Orton-Ali as lacking excitement.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The main event was voted as the winner of WrestleCrap's Gooker Award for the worst gimmick, storyline, or event in wrestling in 2019. In its induction, it was noted that having the "WWE 2K20" video game—whose release was marred by numerous bugs—as presenting sponsor of the show should have foreshadowed its quality, since "seeing the Gooker winner being sponsored by the second runner up for the award is a whole new rancid territory." The main event was also voted the worst match of the year by the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter", becoming the most negatively received Hell in a Cell match of all time.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: On the following "Raw", all the women's champions were put into a champions showcase tag team match, featuring Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch and new SmackDown Women's Champion Charlotte Flair against new Women's Tag Team Champions The Kabuki Warriors (Asuka and Kairi Sane). The Kabuki Warriors won after Asuka spat green mist in Lynch's face and Sane pinned her. After the match, former tag team champions Alexa Bliss and Nikki Cross ran out and attacked The Kabuki Warriors.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: The 2019 WWE Draft began on the following episode of "SmackDown". On that episode, Bayley, sporting shorter hair and destroying her Bayley-buddies during her entrance, reclaimed the SmackDown Women's Championship from Charlotte Flair. On the subsequent "Raw", number one Raw draft pick Becky Lynch was scheduled to face SmackDown draftee Sasha Banks in a non-title rematch to determine which brand would receive the first draft pick of the night. Banks, however, was unable to compete due to injury and was replaced by Charlotte Flair. Lynch won and Flair was later drafted to Raw.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Also during the following "SmackDown" (the first night of the 2019 draft), Universal Champion Seth Rollins (representing Raw) faced Roman Reigns (representing SmackDown) with the winner earning that brand the first draft pick that night. At the climax, "The Fiend" Bray Wyatt appeared and attacked Rollins, resulting in Rollins winning via disqualification and earning Raw the first draft pick. Wyatt was later drafted to SmackDown. On the following "Raw" (night two of the draft), Rollins was drafted to Raw, but scheduled to have a championship rematch against The Fiend at Crown Jewel in a Falls Count Anywhere match that cannot be stopped for any reason. At the event, The Fiend defeated Rollins to win the title; this subsequently transferred the title to SmackDown.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: Also on the following "Raw", Lacey Evans and Natalya had a rematch as a Last Woman Standing match that Natalya also won. At Crown Jewel, Evans and Natalya competed in the first ever women's match in Saudi Arabia that Natalya won.


title: Hell in a Cell (2019)

text: King Corbin faced Chad Gable, now officially going by Shorty Gable (later changed to Shorty G), in a rematch on the October 11 "SmackDown" which Corbin won.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Nathaniel C. Fick (born June 23, 1977) is an American diplomat, technology executive, author, and former United States Marine Corps officer. He was the CEO of cybersecurity software company Endgame, Inc., then worked for Elastic NV after it acquired Endgame. He was an Operating Partner at Bessemer Venture Partners. In 2022, he was selected to lead the U.S. State Department's Bureau for Cyberspace and Digital Policy.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick is the author of "", a memoir of his military experience published in 2005 that was a "New York Times" bestseller, one of the "Washington Post"'s "Best Books of the Year," and one of the "Military Times" "Best Military Books of the Decade."


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick was born in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1977, and attended Loyola Blakefield high school in Towson, Maryland. Fick went on to attend Dartmouth College. He later graduated with degrees in classics and government in 1999. While at Dartmouth, Fick captained the cycling team to a U.S. National Championship and wrote a senior thesis on Thucydides' "History of the Peloponnesian War" and its implications for American foreign policy. After leaving the Marine Corps, Fick earned both an MPA and MBA from Harvard University.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: In 1998, after his junior year at Dartmouth, Fick attended the United States Marine Corps Officer Candidates School and was commissioned a second lieutenant upon graduating college the following year.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick was trained as an infantry officer and was eventually assigned as a platoon commander to 1st Battalion 1st Marines. He was an officer in the Amphibious Ready Group of the 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit based in Darwin, Northern Territory, training with the Australian Army for humanitarian operations deployment to East Timor until the September 11 attacks. He then led his platoon into Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom to support the War on Terror. Upon his return to the United States in March 2002, he was recommended for Marine reconnaissance training. He also completed Army Airborne School. He subsequently led Second Platoon of Bravo Company of the 1st Reconnaissance Battalion during the invasion of Iraq in 2003.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick left the U.S. Marine Corps as a captain in December 2003, and used the GI Bill to attend Harvard Business School and the Harvard Kennedy School. He came to public notice for his writing on military life and the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. His memoir "One Bullet Away" won the Colby Award in 2006.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick became the chief operating officer (COO) at the Center for a New American Security in 2008 and later was appointed CEO in June 2009.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick served as the CEO of cybersecurity software company Endgame, from 2012 through its acquisition by search company Elastic in 2019, when he became Elastic's general manager of information security. He was recognized in 2018 by "Fast Company" magazine as one of the "Most Creative People in Business."


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: He testified before the United States Senate on Iraq and spoke at the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver on August 28, 2008, the night Barack Obama accepted the presidential nomination.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: On June 3, 2022, Fick was nominated as the U.S. State Department’s first Ambassador-at-Large for Cyberspace and Digital Policy. Hearings on his nomination were held before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on August 3, 2022.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: The Senate confirmed Fick's nomination on September 15 by unanimous voice vote, and he was sworn in on September 21.


title: Nathaniel Fick

text: Fick and his platoon were the subjects of a series of articles in "Rolling Stone" and the book "Generation Kill" by the embedded journalist Evan Wright. The articles won the National Magazine Award in 2003. "Generation Kill" was adapted by David Simon and Ed Burns into a miniseries of the same name for HBO, in which Fick was portrayed by Stark Sands.


title: HQ-22

text: The HQ-22 () is a medium- to long-range semi-active radar homing/radio-command guidance air defence system developed and manufactured in China.


title: HQ-22

text: The HQ-22 air defence system was developed as the second generation of the HQ-12 missile. The HQ-22 is manufactured by Jiangnan Space Industry, also known as Base 061, which is a part of the China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC).


title: HQ-22

text: In 2014, a downgraded form of the missile known as the FK-3 was revealed, targeting export customers.


title: HQ-22

text: In 2017, the HQ-22 entered service in the People's Liberation Army and has rapidly become one of the main missiles used for air defence.


title: HQ-22

text: A typical HQ-22 battery includes one radar vehicle and three transporter erector launchers equipped with four missiles each. Each battery can reportedly engage six aerial targets simultaneously.


title: HQ-22

text: The missile system has been widely compared to the United States' Patriot and Russia's mobile long range S-300 surface-to-air missile system. Although it has a shorter range than S-300 variants such as the S-300PMU-2, it is thought to benefit from superior electronic countermeasures (ECM) and superior capabilities against stealth targets at shorter ranges.


title: HQ-22

text: The system is believed to be much less expensive than the HQ-9 also in service and will be one of the mainstays of China's air defense network, replacing the HQ-2 missiles of the Cold War era.


title: HQ-22

text: The HQ-22 has a range of up to and can strike targets at altitudes from to . The system's missiles are guided by semi-active radar guidance and can engage ballistic and cruise missiles, aircraft, helicopters and unmanned aerial vehicles.


title: HQ-22

text: One main difference of the HQ-22 from its predecessor HQ-12 is that the HQ-22 has a new "wingless" design.


title: HQ-22

text: The system is capable of launching 12 missiles to engage up to six targets simultaneously, and engage up to 36 targets with 72 missiles when multiple fire units, under the control of a command and coordination vehicle, are used.


title: HQ-22

text: The missile can use either semi-active radar homing composite guidance or radio-command guidance through the whole course. Initially, the missile will use semi-active radar homing guidance and in the case that it encounters strong electronic interference, will automatically change to radio-command guidance.


title: HQ-22

text: The launcher vehicles are based on a 8×8 configuration chassis manufactured by the Hanyang Special Purpose Vehicle Institute. The HQ-22 launches its missiles at an angle, unlike the HQ-9 and HQ-16 which launch their missiles vertically.


title: HQ-22

text: In 2017, the HQ-22 entered service in the People's Liberation Army and has rapidly become one of the country's primary air defence systems.


title: HQ-22

text: In August 2020, it was announced that Serbia had purchased the FK-3, surprising many in the Russian media, who had expected the country to purchase the S-300 instead. It was the first time that any Chinese medium- or long-range air defence system had been exported to a European country.


title: HQ-22

text: It was reported in April that HQ-22s had been deployed by the PLA near Indian territory in the eastern Ladakh area.


title: HQ-22

text: On 9 April 2022, multiple People's Liberation Army Air Force Xi'an Y-20 transport aircraft landed in Belgrade to deliver the FK-3 to the Serbian Air Force and Air Defence. On 30 April 2022, the Serbian Ministry of Defence showed the first pictures of the FK-3 officially brought into service.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: Centipede is a 1981 fixed shooter arcade game developed and published by Atari, Inc. Designed by Dona Bailey and Ed Logg, it was one of the most commercially successful games from the golden age of arcade video games and one of the first with a significant female player base. The primary objective is to shoot all the segments of a centipede that winds down the playing field. An arcade sequel, "Millipede", followed in 1982.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: "Centipede" was ported to Atari's own Atari 2600, Atari 5200, Atari 7800, and Atari 8-bit family. Under the Atarisoft label, the game was sold for the Apple II, Commodore 64, ColecoVision, VIC-20, IBM PC (as a self-booting disk), Intellivision, and TI-99/4A. Superior Software published the port for the BBC Micro. Versions for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color were also produced, as well as a version for the short-lived Game.com developed by Handheld Games and published by Tiger Electronics.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: The player controls a small insect-like "Bug Blaster". It is moved around the bottom area of the screen with a trackball and fires small darts at a segmented centipede advancing from the top of the screen through a field of mushrooms. Each segment of the centipede becomes a mushroom when shot; shooting one of the middle segments splits the centipede into two pieces at that point. Each piece then continues independently on its way down the screen, with the rear piece sprouting its own head. If the centipede head is destroyed, the segment behind it becomes the next head. Shooting the head is worth 100 points while the other segments are 10. The centipede starts at the top of the screen, traveling either left or right. When it touches a mushroom or reaches the edge of the screen, it descends one level and reverses direction. The player can destroy mushrooms (a point each) by shooting them, but each takes four shots to destroy. At higher levels, the screen can become increasingly crowded with mushrooms due to player/enemy actions, causing the centipede to descend more rapidly.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: Once the centipede reaches the bottom of the screen, it stays within the player area and one-segment "head" centipedes will periodically appear from the side. This continues until the player has eliminated both the original centipede and all heads. When all the centipede's segments are destroyed, another one enters from the top of the screen. The initial centipede is 10 or 12 segments long, including the head; each successive centipede is one segment shorter and accompanied by one detached, faster-moving head. This pattern continues until all segments are separate heads, after which it repeats with a single full-length centipede.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: The player also encounters other creatures besides the centipedes. Fleas drop vertically and disappear upon touching the bottom of the screen, occasionally leaving a trail of mushrooms in their path when only a few mushrooms are in the player movement area; they are worth 200 points and takes two shots to destroy. Spiders move across the player area in a zig-zag pattern and eat some of the mushrooms; they are worth 300, 600, or 900 points depending on how close the player shoots it. Scorpions move horizontally across the screen, turning every mushroom they touch into poison mushrooms. Scorpions are also worth the most points of all enemies with 1,000 points each. A centipede touching a poison mushroom will attack straight down toward the bottom, then return to normal behavior upon reaching it. This "poisoned" centipede can be both beneficial and detrimental to the player; the player can destroy them rapidly as it descends down, while at the same time, they can be very challenging to avoid, especially if already split into multiple segments.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: The Bug Blaster is destroyed when hit by any enemy, after which any poisonous or partially damaged mushrooms revert to normal. 5 points are awarded for each regenerated mushroom. An extra life is awarded every 12,000 points.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: Dona Bailey and Ed Logg developed "Centipede" for Atari. Logg, a supervisor, said that he did the design, while Bailey did about half of the programming. Bailey was one of the few female game programmers in the industry. Logg stated that the game was intended to attract women players; he believed that its design was not biased by sex, unlike a fighting or sports game. Bailey said: "I really like pastels ... I really wanted it to look different, to be visually arresting". Bailey had only recently discovered video games when she heard the song "Space Invader" (1979) by The Pretenders and then played "Space Invaders" (1978), but she was one of the few American women at the time with experience in assembly language programming.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: "Centipede" was one of the top four highest-grossing arcade games of 1982 in the United States, along with "Ms. Pac-Man", "Pac-Man" and "Donkey Kong". The Atari VCS port of "Centipede" sold 1,475,240 cartridges during 1982 to 1983, becoming the 11th-best-selling Atari game.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: It was also one of the first coin-operated arcade video games to have a significant female player base. "How to Win Video Games" (1982) estimated that half of its players and 60% of "Pac-Man"s were women, while 95% of "Defender" players were men.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 1983, "Softline" readers named "Centipede" ninth on the magazine's Top Thirty list of Atari 8-bit programs by popularity. The game received the award for "1984 Best Computer Action Game" at the 5th annual Arkie Awards where the judges described it as "pack[ing] a real roundhouse punch", and suggested that some "insist that [the "Centipede"] Atari cartridge is the best home-arcade edition you can buy". David H. Ahl of "Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games" said that the Atari 5200 version was "delightful fun".


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In a 1984 "Video" review of the Apple II version of the game, Bill Kunkel and Arnie Katz commented that "the graphic limits of the Apple crimp the style" and expressed disappointment in the game's "sluggish" interfacing with trackball controllers.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 1995, Flux magazine ranked the arcade version 15th on their "Top 100 Video Games". In 1996, "Next Generation" listed the arcade version as number 84 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", praising the cool concept, trackball control, and that it is accessible enough that "any human on the planet can play it well enough to enjoy it" yet "hard enough that even excellent gamers find it challenging".


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 2020, The Strong National Museum of Play inducted "Centipede" to its World Video Game Hall of Fame.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 1992, Atari Games developed a prototype of an arcade game called "Arcade Classics" for their 20th anniversary, which includes "Missile Command 2" and "Super Centipede" with co-op 2-player mode.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: A 3D fantasy role-playing game based on the original game was being developed by Dark Science for the Atari Jaguar CD under the working title "Centipede 2000". The source code of the project no longer exists and the only remaining proof of its existence is a short video clip from the developer.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 1998, after acquiring the intellectual property of Atari from then-owner JT Storage, Hasbro Interactive released a new version of the game for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation, Dreamcast, and Mac OS. It is very different from the original: 3D graphics, free movement around the map, and a campaign which can be played in single-player or multiplayer mode.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: A revamped version of the game, titled "Centipede: Recharged", was released for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, Google Stadia, and Atari VCS with exclusive content in September 2021.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 1983, Milton Bradley released a board game based on the video game. The board game pits two players against each other in a race to be the first person to the opponent's home base with a centipede. Each player can utilize a blaster, as well as a scorpion and spider, to slow the opposing centipede's advance. A new board game based on "Centipede" was published by IDW Publishing in 2017.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In 1989, a deadpan narration describing the original game appeared on side 2 of Negativland's third cassette release, "The Weatherman" (SSTC902), which consisted of clips from the live "Over the Edge" radio show sometime between 1982 and 1984. The narrator may be Ed Logg.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: American indie rock band the Strokes used promotional artwork for the game on their 2003 single, Reptilia.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: In May 2016, Emmett/Furla/Oasis Films has closed a deal to partner with Atari to produce and finance both "Centipede" and "Missile Command" movie adaptations.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: Dynamite Entertainment released a limited run comic book series based on "Centipede", with issue #1 premiering in July 2017.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: The game was chosen for the final round of the 1981 Atari World Championships run by Tournament Games International. The men's champion was Eric Ginner and the women's champion was Ok-Soo Han.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: The world record score on the arcade version of "Centipede" was 16,389,547 points by Jim Schneider of the USA on August 1, 1984.


title: Centipede (video game)

text: Donald Hayes of Windham, New Hampshire, scored a world record 7,111,111 points under tournament rules on the arcade version of "Centipede" on November 5, 2000.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: Ki-Jana Delano Hoever (born 18 January 2002) is a Dutch professional footballer who plays as a defender for Eredivisie club PSV Eindhoven, on loan from Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers. Hoever is a Liverpool youth academy graduate, but limited appearances brought him to join Wolverhampton Wanderers in 2020.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: Hoever was born in Amsterdam, Netherlands and is of Surinamese descent. His father, a former American football player, named him after former NFL running back Ki-Jana Carter.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: Hoever started out in the youth ranks at AZ Alkmaar before moving on to Ajax in 2014. Hoever played 13 times and scored two goals in the Under-17 Eredivisie during the 2017–18 season. Described as equally as comfortable playing at centre-half and right-back, Hoever completed his move to Liverpool in August 2018 from Ajax but had to wait until September 2018 for international clearance. As he had not signed a professional contract, Liverpool only had to pay a minimal compensation and Ajax were reported to be bitterly disappointed to lose the player. Manchester City, Manchester United and Chelsea were also reportedly interested in making the signing. Hoever made his first Liverpool appearance in a 4–1 win for the under-18s against Newcastle on 15 September. Following that he was given a substitute appearance in the Reds' UEFA Youth League match at home to Paris Saint-Germain that ended in a 5–2 win on 18 September 2018. He later played the full 90 minutes at centre-half in the 5–0 win over Napoli that sealed Liverpool's U18s place in the knockout stages of that tournament.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: By November 2018, Hoever had his U23s debut as a wide right midfielder against league leaders Everton at Goodison Park, which Liverpool won. His performance earned praise from U23 manager Neil Critchley, who said, “I thought his calmness and assurance, his decision-making, his intelligence without the ball, it was terrific. I was very impressed with him indeed.” Hoever made further appearances at right-back for the U23s including receiving plaudits for his performance in a 4–1 win against the reigning Premier League 2 champions Arsenal.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: In December 2018 Hoever began training with the Liverpool first team, with manager Jürgen Klopp describing him as "confident" and "a joy to watch." Hoever was given the squad number 51 ahead of the FA Cup game against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux Stadium on 7 January 2019. He started the match on the bench, but replaced an injured Dejan Lovren at centre-back in the opening minutes. Hoever's appearance made him the youngest ever Liverpool player in the FA Cup and their third youngest in any competition.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: His first professional goal came on 25 September 2019 in an EFL Cup match against Milton Keynes Dons. Upon scoring, at the age of 17 years, eight months and 10 days, Hoever became the fourth-youngest player to find the back of the net for Liverpool, behind Ben Woodburn, Michael Owen and Jordan Rossiter.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: On 19 September 2020, Hoever completed a £9 million transfer to Wolverhampton Wanderers. Hoever made his first appearance in the Premier League, and his debut for Wolves, as a second-half substitute in a 4–0 defeat away to West Ham United on 27 September 2020. He made his debut Molineux appearance for Wolves in the team's next match, a 1–0 victory in the Premier League over Fulham on 4 October 2020, also as a second-half substitute.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: Hoever made his full Premier League debut away to Manchester United on 29 December 2020, a game which Wolves lost narrowly to a deflection in added time.


title: Ki-Jana Hoever

text: Born in the Netherlands, Hoever is of Surinamese descent. Hoever is a Netherlands U17 international, scoring three goals in his first five games. He participated in the U17 European Championships in Ireland in 2019, a tournament which the Netherlands won. Hoever started as the Netherlands beat Italy in the final with a scoreline of 4–2, a game which saw Hoever hit the post from a free-kick, which provided the assist for the Dutch's second goal.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Detective Inspector G. Lestrade, or Mr. Lestrade ( ), is a fictional character appearing in several of the Sherlock Holmes stories written by Arthur Conan Doyle. Lestrade's first appearance was in the first Sherlock Holmes story, the novel "A Study in Scarlet", which was published in 1887. The last story in which he appears is the short story "The Adventure of the Three Garridebs", which was first published in 1924 and was included in the last collection of Sherlock Holmes stories by Doyle, "The Case-Book of Sherlock Holmes".


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Lestrade is a determined but conventional Scotland Yard detective who consults Sherlock Holmes on many cases, and is the most prominent police character in the Sherlock Holmes series. Lestrade has been played by many actors in adaptations based on the Sherlock Holmes stories in film, television, and other media.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Lestrade is also mentioned in the novel "The Sign of the Four" (1890), though he doesn't appear in it.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Lestrade mentions his "twenty years' experience" in the police force in "A Study in Scarlet". In the story, Holmes says Lestrade is "a well-known detective". It is observed by Holmes that Lestrade and another detective, Tobias Gregson, have an ongoing rivalry, and he identifies the two as "the pick of a bad lot. They are both quick and energetic, but conventional – shockingly so." Holmes regularly allows members of the police to take the credit for his deductions, including Lestrade in cases such as those in "The Adventure of the Empty House" and "The Adventure of the Norwood Builder". Lestrade is able to write in shorthand.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Lestrade is initially doubtful about Holmes's methods, and he suggests that Holmes is "too much inclined to be cocksure" in "The Adventure of the Norwood Builder". He is "indifferent and contemptuous" of Holmes's exploration in "The Boscombe Valley Mystery". Holmes is openly rude about Lestrade at times, such as in "The Boscombe Valley Mystery" when he tells Lestrade "demurely" that he is unskilled at handling facts, and refers to Lestrade as an imbecile. In "The Sign of the Four", Holmes says that being out of his depth is Lestrade's normal state (along with Inspectors Gregson and Athelney Jones). However, Holmes is generally more positive about Lestrade in later stories. In "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box", Holmes remarks that Lestrade's tenacity "has brought him to the top at Scotland Yard". In "The Hound of the Baskervilles", he says that Lestrade is "the best of the professionals" (meaning the professionals employed by Scotland Yard as opposed to himself), and in the same story, Watson observes "from the reverential way in which Lestrade gazed at my companion that he had learned a good deal since the days when they had first worked together."


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: By the time of the story "The Adventure of the Six Napoleons", Lestrade is a regular evening visitor at 221B Baker Street, and "his visits were welcome to Sherlock Holmes" according to Watson. In the same story, Lestrade reveals the high regard in which Holmes is now held by Scotland Yard: "We're not jealous of you at Scotland Yard. No, sir, we are very proud of you, and if you come down to-morrow, there's not a man, from the oldest inspector to the youngest constable, who wouldn't be glad to shake you by the hand". Holmes thanks Lestrade for this comment, and Watson notes that this is one of the few instances when Holmes is visibly moved. In "The Disappearance of Lady Frances Carfax", Holmes refers to him as "friend Lestrade". Lestrade's involvement in the investigation in "The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans" suggests he has become one of Scotland Yard's most trusted detectives.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: He is the most famous detective ever to walk the corridors of Scotland Yard, yet he existed only in the fertile imagination of a writer. He was Inspector Lestrade. We do not know his first name, only his initial: "G". Although he appears thirteen times in the immortal adventures of Sherlock Holmes, nothing is known of the life outside the Yard of the detective whom Dr. Watson described unflatteringly as sallow, rat-faced, and dark-eyed and whom Holmes saw as quick and energetic but wholly conventional, lacking in imagination, and normally out of his depth – the best of a bad lot who had reached the top in the CID by bulldog tenacity.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Inspector Lestrade is described as "a little sallow rat-faced, dark-eyed fellow" in "A Study in Scarlet". In "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", Watson describes Lestrade as "a lean, ferret-like man, furtive and sly-looking", and also says, "In spite of the light brown dustcoat and leather-leggings which he wore in deference to his rustic surroundings, I had no difficulty in recognising Lestrade, of Scotland Yard." Watson states that Lestrade is "as wiry, as dapper, and as ferret-like as ever" in "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box". He is described as "a small, wiry bulldog of a man" in "The Hound of the Baskervilles", and there is a description of him as having "bulldog features" in "The Adventure of the Second Stain". According to Holmes in "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", Lestrade's tracks can be identified due to the "inward twist" of his left foot.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: His age is not given in the stories. Lestrade works with Holmes as early as "A Study in Scarlet" (which according to Leslie S. Klinger takes place in 1881) and continues to do so as late as "The Adventure of the Three Garridebs" (which is set in 1902). According to Klinger, L. S. Holstein used this information to conclude that Lestrade is ten to twelve years older than Holmes. Klinger estimated that Holmes was born in 1854; together with Holstein's theory, this would suggest that Lestrade may have been born between 1842 and 1844.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Doyle seems to have acquired Lestrade's name from a fellow student at the University of Edinburgh, Joseph Alexandre Lestrade, who was a Saint Lucian medical student. In "The Adventure of the Cardboard Box", Lestrade's first initial is revealed to be G. This initial may have been inspired by the Prefect of Police known only as "G—" in Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Purloined Letter" (1845). Despite having an apparently French surname (there is a village named Lestrade-et-Thouels in France and "l'estrade" means "the raised platform" in French), Inspector Lestrade shows no overt French ties.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: According to "Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary", the name Lestrade can be pronounced either "Le'strayed" (rhyming with "trade") or "Le'strahd" . In "The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes", Leslie S. Klinger writes that there is no consensus among scholars on the pronunciation of "Lestrade". The original French pronunciation of the name would have been close to "Le'strahd". However, according to the book "The Sherlock Holmes Miscellany" by Roger Johnson and Jean Upton (Holmesian scholars and members of The Baker Street Irregulars), Arthur Conan Doyle's daughter Dame Jean Conan Doyle stated that her father pronounced the name with a long "a" sound (as "Le'strayed").


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: The pronunciation of Lestrade as "Le'strahd" has been used in multiple adaptations such as the 1939–1946 film series, the 2009 film "Sherlock Holmes", and the television series "Sherlock" (2010–2017). The pronunciation of the name as "Le'strayed" has also been used in multiple canonical adaptations, including the 1931–1937 film series, the Granada television series (1984–1994), and the BBC radio series (1989–1998), as well as in some non-canonical works, including the 2020 film "Enola Holmes".


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: Agatha Christie modelled her police detective character Inspector Japp, who appears in the stories featuring private detective Hercule Poirot, after Inspector Lestrade. Similar to Lestrade, Japp is described as "a little, sharp, dark, ferret-faced man" in Christie's 1920 novel "The Mysterious Affair at Styles". In her autobiography, Christie stated that she wrote her early Poirot stories "in the Sherlock Holmes tradition—eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp".


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: "The Inspector Lestrade Award" is a rising term among message boards for a person who is "almost correct." It has shown up on zdnet and "Bad Astronomy and the Universe Today" forum.


title: Inspector Lestrade

text: The Peterson Pipes company has a Sherlock Holmes (Return) Series of handmade pipes with silverwork. Two Lestrade pipes are in the collection.


title: Destiny Udogie

text: Iyenoma Destiny Udogie (born 28 November 2002) is an Italian professional footballer who currently plays as a wingback for Serie A club Udinese, on loan from Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Destiny Udogie

text: Udogie developed in the Hellas Verona youth system, and made his Serie A debut on 8 November 2020, in a 2–2 draw away to Milan.


title: Destiny Udogie

text: On 15 July 2021, Udogie joined Udinese on a season-long loan with an obligation to buy. During his debut season, he made 37 appearances for the club, primarily as a left wingback, and scored five goals.


title: Destiny Udogie

text: On 16 August 2022, Tottenham Hotspur confirmed that they had signed Udogie on a permanent transfer until 2027, with Udogie returning to Udinese on loan for the season.


title: Destiny Udogie

text: On 3 September 2021 he made his debut with the Italy U21 squad, playing as a starter in the qualifying match won 3–0 against Luxembourg.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: , known as simply Pretty Cure outside Japan, is a Japanese magical girl anime series produced by Toei Animation and broadcast across Japan on ANN for 97 episodes. It is the first series in the "Pretty Cure" metaseries created by Izumi Todo.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: The first season, directed by Daisuke Nishio, aired between February 1, 2004 and January 30, 2005, in the same timeslot as Izumi Todo's previous work Ashita no Nadja. It received an adapted English-dubbed version, which aired in Canada in March 2009.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: A second season, , or simply "Max Heart", aired in Japan between February 6, 2005, and January 29, 2006. It was then succeeded by "Futari wa Pretty Cure Splash Star". Two "Max Heart" movies were released on April 16, 2005, and December 10, 2005, respectively. The series' main motif is yin and yang.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: "Futari wa Pretty Cure" revolves around two girls, Nagisa Misumi and Honoka Yukishiro, who encounter the Garden of Light's Mipple and Mepple, who give them the power to transform into the emissaries of light; Cure Black and Cure White, to fight against the forces of the Dark Zone: a dimension of evil that has encroached on the Garden of Light and is now about to do the same to the Garden of Rainbows, Earth. The Cures search for the Prism Stones, placing them in a heart-shaped device known as the Prism Hopish, protected by the Guardian, Wisdom. Once they have discovered all the Prism Stones, its power takes them to the Garden of Light and repairs most of the damage done by the Dark Zone. Later in the series, Porun, the Prince of the Garden of Light, grants the Pretty Cure duo use of their Rainbow Bracelets as they defeat the Dark King.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: In "Max Heart", Nagisa and Honoka meet the mysterious Hikari Kujou, who is soon revealed to be the "Life" of the Queen, whose powers were scattered into the form of twelve "Heartiels" following her battle with the Dark King. Meanwhile, remnants of the Dark Zone are protecting a mysterious boy, who is suspected of being the "Life" of the Dark King. Joined by Hikari, who gains the power to become Shiny Luminous, the Pretty Cures once again fight against the Dark Zone in order to retrieve the Heartiels and restore the Queen.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: Where appropriate, names on the left are from the original Japanese version, whilst names on the right without Japanese text are from both the Canadian and Singaporean English dubs. Character descriptions pertain to the Japanese version of the show.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: The villains of the first series emerge from the , which is a realm of darkness ruled by the Dark King.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: When the Dark Five are defeated, new enemies appear: the Three Seeds of Darkness. The Seeds of Darkness are joined by Macaw, their pet bird; and the . The butlers serve as comic relief, as they are unintelligent and tend to fight and bicker a lot. However, unlike other Zakenna, they speak human language, only using "-zakenna" to end their sentences. The taller Zakenna is laid back and somewhat clumsy, while the shorter Zakenna is quick to anger.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: The Four Guardians are what remains of the Dark Zone, serving as the protectors of the "Life" of the Evil King whom they go to lengths to revive.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: Much like mepple he and nagisa tends to bickers with each other but deep down they still deeply care and loves with one another despite their frequent quarrels. Initially nagisa does not shown gets along with him at first during the first season because of his irritating attitude ( which to the point of her giving him the "cobra twist " several times throughout in both seasons ) but however as the season progresses their relationship starts to improve as nagisa and ryouta becomes having a better sibling relationship but like mepple they both never stop bicker and argues with each other.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: The original "Futari wa Pretty Cure" anime aired in Japan between February 1, 2004, and January 30, 2005. The opening theme is by Mayumi Gojo whilst the ending theme is also by Gojo. The follow up series, "Max Heart", aired in Japan between February 6, 2005, and January 29, 2006. The opening theme is by Mayumi Gojo. The first ending theme, used for episodes 1-36, is by Mayumi Gojo with Young Fresh, whilst the second ending theme, used for episodes 37-47 is by Gojo.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: Two animated films based on the "Max Heart" series were released. The first, , was released on April 16, 2005. The second movie, , was released December 10, 2005. The heroines also appear in all "Pretty Cure All Stars" movies, which ran between 2009 and 2016. Another crossover film, "Hugtto! PreCure ♡ Futari wa Pretty Cure", was released on October 27, 2018, celebrating the franchise's 15th anniversary.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: On February 24, 2006, 4Kids Entertainment announced broadcasting and distribution rights for "Pretty Cure" in the United States, though never produced an English version of it. In July 2008, Toei Animation began making episodes available through IGN's Direct2Drive service subtitled into English, and have also started making those same episodes available for free internet streaming on Crunchyroll. The subtitles were produced by "Nippon Golden Network", a Hawaii-based cable network that broadcasts Asian programming (mostly from Japan), and featured low-quality video and audio. In April 2009, Funimation used to license the English-subtitled version of the series for online distribution on the company's website. This subtitled version was updated on Crunchyroll and VRV on March 25, 2021, with improved video and audio quality.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: An English-dubbed version was produced by Toei and Ocean Productions using their Blue Water studio in Calgary, Alberta which aired on Canada's YTV channel from March 6, 2009, to July 31, 2010. Although uncut in content, the English dub makes several changes to character names, cultural references and theme music, though mostly retains the original version's main soundtrack. This dub also aired in the United Kingdom on the Pop Girl digital channel from September 6, 2010.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: This anime also aired, in Indonesian-dubbed version on RCTI, Indosiar (MAX Heart version) and Spacetoon Plus.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: A Cantonese dub of the anime aired in TVB stations in Hong Kong, with the theme song sung by Cantonese band duo, Twins.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: Both the television series and their movies received manga adaptation which were illustrated by Futago Kamikita in Kodansha's "Nakayoshi" magazine as they aired.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: Four video games based on the two series have been released in Japan by Bandai. An educational video game was released for the Sega Pico in 2004. A puzzle platformer, , was released for Game Boy Advance in 2004. A platformer, was released for Game Boy Advance in 2005. A side-scrolling beat 'em up game, was also released in 2005 for the Nintendo DS. Nagisa, Honoka and Hikari have also appeared in other Nintendo DS games based on subsequent "Pretty Cure" series.


title: Futari wa Pretty Cure

text: The series' popularity quickly spawned it into a full franchise with many different series. In a TV Asahi opinion poll, "Pretty Cure" appeared in the 45th position, above other series of the magical girl genre like "Cutie Honey" (technically not a "magical girl" series in the same sense; see article for details), "Cardcaptor Sakura", and "Magical Angel Creamy Mami".


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Some Native Americans in the United States have been harmed by, or become addicted to, drinking alcohol. Among contemporary Native Americans and Alaska Natives, 11.7% of all deaths are related to alcohol. By comparison, about 5.9% of global deaths are attributable to alcohol consumption. Because of negative stereotypes and biases based on race and social class, generalizations and myths abound around the topic of Native American alcohol misuse.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: A survey of death certificates from 2006 to 2010 showed that deaths among Native Americans due to alcohol are about four times as common as in the general U.S. population. They are often due to traffic collisions and liver disease, with homicide, suicide, and falls also contributing. Deaths related to alcohol among Native Americans are more common in men and among Northern Plains Indians. Alaska Natives showed the lowest incidence of alcohol-related death. Alcohol misuse amongst Native Americans has been shown to be associated with development of disease, including hearing and vision problems, kidney and bladder problems, head injuries, pneumonia, tuberculosis, dental problems, liver problems, and pancreatitis. In some tribes, the rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is as high as 1.5 to 2.5 per 1,000 live births, more than seven times the national average, while among Alaska Natives, the rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder is 5.6 per 1,000 live births.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Native American and Native Alaskan youth are far more likely to experiment with alcohol at a younger age than non-Native youth. Low self-esteem and transgenerational trauma have been associated with substance use disorders among Native American teens in the U.S. and Canada. Alcohol education and prevention programs have focused on raising self-esteem, emphasizing traditional values, and recruiting Native youth to advocate for abstinence and healthy substitution.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Historically, those Native American tribes who manufactured alcoholic drinks used them and other mind-altering substances in ritual settings and rarely for personal enjoyment. Liquor was unknown until introduced by Europeans, therefore alcohol dependence was largely unknown when European contact was made. The use of alcohol as a trade item and the practice of intoxication for fun, or to alleviate stress, gradually undermined traditional Native American culture until by the late 18th century, alcoholism was recognized as a serious problem in many Native American communities. Native American leaders campaigned with limited success to educate Native Americans about the dangers of drinking and intoxication. Legislation prohibiting the sale of alcohol to Native Americans generally failed to prevent alcohol-related social and health problems, and discriminatory legislation was abandoned in the 1950s in favor of laws passed in Native American communities by Native Americans. Modern treatment focuses on culturally appropriate strategies that emphasize traditional activities designed to promote spiritual harmony and group solidarity.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Pre-Columbian Native Americans fermented starchy seeds and roots as well as fruits from both wild and domesticated plants. Among the most common are drinks made from fermented corn, agave, and manioc. Aboriginal use of alcohol generally took place in shared spiritual experiences that often arose out of the shamanistic tradition and was invested with expectations of improved well-being, as opposed to individual enjoyment or entertainment.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Before contact, Native Americans used mind-altering substances to communicate with the spirit world, and intoxication was "associated with a quest for enlightenment, powers of healing, and the facilitation of war-making. [They related] the new phenomenon of intoxication ... to the old concepts of dreaming, communion with the spirit world, and the acquisition of power." Aberrant behavior while intoxicated was frequently forgiven (for example, among the Catawba and the Lakota Sioux) as though the drinker had been possessed by powers beyond his or her control.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Pre-Columbian Native Americans in Mexico and Central America prepared over forty different alcoholic beverages from a variety of plants and plant extracts. Traditional Mayan beverages have included:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Traditional drinks made from fermented corn or corn flour include "tejuino", "pozol", "chicha" or "chicha de jora", and "pox".


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Evidence from Puerto Escondido dating to the formative stage of the Olmec Culture (1100-900 BC) indicates that a weak alcoholic beverage was made from fermented cacao pulp and stored in pottery containers. This is probably the earliest known consumption of cacao. Fermentation is an early step in the process later used to produce the nonalcoholic chocolate beverage widely consumed in Mesoamerica.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: For at least 1,800 years the indigenous peoples of the Central Highlands of Mexico have brewed pulque (Nahuatl: "ometochtli" or "octli") from the fermented sap of the maguey (agave) plant. Gas chromatographic analysis of ceramic vessels in Teotihuacan, dated to AD 200–550, found evidence that they once contained pulque. For the Aztecs, the imbibing of pulque was done only by certain people, under certain conditions. It was a ritual drink, consumed during festivals such as that of the goddess Mayahuel, and the god Mixcoatl. Bernardino de Sahagún records the Aztec ceremony associated with drinking:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Libation was done in this manner: when "octli" was drunk, when they tasted the new "octli", when someone had just made "octli" ... he summoned people. He set it out in a vessel before the hearth, along with small cups for drinking. Before having anyone drink, he took up "octli" with a cup and then poured it before the hearth; he poured the "octli" in the four directions. And when he had poured the "octli" then everyone drank it.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Pulque was drunk by Aztec priests and their sacrificial victims, to increase the priests' enthusiasm and to ease the suffering of the victim. Among commoners, it was permitted only to the elderly and pregnant or lactating women due to the association between pulque and fertility, purification and renewal. Production of pulque was ritualized and the brewers would abstain from sex during the fermentation period. During most festivals, participants were not permitted to drink more than four cups of pulque, and Aztec folklore describes the likely fate of people who drank too much, including death by disease or accident. Exaggerated tales of the Huastec people characterized them as habitual drunkards and detailed their shameful behavior under the influence of alcohol, in an effort to discourage drunkenness among the Aztecs. Elderly Aztecs who had reached the age of 70 and had raised families could drink as much as they wanted, as long as their children carried them home safely, keeping them covered up and "restraining and guiding" them so they would avoid "committing excesses and transgressions," and not fall "into a river or a hole." Drunkenness was also viewed as a means of establishing communication between humans and the gods, and was therefore not considered appropriate for commoners. Alcoholic intoxication was seen as an act of transcending the boundaries of human, divine and natural forces, one that should only be done by accomplished, brave and important members of society so as to avoid offending the supernatural world. Among the Maya, pulque was referred to as "chih" and was flavored with honey and spices.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Prior to contact with colonists, alcohol use and production were mainly concentrated in the southwestern United States. In 2007, archaeologist Glenna Dean conducted studies to show that, between AD 828 and 1126, Pueblos in Chaco Canyon were brewing a weak beer made by fermenting kernels of corn. Gas chromatography analysis of 800-year-old potsherds found at Pueblo Bonito in 2006 contained residues consistent with fermented corn products.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Some Native American tribes produced weak beers, wine, and other fermented beverages, but the alcohol was naturally limited to 8–14% ABV, and they were used only for ceremonial purposes. The still, required to make stronger alcoholic beverages, was unknown. The Tohono O'odham, Piman, Apache, and Maricopa people all used the saguaro cactus to produce a wine, sometimes called "tiswin" or "haren a pitahaya". The Chiricahua prepared a kind of corn beer called "tula-pah" using sprouted corn kernels, dried and ground, flavored with locoweed or lignum vitae roots, placed in water and allowed to ferment. The Coahuiltecan in Texas combined mountain laurel with agave sap to create an alcoholic drink similar to pulque, and the Zunis were believed to have made fermented beverages from aloe, maguey, corn, prickly pear, pitaya, and even grapes.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In eastern North America the Creek of Georgia and Cherokee of the Carolinas used berries and other fruits to make alcoholic beverages, and there is some evidence that the Huron made a mild beer by soaking corn in water to produce a fermented gruel to be consumed at tribal feasts. In the northwest, the Kwakiutl of Vancouver Island produced a mildly alcoholic drink using elderberry juice, black chitons, and tobacco. Native Hawaiians produced "okolehao" from juice extracted from the roots of the ti plant. Despite the fact that they had little to no agriculture, both the Aleuts and Yuit of Kodiak Island in Alaska were observed making alcoholic drinks from fermented raspberries.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: A number of early accounts report that many Native Americans had no tradition of making alcoholic beverages, and did not know the effects of alcohol. Rather than approval, most Native peoples initially responded to alcohol with distaste and suspicion. They considered drunkenness "degrading to free men" and questioned the motives of those who would offer a substance that was so offensive to the senses and that made men foolish. Most Native people who did drink alcohol were reported to show "remarkable restraint while in their cups." Most drank alcohol only during social or trading contact with whites.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: When Europeans began making a large quantity of distilled spirits and wine available to Native Americans, the tribes had very little time to adapt and develop social, legal, or moral guidelines to regulate alcohol use. Early traders offered alcohol in trade, exchanging it for highly sought-after animal skins and other materials and resources. Traders also discovered that giving free alcohol to Native Americans during trading sessions gave them a distinct advantage during negotiations. Extreme intoxication was common among the colonists, contrary to the inexperienced native populations.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: By the early 1700s the effects of alcohol use disorder were damaging Native American communities. Rum as well as brandy and other distilled beverages had become important trade items and essential elements in diplomatic councils, treaty negotiations, and political transactions, and had become part of Native American gift-giving rituals. The result was the erosion of civility, an increase in violence, and widespread health problems. Alcohol made men less reliable hunters and allies, destabilized village economics, and contributed to a rise in poverty. The minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania for 16 May 1704 record a complaint submitted by Chief Ortiagh of the Conestoga Indians:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Great quantities of rum [are] continually brought to their town, insomuch as they [are] ruined by it, having nothing left but have laid out all, even their clothes, for rum, and may now, when threatened with war, be surprised by their enemies when beside themselves with drink, and so be utterly destroyed.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: John Lawson described the effects of alcohol on the tribes of North Carolina, which he observed during his travels there in 1700-1708:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Most of the Savages are much addicted to Drunkenness, a Vice they never were acquainted with, till the Christians came amongst them. Some of them refrain drinking strong Liquors, but very few of that sort are found amongst them. Their chief Liquor is Rum, without any Mixture. This the English bring amongst them, and buy Skins, Furs, Slaves and other of their Commodities therewith. They never are contented with a little, but when once begun, they must make themselves quite drunk; otherwise they will never rest, but sell all they have in the World, rather than not have their full Dose. In these drunken Frolicks, (which are always carried on in the Night) they sometimes murder one another, fall into the Fire, fall down Precipices, and break their Necks, with several other Misfortunes which this drinking of Rum brings upon them; and tho' they are sensible of it, yet they have no Power to refrain this Enemy. About five years ago, when Landgrave Daniel was Governor, he summon'd in all the Indian Kings and Rulers to meet, and in a full Meeting of the Government and Council, with those Indians, they agreed upon a firm Peace, and the Indian Rulers desired no Rum might be sold to them, which was granted, and a Law made, that inflicted a Penalty on those that sold Rum to the Heathens; but it was never strictly observ'd, and besides, the young Indians were so disgusted at that Article, that they threatened to kill the Indians that made it, unless it was laid aside, and they might have Rum sold them, when they went to the Englishmen's Houses to buy it.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: European-American settlers often viewed immoderate drinking as a sign that Native American culture was decaying and was unable to cope with the modern world. The obliteration of indigenous cultures was often regarded as an inevitable consequence of "progress." In 1753, Benjamin Franklin witnessed a drunken brawl in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, after providing rum to a party of Iroquois in exchange for their cooperation during treaty discussions, and wrote in his autobiography:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: [They] are extremely apt to get drunk, and when so are very quarrelsome & disorderly ... indeed if it be the Design of Providence to extirpate these Savages in order to make room for Cultivators of the Earth, it seems not improbable that Rum may be the appointed Means. It has already annihilated all the Tribes who formerly inhabited the Sea-coast.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Your Traders now bring scarce any Thing but Rum and Flour. ... The Rum ruins us. We beg you would prevent its coming in such Quantities, by regulating the Traders ... We desire it may be forbidden, and none sold in the Indian Country. ... When these Whiskey Traders come, they bring thirty or forty Cags, and put them down before us, and make us drink; and get all the Skins that should go to pay the Debts we have contracted for Goods bought of the Fair Traders; and by this Means, we not only ruin ourselves, but them too. These wicked Whiskey Sellers, when they have once got the Indians in Liquor, make them sell their very Clothes from their Backs. In short, if this Practice be continued, we must be inevitably ruined: We most earnestly therefore beseech you to remedy it.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In 1773 the missionary David Zeisberger was preaching in Shawnee communities in Ohio when he encountered Chief Gischenatsi, who told the missionary that the sale of alcohol was a deliberate attempt to undermine indigenous culture:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: As the white people understand the weakness and incapacity of the Indians, they have a certain power over us, while pretending that, with all their deception, they mean well by the Indians. They come and bring rum into our towns, offer it to the Indians and say, drink; this they will do until they become quite beside themselves and act as though they were out of their heads. [Then] the white people stand, and point at them with their fingers, laugh at them and say, see what great fools the Shawanose are. But who makes them so foolish, who is at fault?


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In his research for the Genocide Convention, Raphael Lemkin proposed that distribution of alcohol was one of several tools (such as forced relocations, destruction of cultural symbols, and "re-education" of children) by which European-American colonists committed cultural genocide in North America. Lemkin theorized that the availability of alcohol undermined social integrity, promoted violence, impeded organized resistance, and contributed to the belief that Native Americans were culturally inferior. Lemkin argued that once a people becomes dependent on alcohol "the desire for cheap individual pleasure [would] be substituted for the desire for collective feelings and ideals based on a higher morality."


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830, large numbers of Native Americans were forcibly relocated to designated lands west of the Mississippi River. This created concentrated populations of displaced, demoralized, and often traumatized Indians, frequently resettled in desolate, barren country where hunting and farming were difficult. In this environment of an already-disrupted, fragmented society, the demand for alcohol was high, and white businessmen quickly discovered that bison hunters would trade hides for alcohol at a fraction of their commercial value. Hundreds of new businesses were established to take advantage of the growing market for buffalo hide, used for machinery belts, army boots, robes and rugs. On his wagon trip from the Arkansas to the South Platte in the winter of 1839–1840, Indian trader James Beckwourth bartered twenty gallons of whiskey for sixteen horses and over two hundred buffalo robes from the Indians. Beckwourth reported that "one pint of alcohol, costing no more than six cents [in Missouri], was [diluted] into five times the quantity of whiskey, usually one pint for one buffalo robe," which would sell for more than ten dollars in St. Louis. By 1841, businessman William Bent was shipping over 27,000 buffalo hides annually to St. Louis, most of them traded from Cheyenne, Arapahoe and Kiowa hunters in exchange for whiskey. To evade federal laws prohibiting whites from selling alcohol to Indians, many traders (including Bent) married Native American women and were formally inducted into their tribes.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: During subsequent years alcohol further destabilized Native American communities. Indian Agent Richard Cummins at Fort Leavenworth wrote: "it is ardent spirits that causes many of them to steal one from another, to kill one another in combats when drunk, [and] to neglect all kinds of business." By the 1850s, tribal populations entered into a steep decline: in 1857 the Kansa numbered 1,237, and by 1862 there were only 802. By 1872 tribal population was down to 700, with no males over the age of fifty-five. Other tribes shrank at a similar rate. The problem of alcohol use disorder worsened when in 1872 the Nonintercourse Act was amended to allow Indians to sell and trade alcohol among themselves.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: The Indian Relocation Act of 1956 financed the relocation of over six thousand Native Americans from reservations to cities, and funded the establishment of job training centers. However, the program had devastating long-term effects on this population. Many of the Native Americans relocated to urban areas found themselves homeless, unemployed, in poverty, without a strong cultural base or community and unable to achieve economic stability. Native Americans living in urban areas typically experience higher rates of alcohol use compared to other ethnicities as a result of acculturative stress directly and indirectly associated with historical trauma.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: By the early eighteenth century it had become clear that alcohol was harming Native American society and health. A series of local regulations were passed beginning as early as October 1701, when the Pennsylvania Assembly prohibited the sale of rum to the Indians, however as the law was poorly enforced and the penalty was light—a fine of ten pounds and confiscation of any illegal supplies—rum continued to be used to barter for furs. In 1745, partly due to the complaints of Shawnee chief Peter Chartier, the fine was doubled and the Shawnees were authorized to destroy any supplies of rum brought illegally into their communities. In 1767, regulations adopted at the Augusta Conference in the Province of Georgia attempted to limit the amount of alcohol brought into Native American communities to no more than fifteen gallons of rum, although this referred mainly to the Creek, Cherokee and Catawba Indians.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: On 30 March 1802, federal action was taken to restrict the transport of alcohol into indigenous communities, when Congress (at the urging of Chief Little Turtle) passed the revised Indian Nonintercourse Act authorizing the president "to take such measures, from time to time, as to him may appear expedient to prevent or restrain the vending or distributing of spirituous liquors among all or any Indian tribes." But beyond giving the President responsibility for monitoring alcohol sold to Native Americans, the law made little difference to the expanding commercial sales of rum and whiskey along the frontier. No other conclusive action was taken until 1832, when the Office of Commissioner of Indian Affairs was created, primarily to settle land disputes, but also to restrict the sale of alcohol on Indian lands: "No ardent spirits shall be hereafter introduced, under any pretense, into the Indian country," stated the act which created this office.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Recognizing that penalties and exceptions needed to be written into law, Congress passed 25 U.S.C. § 177, "Act to regulate trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes, and to preserve peace on the frontiers" on 30 June 1834, superseding the old Nonintercourse Act of 1802 and imposing a fine of $500 for anyone who "shall sell, exchange, or give, barter, or dispose of, any spirituous liquor or wine to an Indian, (in Indian country)." The law provided exceptions for alcohol intended for US government troops, and stipulated that any supplies of illegal alcohol could be confiscated and destroyed. An additional provision in the law mandated a "$1,000 fine for setting up and operating a distillery in Indian Country for manufacturing ardent spirits," to prevent entrepreneurs from making alcohol rather than importing it. Immediate results were encouraging: by 1835 the first Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Elbert Herring, declared, "The exclusion of ardent spirits, where it could be effected, has done much good." This act was amended multiple times but remained in force until 1953.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: An 1847 amendment introduced prison terms for those convicted of selling or attempting to sell alcohol "in Indian country." It also prohibited the distribution of goods or annuities to Indians under the influence of liquor, or when there was ready access to liquor. Goods and annuities could not be distributed until chiefs "have pledged themselves to use all their influence, and to make all proper exertions, to prevent the introduction and sale of such liquor in their country." The problem with this law was that it did not prevent the sale of alcohol to Native Americans, but only that which occurred "on Indian land". Alcohol could still be legally purchased in white communities by Native Americans, and taken home. In 1861 Commissioner William P. Dole reported: "Unprincipled traders, debarred by law from going upon the reservations, gather upon their borders, and by means of this traffic ... they filch from the Indian his little all, often reducing him to a state of utter want and destitution."


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: On 15 March 1864 an amendment was passed making it illegal to "sell, exchange, give, barter, or dispose of any spirituous liquors or wine to any Indian under the charge of any Indian superintendent or Indian agent appointed by the United States." In the decades following the US Civil War, it was illegal to sell alcohol to Indians, but it was not illegal for Native Americans themselves to buy alcohol. By 1891 most Native Americans living in the United States were confined to Indian reservations, but enforcing the prohibition of alcohol was difficult. Indians refused to testify against whites who sold them alcohol and juries were reluctant to convict businessmen, who were often reputable members of the community, based on the testimony of an Indian, usually a known alcoholic. Judges frequently imposed less than the maximum penalty on convicted offenders, sometimes ordering fines of $1 and prison terms of one day. In at least one case, the defendant was acquitted by a lenient judge even after pleading guilty.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In 1876 the US Supreme Court recommended that Congress take action to restrict the sale of alcohol near reservations. In "United States v. Forty-Three Gallons of Whiskey", Associate Justice David Davis wrote the opinion of the court that


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: If liquor is injurious to them inside of a reservation, it is equally so outside of it; and why cannot Congress forbid its introduction into a place near by, which they would be likely to frequent? It is easy to see that the love of liquor would tempt them to stray beyond their borders to obtain it; and that bad white men, knowing this, would carry on the traffic in adjoining localities.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Such action has been taken locally in several states, including in 2017 when the Nebraska Liquor Control Commission voted to deny license renewals to the four liquor stores in Whiteclay, Nebraska, on the edge of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In 1892 the United States District Court for the District of Montana found that beer was not included in the law's specification that "spirituous liquors" (which had included wine since 1834) were not to be sold or given to Indians. The result was a sudden introduction of beer saloons into reservations across the west. The agent in Muskegee, Indian Territory (Arkansas), reported "the opening of beer saloons in every village in the agency, almost without exception. The Indian and Federal laws were openly, flagrantly, and defiantly violated, drunkenness and its train of evils held full sway." Patent medicines such as Jamaica ginger and cooking flavors such as lemon extract containing a high alcohol content were also being sold in large quantities on reservations. The 1893 amendment to the law prohibited "ardent spirits, ale, beer, wine or intoxicating liquors or liquors of whatever kind," punishable with imprisonment for not more than two years and fines of not more than $300 for each offense. An 1897 amendment to the Indian Appropriations Act (29 Stat. at L. 506, chap. 109), provides: That any person who shall sell, give away, dispose of, exchange, or barter any malt, spirituous, or vinous liquor, including beer, ale, and wine, or any ardent or other intoxicating liquor of any kind whatsoever, or any essence, extract, bitters, preparation, compound, composition, or any article whatsoever ... which produces intoxication, to any Indian ... shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than sixty days, and by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars."


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In 1905 the US Supreme Court overturned the 1904 conviction in Kansas of Albert Heff, who was convicted of selling two quarts of beer to an Indian, and was fined $200 and sentenced to four months in jail. The Supreme Court ruled that a Native American granted citizenship through the 1887 Dawes Act is immediately a citizen of the US and his state, and that the 1897 amendment to the Federal Indian Appropriations Act which banned the sale of alcohol to Indians, would not apply, as "regulation of liquor was a state police power and not subject to federal legislation." The result was an immediate increase in the sale and consumption of alcohol in Native American communities. Lewis St. John, writing about the tribes of Washington State, says: The year following the Heff decision saw an increase of the liquor traffic among the Indians of Puget Sound undreamed-of before. It spelled almost absolute ruin and prostration for the Puyallup Indians. Other agencies report a similar striking increase in the amount of drunkenness, crime, and death and a marked lowering of moral standards and civilization. Congress attempted to remedy this situation by passing the Burke Act in 1906, and in 1916 the Supreme Court overruled the Heff decision in "United States v. Nice" (241 U.S. 591), which declared that Congress still retains plenary power to protect Native American interests when Native Americans are granted citizenship.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: By this time, the Temperance movement in the United States had gained widespread support and National Prohibition was enacted in 1919 with the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment. In 1924 all Native Americans living in the United States became US citizens by passage of the Indian Citizenship Act, but even after Prohibition was ended in 1933 with the Twenty-First Amendment alcohol was still illegal on Indian reservations. In 1945 the Commissioner of Indian Affairs reported: Indians feel that the prohibition, which singles them out as a racial group, is discriminating and brands them as inferior. Veterans of World War II, who were able to obtain liquor with no difficulty while in the armed forces, have made many protests against the existence of the law. Various Indian tribes passed resolutions urging that sale of liquor be permitted to Indians off the reservations." During the next seven years Congress engaged in a heated debate over the dangers and benefits of repealing the "Indian liquor laws." An attempt to repeal laws in Wisconsin and Minnesota was defeated, but in 1953 a law to repeal the laws in Arizona was amended to include all Indian country within the US. The record noted:


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: The Indians for many years have complained that the liquor laws are most discriminatory in nature. ... Inasmuch as Indians are expected to assume the responsibilities of citizenship and serve in the Armed Forces on an equal basis with other Americans, the committee sees no reason for continuing legislation that is applicable only to Indians.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: Within a few years, most tribes passed their own prohibition laws, but they were adopted by Indians for Indians, not imposed on them by the federal government. Interestingly, discriminatory liquor legislation was never passed in Hawaii, where alcohol laws applied both to Native islanders and whites. In Alaska, liquor sales have been regulated by individual communities since 1986 as long as they conform to state laws.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: It is now largely recognized that prohibition has been unsuccessful. As of 2007, 63 percent of the federally recognized tribes in the lower 48 states had legalized alcohol sales on their reservations. Tribes decided to retain revenues that previously would go to state governments through retail sales taxes on beer, wine and liquor. Legalizing sales enables the tribes to keep more money within their reservation economies and support new businesses and services, as well as to directly regulate, police and control alcohol sales. The retained revenues also provide funds for health care services and facilities to treat alcohol use disorder. In some cases, legalization of alcohol sales has also supported the development of resorts and casinos, to generate revenues for other economic enterprises.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: A number of prominent Native Americans protested against the social and cultural damage inflicted by alcohol on indigenous communities, and encouraged others to avoid drinking. Initially, activists such as Peter Chartier, King Hagler and Little Turtle resisted the use of rum and brandy as trade items, in an effort to protect Native Americans from cultural changes they viewed as destructive. Later activists (William Apess and Samson Occom) framed temperance in terms of Christianity, conforming to a broader temperance movement in the United States. Others such as Neolin, Kennekuk, Handsome Lake, Quanah Parker, and Wovoka led revitalization movements to restore Native American dignity by reverting to traditional customs and ceremonies. Tenskwatawa, Yonaguska, and George Copway sought to achieve this by establishing alcohol-free communities. Religious movements such as the Indian Shaker Church and the Native American Church combined tradition with Christianity to attract a wider following. Modern-day addiction specialists like Don Coyhis integrate the psychology of substance use disorder treatment with traditional rituals and symbolism and with community rehabilitation to reduce stressors and help recovering alcoholics maintain a healthy lifestyle.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: The 2012–2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions III (NESARC-III) found that 19.2% of Native Americans surveyed had had an alcohol use disorder during the previous twelve months, and 43.4% had had an alcohol use disorder at some time during their lives (compared to 14.0% and 32.6% of whites, respectively). This contrasts sharply with the 2015 National Survey on Drug Use and Health and National Survey of Substance Abuse Treatment Services, which surveyed adolescents and adults receiving treatment and found that 9.7% of Native Americans surveyed had had an alcohol use disorder during the previous twelve months (compared to 6.1% of whites). An analysis of surveys conducted between 2002 and 2016 determined that 34.4% of Native American adults used alcohol in 2016 (down from 44.7% in 2002), 21.6% engaged in binge drinking and 7.6% described their alcohol use as "heavy."


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: In her classic study on alcohol use among the Lakota Sioux, anthropologist Beatrice Medicine found that as Native Americans were crowded onto reservations, men lost their traditional social role as providers and started drinking to alleviate their feelings of powerlessness. She observed that Lakota women abstain from alcohol more frequently than men, or quit drinking once they bear children, due to strong cultural values associated with responsible motherhood. In many families women become caretakers, assisting alcoholic men when they are sick or in legal trouble. Within Lakota society there are few social controls on alcohol misuse, nor is there pressure to stay sober. Drunken behavior is excusable, and the family does not ostracize people with an alcohol use disorder but often provides them with shelter and food. She notes that there is constant peer pressure among men to join others in drinking as a social activity. Quitting alcohol then becomes a personal endeavor that requires substantial will power, introspection and sacrifice. Modern therapies attempt to connect treatment to traditional rituals emphasizing the individual's search for spiritual strength and guidance, such as the sun dance or vision quest.


title: Alcohol and Native Americans

text: A 2002 study looked at alcohol dependence and treatment in 172 Native American and Alaskan Native women who were in treatment at nine substance use disorder treatment centers in the west, southwest, northern plains, the midwestern US and Alaska. As part of the study, participants' records were examined to confirm self-reported information. Fifty-two staff members employed at the treatment centers were also interviewed. Among the participants, 81% had been emotionally, physically and/or sexually abused as children and 78% had been abused as adults. Over half had been abandoned by one or both parents, raised by relatives, sent to a boarding school, or had run away from home as a child. Seventy-two percent had been arrested at least once for an alcohol-related reason. The mean age of first alcohol use was 14, with some participants reporting first use as young as age 6. Many of the participants had been introduced to alcohol by a parent or an older sibling. Close to 100% of the study participants described using alcohol to suppress grief, self-pity and loneliness. Most of the women said that the death of a close family member, a divorce, or the end of an important relationship motivated them to drink regularly and heavily. Seventy-three percent reported drinking during pregnancy.