title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Power Macintosh G3 is named for its third-generation PowerPC chip, and introduced a super fast and large Level 2 backside CPU cache, running at half processor speed. As a result, these machines benchmarked significantly faster than Intel PCs of similar CPU clock speed at launch, which prompted Apple to create the "Snail" and "Toasted Bunnies" television commercials. Magazine benchmarks showed the G3/266 CPU outperforming the 350 MHz PowerPC 604ev chip in the Power Macintosh 9600 as well.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Two generations of the Power Macintosh G3 were released. The first generation, known colloquially as "Beige" was introduced at a special event on November 10, 1997. The second generation, known officially as "Blue and White", was introduced at MacWorld San Francisco on January 5, 1999. Its replacement, the Power Mac G4, was introduced in August of the same year.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Apple sold three beige Power Macintosh G3 models: a horizontally-oriented desktop, a mini tower enclosure, and a version with a built-in screen called All-In-One ("AIO"). The All-In-One model was shaped like a human tooth, and thus earned the moniker Molar Mac. Equipped with a 233, 266, 300, or 333 MHz PowerPC 750 (G3) CPU from Motorola, these machines use a 66.83 MHz system bus and PC66 SDRAM, and standard ATA hard disk drives instead of the SCSI drives used in most previous Apple systems. A Fast SCSI internal bus is still included with 10 MB/s speed, along with the proprietary out-of-spec DB-25 external SCSI bus which had a top speed of 5 MB/s. Each bus could support a maximum of 7 devices.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Apple also developed a prototype G3-based six-slot full tower to be designated the Power Macintosh 9700. Despite demand from high-end users for more PCI slots in a G3-powered computer, Apple decided not to develop the prototype (dubbed "Power Express") into a shipping product, leaving the 9600 as the last six-slot Mac Apple would make for over two decades, until the 2019 Mac Pro which has eight.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Initial units were shipped with Mac OS 8. The G3 officially supports up to Mac OS X 10.2, although some devices will not work under Mac OS X, such as the floppy drive, the video features of the "Wings" personality card, and the 3D graphics acceleration functions of the onboard ATI Rage series video. Support for newer versions is possible with the use of third party software solutions such as XPostFacto. Mac OS X 10.5 can be run only if a G4 processor upgrade is installed.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Power Macintosh G3 was originally intended to be a midrange series, between the low-end Performa/LC models and the six-PCI slot Power Macintosh 9600. It is the earliest Old World ROM Macintosh model officially able to boot into Mac OS X, and one of only two Old World ROM models officially able to boot into Mac OS X, the other model being the second-generation (Wallstreet I/II) PowerBook G3.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Desktop model inherited its enclosure directly from the Power Macintosh 7300. The 233 and 266 MHz desktop models shipped with 4 GB hard drives, and the 300 MHz with a 6 GB drive, all at 5400 RPM. This model, sometimes referred to as an Outrigger Macintosh due to its ease of access, was the last horizontally-oriented desktop model offered by Apple until the introduction of the Mac mini in 2005.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Desktop model received an update in August 1998, with the 233 MHz model being discontinued. Unlike the Mini Tower model, the Desktop model was not updated with 333 MHz or 366 MHz CPUs. Regardless, it was replaced by the Power Mac G4 Cube in 2000.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The 233 MHz Mini Tower model's enclosure is similar to the Power Macintosh 8600. It shipped with a 4 GB drive, the 266 MHz with a 6 GB drive, and the 300 MHz variant shipped with two 4 GB drives in a RAID configuration; all models were 5400 RPM.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: As with the Desktop model, the Mini Tower received an update in August 1998, with the CPU updated to 333 MHz and 366 MHz. These models shipped with a 9.1 GB 7200 RPM SCSI drive, attached to a SCSI/PCI card, as well as 100BASE-TX Ethernet (as opposed to the other models' 10BASE-T), though this was in the form of a PCI card, which occupied another PCI slot. The Macintosh Server G3/300 MHz also shipped with a PCI Ultra Wide SCSI card and the 100Base-T Ethernet PCI card. The 333 and the (canceled) 366 MHz model had only 6 MiB VRAM; the 300 MHz model shipped with a 128-bit iXMicro PCI video card with 8 MiB VRAM.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Macintosh Server G3 is identical to the Mini Tower model, but was sold with additional server software and different specifications. Software included AppleShare IP 5.0, Apple Network Administrator Toolkit, and SoftRAID.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The All-In-One model was introduced in April 1998 as a replacement for the Power Macintosh 5400 and 5500, and sold exclusively to the education market. The All-In-One model has a "molar"-like form factor, while its the top and rear are covered in a translucent plastic with machined holes (a design language reminiscent of the then-upcoming iMac). The model has several design features oriented towards the education market, including a slide-out tray for accessing the logic board, recessed rear I/O to make it easier to push the computer up against walls, and dual front headphone jacks for audio sharing.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The G3 AIO was available in two basic configurations, a 233 MHz version with a floppy drive and a 4 GB hard drive, and a 266 MHz version with a built-in Zip drive, floppy drive, and either a "Whisper" personality card or an All-In-One version of the "Wings" personality card. It shipped with Mac OS 8.1. The machine is also noted for its considerable 60 lb weight.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: When the iMac G3 was introduced, the G3 AIO and iMac were sold together to the education market until the G3 AIO was discontinued.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Power Mac G3 (Blue and White) (codenamed Yosemite) was introduced in January 1999, replacing the Beige Mini Tower model, with which it shared the name and processor architecture but little else. It is the first Power Macintosh model to include the New World ROM, and the last with ADB port. , and models were introduced with a price range of US$1,599 – US$2,999.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Though still based on the PowerPC G3 architecture, the Blue and White was a totally new design. It was the first new Power Mac model after the release of the iMac, and shared the iMac's blue-and-white color scheme. Inside the enclosure, the logic board is mounted on a folding "door", which swings down onto the desk for tool-free access to all the internal components.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: A new design for the keyboard and mouse were introduced that match the enclosure. The keyboard was criticized in MacWorld's review of the G3 as feeling "cheap compared with the huge Apple keyboard of old" and the removal of several keys. The Apple USB Mouse, previously included with the iMac, was also reviewed poorly, noting that "many users will find it unacceptable: because of the round design, it's impossible to tell the top of the mouse from the bottom by touch."


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Blue and White line was revised in June 1999; the model was dropped and a new model was introduced at a US$2,999 price point.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Early Blue and White units shipped with Mac OS 8.5.1, while later revisions shipped with 8.6. The latest version of Mac OS that can be run on this model is Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Beige G3 uses Apple's new "Gossamer" logic board. As a compact and versatile motherboard, the Gossamer board was originally designed to be able to support both the high-end PowerPC 604e and the new PowerPC G3, but when initial tests found that the cheaper G3 outperformed the 604e in many tests, this functionality was removed and Apple's 604e-based systems were discontinued.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Gossamer supports both onboard and external SCSI (from the custom MESH IC), ADB, 10BASE-T Ethernet, two MiniDIN-8 serial ports, and onboard ATI graphics (originally IIc, later updated to Pro and then Rage Pro Turbo) with a slot for VRAM upgrades. An external serial port is included; this is the last Power Macintosh model to include one. Three 32-bit PCI slots and one internal modem slot are present, as well as three SDRAM slots.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Early G3s with Revision A ROMs do not support slave devices on their IDE controllers, limiting them to one device per bus (normally one optical drive and one hard disk). Additionally, they came with onboard ATI Rage II+ video. G3s with Revision B ROMs support slave devices on their IDE controllers, and had the onboard video upgraded to ATI Rage Pro. G3s with Revision C ROMs also support slave devices on their IDE controllers, but the most significant technical differences are the newer Open Firmware version than the previous two models (2.4 vs 2.0f1) and another onboard video upgrade, this time to ATI Rage Pro Turbo.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Beige G3 was the last Power Macintosh with a 4 MiB ROM. The trend of increasingly large ROMs ended after the introduction of the New World ROM in the Blue and White G3.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: These machines had no audio circuitry on the logic board; instead, a PERCH slot (a dedicated 182-pin microchannel connector; a superset of the PCI spec, but which does not accept PCI cards) was populated with a "personality card" which provided the audio circuitry. Several "personality cards" were available:


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: CPU: The processor module (a PowerPC 750 plus L2 cache) was overclockable, i.e. 333 MHz and even 366 MHz or 375 MHz with an 83.3 MHz bus (uncommon). Upgrade kits were available from a number of companies, including Newer Technology, PowerLogix and XLR8, offering G3 processors in the US$1,500 – US$1,800 price range.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: CPU upgrades as high as a 1.0 GHz G4 or 1.1 GHz G3 would eventually become available, although the user would not see much practical difference in performance on chips faster than 733 MHz due to the system bus limitations, which runs at 66.83 MHz unless overclocked. However, G4 chips running over 533 MHz do not allow the system bus to run faster than 66 MHz, so the bus cannot be overclocked if using one of these G4s. (G3s do allow it.)


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: PCI cards: Gossamer has three full-length (12") PCI slots, making it capable of taking any PCI cards that have Macintosh drivers available for them (for example, some RealTek-based network adapters, a lot of USB, ATA/IDE [or SATA] and FireWire cards). Common PCI card upgrades include FireWire cards, USB cards and FireWire/USB combo cards (especially after the release of the first generation iMac, which caused many vendors to start releasing USB peripherals for the Macintosh), 100BASE-TX or 1000BASE-T (gigabit Ethernet) network adapter, video cards (e.g. ATI Radeon 7000 and 9200), ATA/EIDE, Serial ATA and Ultra SCSI cards. Television tuner and radio cards are also often chosen to supplement the AV features on a Wings personality card, or to provide A/V input for models with the Whisper personality card. The All-In-One can be modified to use a PCI video card with the internal monitor.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Personality cards: Some users have upgraded the Whisper personality card with a "Wings" Personality card (which is plugged into the same PERCH slot), and some have upgraded the ROM to a newer version (Revision A boards to Revision B or Revision C boards).


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Hard drives: For storage, the G3 is capable of taking any ATAPI/IDE hard disks, provided that the drive's size is within the 28-bit LBA limit. This means ATA hard disks of up to 137 GB (2 blocks of 512 bytes each) are supported. This limitation can be overcome by using an IDE or SATA PCI-compatible card (e.g. Acard or Sonnet) to enable the use of 2 drives over the 137 GB limit.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Removable storage: The ATAPI/IDE CD-ROM drive can also be replaced with a CD-RW, DVD-ROM or DVD-RW drive, although care must be taken while purchasing the upgrade as the Mac is incompatible with some drives and may refuse to boot at all if an incompatible drive is installed. Also, many third-party optical drives cannot be used as boot devices with the G3, though they work correctly for normal use, and burning on many third party CD-RW and DVD-RW drives requires either commercial drivers or is unsupported even though reading and booting from the drive may still work. It is also capable of taking SCSI storage devices, and with the presence of the right PCI cards, SATA, USB and FireWire storage devices.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: SCSI: The presence of an onboard SCSI controller (the SCSI controller is codenamed MESH — Macintosh Enhanced SCSI Hardware) and connectors permits the use of Mac-enabled SCSI scanners and storage devices, though this runs at only 5 MB/s.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Memory: Apple's spec sheets specify a maximum memory limit of , but independent testers have reported being able to use SDRAM chips, for a total of . Incompatibility has been reported with some DIMM modules in certain configurations- for example, newer single-sided PC‑133 RAM modules will not be detected correctly if they will be detected at all and if the machine can boot with them in place, and the desktop and all-in-one units required the use of low-profile RAM due to space constraints. It should be able to take 168-pin SDRAM of any speed, though it will run at PC66 speeds. The onboard video RAM can be upgraded from 2 MiB to 6 MiB with a 4 MiB SGRAM module (which runs at 83 MHz on Rev. A machines, and 100 MHz on Rev. B and C machines).


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The faster models (not the 300 MHz model) use the new copper-based PowerPC G3 CPUs made by IBM, which use about 25% of the power of the Motorola versions clock for clock. The line ranged from 300 to 450 MHz. Despite its 100 MHz system bus and PC100 SDRAM, the 300 MHz B&W G3 performed worse than its 300 MHz Beige predecessor, because it has 512 KiB L2 cache, half of the 300 MHz Beige. The logic board has 4 PCI slots: 3 64-bit 33 MHz slots, and one 32-bit 66 MHz slot dedicated for the graphics card, an ATI Rage 128 with 16 MiB SGRAM. Four 100 MHz RAM slots accept PC100 SDRAM modules, allowing the installation of up to 1 GiB of RAM with the use of 256 MiB DIMMs. The onboard ATA was upgraded to Ultra ATA/33 (an extra UDMA-33 controller was also added), but SCSI was no longer present, having been replaced by 2 FireWire ports, a new standard (IEEE1394) running at 400 Mbit/s (50 MB/s) — faster in theory than even the ATA/33 (33 MB/s) hard drive controller. The serial ports were replaced with USB 1.1 ports (12 Mbit/s), and the floppy disk drive was removed altogether. The ADB port remained, as did the option for an internal modem. 100BASE-TX Ethernet became standard, and audio was moved back to the logic board. A Zip Drive remained an option, and some configurations included a DVD-ROM drive and a DVD-Video decoder daughtercard for the graphics card, allowing hardware-assisted DVD video playback.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The Blue and White G3 uses a modified version of the memory/PCI controller, the Motorola MPC106 (codenamed "Grackle"); it used the MPC106 v4. The I/O "Heathrow" had been replaced by "Paddington" (adding 100 Mbit Ethernet and power save features), the audio chip "Screamer" (on the beige G3's "Whisper" and "Wings" personality cards) had been replaced by "Burgundy" (from the "Bordeaux" personality card), and other controllers for Firewire (Texas Instruments PCI-Lynx), for USB etc. were added.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: This is also the first Power Macintosh with the "New World" architecture which contained a small (approximately 1 MB) boot ROM. When booting the Mac OS, the Mac OS Toolbox and any other ROM patches installed are loaded into RAM (the former Beige G3 however was the first Mac with this ROM-in-RAM capability). Initially, many buyers chose to buy the older "Platinum" G3s instead, in order to maintain compatibility with existing peripherals.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Early "Revision 1" units have IDE controller problems related to the ATA/33 hard drive controller that made it impossible to connect two hard drives and prevented the use of newer drives. Using newer ATA drives in those units resulted in data transmission errors if the drives were connected to the on-board ATA/33 controller, the severity of the problem varying according to the particular make and model of the drive. Workarounds include replacing motherboards and employing the use of SCSI, Ultra ATA or SATA PCI controller cards. Stable operation can be achieved if the drive can be limited to Multi-Word DMA Mode 2 (disabling UDMA), although this limits throughput to 16 MB/s. Some hard drives support disabling UDMA in firmware through manufacturer-supplied utilities (generally DOS-based). Alternatively, the transfer mode can be limited to Multi-Word DMA Mode 2 through the use of third-party driver software such as FWB Hard Disk Toolkit.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The secondary ATA channel has also been reported to have issues with respect to flash upgrading certain DVD burners. Otherwise, it is generally held to be relatively stable.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Mac OS X attempts to avoid the UDMA issue by disabling UDMA on all affected G3 motherboards, but xlr8yourmac.com reported that reader Tim Seufert still found issues with single drives under Mac OS X. He reported that as of January 23, 2002, the fix would not be activated under Mac OS X when no slave drive was present.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The "Revision 2" units fixed the hard drive controller problem with an improved (UDMA-33) IDE controller that supported the standard IDE master/slave two-drive arrangement. This controller worked flawlessly with any drive within the 28-bit LBA constraint. Most Rev. 2 units shipped with a hard disk bracket designed for two drives (in fact Rev. 1 can hold up to three drives side-by-side, while Rev. 2 can hold up to four drives in two stacks, each with two drives) and also included a slightly updated version of the Rage 128 graphics card. The easiest way to tell if the unit is a Rev.2 is by looking at the CMD chip located on the logic board. The CMD chip on Rev. 1 logic boards is PCI646U2 and on Rev. 2 logic boards is 646U2-402.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: Revision 2 350, 400, and 450 MHz units use the same motherboard as the first "Yikes" version of Power Mac G4 systems at 350 and 400 MHz ("Sawtooth" AGP-based G4s used a different board) and processor cards for these models are interchangeable. Note that if a G3's firmware has been upgraded (a required update for installing Mac OS 9), it won't accept G4 CPUs until patched with a third-party replacement firmware. A Blue and White G3 that has been upgraded to a G4 is able to run Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard.


title: Power Macintosh G3

text: The blue and white G3's enclosure design was widely praised at the time for being easy to open up and work on. The entire right side of the case is a door that hinges down by pulling a recessed latch at the top. No components need to be removed or unplugged, and the computer can remain running while opened. The logic board is positioned in the door, providing access to all components. Hard drives are mounted in a bracket affixed with one screw on the floor of the case. There is room for four internal hard drives and an internal fan is positioned at the side of the case to blow cooling air over them. Removable drives are in a more conventional position at the top of the case.


title: Metaheuristic

text: In computer science and mathematical optimization, a metaheuristic is a higher-level procedure or heuristic designed to find, generate, or select a heuristic (partial search algorithm) that may provide a sufficiently good solution to an optimization problem, especially with incomplete or imperfect information or limited computation capacity. Metaheuristics sample a subset of solutions which is otherwise too large to be completely enumerated or otherwise explored. Metaheuristics may make relatively few assumptions about the optimization problem being solved and so may be usable for a variety of problems.


title: Metaheuristic

text: Compared to optimization algorithms and iterative methods, metaheuristics do not guarantee that a globally optimal solution can be found on some class of problems. Many metaheuristics implement some form of stochastic optimization, so that the solution found is dependent on the set of random variables generated. In combinatorial optimization, by searching over a large set of feasible solutions, metaheuristics can often find good solutions with less computational effort than optimization algorithms, iterative methods, or simple heuristics. As such, they are useful approaches for optimization problems. Several books and survey papers have been published on the subject.


title: Metaheuristic

text: Most literature on metaheuristics is experimental in nature, describing empirical results based on computer experiments with the algorithms. But some formal theoretical results are also available, often on convergence and the possibility of finding the global optimum. Many metaheuristic methods have been published with claims of novelty and practical efficacy. While the field also features high-quality research, many of the publications have been of poor quality; flaws include vagueness, lack of conceptual elaboration, poor experiments, and ignorance of previous literature.


title: Metaheuristic

text: There are a wide variety of metaheuristics and a number of properties with respect to which to classify them.


title: Metaheuristic

text: One approach is to characterize the type of search strategy. One type of search strategy is an improvement on simple local search algorithms. A well known local search algorithm is the hill climbing method which is used to find local optimums. However, hill climbing does not guarantee finding global optimum solutions.


title: Metaheuristic

text: Many metaheuristic ideas were proposed to improve local search heuristic in order to find better solutions. Such metaheuristics include simulated annealing, tabu search, iterated local search, variable neighborhood search, and GRASP. These metaheuristics can both be classified as local search-based or global search metaheuristics.


title: Metaheuristic

text: Other global search metaheuristic that are not local search-based are usually population-based metaheuristics. Such metaheuristics include ant colony optimization, evolutionary computation, particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithm, and rider optimization algorithm


title: Metaheuristic

text: Another classification dimension is single solution vs population-based searches. Single solution approaches focus on modifying and improving a single candidate solution; single solution metaheuristics include simulated annealing, iterated local search, variable neighborhood search, and guided local search. Population-based approaches maintain and improve multiple candidate solutions, often using population characteristics to guide the search; population based metaheuristics include evolutionary computation, genetic algorithms, and particle swarm optimization. Another category of metaheuristics is Swarm intelligence which is a collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized agents in a population or swarm. Ant colony optimization, particle swarm optimization, social cognitive optimization are examples of this category.


title: Metaheuristic

text: A hybrid metaheuristic is one that combines a metaheuristic with other optimization approaches, such as algorithms from mathematical programming, constraint programming, and machine learning. Both components of a hybrid metaheuristic may run concurrently and exchange information to guide the search.


title: Metaheuristic

text: On the other hand, Memetic algorithms represent the synergy of evolutionary or any population-based approach with separate individual learning or local improvement procedures for problem search. An example of memetic algorithm is the use of a local search algorithm instead of a basic mutation operator in evolutionary algorithms.


title: Metaheuristic

text: A parallel metaheuristic is one that uses the techniques of parallel programming to run multiple metaheuristic searches in parallel; these may range from simple distributed schemes to concurrent search runs that interact to improve the overall solution.


title: Metaheuristic

text: A very active area of research is the design of nature-inspired metaheuristics. Many recent metaheuristics, especially evolutionary computation-based algorithms, are inspired by natural systems. Nature acts as a source of concepts, mechanisms and principles for designing of artificial computing systems to deal with complex computational problems. Such metaheuristics include simulated annealing, evolutionary algorithms, ant colony optimization and particle swarm optimization. A large number of more recent metaphor-inspired metaheuristics have started to attract criticism in the research community for hiding their lack of novelty behind an elaborate metaphor.


title: Metaheuristic

text: Metaheuristics are used for combinatorial optimization in which an optimal solution is sought over a discrete search-space. An example problem is the travelling salesman problem where the search-space of candidate solutions grows faster than exponentially as the size of the problem increases, which makes an exhaustive search for the optimal solution infeasible. Additionally, multidimensional combinatorial problems, including most design problems in engineering such as form-finding and behavior-finding, suffer from the curse of dimensionality, which also makes them infeasible for exhaustive search or analytical methods. Metaheuristics are also widely used for jobshop scheduling and job selection problems. Popular metaheuristics for combinatorial problems include simulated annealing by Kirkpatrick et al., genetic algorithms by Holland et al., scatter search and tabu search by Glover. Literature review on metaheuristic optimization,


title: Metaheuristic

text: A MOF can be defined as ‘‘a set of software tools that provide a correct and reusable implementation of a set of metaheuristics, and the basic mechanisms to accelerate the implementation of its partner subordinate heuristics (possibly including solution encodings and technique-specific operators), which are necessary to solve a particular problem instance using techniques provided’’.


title: Metaheuristic

text: There are many candidate optimization tools which can be considered as a MOF of varying feature: Comet, EvA2, evolvica, Evolutionary::Algorithm, GAPlayground, jaga, JCLEC, JGAP, jMetal, n-genes, Open Beagle, Opt4j, ParadisEO/EO, Pisa, Watchmaker, FOM, Hypercube, HotFrame, Templar, EasyLocal, iOpt, OptQuest, JDEAL, Optimization Algorithm Toolkit, HeuristicLab, MAFRA, Localizer, GALIB, DREAM, Discropt, MALLBA, MAGMA, Metaheuristics.jl, UOF and OptaPlanner.


title: Metaheuristic

text: Many different metaheuristics are in existence and new variants are continually being proposed. Some of the most significant contributions to the field are:


title: Jimmy Wopo

text: Travon DaShawn Frank Smart (January 13, 1997 – June 18, 2018), better known by his stage name Jimmy Wopo, was an American rapper from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.


title: Jimmy Wopo

text: Wopo was an affiliate of fellow Pittsburgh-based rapper Wiz Khalifa and his Taylor Gang imprint. He made his first high-profile appearance with his 2016 breakout single, "Elm Street", produced by Stvii B, which "Complex" included in the "'Bout to Blow: 10 Dope New Songs You Should Be Hearing Everywhere Soon" list. Following that success, he collaborated with several prominent rappers including Wiz Khalifa, Sonny Digital, 21 Savage and more. After receiving a co-sign from Mike Will Made It rap duo Rae Sremmurd brought Jimmy out to perform during their set at the Pittsburgh stop of the SremmLife 2 Tour. Wopo was murdered in a drive-by shooting on June 18, 2018.


title: Jimmy Wopo

text: In January 2015, Wopo began uploading original tracks to his SoundCloud account. Taylor Maglin, the owner of the Pittsburgh-based blog "Daily Loud", partnered with him and began to publicize his music. This additional push helped him to accumulate millions of views on his music videos on his YouTube channel. Joining the wave of Wopo's viral success, urban hip hop blog WorldStarHipHop exclusively debuted five of his music videos in 2016. On July 24, 2016, he premiered his debut project, "Woponese", on Daily Loud. This 8-track mixtape included the single "Back Door", which features Sonny Digital. In October 2016, Riff Raff tapped Wopo for a feature on the track "Stay Away from You" on his "Balloween" mixtape. On November 25, 2016, he released a joint album with his fellow Pittsburgh-based rapper Hardo. This nine-track project featured ShadyHigler, 21 Savage and Wiz Khalifa.


title: Jimmy Wopo

text: As many as fifty completed, unreleased songs will be released posthumously, according to Wopo's manager.


title: Jimmy Wopo

text: On February 7, 2016, Wopo was arrested during a traffic stop in Washington County, Pennsylvania. Police arrested Wopo and two others after finding two stamp bags of suspected heroin and a small amount of marijuana. He was arraigned on drug charges and drinking charges and placed in jail with a $25,000 bond. Later, while out, Wopo, landed in jail because of probation violation. Wopo failed to inform officials of his trip to New York State, where he was caught and imprisoned on such charges. While in jail, he wrote an album, "Back Against the Wall", which he recorded the first day he got out of jail.


title: Jimmy Wopo

text: At 4:22 PM EDT on June 18, 2018, Smart and a male passenger were shot in Pittsburgh's Hill District neighborhood. The passenger survived, but Smart, who was shot in the head, died after being rushed to the UPMC Presbyterian at 5:56 PM. He was 21 years old, and left behind three children.


title: Menagerie

text: A menagerie is a collection of captive animals, frequently exotic, kept for display; or the place where such a collection is kept, a precursor to the modern zoological garden.


title: Menagerie

text: The term was first used in 17th-century France, in reference to the management of household or domestic stock. Later, it came to be used primarily in reference to aristocratic or royal animal collections. The French-language "Methodical Encyclopaedia" of 1782 defines a menagerie as an "establishment of luxury and curiosity". Later on, the term referred also to travelling animal collections that exhibited wild animals at fairs across Europe and the Americas.


title: Menagerie

text: A menagerie was mostly connected with an aristocratic or royal court and was situated within a garden or park of a palace. These aristocrats wanted to illustrate their power and wealth by displaying exotic animals which were uncommon, difficult to acquire, and expensive to maintain in a living and active state.


title: Menagerie

text: The aristocratic menageries are distinguished from the later zoological garden (zoos) since they were founded and owned by aristocrats whose intentions were not primarily of scientific and educational interest.


title: Menagerie

text: During the Middle Ages, several sovereigns across Europe maintained menageries at their royal courts. An early example is that of the Emperor Charlemagne in the 8th century. His three menageries, at Aachen, Nijmegen and Ingelheim, located in present-day Netherlands and Germany, housed the first elephants seen in Europe since the Roman Empire, along with monkeys, lions, bears, camels, falcons, and many exotic birds.


title: Menagerie

text: In 797, the caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas. The pachyderm arrived on July 1, 802 to the Emperor's residence in Aachen. He died in June 810.


title: Menagerie

text: William the Conqueror had a small royal menagerie. At his manor, Woodstock, he began a collection of exotic animals. Around the year 1100 his son, Henry I, enclosed Woodstock and enlarged the collection.


title: Menagerie

text: At the beginning of the 12th century, Henry I of England is known to have kept a collection of animals at his palace in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, reportedly including lions, leopards, lynxes, camels, owls, and a porcupine.


title: Menagerie

text: The most prominent animal collection in medieval England was the Tower Menagerie in London that began as early as 1204.


title: Menagerie

text: It was established by King John, who reigned in England from 1199 to 1216 and is known to have held lions and bears.


title: Menagerie

text: The most spectacular arrivals in the early years were a white bear and an elephant, gifts from the kings of Norway and France in 1251 and in 1254 respectively.


title: Menagerie

text: In 1264, the animals were moved to the Bulwark, which was renamed the Lion Tower, near the main western entrance of the Tower.


title: Menagerie

text: This building was constituted by rows of cages with arched entrances, enclosed behind grilles. They were set in two storeys, and it appears that the animals used the upper cages during the day and were moved to the lower storey at night.


title: Menagerie

text: The menagerie was opened to the public during the reign of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog to be fed to the lions.


title: Menagerie

text: Most of the animals were transferred in 1831 to the newly opened London Zoo at Regent's Park, which did not receive all the animals but rather shared them with Dublin Zoo.


title: Menagerie

text: The Tower Menagerie was finally closed in 1835, on the orders of the Duke of Wellington. The Tower Menagerie in London can be considered to have been the royal menagerie of England for six centuries.


title: Menagerie

text: In the first half of the thirteenth century, Emperor Frederick II had three permanent menageries in Italy, at Melfi in Basilicata, at Lucera in Apulia and at Palermo in Sicily.


title: Menagerie

text: In 1235, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II established at his court in southern Italy the "first great menagerie" in western Europe. An elephant, a white bear, a giraffe, a leopard, hyenas, lions, cheetahs, camels, and monkeys were all exhibited; but the emperor was particularly interested in birds, and studied them sufficiently to write a number of authoritative books on them.


title: Menagerie

text: In the beginning of the 15th century, a royal menagerie was established in the Royal Palace of Lisbon, located nearby the Castle of Saint George. Following the conquest of Ceuta in 1415, King John I of Portugal brought back to Lisbon two Barbary lions, and they were installed in a large room inside his Palace in the Citadel of Lisbon. This area of the Palace came to be known as "Casa dos Leões" (the "Lions' House"); today the area is occupied by a famed restaurant with the same name. Later that century, German humanist Hieronymus Münzer spent five days in Lisbon in 1494, and learned about the lions, claiming to be the most beautiful wild beasts he had ever seen.


title: Menagerie

text: Later on, the ménagerie of King Manuel I (1495-1521), inside the Ribeira Palace, in downtown Lisbon, was appreciated in Europe due to its huge elephants that the king ordered to be brought from India. One of his elephants, Hanno, as well as a rhinoceros depicted by Dürer were famous gifts to Pope Leo X. However, the rhinoceros drowned as a result of a shipwreck suffered during the transport trip to Italy.


title: Menagerie

text: By the end of the 15th century, the aristocracy of Renaissance Italy began to collect exotic animals at their residences on the outskirts of the cities. The role played by animals within the gardens of Italian villas expanded at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the seventeenth century, and one prominent example was the Villa Borghese built 1608–1628 in Rome.


title: Menagerie

text: During the seventeenth century, exotic birds and small animals provided diverting ornaments for the court of France; lions and other large animals were kept primarily to be brought out for staged fights.


title: Menagerie

text: The collecting grew and attained more permanent lodgings in the 1660s, when Louis XIV constructed two new menageries: one at Vincennes, next to a palace on the eastern edge of Paris, and a more elaborate one, which became a model for menageries throughout Europe, at Versailles, the site of a royal hunting lodge two hours (by carriage) west of Paris.


title: Menagerie

text: Around 1661, he had a menagerie of "ferocious" beasts built at Vincennes for the organization of fights. Surrounding a rectangular courtyard, a two-storey building with balconies allowed spectators to view the scene. The animals were housed on the ground floor in cells bordering the courtyard, with small yards on the outside where they could take a bit of exercise.


title: Menagerie

text: At Vincennes, lions, tigers, and leopards were kept in cages around an amphitheater where the king could entertain courtiers and visiting dignitaries with bloody battles.


title: Menagerie

text: In 1682, for instance, the ambassador of Persia enjoyed the spectacle of a fight to the death between a royal tiger and an elephant.


title: Menagerie

text: When the palace of Versailles was built, Louis XIV of France also erected a menagerie within the palace’s park.


title: Menagerie

text: Most of it was constructed in 1664 when the first animals were introduced, although the interior fittings were not finished until 1668-70. Situated in the south-west of the park, it was Louis XIV’s first major project at Versailles and one of several pleasure houses that were gradually assembled around the palace.


title: Menagerie

text: It represented the first menagerie according to Baroque style. The prominent feature of Baroque menageries was the circular layout, in the middle of which stood a beautiful pavilion. Around this pavilion was a walking path and outside this path were the enclosures and cages. Each enclosure had a house or stable at the far end for the animals and was bounded on three sides with walls. There were bars only in the direction of the pavilion.


title: Menagerie

text: Animal fights were halted at Vincennes around 1700, the site fell into disuse, and the animals were installed at Versailles with the others.


title: Menagerie

text: At about this time, the lions, leopards, and tigers from the menagerie at Vincennes were transferred to Versailles, where they were housed in newly built enclosures fronted with iron bars.


title: Menagerie

text: This particular enterprise marked a decisive step in the creation of menageries of curiosities and was imitated to some extent throughout Europe after the late seventeenth century.


title: Menagerie

text: Monarchs, princes and important lords built them in France (Chantilly from 1663), England (Kew, Osterley), the United Provinces (Het Loo from 1748), Portugal (Belém in 1726, Queluz around 1780), Spain (Madrid in 1774) and Austria (Belvedere in 1716, Schönbrunn in 1752) as well in the Germanic lands following the ravages of the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and the ensuing reconstruction. Frederick William, Elector of Prussia, equipped Potsdam with a menagerie around 1680. The Elector of the Palatinate, the Prince Regent of Westphalia and many others followed suit.


title: Menagerie

text: This design was adopted particularly by the Habsburg monarchy in Austria. In 1752 Francis I erected his famous Baroque menagerie in the park of Schönbrunn Palace near Vienna.


title: Menagerie

text: Being at first a courtly menagerie with private character it was opened to the general public in 1779. Initially, it was only open for "respectably dressed persons".


title: Menagerie

text: Another aristocratic menagerie was founded in 1774 by Charles III of Spain on grounds which were part of the gardens of the Buen Retiro Palace in Madrid.


title: Menagerie

text: During two centuries, it was a predecessor institution of the modern facilities of the Madrid Zoo Aquarium, moved in 1972 to the Casa de Campo.


title: Menagerie

text: In the nineteenth century the aristocratic menageries were displaced by the modern zoological gardens with their scientific and educational approach. The last menagerie in Europe was the Tiergarten Schönbrunn in Vienna, which was known officially as a "menagerie" until 1924, before evolving into a modern zoological garden with a scientific, educational and conservationist orientation. Due to its local continuity, the former menagerie established in the medieval through baroque tradition of private wild-animal collections of princes and kings, is often seen as the oldest remaining zoo in the world. Although many of the old Baroque enclosures have been changed, one can still obtain a good impression of the symmetrical ensemble of the formerly imperial menagerie.


title: Menagerie

text: In England travelling menageries had first appeared at around 1700. In contrast to the aristocratic menageries, these travelling animal collections were run by showmen who met the craving for sensation of the ordinary population. These animal shows ranged in size but the largest was George Wombwell's. The earliest record of a fatality at one such travelling menagerie was the death of Hannah Twynnoy in 1703 who was killed by a tiger in Malmesbury, Wiltshire.


title: Menagerie

text: The first exotic animal known to have been exhibited in America was a lion, in Boston in 1710, followed a year later in the same city by a camel.


title: Menagerie

text: A sailor arrived in Philadelphia in August 1727 with another lion, which he exhibited in the city and surrounding towns for eight years.


title: Menagerie

text: The first elephant was imported from India to America by a ship’s captain, Jacob Crowninshield, in 1796. It was first displayed in New York City and travelled extensively up and down the East Coast.


title: Menagerie

text: In 1834 James and William Howes’ New York Menagerie toured New England with an elephant, a rhinoceros, a camel, two tigers, a polar bear, and several parrots and monkeys.


title: Menagerie

text: America’s touring menageries slowed to a crawl under the weight of the depression of the 1840s and then to a halt with the outbreak of the Civil War. Only one travelling menagerie of any size existed after the war: The Van Amburgh menagerie travelled the United States for nearly forty years. Unlike their European counterparts, America’s menageries and circuses had combined as single travelling shows, with one ticket to see both. This increased the size and the diversity of their collections. Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus advertised their shows as the “World’s Greatest Menagerie”.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: Daniel Alejandro Suárez Garza (born January 7, 1992) is a Mexican professional stock car racing driver. He competes full-time in the NASCAR Cup Series, driving the No. 99 Chevrolet Camaro ZL1 for Trackhouse Racing Team. He previously drove in the NASCAR Toyota Series in Mexico for Telcel Racing, and the NASCAR K&N Pro Series East for Rev Racing as a member of the Drive for Diversity program. Suárez also previously competed in the NASCAR Xfinity Series, where he won the series championship in 2016 with Joe Gibbs Racing, becoming the first non-American to win a major NASCAR National Series championship.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: A native of Monterrey in Nuevo León, Suárez began his racing career in karting in 2002. In 2007, he won the class championship. In 2008, he moved to the preliminary category of NASCAR Mexico, Mini-Stocks, where he became the youngest driver to win a race in the series. He moved to the NASCAR Mexico Series in 2010, driving for Telcel Racing and winning the series' Rookie of the Year title. In 2011, Suárez participated in the Toyota All-Star Showdown at Irwindale Speedway, finishing in 11th, the highest-finishing Mexican driver in the event. In the 2011 NASCAR Mexico Series, he finished the season with three poles and a podium, finishing ninth in the standings. At the same time, he participated in 7 races of the NASCAR K&N Pro Series East.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: In 2012, he alternated his time between the Mexico Series and K&N Pro Series East. In Mexico, he led the points for most of the season and entered the final race of the year in contention for the championship, but wound up finishing third, having scored two victories. In the K&N Pro Series East, he finished in sixteenth place in the overall standings, achieving 3 top-10s in nine races.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: Suárez competed for the full season in the K&N Pro Series East in 2013, driving a Toyota for Rev Racing. He scored his first victory in the series at Columbus Motor Speedway, also recorded six top-5 and nine top-ten finishes on his way to third in the championship standings. Meanwhile, he finished runner-up of the NASCAR Toyota Series achieved 3 wins and five podium finishes in the season. Suárez was also named to NASCAR's Drive for Diversity program during the 2013 season.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: In 2014, Suárez returned to the K&N East and Toyota Series, winning the first two K&N East and first Toyota Series races of the season. In April, he was selected by Joe Gibbs Racing to make his debut in the Nationwide Series at Richmond International Raceway, driving the team's No. 20 Toyota; he finished 19th.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: In August 2014, it was announced that Suárez would compete full-time in the 2015 NASCAR Xfinity Series in the No. 18 Toyota for Joe Gibbs Racing and that he would also run a partial schedule in the 2015 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series in the No. 51 Toyota for Kyle Busch Motorsports.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: On July 4, 2015, Suárez won the pole for the Xfinity Series Subway Firecracker 250 at Daytona, his first career pole in the series. Suárez would go on to win 2 more poles at Iowa and Kentucky and won his first ARCA pole at Kansas. Suárez went on to win the 2015 NASCAR Xfinity Series rookie of the year title edging Darrell Wallace Jr. for the award by one single top ten finish in statistics. Suárez finished the season 5th in points.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: In 2016, Suárez's car number in the Xfinity Series was switched to No. 19. He won his first Xfinity Series race at Michigan, by passing Kyle Busch on the last lap, becoming the first Mexican-born driver to win in a NASCAR national touring series. Suárez won his second Xfinity Series race during the Round of 12 in the Chase at Dover in October. With this win, he would advance to the Round of 8. In November, Suárez won his first Camping World Truck Series race at Phoenix, taking the lead late in the race after William Byron lost an engine. In the season-ending Xfinity Series race at Homestead, Suárez dominated the race and took the lead on the final restart with 2 laps to go to score his first Xfinity Series championship. Suárez became the first foreign-born driver to win a NASCAR national series championship.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: After the retirement of Carl Edwards, Suárez was tapped to drive the No. 19 Arris / Stanley Tools-sponsored Toyota for JGR. He was paired up with crew chief Dave Rogers. In his first Advance Auto Parts Clash he finished eighth after starting 16th. Suárez scored a pair of seventh-place finishes at Phoenix and Auto Club. Shortly before the Martinsville race, Suárez's crew chief, Rogers, took an indefinite leave of absence. He was replaced by Scott Graves, who was Suárez's crew chief when he won the 2016 Xfinity Series championship. In May, Suárez won the final stage of the Monster Energy Open, which allowed him to advance into the All-Star Race. In June, Suárez opened the month by finishing a career-best sixth at Dover. Later in the month, Suárez joined MDM Motorsports at Sonoma Raceway for the K&N Pro Series West race, his and MDM's debuts in the series. After qualifying seventh, he finished 11th. Later in the summer, Suárez earned a series of four consecutive finishes of seventh or better, including a third-place finish at Watkins Glen and a Stage 2 winner over stage leader Martin Truex Jr.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: During the season, Suárez was involved in controversy from one of his sponsors, Subway. During a publicity event with the help of NBC Sports at the New Hampshire Motor Speedway in July, he gave out free Dunkin Donuts to fans camping in the infield and the surrounding areas of the track. Nearly two months later, Subway decided to pull out with a race remaining on their contract. After the announcement, Camping World owner Marcus Lemonis tweeted his intention to sponsor Suárez, which took place at Talladega's Alabama 500. Suárez also ran 14 Xfinity Series races with a best finish of second at the fall Bristol race to his teammate Kyle Busch.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: During the 2018 season, Suárez won his first career Cup Series pole at Pocono, after Kevin Harvick and Kyle Busch's qualifying times were disallowed following an inspection. He also scored a career-best second place in the race. Suárez, however, struggled to stay consistent throughout the season with three top-fives and nine top-10 finishes. On October 9, 2018, Rogers returned to replace Graves as Suárez's crew chief.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: On September 21, 2018, it was reported that Suárez removed all references to Joe Gibbs Racing from his Twitter profile, hinting that he will be out of the team by the end of the 2018 season. On November 7, 2018, it was announced that Suárez will be replaced by Martin Truex Jr. in 2019.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: On January 7, 2019, it was announced that Suárez signed with Stewart-Haas Racing to drive the No. 41 Ford Mustang GT in the 2019 season. In addition, Suárez brought in Arris to sponsor the team. During qualifying for the 2019 TicketGuardian 500 at Phoenix, Suárez had an on-track incident with Michael McDowell, which resulted in a fight on pit road. Despite showing signs of improvement in performance, Suárez failed to make the 2019 playoffs after finishing 11th after an on-track incident with Matt Tifft that caused a caution at Indianapolis. On November 14, 2019, it was announced that Suárez would not return to the No. 41 car in 2020.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: On January 28, 2020, Suárez officially signed with Gaunt Brothers Racing to race the No. 96 Toyota full-time in 2020. Despite being eligible, he did not participate in the 2020 Busch Clash to focus on the 2020 Daytona 500. Suárez failed to make the Daytona 500 after finishing 22nd in Duel 1 of the 2020 Bluegreen Vacations Duels when he collided with Ryan Blaney in turn 4. Suárez made his official debut with GBR at Las Vegas a week later, but he experienced mechanical issues before the opening lap, resulting in him finishing 30th with four laps down. Throughout the season, he struggled to make a decent finish, with his highest being two 18th place finishes at Bristol and Kansas.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: On September 14, Suárez announced he would not return to Gaunt Brothers Racing at the end of the season. On October 7, he announced that he will join Justin Marks' new Trackhouse Racing Team in 2021.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: For the 2021 season, Suárez joined the No. 99 car for Trackhouse Racing. The No. 99 was last used by Carl Edwards, whom he replaced at JGR (with Edwards giving both Suárez and Trackhouse his blessing for the number). Suárez's run with Trackhouse was seen by many as his best, and very likely his last, chance at resurrecting his career after his struggles the previous few seasons. Although it took time for Suárez and the team to gel, Trackhouse quickly gained a reputation for competitiveness and on-track action during the season with Suárez behind the wheel.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: During the 2021 season, Suárez scored Trackhouse's first top five with a fourth place finish at the Bristol dirt race. Suárez also scored top tens at Dover, Nashville, and Texas. Suárez also competed in the Trans-Am race in Nashville for Marks' SCCA team.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: Suárez returned to Trackhouse for the 2022 season after the team acquired multiple charters from Chip Ganassi Racing. In February 2022, Suárez and Trackhouse expanded a sponsorship deal with Freeway Insurance, granting the company primary sponsorship rights for five events throughout the 2022 NASCAR Cup series. At Sonoma, Suárez became the first Mexican-born driver to win a Cup Series race. Suárez was eliminated in the Round of 12 after finishing 36th at the Charlotte Roval. He finished the season at a career-best 10th in the points standings.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: In the Truck Series, Suárez relieved an injured Carson Hocevar on lap 11 of the Sonoma race, bringing the No. 42 truck to a sixth place finish.


title: Daniel Suárez

text: Suárez resides in Huntersville, North Carolina. Suárez is engaged to Julia Piquet, daughter of three-time Formula 1 World Champion Nelson Piquet.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The 2022 CFL season was the 68th season of modern-day Canadian football. Officially, it was the 64th season of the Canadian Football League. The regular season began on June 9, 2022, and ended on October 29, 2022, with 18 games played per team over 21 weeks. Regina hosted the 109th Grey Cup on November 20, 2022.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The three-year agreement that was ratified between the CFL and CFL Player's Association expired just prior to this season, on May 15, 2022, which was the first day of scheduled training camp. After the CFL and CFLPA failed to come to an agreement before the deadline, players from seven of the nine teams formally went on strike on May 15, 2022; with players from the two teams located in Alberta voting to strike on May 19, 2022 in accordance with provincial labour laws. This is the first CFL labour strike since 1974. On May 18, 2022 the CFL and CFLPA reached a tentative agreement on a new seven-year collective bargaining agreement (CBA). However, on May 23, 2022 the players voted against the tentative agreement, despite its approval by the bargaining committee and being recommended by team player reps. On May 26, 2022 the CFLPA and CFL agreed to a revised tentative CBA agreement. A few hours later the players voted to ratify the new collective bargaining agreement. The CFL Board of Governors officially ratified the agreement on May 31, 2022. Topics of negotiation include compensation, partially guaranteed contracts, revenue sharing, player safety, and league revenue generation following two seasons heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. However, much of the debate revolved around the Canadian-American player ratios.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The 2022 salary cap will set at $5,350,000 ($118,888 per active roster spot). Minimum salaries set at $65,000 for National and American Players and $54,000 for Global Players. This is the last year minimum salaries will be tiered (in 2023, the minimum rises to $70,000 for the entire league). Players also share $136,111 per club ratification bonus and $100,000 per club in community relations payments.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The league released the season's full schedule on December 16, 2021, just four days after the 108th Grey Cup, which returned to an 18-game schedule following a pandemic-shortened 2021 CFL season. The regular season began on June 9, 2022, with the Calgary Stampeders hosting the Montreal Alouettes. The Grey Cup rematch game between the Winnipeg Blue Bombers and Hamilton Tiger-Cats did not occur until week 3, which is the first time since 2018 that this game was not featured in week 1 of the regular season. Similar to the planned 2020 CFL season and the schedule from 2021, this year again featured more intra-divisional games, with BC, Calgary, and Edmonton playing 12 such games, Saskatchewan and Winnipeg playing 11 divisional games, and the East Division teams playing 10 divisional games. This was done to reduce cross-country travel.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The schedule featured all intra-divisional matchups in the last two weeks of the regular season. This year also featured more home-and-home matchups, with every team having at least two and Saskatchewan, Toronto, and Ottawa having five of these matchups. The Toronto Argonauts played a neutral site game on July 16, 2022, against the Saskatchewan Roughriders at Raymond Field, in Wolfville, Nova Scotia; with the stadium capacity increased from 3,000 to 10,000. It was the first CFL match held in Atlantic Canada since the 2019 season. All previous regular season games of the Touchdown Atlantic series were held in Moncton, New Brunswick. Tickets for the match sold out in less than one hour.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: On April 27, 2022, the league announced a series of rule changes with the intention of improving game flow, and increasing offensive production.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The 2022 free agency period officially began on Tuesday, February 8, 2022, at 12:00 p.m. ET. Pending free agents and teams were able to negotiate offers for one week starting Sunday, January 30, 2022, and ending Sunday, February 6, 2022. All formal offers to a player during this time were sent to both the league and the players union and could not be rescinded.


title: 2022 CFL season

text: The CFL continued to be broadcast on TSN and RDS across all platforms in Canada as part of their current contract. The broadcast rights are reported to have been extended through 2025. The CFL entered a new partnership with Visaic providing streaming options for 130 countries and territories around the world. This service is available to anyone outside of Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the United States, where the rights are held by TSN, RDS, ESPN and BT Sports. Prices ranged from $4.99 USD for a single game, to $99.99 for every regular season and playoff game.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: Lion of Babylon () is the name of a project undertaken by the Iraqi military in the late 1980s, under which Ba'athist Iraq attempted to locally produce the T-72, a Soviet-made main battle tank. The tanks were to be assembled at a factory near Taji in the Baghdad Governorate.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The Lion of Babylon project of Saddam Hussein's regime was triggered in part by the American embargo against the sale of military vehicles to Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War. However, it is disputed how many tanks outlined in the project were finished, and likewise whether the Iraqi tanks reported to be "Lions of Babylon" during the Gulf War and Iraq War were merely imported T-72s.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The project draws its name from the Lion of Babylon, an ancient Babylonian symbol that was based on the Asiatic lion and represented the king of Babylon as well as the goddess Ishtar. The name is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to T-72s in Iraqi service, which were imported from the Soviet Union and Poland.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: In 1986 a West German company built a factory in Taji to manufacture steel for several military uses. It was enlisted to retrofit and rebuild tanks already on duty in the Iraqi Army, such as T-54/55s, T-62s, and several hundred of Soviet and Polish T-72s, imported during early stages of the war with Iran.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: In the late-1980s plans were made to produce new T-72M1 tanks in Taji. These tanks were to be assembled from knockdown kits delivered by the Polish state-owned company Bumar-Łabędy. The assembly was to start in 1989 and the tanks would receive the name Asad Babil (Lion of Babylon). According to Polish officials not a single T-72M1 was finished, even though in 1988 a T-72M was displayed on an Iraqi arms show, which was claimed to be locally produced. The local assembly of the T-72 started in Taji in early 1989 as suggested by Iraqi officials. A number of Iraqi officials such as Lt. General Amer Rashid however did not like the idea of being dependent on knockdown kits supplied by another country and pushed for the complete production of the T-72M1 tank instead.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The United Nations imposed an arms embargo following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, which reduced the complete assembly of tanks to simple spare parts for Lions and other tanks in the Iraqi arsenal. It is not known how many Lion tanks were completed during the span between early 1989 and this embargo.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: In most aspects, the Lion of Babylon is physically identical to the T-72M1 it is based on. Lion of Babylon T-72s were upgraded with the addition of laminated armor on the front slope and rear panels as protection against HEAT projectiles.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: American military intelligence believed some were equipped with Belgian-made thermal sights. These same sources claim the tank was also provided with a better track protection against sand and mud than the Soviet T-72, by reducing the original number of shock absorbers. Some tanks also were fitted with a type of electro-optical interference pod of Chinese origin.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: As secondary armament, the tank mounted either the NSV or the DShK 12.7 mm machine gun and the coaxial 7.62 mm PKT common to all T-72 models.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The Lion's primary armor was the same as the T-72M1, without any improvements. The Lion's side armor had 60 mm protection, the turret side armor was 300 mm, and the flat rear was 45 mm thick.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: Despite the relative thinness, a retrofitted reinforced armor plate present both at the turret and the front upper hull seems to have been relatively effective against some shaped-charge ordnance, like the TOWs and Hellfire missiles. There are reports of Iraqi T-72s surviving near-misses from these weapons, although the reinforced armor generally did not prevent a mobility kill. However, it is also possible that the unexpected survival rate was due to the electro-optical countermeasures mounted on most of the tanks rather than the added armor. Some Lion tanks may have featured explosive reactive armor, possibly obtained from Polish T-72M1 spare parts.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: Another improvised armor upgrade may have also been added at the Taji complex. An additional 30 mm armor plate was welded on the front areas of the hull and turret, leaving an air gap matching the size of the armor, so that the power of a HEAT jet could be dissipated in the hollow space. This technique follows the principle of spaced armor. The Iraqi engineers tested this reinforcement against captured Iranian 120 mm Chieftain tank guns in 1989, apparently with some success.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The Lion of Babylon saw service in the 1991 Persian Gulf War as well as the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Like other tanks in the Iraqi inventory, Lions were mainly employed as armored self-propelled artillery, rather than in maneuver warfare roles. In operations, it fared poorly against American main battle tanks and armored fighting vehicles. For example, a 120 mm depleted uranium (DU) APFSDS round from an M1 Abrams could knock out a Lion of Babylon tank well beyond 3,000 m, while the effective range of the tungsten-core 125 mm shell used by Iraq was 1,800 m.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: Within closer ranges, the Lion of Babylon was more effective, especially while within prepared positions. However, even in such conditions, the T-72 did not fare well against M1s—as proven in the Battle of Norfolk during Desert Storm, although the tank also participated in the Battle of Phase Line Bullet, where Bradley IFVs from the 4th squadron of the 7th Cavalry Regiment were driven back by dug-in Iraqi armoured vehicles at heavy cost.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The bulk of Iraqi armoured units were equipped with the Type 69 and only Republican Guard divisions were equipped with Iraqi-modified T-72s, with exception of the regular army's armored "Saladin" division. Thus, engagements between Lions of Babylon and American tanks were limited to conflicts involving such Iraqi units.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: During Desert Storm, T-72s built in Taji were technologically 20 years out of date. Only one M1 Abrams was officially documented during the Persian Gulf War as having received enough damage to be towed and receive maintenance after being struck three times on the turret by a Lion. Another six M1A1s were allegedly hit by Iraqi T-72 tank fire in the Gulf War official report, but the impacts were largely ineffectual. According to Atkinson and Scales, Lions accounted for at least two M2 Bradley kills during Desert Storm and left several damaged, all on February 26, 1991.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the Republican Guard's Lions, most from the Medina Division, were deployed around Baghdad to attempt a last-ditch defense of the Baath regime.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: In April 2003, U.S. tanks engaged their counterparts from just 50 yards, killing seven Iraqi T-72s without any losses. Such encounters exposed the poor marksmanship of Iraqi gunners, in part due to the shortage of modern night-vision and range-finder assets. The Lions were even more technologically lacking at this time, and it is not known if any improvements to the tanks were made between the Persian Gulf War and this conflict. Nonetheless, one Bradley was largely disabled by a 125 mm round from an Asad Babil tank when Iraqi armoured troops attempted to attack their American counterparts near Baghdad airport.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: The last operational T-72s were destroyed by the successive waves of American armored incursions on the Iraqi capital or abandoned by their crews after the fall of Baghdad, several of them without firing a single shot. The derelict tanks were later scrapped by U.S. Army disposal teams or shipped to the United States for target practice.


title: Lion of Babylon (tank)

text: Two years after the fall of Saddam Hussein, the new Iraqi Government acquired dozens of refitted T-72M1s from Hungary, in order to equip an armored brigade. The headquarters of this new Iraqi Army unit is located in Taji, so there may still remain some maintenance facilities from the production of Lions. Some surviving T-72s are used for training, and the experience of Iraqi Army officers and crews with the T-72 was one of the reasons behind the choice of Hungarian T-72M1s.


title: Ashish Sharma

text: Ashish Sharma is an Indian film and television actor. He is recognized for his role of Prithvi Vallabh in "Prithvi Vallabh - Itihaas Bhi, Rahasya Bhi," Rama in "Siya Ke Ram," Major Rudra Pratap Ranawat in "Rangrasiya", Ranveer Singh/Fateh Singh Rathore/Jeet Singh in "Rab Se Sohna Isshq", and Chandragupta Maurya in "Chandragupta Maurya".


title: Ashish Sharma

text: Ashish Sharma began his film career with the 2010 Hindi film "Love Sex Aur Dhokha". He made his television debut the same year when he starred as the male lead in Imagine TV's "Gunahon Ka Devta".


title: Ashish Sharma

text: He played Chandragupta Maurya in the historical drama series "Chandragupta Maurya". He also appeared as Ranveer in Zee TV's "Rab Se Sohna Isshq".


title: Ashish Sharma

text: It was in 2014 that his character Major Rudra Pratap Ranawat, a BSD (border security) officer, on Colors TV show "RangRasiya", that garnered him both critical and popular appreciation and making him a household name. He was the winner of Season 7 of dance reality show "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" in 2014 partnered with choreographer Shampa Sonthalia. He was also the host of the radio show "Tujhse Naaraaz Nahin Zindagi".


title: Ashish Sharma

text: In 2018, Sharma and wife Archana Taide produced "Khejdi," a film about a transgender played by Sharma himself.


title: Ashish Sharma

text: Sharma was born and raised in Jaipur. On 30 January 2013, Sharma married television actress Archana Taide in Jaipur.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Augusto Sakai (born May 19, 1991) is a Brazilian mixed martial artist who formerly competed in Bellator MMA and is now competing in the Heavyweight division of the UFC.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai made his professional MMA debut in October 2011 in his native Brazil. In the first two years of his career, he amassed a record of six wins and no losses with all but one of his wins coming via knockout.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai returned to the promotion in 2015 with bouts against Daniel Gallemore and Alex Huddleston. He won both fights via TKO.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai made his promotional debut against Chase Sherman on September 22, 2018, at UFC Fight Night 137. He won the fight via TKO in the third round.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: In his third fight for the promotion, Sakai faced Marcin Tybura on September 14, 2019 at UFC Fight Night 158. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. Subsequently, Sakai signed a new, six-fight contract with the UFC.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai was scheduled to face Blagoy Ivanov on May 9, 2020 at then UFC 250. Due to the event being relocated to the United States, Sakai being unable to compete due to visa issues. However, on April 9, Dana White, the president of UFC announced that this event was postponed and the eventually the bout took place on May 30, 2020 at . He won the fight via a split decision.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai faced Alistair Overeem on September 5, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 176. Despite his early success, he was eventually dominated by the veteran and lost the fight via technical knockout in the fifth round.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai was expected to face Shamil Abdurakhimov on May 1, 2021 at UFC on ESPN 23. However Abdurakhimov pulled out of the bout with visa issues, and Sakai instead faced Jairzinho Rozenstruik on June 5, 2021 at . He lost the fight via knockout with one second left in the first round.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai was expected to face Tai Tuivasa on November 20, 2021 at UFC Fight Night 198. However due to visa issues for Tuivasa, the bout was scrapped. The pair was rescheduled and met on December 11, 2021 at UFC 269. Sakai lost the fight via knockout in the second round.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai faced Sergey Spivak on August 6, 2022 at UFC on ESPN 40. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round two.


title: Augusto Sakai

text: Sakai is the grandson of Japanese immigrants to Brazil and he works at an aquarium store between fights.


title: Robert A. Heinlein bibliography

text: The science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein (1907–1988) was productive during a writing career that spanned the last 49 years of his life; the Robert A. Heinlein bibliography includes 32 novels, 59 short stories and 16 collections published during his life. Four films, two TV series, several episodes of a radio series, at least two songs ('Hijack' by Jefferson Starship and 'Cool Green Hills of Earth' on the 1970 album Ready to Ride and as the b-side of a single by Southwind) and a board game derive more or less directly from his work. He wrote a screenplay for one of the films. Heinlein edited an anthology of other writers' science fiction short stories.


title: Robert A. Heinlein bibliography

text: Three non-fiction books and two poems have been published posthumously. has been published posthumously and another, an unusual collaboration, was published in 2006. Four collections have been published posthumously.


title: Robert A. Heinlein bibliography

text: Known pseudonyms include Anson MacDonald (7 times), Lyle Monroe (7), John Riverside (1), Caleb Saunders (1), and Simon York (1). All the works originally attributed to MacDonald, Saunders, Riverside and York, and many of the works originally attributed to Lyle Monroe, were later reissued in various Heinlein collections and attributed to Heinlein.


title: Robert A. Heinlein bibliography

text: All the works initially attributed to Anson MacDonald, Caleb Saunders, John Riverside and Simon York, and many of the works attributed to Lyle Monroe, were later reissued in various Heinlein collections and attributed to Heinlein.


title: Robert A. Heinlein bibliography

text: At Heinlein's insistence, the three Lyle Monroe stories marked with the symbol '§' were never reissued in a Heinlein anthology during his lifetime.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid, also known as zoledronate and sold under the brand name Zometa by Novartis among others, is a medication used to treat a number of bone diseases. These include osteoporosis, high blood calcium due to cancer, bone breakdown due to cancer, Paget's disease of bone and Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). It is given by injection into a vein.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Common side effects include fever, joint pain, high blood pressure, diarrhea, and feeling tired. Serious side effects may include kidney problems, low blood calcium, and osteonecrosis of the jaw. Use during pregnancy may result in harm to the baby. It is in the bisphosphonate family of medications. It works by blocking the activity of osteoclast cells and thus decreases the breakdown of bone.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid was patented in 1986 and approved for medical use in the United States in 2001. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid is used to prevent bone fractures in patients with cancers such as multiple myeloma and prostate cancer, as well as for treating osteoporosis. It can also be used to treat hypercalcaemia of malignancy and can be helpful for treating pain from bone metastases.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: It can be given at home rather than in hospital. Such use has shown safety and quality-of-life benefits in people with breast cancer and bone metastases.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid, in brand name products Aclasta and Reclast among others, may be given as a 5 mg infusion once per year for treatment of osteoporosis in men and post-menopausal women at increased risk of fracture.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: In 2007, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved it for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Side effects can include fatigue, anemia, muscle aches, fever, and/or swelling in the feet or legs. Flu-like symptoms are common after the first infusion, although not subsequent infusions, and are thought to occur because of its potential to activate human gamma delta T cell (γδ T cells).


title: Zoledronic acid

text: There is a risk of severe renal impairment. Appropriate hydration is important before administration, as is adequate calcium and vitamin D intake before Aclasta therapy in patients with hypocalcaemia, and for ten days following Aclasta in patients with Paget's disease of the bone. Monitoring for other mineral metabolism disorders and the avoidance of invasive dental procedures for those who develop osteonecrosis of the jaw is recommended.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronate is rapidly processed via the kidneys; consequently its administration is not recommended for patients with reduced renal function or kidney disease. Some cases of acute kidney injury either requiring dialysis or having a fatal outcome following Reclast use have been reported to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This assessment was confirmed by the European Medicines Agency (EMA), whose Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) specified new contraindications for the medication on 15 December 2011, which include hypocalcaemia and severe renal impairment with a creatinine clearance of less than 35 ml/min.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: A rare complication that has been recently observed in cancer patients being treated with bisphosphonates is osteonecrosis of the jaw. This has mainly been seen in patients with multiple myeloma treated with zoledronic acid who have had dental extractions.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: After approving the drug on 8 July 2009, the European Medicines Agency conducted a class review of all bisphosphonates, including zoledronic acid, after several cases of atypical fractures were reported. In 2008, the EMA's Pharmacovigilance Working Party (PhVWP) noted that alendronic acid was associated with an increased risk of atypical fracture of the femur that developed with low or no trauma. In April 2010, the PhVWP noted that further data from both the published literature and post-marketing reports were now available which suggested that atypical stress fractures of the femur may be a class effect. The European Medicines Agency then reviewed all case reports of stress fractures in patients treated with bisphosphonates, relevant data from the published literature, and data provided by the companies which market bisphosphonates. The Agency recommended that doctors who prescribe bisphosphonate-containing medicines should be aware that atypical fractures may occur rarely in the femur, especially after long-term use, and that doctors who are prescribing these medicines for the prevention or treatment of osteoporosis should regularly review the need for continued treatment, especially after five or more years of use.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: As a nitrogenous bisphosphonate, Zoledronic acid is a potent inhibitor of bone resorption, allowing the bone-forming cells time to rebuild normal bone and allowing bone remodeling.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid has been found to have a direct antitumor effect and to synergistically augment the effects of other antitumor agents in osteosarcoma cells.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid has shown significant benefits versus placebo over three years, with a reduced number of vertebral fractures and improved markers of bone density. An annual dose of zoledronic acid may also prevent recurring fractures in patients with a previous hip fracture.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: Zoledronic acid also attenuates accumulation of DNA damage in mesenchymal stem cells and protects their function.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: An increase in disease-free survival (DFS) was found in the ABCSG-12 trial, in which 1,803 premenopausal women with endocrine-responsive early breast cancer received anastrozole with zoledronic acid. A retrospective analysis of the AZURE trial data revealed a DFS survival advantage, particularly where estrogen had been reduced.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: In a meta-analysis of trials where upfront zoledronic acid was given to prevent aromatase inhibitor-associated bone loss, active cancer recurrence appeared to be reduced.


title: Zoledronic acid

text: A 2010 review concluded that "adding zoledronic acid 4 mg intravenously every 6 months to endocrine therapy in premenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive early breast cancer ... is cost-effective from a US health care system perspective".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Lithuanian mythology () is the mythology of Lithuanian polytheism, the religion of pre-Christian Lithuanians. Like other Indo-Europeans, ancient Lithuanians maintained a polytheistic mythology and religious structure. In pre-Christian Lithuania, mythology was a part of polytheistic religion; after Christianisation mythology survived mostly in folklore, customs and festive rituals. Lithuanian mythology is very close to the mythology of other Baltic nations – Prussians, Latvians, and is considered a part of Baltic mythology.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Early Lithuanian religion and customs were based on oral tradition. Therefore, the very first records about Lithuanian mythology and beliefs were made by travellers, Christian missionaries, chronicle writers and historians. Original Lithuanian oral tradition partially survived in national ritual and festive songs and legends which started to be written down in the 18th century.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The first bits about Baltic religion were written down by Herodotus describing Neuri (Νευροί) in his "Histories" and Tacitus in his "Germania" mentioned Aestii wearing boar figures and worshipping "Mother of gods". Neuri were mentioned by Roman geographer Pomponius Mela. In the 9th century there is one attestation about Prussian (Aestii) funeral traditions by Wulfstan. In 11th century Adam of Bremen mentioned Prussians, living in Sambia and their holy groves. 12th century Muslim geographer al-Idrisi in "The Book of Roger" mentioned Balts as worshipers of Holy Fire and their flourishing city "Madsun" (Mdsūhn, Mrsunh, Marsūna).


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The first recorded Baltic myth - "The Tale of Sovij" was detected as the complementary insert in the copy of "Chronographia" ("Χρονογραφία") of Greek chronicler from Antioch John Malalas rewritten in the year 1262 in Lithuania. It is a first recorded Baltic myth, also the first placed among myths of other nations – Greek, Roman and others. The "Tale of Sovij" describes the establishing of cremation custom which was common among Lithuanians and other Baltic nations. The names of the Baltic gods , Perkūnas, , and a smith-god are mentioned.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: When the Prussian Crusade and Lithuanian Crusade started, more first-hand knowledge about beliefs of Balts were recorded, but these records were mixed with propaganda about "infidels". One of the first valuable sources is the Treaty of Christburg, 1249, between the pagan Prussian clans, represented by a papal legate, and the Teutonic Knights. In it worship of Kurkas ("Curche"), the god of harvest and grain, pagan priests ("Tulissones vel Ligaschones"), who performed certain rituals at funerals are mentioned.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: "Chronicon terrae Prussiae" is a major source for information on the Order's battles with Old Prussians and Lithuanians. It contains mentionings about Prussian religion and the center of Baltic religion – Romuva, where lives Kriwe-Kriwajto as a powerful priest who was held in high regard by the Prussians, Lithuanians, and Balts of Livonia.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The "Livonian Rhymed Chronicle", which covers the period 1180 – 1343, contains records about ethical codex of the Lithuanians and the Baltic people.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: "Descriptiones terrarum", written by an anonymous author in the middle of 13th century. The author was a guest at coronation of Lithuanian king Mindaugas. The author also mentioned that Lithuanians, Yotwingians and Nalsenians embraced Christianity quite easily, since their childhood nuns were usually Christian, but Christianity in Samogitia was introduced only with a sword.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Die Littauischen Wegeberichte ("The descriptions of Lithuanian routes") is a compilation of 100 routes into the western Grand Duchy of Lithuania prepared by the Teutonic Knights and their spies in 1384–1402. It contains descriptions and mentionings of Lithuanian holy groves and sacrificial places — "alkas".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Simon Grunau was the author of "Preussische Chronik", written sometime between 1517 and 1529. It became main source for research of Prussian mythology and one of the main sources of Lithuanian mythology researchers and reconstructors. It was the first source which described the flag of Vaidevutis. The book contained many questionable ideas, though.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: French theologian and cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, Pierre d'Ailly mentions the Sun ("Saulė") as one of the most important Lithuanian gods, which rejuvenates the world as its spirit. Like Romans, Lithuanians consecrate the Sunday entirely for the Sun. Although they are worshipping the Sun, they have no temples. The astronomy of Lithuanians is based on the Moon calendar.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Enea Silvio Bartolomeo Piccolomini, who later became the Pope Pius II, in the section "de Europa" of his book "Historia rerum ubique gestarum", cited Jerome of Prague, who attested Lithuanians worshiping the Sun and the iron hammer which was used to free the Sun from the tower. He mentioned also Christian missionaries cutting off holy groves and oaks, which Lithuanians believed to be homes of the gods.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Jan Łasicki created "De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum et falsorum Christianorum" ("Concerning the gods of Samagitians, and other Sarmatians and false Christians") - written c. 1582 and published in 1615, although it has some important facts it also contains many inaccuracies, as he did not know Lithuanian and relied on stories of others. The list of Lithuanian gods, provided by Jan Łasicki, is still considered an important and of interest for Lithuanian mythology. Later researchers Teodor Narbutt, Simonas Daukantas and Jonas Basanavičius relied on his work.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Matthäus Prätorius in his two-volume "Deliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubühne", written in 1690, collected facts about Prussian and Lithuanian rituals. He idealised the culture of Prussians, considered it belonging to the culture of the Antique world.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The "Sudovian Book" was an anonymous work about the customs, religion, and daily life of the Prussians from Sambia ("Semba"). The manuscript was written in German in the 16th century. The book included a list of Prussian gods, sorted in a generally descending order from sky to earth to underworld and was and important source for reconstructing Baltic and Lithuanian mythology.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The "Pomesanian statute book of 1340", the earliest attested document of the customary law of the Balts, as well as the works of Dietrich of Nieheim ("Cronica") and Sebastian Münster ("Cosmographia").


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Lithuanian song collections recorded by Liudvikas Rėza, Antanas Juška and many others in 19th century and later - among them mythological and ritual songs. For example, the song recorded by L. Rėza - "Mėnuo saulužę vedė" (Moon Married the Sun) reflects beliefs that L. Rėza stated were still alive at the moment of recording.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Folklore collections by, among others, Mečislovas Davainis-Silvestraitis (collected about 700 Samogitian fairy-tales and tales ("sakmės")) and Jonas Basanavičius (collected hundreds of songs, tales, melodies and riddles).


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Surviving information about Baltic mythology in general is fragmented. As with most ancient Indo-European cultures (e.g. Greece and India), the original primary mode of transmission of seminal information such as myths, stories, and customs was oral, the then-unnecessary custom of writing being introduced later during the period of the text-based culture of Christianity. Most of the early written accounts are very brief and made by foreigners, usually Christians, who disapproved of pagan traditions. Some academics regard some texts as inaccurate misunderstandings or even fabrications. In addition, many sources list many different names and different spellings, thus sometimes it is not clear if they are referring to the same thing.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Lithuania became Christianized between the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century, but Lithuanian polytheism survived for another two centuries, gradually losing influence and coherence as a religion. The last conceptions of the old religion survived approximately until the beginning of the 19th century. The relics of the old polytheistic religion were already interwoven with songs, tales and other mythic stories. Gradually Lithuanian polytheism customs and songs merged with the Christian tradition. In the beginning of the 20th century Michał Pius Römer noted - "Lithuanian folklore culture having its sources in heathenism is in complete concord with Christianity".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: In 1883, Edmund Veckenstedt published a book "Die Mythen, Sagen und Legenden der Zamaiten (Litauer)" ().


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: It is not easy to reconstruct Lithuanian mythology in its full form. Lithuanian mythology was not static, but constantly developed, so it did not remain in the same form over the longer periods.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: J. Dlugosz tried to research myths and religion of ancient Lithuanians. He considered it close to the ancient culture of Rome. Almost all authors of Renaissance - J. Dlugosz, M. Stryjkowski, J. Lasicki, M. Prätorius and others, relied not only on previous authors and chroniclers, but included facts and attestations of their time as well. Since Renaissance scholars were quite knowledgeable about the culture of antique world, their interpretation of Lithuanian religion was affected by Roman or Greek cultures.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Many scholars preferred to write their own reconstructions of Lithuanian mythology, based also on historical, archaeological, and ethnographic data. The first such reconstruction was written by the Lithuanian historian Theodor Narbutt at the beginning of the 19th century.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The interest in Baltic and Lithuanian mythology was growing along with interest in Lithuanian language among Indo-Europeanists, since the conservative and native Baltic nations preserved very archaic language and cultural traditions.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Italian linguist Vittore Pisani along with his research of Baltic languages, studied Lithuanian mythology.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Two well-known attempts at reconstruction have been attempted more recently by Marija Gimbutas and Algirdas Julien Greimas. According to G. Beresenevičius it is impossible to reconstruct the Lithuanian mythology in entirety, since there were only fragments which survived. Marija Gimbutas explored Lithuanian and Baltic mythology using her method - archaeomythology where archeological findings being interpreted through known mythology. A material related to the Lithuanian spells was used by V. Ivanov and V. Toporov to restore the Indo-European myths.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The most modern academics exploring Lithuanian mythology in the second half of the 20th century were Norbertas Vėlius and Gintaras Beresnevičius.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The pantheon of Lithuania was formed during thousands of years by merging pre-Indo-European and Indo-European traditions. Feminine gods such as "Žemyna" (goddess of the earth) are attributed to pre-Indo-European tradition, whereas very expressive thunder-god "Perkūnas" is considered to derive from Indo-European religion. The hierarchy of the gods depended also on social strata of ancient Lithuanian society.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Dievas, also called "Dievas senelis" ('old man God'), "Dangaus Dievas" ('the God of heaven') - the supreme sky god. It is descended from Proto-Indo-European *"deiwos", "celestial" or "shining", from the same root as "*Dyēus", the reconstructed chief god of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon. It relates to ancient Greek "Zeus" ("Ζευς" or "Δίας"), Latin Dius Fidius, Luvian "Tiwat", German "Tiwaz". The name "Dievas" is being used in Christianity as the name of "God".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Andajus ("Andajas", "Andojas") was mentioned in chronicles as the most powerful and highest god of Lithuanians. Lithuanians cried its name in a battle. It might just be an epithet of the supreme god - "Dievas".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Perkūnas, god of thunder, also synonymically called "Dundulis", "Bruzgulis", "Dievaitis", "Grumutis" etc. It closely relates to other thunder gods in many Indo-European mythologies: Vedic "Parjanya", Celtic Taranis, Germanic Thor, Slavic Perun. The Finnic and Mordvin/Erza thunder god named "Pur'ginepaz" shows in folklore themes that resemble the imagery of Lithuanian "Perkunas". "Perkūnas" is the assistant and executor of Dievas's will. He is also associated with the oak tree.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Dievo sūneliai (the "sons of "Dievas"") – Ašvieniai, pulling the carriage of Saulė (the Sun) through the sky. Like the Greek Dioscuri Castor and Pollux, it is a mytheme of the Divine twins common to the Indo-European mythology. Two well-accepted descendants of the Divine Twins, the Vedic Aśvins and the Lithuanian Ašvieniai, are linguistic cognates ultimately deriving from the Proto-Indo-European word for the horse, "*h₁éḱwos". They are related to Sanskrit "áśva" and Avestan "aspā" (from Indo-Iranian "*aćua"), and to Old Lithuanian "ašva", all sharing the meaning of "mare".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Velnias ("Velas", "Velinas") – chthonic god of the underworld, related to the cult of dead. The root of the word is the same as of ('soul of the deceased'). After the introduction of Christianity it was equated with evil and "Velnias" became a Lithuanian name for "devil". In some tales, "Velnias" (the devil) was the first owner of fire. God sent a swallow, which managed to steal the fire.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Žemyna ("Žemė", "Žemelė") (from 'earth') is the goddess of the earth. It relates to Thracian "Zemele" ("mother earth"), Greek "Semelē" ("Σεμέλη"). She is usually regarded as mother goddess and one of the chief Lithuanian gods. "Žemyna" personifies the fertile earth and nourishes all life on earth, human, plant, and animal. The goddess is said to be married to either "Perkūnas" (thunder god) or "Praamžius" (manifestation of chief heavenly god "Dievas"). Thus the couple formed the typical Indo-European pair of mother-earth and father-sky. It was believed that in each spring the earth needs to be impregnated by "Perkūnas" - the heavens rain and thunder. "Perkūnas" unlocks () the Earth. It was prohibited to plow or sow before the first thunder as the earth would be barren.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Žvėrinė ("Žvorūna", "Žvorūnė") – is the goddess of hunting and forest animals. "Medeina" is the name in other sources.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Medeina – the goddess of forest and hunting. Researchers suggests that she and Žvėrinė (Žvorūnė) could have been worshipped as the same goddess.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Žemėpatis (from 'earth' and 'autonomous decision maker, ruler'; or 'Earth Spouse') – god of the land, harvest, property and homestead. Martynas Mažvydas in 1547 in his "Catechism" urged to abandon cult of "Žemėpatis".


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Žvaigždikis (Žvaigždystis, Žvaigždukas, Švaistikas) – the god of the stars, powerful god of light, who provided light for the crops, grass and the animals. He was known as Svaikstikas (Suaxtix, Swayxtix, Schwayxtix, Schwaytestix) by Yotvingians.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Gabija (also known as Gabieta, Gabeta, Matergabija, Pelengabija) is the spirit or goddess of the fire. She is the protector of family fireplace ("šeimos židinys") and family. Her name is derived from – to cover, to protect. Nobody was allowed to step on firewood, since it was considered a food for the fire goddess. Even today there is a tradition of weddings in Lithuania to light a new symbolic family fireplace from the parents of the newlyweds.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Bangpūtys (from 'wave' and 'to blow' ) – god of the sea, wind, waves and storm. Was worshipped by fishermen and seamen.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Teliavelis/Kalevelis – a smith-god or the god of roads. First mentioned in a 1262 copy of "Chronographia (Χρονογραφία)" of John Malalas as "Teliavel". Lithuanian linguist Kazimieras Būga reconstructed a previous form – "Kalvelis" (from 'a smith' in diminutive form). "Teliavelis/Kalevelis" freed "Saulė" (Sun) from the dark using his iron hammer.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: In Lithuanian fairy-tales recorded much later, there is very frequent opposition of "kalvis" ('smith') and "velnias" ('devil').


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: Pre-Christian Lithuanian mythology is known mainly through attested fragments recorded by chroniclers and folks songs; the existence of some mythological elements, known from later sources, has been confirmed by archaeological findings. The system of polytheistic beliefs is reflected in Lithuanian tales, such as Jūratė and Kastytis, Eglė the Queen of Serpents and the Myth of Sovij.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The next period of Lithuanian mythology started in the 15th century, and lasted until approximately the middle of the 17th century. The myths of this period are mostly heroic, concerning the founding of the state of Lithuania. Perhaps two the best known stories are those of the dream of the Grand Duke Gediminas and the founding of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, and of Šventaragis' Valley, which also concerns the history of Vilnius. Many stories of this kind reflect actual historical events. Already by the 16th century, there existed a non-unified pantheon; data from different sources did not correspond one with another, and local spirits, especially those of the economic field, became mixed up with more general gods and ascended to the level of gods.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The third period began with the growing influence of Christianity and the activity of the Jesuits, roughly since the end of the 16th century. The earlier confrontational approach to the pre-Christian Lithuanian heritage among common people was abandoned, and attempts were made to use popular beliefs in missionary activities. This also led to the inclusion of Christian elements in mythic stories.


title: Lithuanian mythology

text: The last period of Lithuanian mythology began in the 19th century, when the importance of the old cultural heritage was admitted, not only by the upper classes, but by the nation more widely. The mythical stories of this period are mostly reflections of the earlier myths, considered not as being true, but as the encoded experiences of the past.