title: Marrano

text: The "conversos" of Seville and other cities of Castile, and especially of Aragon, bitterly opposed the Spanish Inquisition established in 1478. They rendered considerable service to the king, and held high legal, financial, and military positions. The government issued an edict directing traditional Jews to live within a ghetto and be separated from "conversos". Despite the law, however, the Jews remained in communication with their New Christian brethren.


title: Marrano

text: "They sought ways and means to win them from Catholicism and bring them back to Judaism. They instructed the Marranos in the tenets and ceremonies of the Jewish religion; held meetings in which they taught them what they must believe and observe according to the Mosaic law; and enabled them to circumcise themselves and their children. They furnished them with prayer-books; explained the fast-days; read with them the history of their people and their Law; announced to them the coming of the Passover; procured unleavened bread for them for that festival, as well as kosher meat throughout the year; encouraged them to live in conformity with the law of Moses, and persuaded them that there was no law and no truth except the Jewish religion." These were the charges brought by the government of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile against the Jews. They constituted the grounds for their expulsion and banishment in 1492, so they could not subvert "conversos". Jews who did not want to leave Spain had to accept baptism as a sign of conversion.


title: Marrano

text: The historian Henry Kamen's "Inquisition and Society in Spain in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries" questions whether there were such strong links between "conversos" and Jewish communities. Whilst historians such as Yitzhak Baer state, "the conversos and Jews were one people", Kamen claims, "Yet if the conversos were hated by the Christians, the Jews liked them no better." He documented that "Jews testified falsely against them [the conversos] when the Inquisition was finally founded." This issue is being debated by historians.


title: Marrano

text: Although the vast majority of Spain's 250,000 "conversos" had abandoned Judaism and been assimilated into Spain's dominant Catholic culture, many of those continuing to secretly practice their former religion felt threatened and persecuted by the Inquisition which continued to actively persecute heresy. Some of these chose to leave Spain, in bands or as individual refugees. Many migrated to Italy, attracted by the climate, which resembled that of the Iberian Peninsula, and by the kindred language. When they settled at Ferrara, Duke Ercole I d'Este granted them privileges. His son Alfonso confirmed the privileges to twenty-one Spanish "conversos": physicians, merchants, and others (ib. xv. 113 et seq.). A thoroughly researched history of these migrations is also contained in the book about one of their leaders Dona Gracia Nasi called, "The Woman Who Defied Kings", by the historian and journalist Andree Aelion Brooks.


title: Marrano

text: Spanish and Portuguese "conversos" also settled at Florence and contributed to make Livorno a leading seaport. They received privileges at Venice, where they were protected from the persecutions of the Inquisition. In Milan they materially advanced the interests of the city with their industry and commerce. At Bologna, Pisa, Naples and numerous other Italian cities, they freely exercised the Jewish religion again. They were soon so numerous that Fernando de Goes Loureiro, an abbot from Oporto, filled an entire book with the names of "conversos" who had drawn large sums from Portugal and had openly avowed Judaism in Italy.


title: Marrano

text: In Piedmont, Duke Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy welcomed "conversos" from Coímbra and granted them commercial and industrial privileges, as well as the free exercise of their religion. Rome was full of "conversos". Pope Paul III received them at Ancona for commercial reasons. He granted complete liberty "to all persons from Portugal and Algarve, even if belonging to the class of New Christians." By 1553 three thousand Portuguese Jews and "conversos" were living at Ancona.


title: Marrano

text: Two years later, Pope Paul IV issued orders to have all the "conversos" in Italy be thrown into the prisons of the Inquisition which he had instituted. Sixty of them, who acknowledged the Catholic faith as penitents, were transported to the island of Malta; twenty-four, who adhered to Judaism, were publicly burned (May 1556). Those who escaped the Inquisition were received at Pesaro by Guidobaldo II della Rovere, Duke of Urbino. Guidobaldo had hoped to have the Jews and "conversos" of Turkey select Pesaro as a commercial center; when that did not happen, he expelled the New Christians from Pesaro and other districts in 1558 (ib. xvi. 61 et seq.).


title: Marrano

text: Many "conversos" also went to Dubrovnik, formerly a considerable Croatian seaport on the Adriatic Sea. In May 1544, a ship landed there filled with Portuguese refugees.


title: Marrano

text: During the 16th and 17th centuries, some "conversos" migrated to the Americas, often the Castilian territories of the Vice-royalties of New Spain, Peru, and the Río de la Plata in Argentina. Legal emigration to the New World was strictly controlled and required proof of three generations of Christian ascendance. Nevertheless, many "conversos" managed to evade these restrictions and managed to obtain ""encomiendas"" papers of legal identity in the New World.


title: Marrano

text: According to Isidore Loeb, in a special study of the subject in the "Revue des Études Juives" (xiv. 162–183), about 3,000 Jews came to Provence after the Alhambra Decree expelled Jews from Spain in 1492.


title: Marrano

text: From 1484, one town after another had called for expulsion, but the calls were rejected by Charles VIII. However, Louis XII, in one of his first acts as king in 1498, issued a general expulsion order of the Jews of Provence. Though not enforced at the time, the order was renewed in 1500 and again in 1501. On this occasion, it was definitively implemented. The Jews of Provence were given the option of conversion to Christianity and a number chose that option. However, after a short while – if only to compensate partially for the loss of revenues caused by the departure of the Jews – the king imposed a special tax, referred to as "the tax of the neophytes." These converts and their descendants soon became the objects of social discrimination and slanders.


title: Marrano

text: In the "Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians 1536-1765", Professor of the University of Lisbon, writes "King Manuel theoretically abolished discrimination between Old and New Christians by the law of March 1, 1507 which permitted the departure of New Christians to any part of the Christian world, declaring that they “be considered, favored and treated like the Old Christians and not distinct and separated from them in any matter.” Nevertheless, in apparent contradiction to that law, in a letter dated Almeirim, February 18, 1519, King Manuel promoted legislation henceforth prohibiting the naming of New Christians to the position of judge, town councilor or municipal registrar in Goa, stipulating, however, that those already appointed were not to be dismissed. This shows that even during the first nine years of Portuguese rule, Goa had a considerable influx of recently baptized Spanish and Portuguese Jews."


title: Marrano

text: Some New Christians sought to re-join Jewish populations in India (particularly through the Jewish community in Cochin), while others went on to be extremely influential in the spice trade, and the gems trade between Portugal, and India. This activity aroused the ire of the Catholic clergy. During this period, the first bishop of Goa, Gaspar Jorge de Leão Pereira wrote his anti-Semitic work ""contra os Judeos" (tracts against Jews)", and called for the establishment of the Inquisition in Goa (which was established in 1560).


title: Marrano

text: There was no significant wave of emigration of from Spain, the majority of Sephardic communities, such as that of Salonika having been formed as a result of the Alhambra Decree in 1492. However, there was a steady trickle of crypto-Jewish marranos who wished to practice their faith freely to more liberal environments. One of their leaders who helped them get there was the Lisbon-born international banker, Gracia Mendes Nasi. They also migrated to Flanders, where they were attracted by its flourishing cities, such as Antwerp and Brussels. "Conversos" from Flanders, and others direct from the Iberian Peninsula, went under the guise of Catholics to Hamburg and Altona about 1580, where they established a community and held commercial relations with their former homes. Some migrated as far as Scotland. Christian IV of Denmark invited some New Christian families to settle at Glückstadt about 1626, granting certain privileges to them and to "conversos" who came to Emden about 1649.


title: Marrano

text: The vast majority of Spain's "conversos", however, remained in Spain and Portugal and were suspected of "Marranism" by the Spanish Inquisition. Although the wealthier among them could easily bypass discriminatory "Limpieza de sangre" laws, they constituted a significant portion of the over three thousand people executed for heresy by the Spanish Inquisition. In his luminous book the "Marrano Factory: The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians 1536-1765", Professor Antonio Jose Saraiva of the University of Lisbon, writes that "After August 1531, when the establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal was in the offing and especially after June 14, 1532 when New Christian emigration from Portugal became a capital offense, anti-New Christian sentiment surged on all sides. The New Christians were panic-stricken and emigrants, legal or clandestine, headed for Flanders, Italy, the Ottoman Empire, the Portuguese possessions in India, North Africa. After the middle of the century, England, France, the Spanish Americas and Brazil were the favorite destinations, not necessarily in that order." The New Christians breathed more freely when Philip III of Spain came to the throne. By the law of April 4, 1601, he granted them the privilege of unrestricted sale of their real estate as well as free departure from the country for themselves, their families, and their property. Many, availing themselves of this permission, followed their coreligionists to North Africa and Turkey. After a few years, however, the privilege was revoked, and the Inquisition resumed its activity.


title: Marrano

text: Some migrated to London, whence their families spread to Brazil (where "conversos" had settled at an early date) and other colonies in the Americas. Migrations to Constantinople and Thessaloniki, where Jewish refugees had settled after the expulsion from Spain, as well as to Italy, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Vienna, and Timișoara, continued into the middle of the 18th century.


title: Marrano

text: Late 20th century political and social changes in Spain caused reappraisal of Jewish and Muslim contributions to its culture. There has been much new scholarship on Sephardic Jews, Moors and the consequences of conversion and expulsion. In addition, there have been official governmental efforts to welcome tourists of both ancestries to Spain. Towns and regions have worked to preserve elements of Jewish and Moorish pasts.


title: Marrano

text: In Spanish Civil Code Art. 22.1 the government created concessions to nationals of several countries and Sephardi Jews historically linked with Spain allowing them to seek citizenship after five years rather than the customary ten required for residence in Spain. Later it was dropped to two years. In November 2012, the residency requirement was eliminated completely. In October 2006, the Parliament of Andalusia asked the three parliamentary groups that form the majority to support an amendment that would similarly ease the way for nationals of Morisco descent to gain Spanish citizenship. The proposal was originally made by IULV-CA, the Andalusian branch of the United Left.


title: Marrano

text: In 2004, Shlomo Moshe Amar traveled to Portugal to celebrate the centennial anniversary of the Lisbon Synagogue "Shaare Tikvah". During his stay, Shlomo Moshe Amar met descendants of Jewish families persecuted by the Inquisition who still practice Judaism at the house of rabbi Boaz Pash. This was an historical meeting that had not happened between a Chief Rabbi and Portuguese Bnei Anusim in centuries. Rabbi Shlomo Moshe Amar promised to create a committee to evaluate the Halachic situation of the community. The delay of the Chief Rabbi to create the committee and help the descendants of Sephardi Jews in Portugal forced the creation of a second Jewish community in Lisbon, Comunidade Judaica Masorti Beit Israel, to ensure the recognition of the Bnei Anusim as Jews.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Poi is a performing art and also the name of the equipment used for its performance. As a skill toy, poi is an object or theatrical prop used for dexterity play or an object manipulation. As a performance art, poi involves swinging tethered weights through a variety of rhythmical and geometric patterns. Poi artists may also sing or dance while swinging their poi. Poi can be made from various materials with different handles, weights, and effects (such as fire).


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Poi originated with the Māori people of New Zealand, where it is still practised today. Poi has also gained a following in many other countries. The expansion of poi culture has led to a significant evolution of the styles practised, the tools used, and the definition of the word "poi."


title: Poi (performance art)

text: In the Māori language, "poi" can mean the physical objects used by the dancers, the choreography itself, or the accompanying music. In Māori culture, poi performance is usually practised by women. Some legends indicate that it was first used by men to develop wrist flexibility for the use of hand weapons such as the club-like patu, mere, and kotiate, but recent academic study has found no evidence to confirm this story.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Māori poi come in two forms: short, with strings equal to the length of the fingertips to the wrist; and long, with strings equal to the distance from fingertips to shoulder. A performance includes storytelling and singing in conjunction with choreographed poi routines and is often presented alongside other disciplines, such as "waiata a ringa", haka and "titi torea" (included in kapa haka performances). Poi feature in the 1980s hit song "Poi E".


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Originally, poi were most commonly made from harakeke (New Zealand flax, "Phormium tenax") and raupō ("Typha orientalis"). Makers stripped and scraped flax to provide the muka (inner flax fibre), which was twisted into two strands to make the taura (cord) as well as the aho (ties). A large knot was tied at one end of the cord, around which the core was formed from the pithy middle of the raupō stem. Dampened strips of raupō stems were then wrapped around the ball and tied off around the cord, forming the covering . The other end of the cord was often decorated with a mukamuka, a tassel made from muka formed around a smaller knot. Occasionally, smaller tassels called poi piu were affixed to the base of the poi ball. Construction and design varied widely depending on regional, tribal, and personal preferences.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Another variety of poi is poi tāniko. In this construction, the outer shell was made of finely woven muka using a pattern based on a fishing net; these poi sometimes included strands that were dyed yellow to form a diamond pattern known as Te Karu ō te Atua (the Eye of God).


title: Poi (performance art)

text: In the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, a cottage industry developed from the manufacture of raupō poi for sale to tourists, especially in the Rotorua area. Tourist-friendly variations included miniature poi that could be worn in buttonholes and as earrings.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Today, most performance poi are made from durable and readily available modern materials. Cores are often made of foam or crumpled paper, while skins consist of plastic or loomed fabrics, such as tulle. Tassels are usually made of wool.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Traditional Maori poi is generally performed in group choreography at cultural events, with vocal and musical accompaniment. By contrast, modern poi is generally performed by individuals, without singing and with less structured choreography. The tools and styles used are more varied. Many people first encounter poi in the form of fire spinning, but fire spinning is just one form of this highly varied art.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Modern poi borrows significantly from other physical arts, including various schools of dance and many object manipulation arts. Poi is practised around the world and can often be seen at large festivals like Burning Man, European Juggling Convention.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Unlike many physical arts, learning poi does not usually involve formal education. Most spinners learn from each other or teach themselves using DVDs or online resources. A strong sense of community and self-teaching are key elements of modern poi.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Beginners often learn using a simple pair of practice poi, which are typically constructed from soft materials such as socks or stockings that are weighted with soft household objects such as bean bags, juggling balls, balloons filled with legumes, or small toys. Simple poi can also be constructed from tennis balls and lengths of rope.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: More advanced practice poi models can include swivels (for orbital-type tricks), weighted handles (for tosses), or incorporate contact stage balls to enable the spinner to execute contact poi moves (i.e., rolls and fishtails).


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Performers often use poi with bright, contrasting colors to enhance aesthetics and emphasize patterns. Some performance poi also incorporate tails or streamers for visual effect.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Poi can be performed in the dark to dramatic effect when spinners use poi containing a light source, such as UV-sensitive materials, LED lights, or chemical glow sticks. Glowstringing, or using glowsticks swung from shoelaces, is popular at festivals and raves. It is also noted that while poi focuses on the manipulation of the head (the other side of the cord/chain from where you are holding), glowstringing focuses on the manipulation of the cord.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: Fire poi use wicks made from Kevlar or Technora or another flame resistant material for the weighted ends. The wicks are soaked in fuel, set on fire, and then spun for dramatic effect.


title: Poi (performance art)

text: A scientific study conducted at the University of Auckland showed significant improvements in grip strength, balance, and attention after one month of poi practice.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Sideroblastic anemia, or sideroachrestic anemia, is a form of anemia in which the bone marrow produces ringed sideroblasts rather than healthy red blood cells (erythrocytes). In sideroblastic anemia, the body has iron available but cannot incorporate it into hemoglobin, which red blood cells need in order to transport oxygen efficiently. The disorder may be caused either by a genetic disorder or indirectly as part of myelodysplastic syndrome, which can develop into hematological malignancies (especially acute myeloid leukemia).


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Sideroblasts ("sidero-" + "-blast") are nucleated erythroblasts (precursors to mature red blood cells) with granules of iron accumulated in the mitochondria surrounding the nucleus. Normally, sideroblasts are present in the bone marrow, and enter the circulation after maturing into a normal erythrocyte. The presence of sideroblasts "per se" does not define sideroblastic anemia. Only the finding of ring (or ringed) sideroblasts characterizes sideroblastic anemia.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Ring sideroblasts are named so because iron-laden mitochondria form a ring around the nucleus. It is a subtype of basophilic granules of the erythrocyte, but which can only be seen in bone marrow. To count a cell as a ring sideroblast, the ring must encircle a third or more of the nucleus and contain five or more iron granules, according to the 2008 WHO classification of the tumors of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: The WHO International Working Group on Morphology of MDS (IWGM-MDS) defined three types of sideroblasts:


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Type 1 and type 2 are found in non-sideroblastic anemias. Type 3 is found only in sideroblastic anemia.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Symptoms of sideroblastic anemia include skin paleness, fatigue, dizziness, and enlarged spleen and liver. Heart disease, liver damage, and kidney failure can result from iron buildup in these organs.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Causes of sideroblastic anemia can be categorized into three groups: congenital sideroblastic anemia, acquired clonal sideroblastic anemia, and acquired reversible sideroblastic anemia. All cases involve dysfunctional heme synthesis or processing. This leads to granular deposition of iron in the mitochondria that form a ring around the nucleus of the developing red blood cell. Congenital forms often present with normocytic or microcytic anemia while acquired forms of sideroblastic anemia are often normocytic or macrocytic.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: On the peripheral blood smear can be found erythrocytes with basophilic stippling (cytoplasmic granules of RNA precipitates) and Pappenheimer bodies (cytoplasmic granules of iron).


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: The anemia is moderate to severe and dimorphic. Microscopic viewing of the red blood cells will reveal marked unequal cell size and abnormal cell shape. Basophilic stippling is marked and target cells are common. The mean cell volume is commonly decreased (i.e., a microcytic anemia), but it may also be normal or even high. The RDW is increased with the red blood cell histogram shifted to the left. Leukocytes and platelets are normal. Bone marrow shows erythroid hyperplasia with a maturation arrest.In excess of 40% of the developing erythrocytes are ringed sideroblasts. Serum iron, percentage saturation and ferritin are increased. The total iron-binding capacity of the cells is normal to decreased. Stainable marrow hemosiderin is increased.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Occasionally, the anemia is so severe that support with transfusion is required. These patients usually do not respond to erythropoietin therapy. Some cases have been reported that the anemia is reversed or heme level is improved through use of moderate to high doses of pyridoxine (vitamin B). In severe cases of SBA, bone marrow transplant is also an option with limited information about the success rate. Some cases are listed on MedLine and various other medical sites. In the case of isoniazid-induced sideroblastic anemia, the addition of B is sufficient to correct the anemia. Deferoxamine, a chelating agent, is used to treat iron overload from transfusions.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Sideroblastic anemias are often described as responsive or non-responsive in terms of increased hemoglobin levels to pharmacological doses of vitamin B.


title: Sideroblastic anemia

text: Severe refractory sideroblastic anemias requiring regular transfusions and/or that undergo leukemic transformation (5–10%) significantly reduce life expectancy.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Frederick "Fred" Moore Vinson (January 22, 1890 – September 8, 1953) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 13th chief justice of the United States from 1946 until his death in 1953. Vinson was one of the few Americans to have served in all three branches of the U.S. government. Before becoming chief justice, Vinson served as a U.S. Representative from Kentucky from 1924 to 1928 and 1930 to 1938, as a federal appellate judge on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit from 1938 to 1943, and as the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury from 1945 to 1946.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Born in Louisa, Kentucky, Vinson pursued a legal career and served in the U.S. Army during World War I. After the war, he served as the Commonwealth's Attorney for the Thirty-Second Judicial District of Kentucky before winning election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1924. He lost re-election in 1928 but regained his seat in 1930 and served in Congress until 1937. During his time in Congress, he became an adviser and confidante of Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman. In 1937, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Vinson to be a judge on the D.C. Circuit. Vinson resigned from the appellate court in 1943, when he became the Director of the Office of Economic Stabilization. After Truman acceded to the presidency following Roosevelt's death in 1945, Truman appointed Vinson to the position of Secretary of the Treasury. Vinson negotiated the payment of the Anglo-American loan and presided over the establishment of numerous post-war organizations, including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Monetary Fund.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: After the death of Chief Justice Harlan F. Stone in 1946, Truman appointed Vinson to the Supreme Court. Vinson dissented in the case of "Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer", which ruled against the Truman administration's control of the nation's steel mills during a strike. He ordered a rehearing of the "Briggs v. Elliott" case, which was eventually combined into the case known as "Brown v. Board of Education".


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Vinson, known universally as Fred, was born in the newly built, eight-room, red brick house in front of the Lawrence County jail in Louisa, Kentucky, where his father served as the Lawrence County Jailer. As a child he would help his father in the jail and even made friends with prisoners who would remember his kindness when he later ran for public office. Vinson worked odd jobs while in school. He graduated from Kentucky Normal School in 1909 and enrolled at Centre College, where he graduated at the top of his class with a Bachelor of Arts degree. While at Centre, he was a member of the Kentucky Alpha Delta chapter of Phi Delta Theta fraternity. He received a Bachelor of Laws from the now defunct College of Law. He entered private practice in Louisa. He first ran for and was elected to office as the City Attorney of Louisa.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Vinson joined the Army during World War I. Following the war, he was elected as the Commonwealth's Attorney for the Thirty-Second Judicial District of Kentucky. Vinson married Julia Roberta Dixon on January 24, 1924 in Ashland, Kentucky. They had two sons.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: In 1924, Vinson ran in a special election for his district's seat in Congress after William J. Fields resigned to become the Governor of Kentucky. Vinson was elected as a Democrat and then was reelected twice before losing in 1928. His loss was attributed to his refusal to dissociate his campaign from Alfred E. Smith's presidential campaign. However, Vinson came back to win re-election in 1930, and he served in Congress through 1937.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: While he was in Congress he befriended Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman, a friendship that would last throughout his life. He soon became a close advisor, confidant, card player, and dear friend to Truman. After Truman decided against running for another term as president in the early 1950s, he tried to convince a skeptical Vinson to seek the Democratic Party nomination, but Vinson turned down the President's offer. After being equally unsuccessful in enlisting General Dwight D. Eisenhower, President Truman eventually landed on Governor of Illinois Adlai Stevenson as his preferred successor in the 1952 presidential election.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: In 1930, former congressman Vinson moved his law practice from Louisa, Kentucky thirty miles north to Ashland. With aspirations to return to Washington, D.C. as congressman, Vinson formed a circle of Ashland friends who could aid him politically and professionally. This group included his next door neighbor Paul G. Blazer. Vinson returned to Washington, D.C. as congressman in 1931. Vinson would become a frontline supporter of President Roosevelt and his cabinet's New Deal revolution.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Vinson was nominated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on November 26, 1937, to an Associate Justice seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia (now the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit) vacated by Associate Justice Charles Henry Robb. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 9 of that year, and received his commission six days later. He was designated by Chief Justice Harlan F. Stone to serve as Chief Judge of the Emergency Court of Appeals. His service terminated on May 28, 1943, due to his resignation.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Vinson resigned from the bench to become Director of the Office of Economic Stabilization, an executive agency charged with fighting inflation. He also spent time as Federal Loan Administrator (March 6 to April 3, 1945) and director of War Mobilization and Reconversion (April 4 to July 22, 1945). He was appointed United States Secretary of the Treasury by President Truman and served from July 23, 1945, to June 23, 1946.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: His mission as Secretary of the Treasury was to stabilize the American economy during the last months of the war and to adapt the United States financial position to the drastically changed circumstances of the postwar world. Before the war ended, Vinson directed the last of the great war-bond drives.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: At the end of the war, he negotiated payment of the British Loan of 1946, the largest loan made by the United States to another country ($3.75 billion), and the lend-lease settlements of economic and military aid given to the allies during the war. In order to encourage private investment in postwar America, he promoted a tax cut in the Revenue Act of 1945. He also supervised the inauguration of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Monetary Fund, both created at the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, acting as the first chairman of their respective boards. In 1946, Vinson resigned from the Treasury to be appointed Chief Justice of the United States by Truman.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Vinson was nominated by President Harry S. Truman on June 6, 1946, to become Chief Justice of the United States, following the death of Harlan F. Stone. Vinson was recommended to Truman by former chief justice Charles Evans Hughes and former associate justice Owen Roberts. Both noted Vinson's experience in all three branches of the federal government, with Hughes telling Truman, "You have a Secretary of the Treasury who has been a Congressman, a Judge of the Court of Appeal, and an executive officer in President Roosevelt's and your cabinets". He was confirmed by the United States Senate by a voice vote on June 20, 1946, received his commission on June 21, and took the oath of office on June 24. His appointment came at a time when the Supreme Court was deeply fractured, both intellectually and personally. One faction was led by Justice Hugo Black, the other by Justice Felix Frankfurter. Vinson was credited with patching this fracture, at least on a personal level. He was the presiding officer of the Conference of Senior Circuit Judges (now the Judicial Conference of the United States) from 1946 to 1948, and presiding officer of the Judicial Conference of the United States from 1948 to 1953. He served as Circuit Justice for the Fourth Circuit and the District of Columbia Circuit from June 26, 1946, to September 8, 1953. His service ended with his death on September 8, 1953.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: In his time on the Supreme Court, he wrote 77 opinions for the court and 13 dissents. His most dramatic dissent was when the court voided President Truman's seizure of the steel industry during a strike in a June 3, 1952, decision, "Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer". His final public appearance at the court was when he read the decision not to review the conviction and death sentence of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. After Justice William O. Douglas granted a stay of execution to the Rosenbergs at the last moment, Chief Justice Vinson sent special flights out to bring vacationing justices back to Washington in order to ensure the execution of the Rosenbergs. During his tenure as Chief Justice, one of his law clerks was future Associate Justice Byron White.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: The major issues his court dealt with included racial segregation, labor unions, communism and loyalty oaths. On racial segregation, he wrote that states practicing the separate but equal doctrine must provide facilities that were truly equal, in "Sweatt v. Painter" and "McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents". The case of "Briggs v. Elliott" was before the Court at the time of his death. Vinson, not wanting a 5–4 decision, had ordered a second hearing of the case. He died before the case could be reheard, and his vote may have been pivotal, "q.v.", discussion of "Brown" in Felix Frankfurter. Upon his death, Earl Warren was appointed to the Court and the case was heard again.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: When Secretary of State Dean Acheson came under fire from congressional Republicans for being "soft on communism" at the end of 1950 Vinson was briefly mentioned as the new Secretary of State and Dean Acheson as the new chief justice. This speculation died down when President Truman retained Acheson at the State Department.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: Vinson died on September 8, 1953, of a heart attack at his Washington home. His body was interred in Pinehill Cemetery in Louisa, Kentucky.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: An extensive collection of Vinson's personal and judicial papers is archived at the University of Kentucky in Lexington, where they are available for research.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: A portrait of Vinson hangs in the hallway of the chapter house of the Kentucky Alpha-Delta chapter of Phi Delta Theta (ΦΔΘ) international fraternity, at Centre College. Vinson was a member of the chapter in his years at Centre. Affectionately known as "Dead Fred", the portrait is taken by fraternity members to Centre football and basketball games and other events.


title: Fred M. Vinson

text: The Fred M. Vinson Birthplace, in Louisa, Kentucky, is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Park Eun-hye

text: Park Eun-hye (born February 21, 1977) is a South Korean actress. She is best known for starring in "Dae Jang Geum", which led to her popularity in China. She also played the lead role in the Taiwanese drama, "Silence", starring Vic Chou, and directed by Zhang Zhong.


title: Park Eun-hye

text: Park Eun-hye entered the entertainment industry in 1998, but she only rose to fame in 2003 with a supporting role in hit MBC TV series "Dae Jang Geum" (also known as "Jewel in the Palace"), which enjoyed tremendous popularity throughout Asia.


title: Park Eun-hye

text: After a secondary lead role in "18 vs. 29", she further solidified her status as a major Korean Wave star with the success of another period drama "Yi San" (2007) and her Taiwanese series "Silence" opposite heartthrob Vic Zhou (2006).


title: Park Eun-hye

text: Park decided to star in Hong Sang-soo's 2008 art film "Night and Day" even without a salary, and her performance received a Best New Actress award from the prestigious Busan Film Critics Association, her first award in ten years of acting. The next year she returned to television playing a femme fatale in daily drama "Pink Lipstick".


title: Park Eun-hye

text: In 2012 she began co-hosting on cable the variety shows "Queen of Beauty" on KBS Drama, and "Sold Out" on tvN.


title: Park Eun-hye

text: Park is more popular in China than in her native South Korea, as the sales of the Chinese brands she models for—Hana Cosmetics and Yonseng Tangerine Chocolates (the latter named after her character in "Dae Jang Geum") -- went over 25 million dollars in the year 2009.


title: Park Eun-hye

text: Park Eun-hye married entrepreneur Kim Han-sup on April 27, 2008, at Shilla Hotel in Seoul. She gave birth to fraternal twin sons, Kim Jae-wan and Kim Jae-ho, in 2011. On September 14, 2018, it was reported that she finalized her divorce from her former husband earlier that same month, with the cause for the divorce being irreconcilable differences. Her agency later released a statement confirming that she had parted ways with her husband, and that she would be raising their children.


title: Gallimimus

text: Gallimimus ( ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in what is now Mongolia during the Late Cretaceous period, about seventy million years ago (mya). Several fossils in various stages of growth were discovered by Polish-Mongolian expeditions in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia during the 1960s; a large skeleton discovered in this region was made the holotype specimen of the new genus and species Gallimimus bullatus in 1972. The generic name means "chicken mimic", referring to the similarities between its neck vertebrae and those of the Galliformes. The specific name is derived from "bulla", a golden capsule worn by Roman youth, in reference to a bulbous structure at the base of the skull of "Gallimimus". At the time it was named, the fossils of "Gallimimus" represented the most complete and best preserved ornithomimid ("ostrich dinosaur") material yet discovered, and the genus remains one of the best known members of the group.


title: Gallimimus

text: "Gallimimus" is the largest known ornithomimid; adults were about long, tall at the hip and weighed about . As evidenced by its relative "Ornithomimus", it would have had feathers. The head was small and light with large eyes that faced to the sides. The snout was long compared to other ornithomimids, although it was broader and more rounded at the tip than in other species. "Gallimimus" was toothless with a keratinous (horny) beak, and had a delicate lower jaw. Many of the vertebrae had openings that indicate they were pneumatic (air-filled). The neck was proportionally long in relation to the trunk. The hands were proportionally the shortest of any ornithomimosaur and each had three digits with curved claws. The forelimbs were weak while the hindlimbs were proportionally long. The family Ornithomimidae is part of the group Ornithomimosauria. "Anserimimus", also from Mongolia, is thought to have been the closest relative of "Gallimimus".


title: Gallimimus

text: As an ornithomimid, "Gallimimus" would have been a fleet (or cursorial) animal, using its speed to escape predators; its speed has been estimated at 42–56 km/h (29–34 mph). It may have had good vision and intelligence comparable to ratite birds. "Gallimimus" may have lived in groups, based on the discovery of several specimens preserved in a bone bed. Various theories have been proposed regarding the diet of "Gallimimus" and other ornithomimids. The highly mobile neck may have helped locate small prey on the ground, but it may also have been an opportunistic omnivore. It has also been suggested that it used small columnar structures in its beak for filter-feeding in water, though these structures may instead have been ridges used for feeding on tough plant material, indicative of a herbivorous diet. "Gallimimus" is the most commonly found ornithomimosaur in the Nemegt Formation, where it lived alongside its relatives "Anserimimus" and "Deinocheirus". "Gallimimus" was featured in the movie "Jurassic Park", in a scene that was important to the history of special effects, and in shaping the common conception of dinosaurs as bird-like animals.


title: Gallimimus

text: Between 1963 and 1965, the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences organised the Polish-Mongolian palaeontological expeditions to the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. Among the dinosaur remains discovered in sand beds of the Nemegt Basin were numerous ornithomimids at different growth stages from the Nemegt, Tsaagan Khushuu, Altan Ula IV and Naran Bulak localities. Three partially complete skeletons, two with skulls, as well as many fragmentary remains, were collected. The largest skeleton (later to become the holotype of "Gallimimus bullatus") was discovered by palaeontologist Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska in Tsaagan Khushuu in 1964; it was preserved lying on its back, and the skull was found under its pelvis. One small specimen was also found in Tsaagan Khushuu the same year, and another small specimen was found in the Nemegt locality. A small skeleton without forelimbs was discovered in 1967 by the Mongolian palaeontological expedition in Bugeen Tsav outside the Nemegt Basin. The fossils were housed at the Mongolian, Polish and USSR Academy of Sciences. The Polish-Mongolian expeditions were notable for being led by women, some of whom were among the first women to name new dinosaurs. The fossils discovered in these expeditions shed new light on the interchange of fauna between Asia and North America during the Cretaceous period. Some of the skeletons were exhibited in Warsaw in 1968, mounted in tall, semi-erect postures, which was accepted at the time, though more horizontal postures are favoured today.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 1972, palaeontologists Halszka Osmólska, Ewa Roniewicz and Rinchen Barsbold named the new genus and species "Gallimimus bullatus", using the largest collected skeleton, specimen IGM 100/11 (from Tsaagan Khushuu, formerly referred to as G.I.No.DPS 100/11 and MPD 100/11), as the holotype. The generic name is derived from the Latin "gallus", "chicken", and the Greek "mimos", "mimic", in reference to the front part of the neck vertebrae which resembled those of the Galliformes. The specific name is derived from the Latin "bulla", a gold capsule worn by Roman youth around the neck, in reference to the bulbous capsule on the parasphenoid at the base of the dinosaur's skull. Such a feature had not been described from other reptiles at the time, and was considered unusual. The holotype consists of an almost complete skeleton with a distorted snout, incomplete lower jaw, vertebral series, pelvis, as well as some missing hand and foot bones.


title: Gallimimus

text: The other partially complete skeletons were juveniles; ZPAL MgD-I/1 (from Tsaagan Khushuu) has a crushed skull with a missing tip, damaged vertebrae, fragmented ribs, pectoral girdle and forelimbs, and an incomplete left hind limb, ZPAL MgD-I/94 (from the Nemegt locality) lacks the skull, atlas, tip of the tail, pectoral girdle and forelimbs, while the smallest specimen, IGM 100/10 (from Bugeen Tsav), lacks a pectoral girdle, forelimbs and several vertebrae and ribs. Osmólska and colleagues listed twenty-five known specimens in all, nine of which were only represented by single bones.


title: Gallimimus

text: At the time it was named, the fossils of "Gallimimus" represented the most complete and best preserved ornithomimid material yet discovered, and the genus remains one of the best known members of the group. Ornithomimids were previously known mainly from North America, "Archaeornithomimus" being the only prior known member from Asia (though without a skull). Since the first discoveries, more specimens have been found by further Mongolian-led international expeditions. Three of the "Gallimimus" skeletons (including the holotype) later became part of a travelling exhibit of Mongolian dinosaur fossils, which toured various countries.


title: Gallimimus

text: Fossil poaching has become a serious problem in Mongolia in the 21st century, and several "Gallimimus" specimens have been looted. In 2017, Hang-Jae Lee and colleagues reported a fossil trackway discovered in 2009 associated with a clenched "Gallimimus" foot (specimen MPC-D100F/17). The rest of the skeleton appeared to have been removed previously by poachers, along with several other "Gallimimus" specimens (as indicated by empty excavation pits, garbage, and scattered broken bones in the quarry). It is unusual to find tracks closely associated with body fossils; some of the tracks are consistent with ornithomimid feet, while others belong to different dinosaurs. In 2014, a slab with two "Gallimimus" specimens was repatriated to Mongolia along with other dinosaur skeletons, after having been smuggled to the US.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 1988, the palaeontologist Gregory S. Paul concluded that the skulls of ornithomimids were more similar to each other than previously thought and moved most species into the same genus, "Ornithomimus", resulting in the new combination "O. bullatus". In 2010, he instead listed it as ""Gallimimus" (or "Struthiomimus") "bullatus"", but returned to using only the genus name "Gallimimus" in 2016. The species involved have generally been kept in separate genera by other writers. An ornithomimid vertebra from Japan informally named "Sanchusaurus" was reported in a 1988 magazine, but was assigned to "Gallimimus" sp. (of uncertain species) by the palaeontologist Dong Zhiming and colleagues in 1990. In 2000, the palaeontologist Philip J. Currie proposed that "Anserimimus", which is only known from one skeleton from Mongolia, was a junior synonym of "Gallimimus", but this was dismissed by Kobayashi and Barsbold, who pointed out several differences between the two. Barsbold noted some morphological variation among newer "Gallimimus" specimens, though this has never been published. Barsbold informally referred to a nearly complete skeleton (IGM 100/14) as "Gallimimus mongoliensis", but since it differs from "Gallimimus" in some details, Yoshitsugu Kobayashi and Barsbold proposed in 2006 that it probably belongs to a different genus.


title: Gallimimus

text: "Gallimimus" is the largest known member of the family Ornithomimidae. The adult holotype (specimen IGM 100/11) was about long and tall at the hip; its skull was long and the femur (thigh bone) was . It would have weighed about . In comparison, one juvenile specimen (ZPAL MgD-I/94) was about long, tall at the hip, and weighed about . Based on fossils of the related "Ornithomimus", it is known that ornithomimosaurs ("ostrich dinosaurs") were feathered, and that the adults bore wing-like structures as evidenced by the presence of quill-knobs on the ulna bone of the lower arm, bumps that indicate where feathers would have attached.


title: Gallimimus

text: The head of "Gallimimus" was very small and light compared to the vertebral column. Due to the length of its snout, the skull was long compared to other ornithomimids, and the snout had a gently convex sloping upper profile. The side profile of the snout differed from other ornithomimids in not narrowing towards its front half, and the lower front margin of the premaxilla at the front of the upper jaw rose upwards, instead of being horizontal. Seen from above, the snout was almost spatulate (spoon-shaped), broad and rounded at the tip (or U-shaped), whereas it was acute (or V-shaped) in North American ornithomimids. The orbits (eye sockets) were large and faced sideways, as in other ornithomimids. The temporal region at the side of the skull behind the eyes was deep, and the infratemporal fenestra (the lower opening behind the orbit) was nearly triangular and smaller than that of the related "Struthiomimus". It had deep muscle scars at the back part of the skull roof, along the parietal bone. The parasphenoid (a bone of the braincase, at the underside of the skull's base) was thin-walled, hollow and formed a pear-shaped, bulbous structure. The structure had a shallow furrow which opened towards the front. The internal nares (internal openings for the nasal passage) were large and placed far back on the palate, due to the presence of an extensive secondary palate, which was common to ornithomimids.


title: Gallimimus

text: The delicate lower jaw, consisting of thin bones, was slender and shallow at the front, deepening towards the rear. The front of the mandible was shovel-like, resulting in a gap between the tips of the jaws when shut. The shovel-like shape was similar to that of the common seagull, and the lower beak may have had a shape similar to that of this bird. The retroarticular process at the back of the jaw (where jaw muscles attached that opened the beak) was well developed and consisted mainly of the angular bone. The surangular was the largest bone of the lower jaw, which is usual in theropods. The mandibular fenestra, a sidewards-facing opening in the lower jaw, was elongated and comparatively small. The lower jaw did not have a coronoid process or a supradentary bone, the lack of which is a common feature of beaked theropods (ornithomimosaurs, oviraptorosaurs, therizinosaurs and birds), but unusual among theropods in general. The jaws of "Gallimimus" were edentulous (toothless), and the front part would have been covered in a keratinous rhamphotheca (horny beak) in life. The beak may have covered a smaller area than in North American relatives, based on the lack of nourishing foramina on the maxilla. The inner side of the beak had small, tightly packed and evenly spaced columnar structures (their exact nature is debated), which were longest at the front and shortening towards the back.


title: Gallimimus

text: "Gallimimus" had 64–66 vertebrae in its spine, fewer than other ornithomimids. The centra (or bodies) of the vertebrae were platycoelous, with a flat front surface and a concave hind surface, except for the first six caudal (tail) vertebra–where the hind surface was also flat–and those at the end of the tail–which were amphiplatyan with both surfaces flat. Many of the centra had foramina (openings which have also been called "pleurocoels"), and were therefore probably pneumatic (with their hollow chambers invaded by air sacs). The neck consisted of 10 cervical vertebrae, which were all long and wide, except for the atlas bone (the first vertebra that connects with the back of the skull). The atlas differed from that of other ornithomimids in that the front surface of its intercentrum was slanted downwards towards the back, instead of being concave and facing upwards to support the occipital condyle. The neck appears to have been proportionally longer in relation to the trunk than in other ornithomimids. The neck was divided into two distinct sections: the cervical vertebrae at the front had centra which were nearly triangular in side view and tapered towards the back, as well as low neural arches and short, broad zygapophyses (the processes that articulated between the vertebrae); the cervical vertebrae at the back had spool-like centra which became gradually higher, and long, thin zygapophyses. The pneumatic foramina here were small and oval, and the neural spines projecting outwards from the centra formed long, low and sharp ridges, except for in the hindmost cervical vertebrae.


title: Gallimimus

text: The back of "Gallimimus" had 13 dorsal vertebrae, with spool-like centra that were short, but tended to become deeper and longer towards the back. Their transverse processes (processes articulating with the ribs) slightly increased in length towards the back. The two first dorsal centra had deep pneumatic foramina, while the rest only had shallow fossae (depressions), and the neural spines were prominent being somewhat triangular or rectangular in shape. The sacrum (fused vertebrae between the pelvic bones) consisted of five sacral vertebrae which were about equal in length. The centra here were spool-like, flattened sideways and had fossae which appear to have continued as deep foramina in some specimens. The neural spines here were rectangular, broad, and higher than those in the dorsal vertebrae. They were higher or equal in height to the upper margin of the iliac blade and were separate, whereas in other ornithomimids they were fused together. The tail had 36–39 caudal vertebrae with the centra of those at the front being spool-shaped, while those at the back were nearly triangular, and elongated across. The neural spines here were high and flat, but diminished backwards, where they became ridge-like. The only sign of pneumaticity in the tail were deep fossae between the neural spines and the transverse process of the two first caudal vertebrae. All the vertebrae in front of the sacrum bore ribs except for the atlas and the last dorsal vertebra.


title: Gallimimus

text: The scapula (shoulder blade) was short and curved, thin at the front end, and thick at the back. It was connected relatively weakly with the coracoid, which was large and deep from top to bottom. Overall, the forelimbs did not differ much from those of other ornithomimids, all of which were comparatively weak. The humerus (upper arm bone), which had a near circular cross-section, was long and twisted. The deltopectoral crest on the upper front part of the humerus was comparatively small, and therefore provided little surface for attachment of upper arm muscles. The ulna was slender, long and weakly curved, with a nearly triangular shaft. The olecranon (the projection from the elbow) was prominent in adults, but not well developed in juveniles. The radius (the other bone in the lower arm) was long and slender with a more expanded upper end compared to the lower. The manus (hand) was proportionally short compared to those of other ornithomimosaurs, having the smallest manus to humerus length ratio of any member of the group, but was otherwise similar in structure. It had three fingers, which were similarly developed; the first (the "thumb") was the strongest, the third was the weakest and the second was the longest. The unguals (claw bones) were strong, somewhat curved (that of the first finger was most curved) and compressed sideways with a deep groove on each side. The unguals were similarly developed, though the third was slightly smaller.


title: Gallimimus

text: The pubis (pubic bone) was long and slender, ending in a pubic boot which expanded to the front and back, a general feature of ornithomimosaurs. The hind limbs differed little from those of other ornithomimids, and were proportionally longer than in other theropods. The femur was nearly straight, long and slender, with a sideways flattened shaft. The tibia was straight, long, with two well developed condyles (rounded end of a bone) on the upper end and a flattened lower end. The fibula of the lower leg was flat, thin and broad at the upper end narrowing towards the lower end. The lower half of the third metatarsal was broad when viewed end on, partly covering the adjoining two metatarsals to each side, but narrowed abruptly at mid-length, wedging between those bones and disappearing (an arctometatarsalian foot structure). The third toe was proportionally shorter in relation to the limb than in other ornithomimids. As in other ornithomimids, the foot had no hallux (or dewclaw, the first toe of most other theropods). The unguals of the toes were flat on their lower sides; the outer two declined slightly outwards from their digits.


title: Gallimimus

text: Osmólska and colleagues assigned "Gallimimus" to the family Ornithomimidae in 1972, with the North American "Struthiomimus" as the closest relative, while lamenting the fact that comparison between taxa was difficult because other ornithomimids known at the time were either poorly preserved or inadequately described. In 1975, Kielan-Jaworowska stated that though many dinosaurs from Asia were placed in the same families as North American relatives, this category of classification tended to be more inclusive than was used for modern birds. She highlighted that while "Gallimimus" had a rounded beak (similar to a goose or duck), North American ornithomimids had pointed beaks, a difference that would otherwise lead taxonomists to place modern birds in different families. In 1976, Barsbold placed Ornithomimidae in the new group Ornithomimosauria. In 2003, Kobayashi and Jun-Chang Lü found that "Anserimimus" was the sister taxon to "Gallimimus", both forming a derived (or "advanced") clade with North American genera, which was confirmed by Kobayashi and Barsbold in 2006.


title: Gallimimus

text: The following cladogram shows the placement of "Gallimimus" among Ornithomimidae according to Li Xu and colleagues, 2011:


title: Gallimimus

text: Ornithomimosaurs belonged to the clade Maniraptoriformes of coelurosaurian theropods, which also includes modern birds. Early ornithomimosaurs had teeth, which were lost in more derived members of the group. In 2004, Makovicky, Kobayashi, and Currie suggested that most of the early evolutionary history of ornithomimosaurs took place in Asia, where most genera have been discovered, including the most basal (or "primitive") taxa, although they acknowledged that the presence of the basal "Pelecanimimus" in Europe presents a complication in classification. The group must have dispersed once or twice from Asia to North America across Beringia to account for the Late Cretaceous genera found there. As seen in some other dinosaur groups, ornithomimosaurs were largely restricted to Asia and North America after Europe was separated from Asia by the Turgai Strait.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 1994, the palaeontologist Thomas R. Holtz grouped ornithomimosaurs and troodontids in a clade, based on shared features such as the presence of a bulbous capsule on the parasphenoid. He named the clade Bullatosauria, based on the specific name of "Gallimimus bullatus", which was also in reference to the capsule. In 1998, Holtz instead found that troodontids were basal maniraptorans, meaning that all members of that clade would fall within Bullatosauria, which would therefore become a junior synonym of Maniraptoriformes, and the clade has since fallen out of use.


title: Gallimimus

text: The cervical vertebrae of "Gallimimus" indicate that it held its neck obliquely, declining upwards at an angle of 35 degrees. Osmólska and colleagues found that the hands of "Gallimimus" were not prehensile (or capable of grasping), and that the thumb was not opposable. They also suggested that the arms were weak compared to, for example, those of the ornithomimosaur "Deinocheirus". They agreed with the interpretations of ornithomimid biology by palaeontologist Dale Russell from earlier in 1972, including that they would have been very fleet (or cursorial) animals, although less agile than large, modern ground birds, and would have used their speed to escape predators. Russell also suggested that they had a good sense of vision and intelligence comparable to that of modern ratite birds. Since their predators may have had colour vision, he suggested it would have influenced their colouration, perhaps resulting in camouflage. In 1982, palaeontologist Richard A. Thulborn estimated that "Gallimimus" could have run at speeds of 42–56 km/h (29–34 mph). He found that ornithimimids would not have been as fast as ostriches, which can reach 70–80 km/h (43–49 mph), in part due to their arms and tails increasing their weight.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 1988, Paul suggested that the eyeballs of ornithomimids were flattened and had minimal mobility within the sockets, necessitating movement of the head to view objects. Since their eyes faced more sideways than in some other bird-like theropods, their binocular vision would have been more limited, which is an adaptation in some animals that improves their ability to see predators behind them. Paul considered the relatively short tails, which reduced weight, and missing halluxes of ornithomimids to be adaptations for speed. He suggested that they could have defended themselves by pecking and kicking, but would have mainly relied on their speed for escape. In 2015, Akinobu Watanabe and colleagues found that together with "Deinocheirus" and "Archaeornithomimus", "Gallimimus" had the most pneumatised skeleton among ornithomimosaurs. Pneumatisation is thought to be advantageous for flight in modern birds, but its function in non-avian dinosaurs is not known with certainty. It has been proposed that pneumatisation was used to reduce the mass of large bones, that it was related to high metabolism, balance during locomotion, or used for thermoregulation.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 2017, Lee and colleagues suggested various possible taphonomic circumstances (changes during decay and fossilisation) to explain how the "Gallimimus" foot discovered in 2009 was associated with a trackway. The trackway is preserved in sandstone while the foot is preserved in mudstone, extending below the layer with the tracks. It is possible the fossil represents an animal that died in its tracks, but the depth of the foot in the mud may be too shallow for it to have become mired. It may also have been killed by a flood, after which it was buried in a pond. However, the layers of mud and sand do not indicate flooding but probably a dry environment, and the disrupted sediments around the fossil indicate the animal was alive when it came to the area. The authors thus suggested that the tracks had been made over an extended amount of time and period of drying, and that probably none of them were produced by the individual that owned the foot. The animal may have walked across the floor of a pond, breaking through the sediment layer with the tracks while it was soaked from rain or contained water. The animal may have died in this position from thirst, hunger, or another reason, and mud then deposited on the sand, thereby covering and preserving the tracks and the carcass. The foot may have become clenched and disarticulated as it decomposed, which made the tendons flex, and was later stepped on by heavy dinosaurs. The area may have been a single bone bed (based on the possible number of poached specimens) representing a "Gallimimus" mass mortality, perhaps due to a drought or famine. The fact that the animals seem to have died at the same time (the empty excavation pits were stratigraphically identical) may indicate that "Gallimimus" was gregarious (lived in groups), which has also been suggested for other ornithomimids.


title: Gallimimus

text: Osmólska and colleagues pointed out that the front part of the neck of "Gallimimus" would have been very mobile (the hind part was more rigid), the neural arches in the vertebrae of that region being similar to chicken and other Galliformes, indicating similar feeding habits. They found the beak of "Gallimimus" similar to that of a duck or goose, and that it would have fed on small, living prey which it swallowed whole. The mobility of the neck would have been useful in locating prey on the ground, since the eyes were positioned on the sides of the skull. They assumed that all ornithomimids had similar feeding habits, and pointed out that Russel had compared the beaks of ornithomimids with those of insectivorous birds. Osmólska and colleagues suggested that "Gallimimus" was capable of cranial kinesis (due to the seemingly loose connection between some of the bones at the back of the skull), a feature which allows individual bones of the skull to move in relation to each other. They also proposed that it did not use its short handed forelimbs for bringing food to the mouth, but for raking or digging in the ground to access food. The hands of "Gallimimus" may have been weaker than for example those of "Struthiomimus", which may instead have used its hands for hooking and gripping, according to a 1985 article by palaeontologists Elizabeth L. Nicholls and Anthony P. Russell.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 1988 Paul disagreed that ornithomimids were omnivores that ate small animals and eggs as well as plants, as had previously been suggested. He pointed out that ostriches and emus are mainly grazers and browsers, and that the skulls of ornithomimids were most similar to those of the extinct moas, which were strong enough to bite off twigs, as evidenced by their gut content. He further suggested that ornithomimids were well adapted for browsing on tough plants and would have used their hands to bring branches within reach of their jaws. Palaeontologist Jørn Hurum suggested in 2001 that due to its similar jaw structure, "Gallimimus" may have had an opportunistic, omnivorous diet like seagulls. He also observed that the tight intramandibular joint would prevent any movement between the front and rear portions of the lower jaw.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 2001, palaeontologists Mark A. Norell, Makovicky, and Currie reported a "Gallimimus" skull (IGM 100/1133) and an "Ornithomimus" skull that preserved soft tissue structures on the beak. The inner side of the "Gallimimus" beak had columnar structures that the authors found similar to the lamellae in the beaks of anseriform birds, which use these for manipulating food, straining sediments, filter-feeding by segregating food items from other material, and for cutting plants while grazing. They found the Northern shoveller, which feeds on plants, molluscs, ostracods, and foraminiferans, to be the modern anseriform with structures most similar in anatomy to those of "Gallimimus". The authors noted that ornithomimids probably did not use their beaks to prey on large animals and were abundant in mesic environments, while rarer in more arid environments, suggesting that they may have depended on aquatic food sources. Makovicky, Kobayashi, and Currie pointed out that if this interpretation is correct, "Gallimimus" would have been one of the largest known terrestrial filter feeders.


title: Gallimimus

text: In 2005, palaeontologist Paul Barrett pointed out that the lamella-like structures of "Gallimimus" did not appear to have been flexible bristles like those of filter-feeding birds (as there is no indication of these structures overlapping or being collapsed), but were instead more akin to the thin, regularly spaced vertical ridges in the beaks of turtles and hadrosaurid dinosaurs. In these animals, such ridges are thought to be associated with herbivorous diets, used to crop tough vegetation. Barrett suggested that the ridges in the beak of "Gallimimus" represented a natural cast of the internal surface of the beak, indicating that the animal was a herbivore that fed on material high in fibre. The discovery of many gastroliths (gizzard stones) in some ornithomimids indicate the presence of a gastric mill, and therefore point towards a herbivorous diet, as these are used to grind food of animals that lack the necessary chewing apparatus. Barrett also calculated that a "Gallimimus" would have needed between of food per day, depending on whether it had an endothermic or an ectothermic ("warm" or "cold"-blooded) metabolism, an intake which he found to be unfeasible if it was a filter feeder. He also found that ornithomimids were abundant not only in formations that represented mesic environments, but also in arid environments where there would be insufficient water to sustain a diet based on filter-feeding. In 2007, palaeontologist Espen M. Knutsen wrote that the beak shape of ornithomimids, when compared to those of modern birds, was consistent with omnivory or high-fibre herbivory.


title: Gallimimus

text: David J. Button and Zanno found in 2019 herbivorous dinosaurs mainly followed two distinct modes of feeding, either processing food in the gut—characterized by gracile skulls and low bite forces—or the mouth, characterized by features associated with extensive processing. Ornithomimid ornithomimosaurs, "Deinocheirus", diplodocoid and titanosaur sauropods, "Segnosaurus", and caenagnathids, were found to be in the former category. These researchers suggested that ornithomimid ornithomimosaurians such as "Gallimimus" and deinocheirids had invaded these niches separately, convergently achieving relatively large sizes. Advantages from large body mass in herbivores include increased intake rate of food and fasting resistance, and these trends may therefore indicate that ornithomimids and deinocheirids were more herbivorous than other ornithomimosaurians. They cautioned that the correlations between herbivory and body mass were not simple, and that there was no directional trend towards increased mass seen in the clade. Furthermore, the diet of most ornithomimosaurians is poorly known.


title: Gallimimus

text: The shape and proportions of the skull changed significantly during growth. The rear of the skull and the orbits decreased in size, whereas the snout became relatively longer; similar changes occur in modern crocodiles. The skull was also proportionally larger in the younger specimens, and the sloping of the snout's upper profile was less distinct. The ribs in the neck were fused to the vertebrae only in adults. The forelimbs appear to have become proportionally longer during growth, whereas the proportional length of the bones in the hind limbs changed very little. In 2012, palaeontologist Darla K. Zelenitsky and colleagues concluded that, since adult ornithomimosaurs had wing-like structures on their arms whereas juveniles did not (as evidenced by specimens of "Ornithomimus"), these structures were originally secondary sexual characteristics, which could have been used for reproductive behaviour such as courtship, display, and brooding.


title: Gallimimus

text: A 1987 study by the biologists Roman Pawlicki and P. Bolechała showed age-related differences in the content of calcium and phosphorus (important components in the formation of bone) of "Gallimimus" specimens. They found that the ratio was highest in young to middle aged animals, decreasing with age. In 1991, they reported that the bones of old individuals contained the highest amounts of lead and iron, while those in younger animals were lower. A study of the bone histology of various dinosaurs in 2000, by biologists John M. Rensberger and Mahito Watabe, revealed that the canaliculi (channels which connect bone cells) and collagen fibre bundles of "Gallimimus" and other ornithomimids were more akin to those in birds than mammals, unlike those of ornithischian dinosaurs, which were more similar to mammals. These differences may have been related to the process and rate at which bone formed.


title: Gallimimus

text: "Gallimimus" is known from the Nemegt Formation in the Gobi Desert of southern Mongolia. This geologic formation has never been dated radiometrically, but the fauna present in the fossil record indicate it was probably deposited during the early Maastrichtian stage, at the end of the Late Cretaceous about 70 million years ago. The sediments of the "Gallimimus" type locality Tsaagan Khushuu consist of silts, siltstones, mudstones, sands, as well as less frequent thin beds of sandstones. The rock facies of the Nemegt Formation suggest the presence of river channels, mudflats, shallow lakes and floodplains in an environment similar to the Okavango Delta of present-day Botswana. Large river channels and soil deposits are evidence of a significantly more humid climate than those found in the older Barun Goyot and Djadochta formations, although caliche deposits indicate that periodic droughts occurred. Fossil bones from the Nemegt Basin, including of "Gallimimus", are more radioactive than fossils from surrounding areas, possibly because uranium accumulated in the bones, transported there by percolating ground water.


title: Gallimimus

text: The Nemegt rivers, where "Gallimimus" lived, were home to a wide array of organisms. Occasional mollusc fossils, as well as a variety of other aquatic animals like fish, turtles, and crocodylomorphs, including "Shamosuchus", have been discovered in this region. Mammal fossils are rare in the Nemegt Formation, but many birds, including the enantiornithine "Gurilynia", the hesperornithiform "Judinornis", as well as "Teviornis", a possible anseriform, have been found. Herbivorous dinosaurs discovered in the Nemegt Formation include ankylosaurids such as "Tarchia", the pachycephalosaurian "Prenocephale", large hadrosaurids such as "Saurolophus" and "Barsboldia", and sauropods such as "Nemegtosaurus" and "Opisthocoelicaudia". Predatory theropods that lived alongside "Gallimimus" include tyrannosauroids such as "Tarbosaurus", "Alioramus" and "Bagaraatan", and troodontids such as "Borogovia", "Tochisaurus" and "Zanabazar". Herbivorous or omnivorous theropods include therizinosaurs, such as "Therizinosaurus", as well as oviraptorosaurians, such as "Elmisaurus", "Nemegtomaia", and "Rinchenia". Other ornithomimosaurs, including "Anserimimus" and "Deinocheirus", are also found, but "Gallimimus" is the most common member of the group in the Nemegt.


title: Gallimimus

text: "Gallimimus" was featured in the 1993 movie "Jurassic Park" by director Steven Spielberg; a similar scene in the original 1990 novel instead featured hadrosaurs. Spielberg had wanted a stampede sequence with animal herds in the movie, but did not know how to achieve it, and it was initially going to be visualised through stop-motion animation. At the time, there was little faith in creating animals through computer animation, but the visual effects company Industrial Light and Magic was given a go-ahead by the movie's producers to explore possibilities. ILM created a "Gallimimus" skeleton in the computer and animated a test showing a herd of running skeletons, and later a "Tyrannosaurus" chasing a fully rendered "Gallimimus" herd. The production team became very enthusiastic as nothing similar had previously been achieved, and Spielberg was convinced to write the scene into the script, and to also use computer graphics for other dinosaur shots in the movie instead of stop motion. The "Gallimimus" were animated by tracing frames from footage of ostriches, and footage of herding gazelles was also referenced. Kielan-Jaworowska, who discovered the holotype specimen, called it a "beautiful scene". The movie's dinosaurs were one of the most widely publicised applications of computer-generated imagery in film, and were considered more lifelike than what had been previously accomplished with special effects.


title: Gallimimus

text: Emphasising the bird-like flocking behaviour of the "Gallimimus" herd was a point in "Jurassic Park"'s story, as they were supposed to represent the precursors to birds. The herd was shown moving as a whole, rather than individual animals running around, and the smaller "Gallimimus" were shown in the middle of the group, as though they were being protected. During the scene, the palaeontologist Alan Grant says that the herd moves with "uniform direction changes, just like a flock of birds evading a predator" and "bet you'll never look at birds the same way again" as he watches the movements of the fast, graceful "Gallimimus". This contrasted with how dinosaurs were traditionally depicted in mass media as lumbering, tail-dragging animals, and the movie helped change the common perception of dinosaurs. This and other scenes reflected then-recent theories of bird evolution encouraged by the movie's scientific advisor, the palaeontologist John R. Horner, ideas which were still contentious at the time. Despite such theories, "Gallimimus" and other dinosaurs of the movie were depicted without feathers, in part because it was unknown at the time how widespread these were among the group.


title: Gallimimus

text: It has been claimed that the Lark Quarry tracks (one of the world's largest concentrations of dinosaur tracks) in Queensland, Australia, served as inspiration and "scientific underpinning" for the "Gallimimus" stampede scene in "Jurassic Park"; these tracks were initially interpreted as representing a dinosaur stampede caused by the arrival of a theropod predator. The idea that the tracks represent a stampede has since been contested (the "theropod" may instead have been a herbivore similar to "Muttaburrasaurus"), and a consultant to "Jurassic Park" has denied the tracks served as inspiration for the movie.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Antônio Hamilton Martins Mourão (; born 15 August 1953) is a Brazilian politician and retired military officer serving as the 25th vice president of Brazil. He has served as vice president under Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro since 1 January 2019. Mourão is the first person of Indigenous background to serve as vice president.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Mourão served in the Brazilian Army for almost five decades from 1971 to 2018, retiring as a General, the highest rank a Brazilian soldier can reach during peace time. During his tenure in the military, he became nationally-known after a 2015 incident in which he criticized then-President Dilma Rousseff and called for "the awakening of a patriotic struggle".


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: In the 2018 election, Mourão intended to run for President as a member of the far-right Brazilian Labour Renewal Party. However, he dropped out of the race in order to join Jair Bolsonaro's successful campaign as his running mate. The two were elected in the second round of the election, and Mourão took office as Vice President on 1 January 2019.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Mourão is a controversial figure, owing to his praise of the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964–1985), during which he had served in the military. Nonetheless, during the Bolsonaro presidency, he has sometimes been seen as a moderate voice in the administration. His public disputes with Bolsonaro led to friction with Bolsonaro and his supporters, including calls for Mourão's impeachment from Bolsonaro-supporting members of Congress. Bolsonaro did not choose Mourão as his running mate in the 2022 election, instead picking Walter Souza Braga Netto in a losing presidential bid. Mourao opted instead to run for the Senate in the 2022 Brazilian general election, representing the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which he won.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Mourão was born in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, the son of General Antônio Hamilton Mourão and Wanda Coronel Martins. He retired on 28 February 2018. He is of Indigenous Brazilian descent, and declares himself Indigenous Brazilian. Hamilton is a practicing Roman Catholic and a Freemason, although the Catholic Church prohibits Catholics from being freemasons.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Mourão joined the Brazilian Army in February 1972, in the Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras (AMAN), in Resende, Rio de Janeiro, where he became on officer on December 12, 1975. As lieutenant, he was instructor at Military Academy and as Captain, he worked with Jair Bolsonaro in the 8th


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: He later had classes at the Escola de Comando e Estado-Maior do Exército (ECEME) where he graduated as Staff Officer and attended classes of Politics, Strategy and Army High Administration. He also trained in Basic Parachuting, Jump Master and Free Jump.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: During his military career he was an instructor at AMAN, was part of a peace mission in Angola and was the Military Attache for Brazil's Embassy to Venezuela. He commanded the 27th Field Artillery Group in Ijuí, Rio Grande do Sul; the 2nd Jungle Infantry Brigade in São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Amazonas; the 6th Army Division and Military Command of the South in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul. Leaving the active service in 2018, Mourão considered running for president of the Military Club.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Mourão gained fame in 2015 during the political crisis in the second term of president Dilma Rousseff, when he was transferred from the Military Command of the South (CMS) to the Secretary of Economy and Finance, in the Federal District, due to statements made in a speech about the current state of politics.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: In a public announcement of the Masonic Lodge Grande Oriente in September 2017, in the Federal District, Mourão stated that, "among the duties of the Brazilian Army, there was the guarantee of the operation of the institutions and of the law and order", and that, if the judiciary "couldn't be able to heal the existing politics in the country, this would be imposed by the army through a military intervention", which, in his vision, "is provided by the Federal Constitution of 1988".


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: However, in May 2018, following the truck drivers' strike, Mourão spoke against calls for military intervention in the government, stating that "if the government lacks conditions to govern, leave, resign. Call elections earlier, do whatever, but end its immobilism", and that "the country cannot descend to chaos". He also called the Unified Federation of Oil Workers' strike, "shameful", and said "there are people taking advantage [of the situation] on both sides".


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: On 8 May 2018, Mourão announced his membership in the Brazilian Labor Renewal Party (PRTB) and his intention to run for President of Brazil, along with Levy Fidelix. However, in August 2018, Mourão became vice presidential running mate of far-right Presidential candidate Jair Bolsonaro.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: On 28 October 2018, Jair Bolsonaro won 55.2% of the vote against 44.8% for Fernando Haddad of the left-wing Workers' Party in the Brazilian presidential election.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: On 1 January 2019, Mourão was sworn in as the Vice President of Brazil. He has been seen as a more moderate figure in the President Jair Bolsonaro’s government, causing rivalry with Bolsonaro.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: In February 2022, Mourão was disauthorized by Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro for saying that Brazil opposed the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Bolsonaro stated that the President is the one who makes statements about that subject.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: In March 2022, Mourão changed his political affiliation to Republicanos, declaring his intention to run for the Senate in the 2022 Brazilian general election, representing the state of Rio Grande do Sul. He also declared his support for the reelection of Jair Bolsonaro.


title: Hamilton Mourão

text: Mourão became a widower in December 2016. He married Paula Mourão in October 2018. Paula is a first lieutenant of the Brazilian Army, where the couple met. They made their relationship public in 2017. The Mourãos own residences in Brasília and Rio de Janeiro.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Grand juries in the United States are groups of citizens empowered by United States federal or state law to conduct legal proceedings, chiefly investigating potential criminal conduct and determining whether criminal charges should be brought. The grand jury originated under the law of England and spread through colonization to other jurisdictions as part of the common law. Today, however, the United States is one of only two jurisdictions, along with Liberia, that continues to use the grand jury to screen criminal indictments.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Generally speaking, a grand jury may issue an indictment for a crime, also known as a "true bill," only if it verifies that those presenting had probable cause to believe that a crime has been committed by a criminal suspect. Unlike a petit jury, which resolves a particular civil or criminal case, a grand jury (typically having twelve to twenty-three members) serves as a group for a sustained period of time in all or many of the cases that come up in the jurisdiction, generally under the supervision of a federal U.S. attorney, a county district attorney, or a state attorney-general, and hears evidence "ex parte" (i.e. without suspect or person of interest involvement in the proceedings).


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The federal government is required to use grand juries for all felonies, though not misdemeanors, by the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. While all states in the U.S. currently have provisions for grand juries, only half of the states actually employ them and twenty-two require their use, to varying extents. The modern trend is to use an adversarial preliminary hearing before a trial court judge, rather than grand jury, in the screening role of determining whether there is evidence establishing probable cause that a defendant committed a serious felony before that defendant is required to go to trial and risk a conviction on those charges.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Some states have "civil grand juries," "investigating grand juries," or the equivalent, to oversee and investigate the conduct of government institutions, in addition to dealing with criminal indictments.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: In the early decades of the United States grand juries played a major role in public matters. During that period counties followed the traditional practice of requiring all decisions be made by at least twelve of the grand jurors, (e.g., for a twenty-three-person grand jury, twelve people would constitute a bare majority). Any citizen could bring a matter before a grand jury directly, from a public work that needed repair, to the delinquent conduct of a public official, to a complaint of a crime, and grand juries could conduct their own investigations. In that era most criminal prosecutions were conducted by private parties, either a law enforcement officer, a lawyer hired by a crime victim or their family, or even by laymen. A layman could bring a bill of indictment to the grand jury; if the grand jury found there was sufficient evidence for a trial, that the act was a crime under law, and that the court had jurisdiction, it would return the indictment to the complainant. The grand jury would then appoint the complaining party to exercise the authority of an attorney general, that is, one having a general power of attorney to represent the state in the case. The grand jury served to screen out incompetent or malicious prosecutions. The advent of official public prosecutors in the later decades of the 19th century largely displaced private prosecutions.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The federal constitutional right to have federal criminal charges screened by a grand jury is one of just a handful of provisions of the federal Bill of Rights that does not also apply to state and local governments.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger . . . ."


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Misdemeanors are not presented to a grand jury, and are instead charged by prosecutor's "information." In the United States armed forces, an Article 32 hearing is used for a similar purpose.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The grand jury right may be waived, including by plea agreement. A valid waiver must be made in open court and after the defendant has been advised of the nature of the charge and of the defendant's rights.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Rule 6 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure governs grand juries. It requires grand juries to be composed of 16 to 23 members and that 12 members must concur in an indictment. A grand jury is instructed to return an indictment if the probable cause standard has been met. The grand jury's decision is either a "true bill" (formerly "billa vera", resulting in an indictment), or "no true bill".


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Under federal law, a grand jury must be randomly selected from a "fair cross section of the community" in the location where the grand jury will convene.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The names of potential jurors are drawn at random from lists of voters. The people whose names were chosen, unless exempt or excused, must appear before the court. The judge will then direct the selection of the 23 "qualified" people who will become the final jury.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Grand jury proceedings are secret in accordance with Rule 6(e) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. No judge is present; the proceedings are led by a prosecutor; and the defendant has no right to present his case or (in many instances) to be informed of the proceedings at all. While court reporters usually transcribe the proceedings, the records are sealed. The case for such secrecy was unanimously upheld by the Burger Court in "Douglas Oil Co. of Cal. v. Petrol Stops Northwest", 441 US 211 (1979). The dissenting opinion was joined by Justices Burger and Stewart but concurred with the Court's opinion as to the importance and rationale of grand jury secrecy. Writing for the Court, Justice Powell found that "if preindictment proceedings were made public, many prospective witnesses would be hesitant to come forward voluntarily"; "witnesses who appeared before the grand jury would be less likely to testify fully and frankly"; and "there also would be the risk that those about to be indicted would flee, or would try to influence individual grand jurors". Further, "persons who are accused but exonerated by the grand jury [should] not be held up to public ridicule".


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: "United States v. Procter & Gamble Co.", 356 US 677 (1958), permitted the disclosure of grand jury transcripts under certain restrictions: "a private party seeking to obtain grand jury transcripts must demonstrate that 'without the transcript a defense would be greatly prejudiced or that without reference to it an injustice would be done'" and must make its requests "with particularity". Further, First Amendment protections generally permit the witnesses summoned by a grand jury to discuss their testimony, although "Dennis v. United States", 384 US 855 (1966), found that such public discussion permits release of the transcripts of their actual testimony.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The Jencks Act, 18 U.S.C. § 3500, requires the government to disclose to the defense any statements made by the accused to the grand jury, and, with respect to non-party witnesses, that after a witness has testified on direct examination at trial, any statement made to the grand jury by such witness be disclosed to the defense.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The grand jury can compel a witness to testify. The target of a grand jury investigation has no right to testify or put on a defense before the grand jury. The U.S. Attorney's Manual anticipates the possibility of allowing investigatory targets to testify.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The U.S. Attorneys' Manual states that prosecutors "must recognize that the grand jury is an independent body, whose functions include not only the investigation of crime and the initiation of criminal prosecution but also the protection of the citizenry from unfounded criminal charges" and that targets of investigations have the right to, and can, "request or demand the opportunity to tell the grand jury their side of the story."


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: United States law also provides for the formation of special grand juries. While a regular grand jury primarily decides whether to bring charges, a special grand jury is called into existence to investigate whether organized crime is occurring in the community in which it sits. This could include, for instance, organized drug activity or organized corruption in government. As provided in , the U.S. District Court in every judicial district having more than four million inhabitants must impanel a special grand jury when requested by a designated official of the Justice Department.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The grand jury clause of the Fifth Amendment has not been incorporated against the U.S. states. As a matter of state law, nearly all states employ some form of grand jury, though only about half require a grand jury indictment to commence a criminal prosecution, and among those, many limit the requirement to felonies or even certain types of felonies. The size of the grand jury and the number of grand jurors required to issue an indictment varies among the states and even, at times, within a single state.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The California constitution requires each county to have at least one grand jury impaneled at all times. Grand juries are governed by Title 4 and Title 5 of the California Penal Code, as well as Government Code §3060 and other more general provisions. In addition, grand juries are not subject to the Brown Act.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Most county grand juries in California do not consider criminal matters. A decision to present criminal cases to the grand jury may be made by the county District Attorney, but it is neither a constitutional nor a statutory requirement.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: These county-level grand juries primarily focus on oversight of government institutions at the county level or lower. This is why California's grand juries are often called civil grand juries. Almost any entity that receives public money can be examined by the grand jury, including county governments, cities, and special districts.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Each panel selects the topics that it wishes to examine each year. A jury is not allowed to "continue" an oversight from a previous panel. If a jury wishes to look at a subject that a prior jury was examining, it must start its own investigation and independently verify all information. It may use information obtained from the prior jury but this information must be verified before it can be used by the current jury. Upon completing its investigation, the jury may, but is not required to, issue a report detailing its findings and recommendations.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Most grand juries are seated on a fiscal cycle, i.e. July through June. Most counties have panels consisting of nineteen jurors, some have as few as eleven jurors, others have as many as twenty-three. Due to the length of service, grand jurors are usually selected on a volunteer basis.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The grand jury is required to publish a minimum of one report containing a minimum of one finding and one recommendation. The published reports are the only public record of the grand jury's work; there is no minority report. Each published report includes a list of those public entities that are required or requested to respond. The format of these responses is dictated by California Penal Code § 933.05, as is the time span in which they must respond.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: County grand juries develop areas to examine by two avenues: juror interests and public complaints. Complaints filed by the public are kept confidential. The protection of whistleblowers is one of the primary reasons for the confidential nature of the grand jury's work.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: Grand juries may charge public officials of "willful or corrupt misconduct in office." The accusation is tried as if it were an indictment, and may not be dismissed for political or extra-legal motives. The definition of "willful misconduct in office" is reserved for serious misconduct, that is, criminal behavior or "purposeful failure to carry out mandatory duties of office."


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: In Florida, a capital crime (one for which the imposition of the death penalty is a possible punishment) must be prosecuted by presentment or indictment of a grand jury. Other crimes may be prosecuted by presentment or indictment of a grand jury, but in most cases, prosecution for a non-capital criminal offense is begun by an “information” (charging document) filed under oath by the prosecutor.


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: In Kentucky, grand jurors are impaneled in each county, at the Circuit Court level (felonies only) for a four-month term (three panels per year). During the trial jury orientation for the given four-month term, the grand jurors are selected from the trial jury pool, although the method of selection is not necessarily random. The meetings are twice a month in most counties (however, grand juries in more populous counties such as Jefferson (Louisville) and Fayette (Lexington) generally meet more often), with each meeting usually going through 20–30 cases in a four- to five-hour period. The indictment rate is about 98–99%; the grand jury can broaden (about 1% of the time) or narrow (about 3% of the time) the counts in the indictment as well. Usually, fifteen to twenty grand jurors are required to report to meetings; the hope is that twelve will show to each meeting, which is the number of jurors required to hear cases (an additional juror may be kept as an alternate while other extra jurors are typically excused for the day). It takes nine "yes" votes to the question of probable cause to sign a true bill of indictment. Fewer than nine "yes" votes either causes a "no true bill" or a narrowing of the indictment (depending on the votes per count).


title: Grand juries in the United States

text: The rules are very similar to the federal process; the grand jury usually only hears from law enforcement personnel, with the exception of property crimes, where store detectives or actual victims of theft or vandalism are called to testify. The only cases brought to the grand jury are those initiated from the Commonwealth's Attorney's office (the prosecutor for felonies). For the vast majority of cases, the grand jurors generally only hear a recitation of facts from the police report, crime laboratory & medical examiner reports, and other documentation generated during the evidence gathering process. Grand jurors can ask factual questions of the witnesses and legal questions of the Commonwealth's Attorney or Assistant Commonwealth's Attorney. The ability to broaden or narrow indictments does technically allow for grand juries to open new avenues of investigation, although since it is dependent on prosecutors for facts, this is very rarely done. Rules of confidentiality that apply to Kentucky grand jurors are similar to those that apply to federal grand juries.