title: Pecker (film)

text: When an overzealous critic dubs Pecker's family "culturally challenged", they begin to feel the uncomfortable glare of stardom. His mother Joyce can no longer freely dispense fashion tips to the homeless clientele at her thrift shop; his grandmother, Memama, endures public ridicule when her experience with a talking statue of the Virgin Mary is exposed on the cover of a national art magazine, and his older sister Tina is fired from her job emceeing go-go dancing at a gay bar because Pecker's edgy photographs chronicle the sex practices of the club's patrons. Even Little Chrissy, his six-year-old sister, feels the pressure of celebrity when her eating disorder is exposed, bringing unwanted attention from nosy child welfare agencies, and she is mistakenly diagnosed with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and prescribed Ritalin.


title: Pecker (film)

text: Having seen his new-found fame disrupt the lives of his family and friends, Pecker upsets the art world by refusing to participate in a scheduled show at the Whitney Museum of Art. Instead, he forces New York art collectors to come to Baltimore to see his latest photographs, which insultingly portray the same people who disparaged his family, with one photo showing Lynn Wentworth adjusting her breasts in a mirror.


title: Pecker (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 52%, based on 46 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. On Metacritic, it has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 24 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Pecker (film)

text: Describing it as "John Waters' first stab at making a mainstream movie," Edvins Beitiks' review in "The San Francisco Examiner" said it "starts out well and winds up no worse than most of the stuff that comes out of Hollywood". In his review for the "Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert noted a "tension between the gentler new Waters and his anarchic past. In the scenes in the male strip bar, for example, we keep waiting for Waters to break loose and shock us, and he never does, except with a few awkward language choices. The miraculous statue of Mary could have provided comic possibilities, but doesn't."


title: Pecker (film)

text: Peter Stack of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote that "Pecker" is "never truly funny, but it's an amusing novelty, gaining strength from smart characterizations and sly cogency about the way people are exploited under the limelight of celebrity."


title: Venom (Eminem song)

text: "Venom (Music from the Motion Picture)", more commonly known as simply "Venom", is a song by American rapper Eminem, written for the soundtrack of the 2018 film of the same name and featured in his album "Kamikaze". It was released as a digital single on September 21, 2018. Following the album's release, the track entered the charts in several countries, hitting the top 50 in the United States, Canada and Australia. A remix to the song was released on October 5, 2021, two days after the release of "", the film's sequel. Eminem was also featured in a song by Skylar Grey on that film's soundtrack as well.


title: Venom (Eminem song)

text: On August 30, 2018, Eminem posted a 15-seconds teaser showing "Venom"'s title with the "E" turning to the "backwards Ǝ" , used as Eminem's emblem and that he was going to feature Thusho (aka TheeBrain) from South Africa. Seven hours later, on August 31, 2018, Eminem's previously unannounced album "Kamikaze" was released, and "Venom" appeared as its final track.


title: Venom (Eminem song)

text: The song includes multiple references to the "Venom" film and to its title characters Venom and Eddie Brock.


title: Venom (Eminem song)

text: On October 3, 2018, Eminem teased on his Twitter account that a music video for the song would be released the following Friday. The music video was released on October 5, 2018. As a continuation to his previous "Fall" music video, its first scene shows a bystander finding the previously crushed "Revival" CD, opening the case to find a completely black disc. Just as it begins to react, he puts it in his bag and gets on a bus. As the song starts, an Eminem symbiote crawls up the man's neck, causing him to start rapping to the song, before he infects the bus driver by throwing him out the door, who then also starts rapping. The Eminem symbiote spreads around, infecting innocent bystanders (and a dog) and making them cause damage to the town while rapping.


title: Venom (Eminem song)

text: During the first part of the video, Eminem, is shown while performing the song inside of a dark room, dressed in all black with only one light shining in the background. In the final scene, after getting possessed by the symbiote, the final victim shown turns into Eminem himself to rap the final chorus, before turning into Sony's Spider-Man Universe/Marvel Comics' character Venom.


title: Venom (Eminem song)

text: During the October 15, 2018 episode of the late-night television show "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", Eminem performed the song at the 103rd floor of the Empire State Building in New York City. The performance was filmed on October 6, 2018, and it was part of an eight-minute video, directed by James Larese and featuring Mexican-American comedian Guillermo Rodriguez. The music video was shot on a Google Pixel 3.


title: Anne Helm

text: Anne Helm (born September 12, 1938) is a retired Canadian-born actress and children's author (as Annie Helm), who primarily appeared in guest roles on episodes of various American television series. Her few film roles include playing Elvis Presley's love interest in the 1962 film "Follow That Dream". Helm had two recurring roles, playing Molly Pierce in five episodes during the 85-episode run of the mid-1960s series "Run for Your Life" and playing the minor role of nurse Mary Briggs in an unknown number of episodes of the daily soap opera "General Hospital" from 1971 to 1973.


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm was born in Toronto, Canada, and grew up in Ste. Marguerite, a hamlet. Her father was a broker of real estate, and her mother operated a country inn and dairy farm. She began studying ballet with the National Ballet Guild of Canada when she was 12, and at 14 she studied at the Metropolitan Opera Ballet School.


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm began performing on Broadway in the 1940s as she danced in "High Kickers" (1941), "Lady in the Dark" (1943), and "Mexican Hayride" (1944).


title: Anne Helm

text: She returned as an actress, portraying Sally Reece in "Cloud 7" (1958) and Edwina Booth in "Edwin Booth" (1958). During the 1950s, she modeled clothing for teenage girls in New York, made commercials and danced at the Copacabana night club.


title: Anne Helm

text: Living in New York City, Helm began her pursuit of an acting career, which eventually led to Hollywood. Beginning in the 1950s, she made guest appearances on television series. Her television debut occurred on "The Phil Silvers Show" in the role of a contestant in a beauty pageant. Her 1958 title role in "Shirley Temple's Storybook"'s presentation of "The Sleeping Beauty" was the subject of an article in "Life" magazine. She made her motion picture debut in 1960.


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm was cast as Linda Moon in the 1960 episode "A Thief or Two" on CBS's anthology series, "The DuPont Show with June Allyson", with co-star Lew Ayres. She appeared on the CBS western series "Rawhide" in the episodes "Incident Near Gloomy River (1961) and "Inside Man" (1962). She guest-starred in an episode of the CBS sitcom "My Sister Eileen", with Elaine Stritch and Shirley Bonne.


title: Anne Helm

text: In 1961, Helm appeared in an episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents ("The Changing Heart", Series 6, episode 14/205, airdate January 3, 1961). Alfred Hitchcock Presents The Big Kick, Season 7 episode 37. She guest-starred in the premiere episode of ABC's "Bus Stop" drama series. That same year, she appeared in the first season of CBS's "Route 66" in the episode "The Clover Throne", and in the syndicated crime drama "The Brothers Brannagan" in the episode "Equinox." She also played Glamis Barlow, the title character, in the "Perry Mason" TV episode, "The Case of the Duplicate Daughter." In Dec 1961 she appeared in The Untouchables episode 3-8, "Mankiller".


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm was cast as Jennie Metcalf, the daughter of an outlaw who seeks vengeance for her father's death, in the 1962 episode "Girl with a Gun", on the syndicated anthology series, "Death Valley Days."


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm drew national recognition as Holly Jones, the love interest of Elvis Presley in his 1962 film "Follow That Dream". She made five more films during the 1960s including "The Iron Maiden" (released in the US as "Swinging Maiden"), a 1962 British made comedy film, "The Interns" (1962), "Honeymoon Hotel" (1964), "The Unkissed Bride" (1966), and the horror film "Nightmare in Wax" (1969).


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm played different roles in three appearances on "Wagon Train", an American Western series. The first episode Helm was on was entitled "The Dick Pederson Story" (10 Jan. 1962); the second episode was entitled "Heather and Hamish" (10 Apr. 1963) and the third was "The Story of Cain" (16 Dec. 1963).


title: Anne Helm

text: On January 15, 1963, Helm guest-starred in the episode "Protective Custody" of NBC's "Laramie" western series. David Brian played Walt Douglas, an official of the stage line, who arrives in Laramie seeking his estranged daughter, Alicia, portrayed by Helm.


title: Anne Helm

text: In the "Gunsmoke" TV Series she played "Helena Dales" in "One Killer on Ice", and "Trudy Trent" in "Bad Seed".


title: Anne Helm

text: Later in 1963, she was cast as Joanie in the series finale, "The Convention," of the modern western series, "Empire".


title: Anne Helm

text: In 1963 she also guest-starred as Janie in Season-three of CBS's TV Series "Route 66" in the episode: "Narcissus On An Old Red Fire Engine".


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm appeared in "The Magic Sword" (1962) opposite Basil Rathbone and Gary Lockwood. She was originally cast to play Joan Crawford's daughter Carol in William Castle's "Strait-Jacket" (1964) but was replaced.


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm appeared as Nora Martin in a 1964 episode of "The Fugitive" titled "Ballad for a Ghost", and again in a 1964 episode of 'Burke's Law' - 'Who Killed 1/2 Of Glory Lee?' - as Sable Delacroix.


title: Anne Helm

text: Helm had the role of Amy in the ABC drama "The Long, Hot Summer" (1965-1966). She also appeared in two episodes of the ABC western series "The Big Valley", both times in a role that interacted prominently with main cast member Lee Majors. Her first appearance was on October 20, 1965, in the first-season episode "Heritage" in the role of Brydie Hanrahan. Helm then returned on March 4, 1968, in the third season in the episode entitled "The Devil's Masquerade," playing the role of Nancy.


title: Anne Helm

text: In 1967 she appeared as Jeanne Springer in Season 3 Episode 16 "Long Time Dead" of "Twelve O'Clock High".


title: Anne Helm

text: Helms' appearance on "The F.B.I." in 1968 was her third on that series in three years. In 1968, Helm appeared as Irene Park in Season 1 of "Hawaii Five-O".


title: Anne Helm

text: In 1969 she appeared as Karen Mallory on the TV Series "The Virginian" in the episode titled "Journey to Scathelock."


title: Anne Helm

text: In 1986, Helm appeared in the episode "The Doll", on Steven Spielberg's dramatic television anthology, "Amazing Stories".


title: Anne Helm

text: After her acting career ended in 1986, Helm started writing children's books, as Annie Helm. Her book "The Sunshine Angel Book for Angel Workers of All Ages" was published in 1992, followed in 1993 by "The Little Angel Workbook for Children of all Ages". Fifteen years later, in 2018, her book "Babystar" was published.


title: Anne Helm

text: Anne Helm was married from 1968 to 1969 to author John Sherlock, with whom she had a son, Peter Sherlock. Her second husband was actor Robert Viharo, whom she wed in 1971 and had a daughter, Serena Viharo (born 1977), who also became an actress. Helm and Viharo divorced in 1979.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks is a 2005 action-adventure beat 'em up video game developed and published by Midway for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox. A spin-off of the "Mortal Kombat" franchise, it is the third installment to not be a fighting game. Set in an alternate timeline between "Mortal Kombat" and "Mortal Kombat II", players control the eponymous Shaolin monks Liu Kang and Kung Lao in either single player or cooperative play as they protect Earthrealm from the forces of Outworld.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: A spin-off centered on Liu Kang had been considered since the early 2000s, but was shelved after negative reception to the previous adventure spin-offs, "" (1997) and "" (2000). "Shaolin Monks" was officially announced in 2004 as part of Midway's plan to release "Mortal Kombat" games annually. Developed with the intent of appealing to "Mortal Kombat" fans, "Shaolin Monks" incorporates elements from the fighting game entries, including Fatalities, combos, and a versus mode.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: Released in North America on September 16, 2005, the game received positive reviews for transitioning the series into an adventure game and its co-op mode, although reception to the narrative and visuals were mixed. It was also a commercial success, selling over one million copies.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: The game features three main modes of play. Aside from a single-player mode, the game has a co-operative mode, where two players can work together through the game, with access to some areas and items that are inaccessible in single-player mode. There is also a versus mode, where two players can fight against each other in some of the arenas featured in the game. In addition, players can play a shortened, censored demo version of "" as well as an emulated arcade perfect version of "Mortal Kombat II" (which is taken from Midway Arcade Treasures 2).


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: "Shaolin Monks" features a multi-directional combat system, which gives players the ability to attack any of the enemies that surround them fluidly. The engine allows the player to maintain combo attacks across multiple enemies, and even continue their combos after launching an enemy into the air through a powerful attack or a throw. The main characters also have many of their signature moves from the series. Combos and special moves are upgradeable through the earning of experience points. These are mainly gained through defeating opponents, with the combo system multiplying the value. The environment plays a vital role in the game, as there are several hazards that will instantly kill an enemy, such as pits in the floor or rotating wheels of spikes. Using some of the environment in this manner, as well as attacking or destroying certain objects, serve as a puzzle-solving element to unlock secrets in the game.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: The game also includes Fatalities, a common feature of the "Mortal Kombat" series. Performing combos on enemies increases the Fatality meter. Once that meter has reached a certain level, a Fatality may be performed, regardless of an opponent's level of health. The main characters have the ability to perform several different Fatality moves, some of which are 3D updated versions of Fatalities from the first and second "Mortal Kombat" games. The player can also unlock the ability to do Multalities, which are Fatalities performed on multiple enemies at once. The concept of Brutalities from "Ultimate Mortal Kombat 3"/"Mortal Kombat Trilogy" has also been brought back, though with a different function. Once the move has been performed, the player is able to give more devastating attacks for a limited time.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: "Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks" spans the events of "Mortal Kombat II", starting with the aftermath of the first "Mortal Kombat". The battle rages furiously on Shang Tsung's island fortress in the Lost Sea, as the sorcerer watches the fighters battle his soldiers to protect Earthrealm. The Earthrealm's Shaolin monk Liu Kang defeats Shang Tsung, and the warrior Goro comes to his defense. With Goro distracting everyone else, Shang Tsung creates a portal to Outworld and retreats with his allies. Thunder god Raiden appears afterwards and warns the remaining fighters to get off the island palace because it is collapsing into the sea. Everyone, except Liu Kang and Kung Lao, evacuates and escape back to the Wu Shi Academy.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: Liu Kang and Kung Lao, however, have to fight their way to another portal to get to Wu Shi Academy. Upon arrival, Raiden awards his warriors for saving Earthrealm. However, Baraka and the Tarkatan attack the Wu Shi Academy. Although the Tarkatans are defeated, Baraka captures Sonya Blade. Raiden confirms that Shang Tsung is trying to lure Liu Kang and his allies to Outworld where he can order his henchmen to attack them and bide his time for power. If successful, Shang Tsung will conquer Earth without winning a Mortal Kombat tournament, which is cheating.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: Liu Kang and Kung Lao journey through the nightmarish realm of Outworld to stop the sorcerer's plot. They are guided by Raiden and assisted by Johnny Cage. Throughout their journeys, they meet several allies and learn of another person who wants Earth; the Emperor of Outworld, Shao Kahn. During their journey, all of Liu Kang's and Kung Lao's allies are captured. Once reaching Shao Kahn, Shang Tsung is revealed to have been impersonating Raiden on occasion in the pair's journey so that each of the soldier's defeats will enhance his powers enough to steal Shao Kahn's rule of Outworld.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: The two Shaolin Monks defeat Shang Tsung, and Kintaro and are challenged by Shao Kahn. With the real Raiden's help, Liu Kang and Kung Lao finish the Emperor and both are given the title of champions. With their friends and Outworld safe, Raiden's group returns to Earthrealm to celebrate their victory. But unbeknownst to the others, Quan Chi picks up his Amulet and manically laughs concluding the story.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: The primary protagonists of "Shaolin Monks" are Liu Kang and Kung Lao. Featured as allies of the protagonists are Raiden, Johnny Cage, Kitana, Sub-Zero, and Jax. Most of the allies make appearances to assist the protagonists during segments of the game. Depicted as enemies of protagonists are Shao Kahn, Shang Tsung, Mileena, Jade, Reptile, Baraka, Goro, Scorpion, and Kintaro. These characters serve as bosses for the game's levels. Ermac and Kano can also be fought as optional bosses. Further characters featured are Sonya Blade, Kabal, Noob Saibot, and Quan Chi, who mostly only appear in cinematics. Smoke, in reference to his "Mortal Kombat II" depiction, is found in the Living Forest where he assigns the player optional missions required to unlock "Mortal Kombat II". Also in reference to the second game, Blaze appears fighting his unnamed opponent in the background of the Pit II. Upon completing the game, Sub-Zero and Scorpion become unlocked as playable characters in the story mode, although the story is unchanged. The versus mode features Liu Kang, Kung Lao, Scorpion, Sub-Zero, Johnny Cage, Kitana, Reptile, and Baraka as the playable characters; all but Liu Kang and Kung Lao are unlocked through collecting tokens found in the story.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: A spin-off game starring Liu Kang was originally supposed to be developed shortly after "", the previous action-adventure title in the series in 2000, this however did not happen because of the departure of John Tobias and the very negative reception of "Special Forces". In October 2004, the president of Midway Games, David F. Zucker, called the release of "Shaolin Monks" the "first step toward delivering something that "Mortal Kombat" fans have been calling for: a new game set in the "Mortal Kombat" universe every year."


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: Producer Shaun Himmerick stated the team wanted to make a "Mortal Kombat" with a "deeper story." The team were fans of adventure games and decided to follow that direction. "Mortal Kombat" creator worked as the creative director for "Shaolin Monks" and joined the programmers from the team to make the fighting engine. The team found a challenge in combining action elements with their multi-directional fighting engine, in an effort to avoid turning the game into a "button smasher". Their idea was to give the player more freedom to execute several moves together than any other adventure game. They would be able to attack in any direction they wanted. The team added multiple "Mortal Kombat" elements to the game to make the game more appealing.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: Since "Mortal Kombat II" was Ed Boon's favorite game in the series, the story of this spin-off was based on it. There was also a desire to include both Liu Kang and Kung Lao as protagonists with the latter having been introduced in "Mortal Kombat II". The game's versus mode originated from a bug that allowed testers to face each other. Unlike in the typical "Mortal Kombat" games, the versus mode was made to include adventure games' elements. The engine is different from the one from "Mortal Kombat Deception" and was made to rival other adventure games. The co-op mode was made so that players would be able to work together to perform new moves and discover content that a single player cannot do. Originally, it was planned to allow more than two players in the co-op mode. While Dan Forden was the audio director, Jamie Christopherson worked as the composer.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: "Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks" has sold over one million copies and received mostly favorable reviews. At GameRankings, it holds an average of 79.10% and 80.64% for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles respectively. The game was praised by critics for translating the franchise into an entertaining action game. The gameplay was noted for having the same movements from the classic "Mortal Kombat" games such as the Fatalities and the way combos are handled compared to "God of War". 1UP.com was conflicted with game's difficulty as the A.I. can be too strong but might force the player to use more creative moves. On the other hand, GameZone felt the boss fights to be more enjoyable due to the tactics needed to defeat them. The cooperative mode was distinguished for giving the players access to hidden bonuses but at the same time was criticized for being impossible to continue playing in a single-player mode. It was one of the five games nominated by GameSpot for the title of Most Surprisingly Good Game of 2005. XPlay praised the large amount of combos and finishing moves the player can perform and recommended the audience to use the co-op mode for further enjoyment of the game. TeamXbox agreed as the performance of combos can be further enjoyed when the players are using the two characters.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: In regards to the narrative and presentation, IGN felt the characters' voice acting was too forced, especially pointing out Liu Kang and Raiden's voice actors. GameZone claimed the worlds were appealing most notably the Pit stage. TeamXbox found that the story of the game was enjoyable despite negative feedback provided to other "Mortal Kombat" narratives. GameSpot criticized the game's reliance of backtracking and stated, while the story mode starts entertaining, by the time of the climax it becomes "fairly incomprehensible" as an overuse of plot twist focused on betrayals that are not explained properly. WorthPlaying commented the plot of "Shaolin Monks" relies more the on the nostalgia factor in contrast to their previous game, "Deception", as fan-favorite characters like Johhny Cage and Raiden often appear in the game to assist the main characters.


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: An advertisement for "Shaolin Monks" titled "Blood on the Carpet", created by the London-based Maverick Media, was condemned by the Advertising Standards Authority as condoning and glorifying violence. The commercial, "features a boardroom scene in which a Mr Linn, the mysterious trouble-shooter at a sales meeting, instructs two men to fight. Punches lead to a pen being stabbed into an arm; then a water jug is smashed over an executive's head – before his heart is ripped from his chest. Mr Linn concludes proceedings by decapitating another executive with his hat." The result of the complaint was, as quoted from the ASA report, "We told Midway not to repeat the approach and told them to consult CAP Copy Advice before producing future ads."


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: A sequel focused on Scorpion and Sub-Zero, titled "Mortal Kombat: Fire & Ice", was planned to be developed by Paradox, but financial constraint caused the project's cancellation. Ed Boon recalled: ""Monks" was FAR and away the best spinoff. We were in talks to do a sequel before the Moorpark studio closed."


title: Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks

text: A possible HD remake of "Mortal Kombat: Shaolin Monks" was teased by Boon in October 2013. He also previously said they would "love to make one" someday, but a remake would not come "in the NEAR future" (from January 2013). In 2014, he also disclosed that they already did talk "about doing an up-rez'ed version for [the] PS3 and 360 a few years ago."


title: Davis Webb

text: Davis Matthew Webb (born January 22, 1995) is an American football quarterback for the New York Giants of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Texas Tech from 2013 to 2015 and California in 2016. He was drafted by the New York Giants in the third round of the 2017 NFL Draft. He also played for the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb played at the high school level for Keller High School before moving to Prosper High School in his hometown of Prosper, Texas under coach Kent Scott. While at Prosper High School, Webb guided the team to a district championship and a trip to the Texas 4A regional semifinals.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb earned several accolades and was named first-team All-District as a junior and honorable mention All-State. Webb graduated from Prosper after passing for 2,658 yards, 589 yards rushing, and 36 touchdowns.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb was ranked a 4-star prospect coming out of high school by ESPN and signed with the Texas Tech Red Raiders. During his freshman year in 2013, Webb alternated as a backup quarterback behind fellow freshman Baker Mayfield and as a starter, becoming only the second true freshman at the position to ever play for the school. Webb had been afflicted by an undetermined illness.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb made his first game appearance in the contest against TCU, where he threw the game-winning touchdown to wide receiver Bradley Marquez. Following an injury to Mayfield, Webb made his first career start in an appearance against Iowa State, which saw him pass for 415 yards and 3 touchdowns. His performance marked the fourth most yards passing for first time starter in school history.


title: Davis Webb

text: He would follow up his Iowa State performance with a record-setting performance against West Virginia. Webb passed for 462 yards, 36–50 attempts, and two touchdowns, making Webb the first quarterback in school history to pass for over 400 yards twice in his freshman season. Additionally, the yardage broke the school freshman passing record previously held by Billy Joe Tolliver. The passing yardage also set a Big 12 Conference freshman passing record, beating the mark set by Baylor's Nick Florence in 2009.


title: Davis Webb

text: The game versus Oklahoma State saw Webb complete 45 passes on 71 attempts for 425 yards. The number of completions and attempts ranked fourth overall, and second overall behind Texas Tech quarterback Graham Harrell.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb struggled in an outing against Kansas State, and did not play in the second half. However, his 78 yards thrown pushed him over the previous record for the school single season freshman passing yards previously held by Zebbie Lethridge in 1994. After Webb's poor performance against Kansas State, Baker Mayfield would return to the starting role for the next two games against Baylor and Texas.


title: Davis Webb

text: Following the conclusion of the regular season and during preparations for the 2013 Holiday Bowl, it was announced that fellow quarterback Baker Mayfield would transfer from the school following a 'miscommunication' and the open competition for the starting position. The departure of Mayfield ensured that the only competition for the starting job for the Holiday Bowl would be Michael Brewer.


title: Davis Webb

text: After the month of bowl practice, Webb was named the starter for the Holiday Bowl against a top 15 Arizona State team. Webb would provide one of the most impressive performances of the 2013–14 NCAA football bowl season. He finished the game with 403 yards, 28–41 passing and four touchdowns in the 37–23 upset, tying a Holiday Bowl touchdown record and earning MVP honors.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb would conclude his freshman season with several Big 12 Conference freshman records: single game total offense, single game offensive plays, most 400 yard passing performances, passing yards in a single game, passing attempts in a single game, passes completed in a single game. His performance also marked school freshman records for completions, attempts, touchdowns, passing yards, and 400 yard games. Webb would later be named honorable mention Freshman All-American by College Football News, Big 12 Broadcasters Conference Freshman of the Year, as well as several weekly honors.


title: Davis Webb

text: Entering into the 2014 season, Webb was named the starting quarterback following the transfer of fellow quarterback Michael Brewer to Virginia Tech. Both Webb and the team as a whole were named dark horse candidates for the Heisman Trophy and the national championship respectively by ESPN. Webb was also named to the Maxwell Award and Manning Award watchlists for the best quarterback in college football. Webb started the first eight games of the season before suffering a season-ending ankle injury in a game against TCU on October 25, 2014. He was replaced by true freshman Patrick Mahomes. It was later revealed that Webb would undergo surgery on his shoulder, which he originally injured on September 25 in a game against Oklahoma State.


title: Davis Webb

text: In 2015, Webb was the backup quarterback to Patrick Mahomes, who retained possession of the starting quarterback job. On December 30, 2015, Webb announced his intentions to transfer from Texas Tech.


title: Davis Webb

text: On January 27, 2016, Webb announced his intention to transfer to the University of Colorado Boulder. At the time of the announcement, Webb was still enrolled at Texas Tech and was nine credit hours short of finishing his degree requirements. After finishing his degree requirements and graduating from Texas Tech, Webb planned to be in Colorado for the first summer session. In late May, Webb revealed that he would be transferring to the University of California, Berkeley, instead of Colorado. On May 25, 2016, California Golden Bears head coach Sonny Dykes announced that Webb had signed a financial aid agreement and was officially enrolled. As a graduate transfer, he was eligible to play immediately.


title: Davis Webb

text: In his one season at California, Webb completed 382 of 620 passes (62%) for 4295 yards, 37 touchdowns and 12 interceptions for a 135.63 QBR. He set school single-season records for passing attempts, completions and total plays while tying three other school records, including total touchdowns [43 (37 passing, 6 rushing)], and 300-yard passing games (10). In 2016, he was named the Golden Bear's Season MVP and won the Reese's Senior Bowl MVP award. Webb was also nominated to the College Football All-America Team, and was a semi-finalist for both the Davey O'Brien National Quarterback Award and the Earl Campbell Tyler Rose Award, as well as an honorable mention All-Pac-12 choice of the league's coaches and the Pac-12 Newcomer of the Year. Webb was also in the final 15 for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award.


title: Davis Webb

text: The New York Giants selected Webb in the third round (87th overall) of the 2017 NFL Draft. He was the fifth quarterback selected in 2017. On May 11, 2017, the New York Giants signed Webb to a four-year, $3.53 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $766,420.


title: Davis Webb

text: On November 28, 2017, head coach Ben McAdoo announced that Geno Smith would replace Eli Manning as the starting quarterback and that Webb would also see playing time before the end of the season. McAdoo was later fired, along with the General Manager who drafted Webb, Jerry Reese, and replaced with Steve Spagnuolo. Spagnuolo admitted that it was likely Manning would remain the quarterback for the rest of season.


title: Davis Webb

text: During the 2017 season, Webb drew praise from teammates Landon Collins and Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie. Rodgers-Cromartie remarked that Webb looked like a "Young Eli [Manning]", while Collins said that the future front office should not draft a quarterback in the next draft, assuring them that "Davis is gonna be really good in the league when it’s his time". Three other teammates, Marquis Bundy, Travis Rudolph, and Kalif Raymond, all had positive things to say about Webb as well, with Rudolph saying that Webb has the highly sought-after 'It factor'. Eli Manning nicknamed him Dragon.


title: Davis Webb

text: During Week 16 of the 2017 season, it was revealed that under interim head coach Spagnuolo, Webb had taken snaps with the first unit in practice that week, for the first time that season. Despite this, Webb was listed as inactive for the Week 16 game versus the Arizona Cardinals. He was promoted to second-string for the final game of the season.


title: Davis Webb

text: On September 2, 2018, Webb was waived by the Giants after claiming six players off waivers the same day.


title: Davis Webb

text: On September 4, 2018, Webb was signed to the New York Jets' practice squad. He was promoted to the active roster on November 10, 2018 to serve as the backup to Josh McCown following an injury to rookie starter Sam Darnold. Webb was released as part of final roster cuts on August 31, 2019.


title: Davis Webb

text: Webb was signed to the Buffalo Bills' practice squad on September 2, 2019. He signed a reserve/future contract with the Bills on January 6, 2020.


title: Davis Webb

text: On September 5, 2020, Webb was waived by the Bills and signed to the practice squad the next day. He was elevated to the active roster on December 28 for the team's week 16 game against the New England Patriots, and reverted to the practice squad after the game. On January 26, 2021, Webb signed a reserves/futures contract with the Bills.


title: Davis Webb

text: On August 31, 2021, Webb was waived by the Bills and resigned to the practice squad the next day. On November 14, 2021, he made his NFL debut against the New York Jets during garbage time. His contract expired when the team's season ended on January 23, 2022.


title: Davis Webb

text: On February 7, 2022, the New York Giants signed Webb to a reserve/futures contract. He was waived on August 30, 2022 and signed to the practice squad the next day. On October 8, 2022, Webb was elevated from the practice squad for week 5 game against the Green Bay Packers.


title: Gas exchange

text: Gas exchange is the physical process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface. For example, this surface might be the air/water interface of a water body, the surface of a gas bubble in a liquid, a gas-permeable membrane, or a biological membrane that forms the boundary between an organism and its extracellular environment.


title: Gas exchange

text: Gases are constantly consumed and produced by cellular and metabolic reactions in most living things, so an efficient system for gas exchange between, ultimately, the interior of the cell(s) and the external environment is required. Small, particularly unicellular organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, have a high surface-area to volume ratio. In these creatures the gas exchange membrane is typically the cell membrane. Some small multicellular organisms, such as flatworms, are also able to perform sufficient gas exchange across the skin or cuticle that surrounds their bodies. However, in most larger organisms, which have a small surface-area to volume ratios, specialised structures with convoluted surfaces such as gills, pulmonary alveoli and spongy mesophyll provide the large area needed for effective gas exchange. These convoluted surfaces may sometimes be internalised into the body of the organism. This is the case with the alveoli, which form the inner surface of the mammalian lung, the spongy mesophyll, which is found inside the leaves of some kinds of plant, or the gills of those molluscs that have them, which are found in the mantle cavity.


title: Gas exchange

text: In aerobic organisms, gas exchange is particularly important for respiration, which involves the uptake of oxygen () and release of carbon dioxide (). Conversely, in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms such as most land plants, uptake of carbon dioxide and release of both oxygen and water vapour are the main gas-exchange processes occurring during the day. Other gas-exchange processes are important in less familiar organisms: "e.g." carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen are exchanged across the cell membrane of methanogenic archaea. In nitrogen fixation by diazotrophic bacteria, and denitrification by heterotrophic bacteria (such as "Paracoccus denitrificans" and various pseudomonads), nitrogen gas is exchanged with the environment, being taken up by the former and released into it by the latter, while giant tube worms rely on bacteria to oxidize hydrogen sulfide extracted from their deep sea environment, using dissolved oxygen in the water as an electron acceptor.


title: Gas exchange

text: Diffusion only takes place with a concentration gradient. Gases will flow from a high concentration to a low concentration.


title: Gas exchange

text: A high oxygen concentration in the alveoli and low oxygen concentration in the capillaries causes oxygen to move into the capillaries.


title: Gas exchange

text: A high carbon dioxide concentration in the capillaries and low carbon dioxide concentration in the alveoli causes carbon dioxide to move into the alveoli.


title: Gas exchange

text: The exchange of gases occurs as a result of diffusion down a concentration gradient. Gas molecules move from a region in which they are at high concentration to one in which they are at low concentration. Diffusion is a passive process, meaning that no energy is required to power the transport, and it follows Fick's Law:


title: Gas exchange

text: In relation to a typical biological system, where two compartments ('inside' and 'outside'), are separated by a membrane barrier, and where a gas is allowed to spontaneously diffuse down its concentration gradient:


title: Gas exchange

text: Gases must first dissolve in a liquid in order to diffuse across a membrane, so all biological gas exchange systems require a moist environment. In general, the higher the concentration gradient across the gas-exchanging surface, the faster the rate of diffusion across it. Conversely, the thinner the gas-exchanging surface (for the same concentration difference), the faster the gases will diffuse across it.


title: Gas exchange

text: In the equation above, "J" is the flux expressed per unit area, so increasing the area will make no difference to its value. However, an increase in the available surface area, will increase the "amount" of gas that can diffuse in a given time. This is because the amount of gas diffusing per unit time (d"q"/d"t") is the product of "J" and the area of the gas-exchanging surface, "A":


title: Gas exchange

text: Single-celled organisms such as bacteria and amoebae do not have specialised gas exchange surfaces, because they can take advantage of the high surface area they have relative to their volume. The amount of gas an organism produces (or requires) in a given time will be in rough proportion to the volume of its cytoplasm. The volume of a unicellular organism is very small, therefore it produces (and requires) a relatively small amount of gas in a given time. In comparison to this small volume, the surface area of its cell membrane is very large, and adequate for its gas-exchange needs without further modification. However, as an organism increases in size, its surface area and volume do not scale in the same way. Consider an imaginary organism that is a cube of side-length, "L". Its volume increases with the cube ("L") of its length, but its external surface area increases only with the square ("L") of its length. This means the external surface rapidly becomes inadequate for the rapidly increasing gas-exchange needs of a larger volume of cytoplasm. Additionally, the thickness of the surface that gases must cross (d"x" in Fick's Law) can also be larger in larger organisms: in the case of a single-celled organism, a typical cell membrane is only 10 nm thick; but in larger organisms such as roundworms (Nematoda) the equivalent exchange surface - the cuticle - is substantially thicker at 0.5 μm.


title: Gas exchange

text: In multicellular organisms therefore, specialised respiratory organs such as gills or lungs are often used to provide the additional surface area for the required rate of gas exchange with the external environment. However the distances between the gas exchanger and the deeper tissues are often too great for diffusion to meet gaseous requirements of these tissues. The gas exchangers are therefore frequently coupled to gas-distributing circulatory systems, which transport the gases evenly to all the body tissues regardless of their distance from the gas exchanger.


title: Gas exchange

text: Some multicellular organisms such as flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are relatively large but very thin, allowing their outer body surface to act as a gas exchange surface without the need for a specialised gas exchange organ. Flatworms therefore lack gills or lungs, and also lack a circulatory system. Other multicellular organisms such as sponges (Porifera) have an inherently high surface area, because they are very porous and/or branched. Sponges do not require a circulatory system or specialised gas exchange organs, because their feeding strategy involves one-way pumping of water through their porous bodies using flagellated collar cells. Each cell of the sponge's body is therefore exposed to a constant flow of fresh oxygenated water. They can therefore rely on diffusion across their cell membranes to carry out the gas exchange needed for respiration.


title: Gas exchange

text: In organisms that have circulatory systems associated with their specialized gas-exchange surfaces, a great variety of systems are used for the interaction between the two.


title: Gas exchange

text: In a countercurrent flow system, air (or, more usually, the water containing dissolved air) is drawn in the "opposite" direction to the flow of blood in the gas exchanger. A countercurrent system such as this maintains a steep concentration gradient along the length of the gas-exchange surface (see lower diagram in Fig. 2). This is the situation seen in the gills of fish and many other aquatic creatures. The gas-containing environmental water is drawn unidirectionally across the gas-exchange surface, with the blood-flow in the gill capillaries beneath flowing in the opposite direction. Although this theoretically allows almost complete transfer of a respiratory gas from one side of the exchanger to the other, in fish less than 80% of the oxygen in the water flowing over the gills is generally transferred to the blood.


title: Gas exchange

text: Alternative arrangements are cross current systems found in birds. and dead-end air-filled sac systems found in the lungs of mammals. In a cocurrent flow system, the blood and gas (or the fluid containing the gas) move in the same direction through the gas exchanger. This means the magnitude of the gradient is variable along the length of the gas-exchange surface, and the exchange will eventually stop when an equilibrium has been reached (see upper diagram in Fig. 2).


title: Gas exchange

text: The gas exchanger in mammals is internalized to form lungs, as it is in most of the larger land animals. Gas exchange occurs in microscopic dead-end air-filled sacs called alveoli, where a very thin membrane (called the blood-air barrier) separates the blood in the alveolar capillaries (in the walls of the alveoli) from the alveolar air in the sacs.


title: Gas exchange

text: The membrane across which gas exchange takes place in the alveoli (i.e. the blood-air barrier) is extremely thin (in humans, on average, 2.2 μm thick). It consists of the alveolar epithelial cells, their basement membranes and the endothelial cells of the pulmonary capillaries (Fig. 4). The large surface area of the membrane comes from the folding of the membrane into about 300 million alveoli, with diameters of approximately 75-300 μm each. This provides an extremely large surface area (approximately 145 m) across which gas exchange can occur.


title: Gas exchange

text: Air is brought to the alveoli in small doses (called the tidal volume), by breathing in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) through the respiratory airways, a set of relatively narrow and moderately long tubes which start at the nose or mouth and end in the alveoli of the lungs in the chest. Air moves in and out through the same set of tubes, in which the flow is in one direction during inhalation, and in the opposite direction during exhalation.


title: Gas exchange

text: During each inhalation, at rest, approximately 500 ml of fresh air flows in through the nose. It is warmed and moistened as it flows through the nose and pharynx. By the time it reaches the trachea the inhaled air's temperature is 37 °C and it is saturated with water vapor. On arrival in the alveoli it is diluted and thoroughly mixed with the approximately 2.5–3.0 liters of air that remained in the alveoli after the last exhalation. This relatively large volume of air that is semi-permanently present in the alveoli throughout the breathing cycle is known as the functional residual capacity (FRC).


title: Gas exchange

text: At the beginning of inhalation the airways are filled with unchanged alveolar air, left over from the last exhalation. This is the dead space volume, which is usually about 150 ml. It is the first air to re-enter the alveoli during inhalation. Only after the dead space air has returned to the alveoli does the remainder of the tidal volume (500 ml - 150 ml = 350 ml) enter the alveoli. The entry of such a small volume of fresh air with each inhalation, ensures that the composition of the FRC hardly changes during the breathing cycle (Fig. 5). The alveolar partial pressure of oxygen remains very close to 13–14 kPa (100 mmHg), and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide varies minimally around 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg) throughout the breathing cycle (of inhalation and exhalation). The corresponding partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ambient (dry) air at sea level are 21 kPa (160 mmHg) and 0.04 kPa (0.3 mmHg) respectively.


title: Gas exchange

text: This alveolar air, which constitutes the FRC, completely surrounds the blood in the alveolar capillaries (Fig. 6). Gas exchange in mammals occurs between this alveolar air (which differs significantly from fresh air) and the blood in the alveolar capillaries. The gases on either side of the gas exchange membrane equilibrate by simple diffusion. This ensures that the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood leaving the alveolar capillaries, and ultimately circulates throughout the body, are the same as those in the FRC.


title: Gas exchange

text: The marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead-end sacs connected to the outside air by long, narrow, tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches and sub-branches down to the bronchioles). This anatomy, and the fact that the lungs are not emptied and re-inflated with each breath, provides mammals with a "portable atmosphere", whose composition differs significantly from the present-day ambient air.


title: Gas exchange

text: The composition of the air in the FRC is carefully monitored, by measuring the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. If either gas pressure deviates from normal, reflexes are elicited that change the rate and depth of breathing in such a way that normality is restored within seconds or minutes.


title: Gas exchange

text: All the blood returning from the body tissues to the right side of the heart flows through the alveolar capillaries before being pumped around the body again. On its passage through the lungs the blood comes into close contact with the alveolar air, separated from it by a very thin diffusion membrane which is only, on average, about 2 μm thick. The gas pressures in the blood will therefore rapidly equilibrate with those in the alveoli, ensuring that the arterial blood that circulates to all the tissues throughout the body has an oxygen tension of 13−14 kPa (100 mmHg), and a carbon dioxide tension of 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). These arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are homeostatically controlled. A rise in the arterial formula_3, and, to a lesser extent, a fall in the arterial formula_3, will reflexly cause deeper and faster breathing until the blood gas tensions return to normal. The converse happens when the carbon dioxide tension falls, or, again to a lesser extent, the oxygen tension rises: the rate and depth of breathing are reduced until blood gas normality is restored.


title: Gas exchange

text: Since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a formula_3 of, on average, 6 kPa (45 mmHg), while the pressure in the alveolar air is 13 kPa (100 mmHg), there will be a net diffusion of oxygen into the capillary blood, changing the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air slightly. Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a formula_3 of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli. The changes brought about by these net flows of individual gases into and out of the functional residual capacity necessitate the replacement of about 15% of the alveolar air with ambient air every 5 seconds or so. This is very tightly controlled by the continuous monitoring of the arterial blood gas tensions (which accurately reflect partial pressures of the respiratory gases in the alveolar air) by the aortic bodies, the carotid bodies, and the blood gas and pH sensor on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata in the brain. There are also oxygen and carbon dioxide sensors in the lungs, but they primarily determine the diameters of the bronchioles and pulmonary capillaries, and are therefore responsible for directing the flow of air and blood to different parts of the lungs.


title: Gas exchange

text: It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar formula_3 has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide "waste". In fact the total concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood is about 26 mM (or 58 ml per 100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml per 100 ml blood). This large concentration of carbon dioxide plays a pivotal role in the determination and maintenance of the pH of the extracellular fluids. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body's extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats


title: Gas exchange

text: If these homeostats are compromised, then a respiratory acidosis, or a respiratory alkalosis will occur. In the long run these can be compensated by renal adjustments to the H and HCO concentrations in the plasma; but since this takes time, the hyperventilation syndrome can, for instance, occur when agitation or anxiety cause a person to breathe fast and deeply thus blowing off too much CO from the blood into the outside air, precipitating a set of distressing symptoms which result from an excessively high pH of the extracellular fluids.


title: Gas exchange

text: Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin. The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron-containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O molecule each the blood is said to be "saturated" with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase the oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as HCO ions in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO into HCO (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme inside the red blood cells. The reaction can go in either direction depending on the prevailing partial pressure of carbon dioxide. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO, and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with the alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml/100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml/100 ml blood).


title: Gas exchange

text: The dissolved oxygen content in fresh water is approximately 8–10 milliliters per liter compared to that of air which is 210 milliliters per liter. Water is 800 times more dense than air and 100 times more viscous. Therefore, oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. The use of sac-like lungs to remove oxygen from water would therefore not be efficient enough to sustain life. Rather than using lungs, gaseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularized gills. Gills are specialised organs containing filaments, which further divide into lamellae. The lamellae contain capillaries that provide a large surface area and short diffusion distances, as their walls are extremely thin. Gill rakers are found within the exchange system in order to filter out food, and keep the gills clean.


title: Gas exchange

text: Gills use a countercurrent flow system that increases the efficiency of oxygen-uptake (and waste gas loss). Oxygenated water is drawn in through the mouth and passes over the gills in one direction while blood flows through the lamellae in the opposite direction. This countercurrent maintains steep concentration gradients along the entire length of each capillary (see the diagram in the "Interaction with circulatory systems" section above). Oxygen is able to continually diffuse down its gradient into the blood, and the carbon dioxide down its gradient into the water. The deoxygenated water will eventually pass out through the operculum (gill cover). Although countercurrent exchange systems theoretically allow an almost complete transfer of a respiratory gas from one side of the exchanger to the other, in fish less than 80% of the oxygen in the water flowing over the gills is generally transferred to the blood.


title: Gas exchange

text: Amphibians have three main organs involved in gas exchange: the lungs, the skin, and the gills, which can be used singly or in a variety of different combinations. The relative importance of these structures differs according to the age, the environment and species of the amphibian. The skin of amphibians and their larvae is highly vascularised, leading to relatively efficient gas exchange when the skin is moist. The larvae of amphibians, such as the pre-metamorphosis tadpole stage of frogs, also have external gills. The gills are absorbed into the body during metamorphosis, after which the lungs will then take over. The lungs are usually simpler than in the other land vertebrates, with few internal septa and larger alveoli; however, toads, which spend more time on land, have a larger alveolar surface with more developed lungs. To increase the rate of gas exchange by diffusion, amphibians maintain the concentration gradient across the respiratory surface using a process called buccal pumping. The lower floor of the mouth is moved in a "pumping" manner, which can be observed by the naked eye.


title: Gas exchange

text: All reptiles breathe using lungs. In squamates (the lizards and snakes) ventilation is driven by the axial musculature, but this musculature is also used during movement, so some squamates rely on buccal pumping to maintain gas exchange efficiency.


title: Gas exchange

text: Due to the rigidity of turtle and tortoise shells, significant expansion and contraction of the chest is difficult. Turtles and tortoises depend on muscle layers attached to their shells, which wrap around their lungs to fill and empty them. Some aquatic turtles can also pump water into a highly vascularised mouth or cloaca to achieve gas-exchange.


title: Gas exchange

text: Crocodiles have a structure similar to the mammalian diaphragm - the diaphragmaticus - but this muscle helps create a unidirectional flow of air through the lungs rather than a tidal flow: this is more similar to the air-flow seen in birds than that seen in mammals. During inhalation, the diaphragmaticus pulls the liver back, inflating the lungs into the space this creates. Air flows into the lungs from the bronchus during inhalation, but during exhalation, air flows out of the lungs into the bronchus by a different route: this one-way movement of gas is achieved by aerodynamic valves in the airways.


title: Gas exchange

text: Birds have lungs but no diaphragm. They rely mostly on air sacs for ventilation. These air sacs do not play a direct role in gas exchange, but help to move air unidirectionally across the gas exchange surfaces in the lungs. During inhalation, fresh air is taken from the trachea down into the posterior air sacs and into the parabronchi which lead from the posterior air sacs into the lung. The air that enters the lungs joins the air which is already in the lungs, and is drawn forward across the gas exchanger into anterior air sacs. During exhalation, the posterior air sacs force air into the same parabronchi of the lungs, flowing in the same direction as during inhalation, allowing continuous gas exchange irrespective of the breathing cycle. Air exiting the lungs during exhalation joins the air being expelled from the anterior air sacs (both consisting of "spent air" that has passed through the gas exchanger) entering the trachea to be exhaled (Fig. 10). Selective bronchoconstriction at the various bronchial branch points ensures that the air does not ebb and flow through the bronchi during inhalation and exhalation, as it does in mammals, but follows the paths described above.


title: Gas exchange

text: The unidirectional airflow through the parabronchi exchanges respiratory gases with a "crosscurrent" blood flow (Fig. 9). The partial pressure of O (formula_3) in the parabronchioles declines along their length as O diffuses into the blood. The capillaries leaving the exchanger near the entrance of airflow take up more O than capillaries leaving near the exit end of the parabronchi. When the contents of all capillaries mix, the final formula_3 of the mixed pulmonary venous blood is higher than that of the exhaled air, but lower than that of the inhaled air.


title: Gas exchange

text: Gas exchange in plants is dominated by the roles of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapor. is the only carbon source for autotrophic growth by photosynthesis, and when a plant is actively photosynthesising in the light, it will be taking up carbon dioxide, and losing water vapor and oxygen. At night, plants respire, and gas exchange partly reverses: water vapor is still lost (but to a smaller extent), but oxygen is now taken up and carbon dioxide released.


title: Gas exchange

text: Plant gas exchange occurs mostly through the leaves. Gas exchange between a leaf and the atmosphere occurs simultaneously through two pathways: 1) epidermal cells and cuticular waxes (usually referred as 'cuticle') which are always present at each leaf surface, and 2) stomata, which typically control the majority of the exchange. Gases enter into the photosynthetic tissue of the leaf through dissolution onto the moist surface of the palisade and spongy mesophyll cells. The spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed, allowing for an increased surface area, and consequently an increased rate of gas-exchange. Uptake of carbon dioxide necessarily results in some loss of water vapor, because both molecules enter and leave by the same stomata, so plants experience a gas exchange dilemma: gaining enough without losing too much water. Therefore, water loss from other parts of the leaf is minimised by the waxy cuticle on the leaf's epidermis. The size of a stoma is regulated by the opening and closing of its two guard cells: the turgidity of these cells determines the state of the stomatal opening, and this itself is regulated by water stress. Plants showing crassulacean acid metabolism are drought-tolerant xerophytes and perform almost all their gas-exchange at night, because it is only during the night that these plants open their stomata. By opening the stomata only at night, the water vapor loss associated with carbon dioxide uptake is minimised. However, this comes at the cost of slow growth: the plant has to store the carbon dioxide in the form of malic acid for use during the day, and it cannot store unlimited amounts.


title: Gas exchange

text: Gas exchange measurements are important tools in plant science: this typically involves sealing the plant (or part of a plant) in a chamber and measuring changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide and water vapour with an infrared gas analyzer. If the environmental conditions (humidity, concentration, light and temperature) are fully controlled, the measurements of uptake and water release reveal important information about the assimilation and transpiration rates. The intercellular concentration reveals important information about the photosynthetic condition of the plants. Simpler methods can be used in specific circumstances: hydrogencarbonate indicator can be used to monitor the consumption of in a solution containing a single plant leaf at different levels of light intensity, and oxygen generation by the pondweed "Elodea" can be measured by simply collecting the gas in a submerged test-tube containing a small piece of the plant.


title: Gas exchange

text: The mechanism of gas exchange in invertebrates depends their size, feeding strategy, and habitat (aquatic or terrestrial).


title: Gas exchange

text: The sponges (Porifera) are sessile creatures, meaning they are unable to move on their own and normally remain attached to their substrate. They obtain nutrients through the flow of water across their cells, and they exchange gases by simple diffusion across their cell membranes. Pores called ostia draw water into the sponge and the water is subsequently circulated through the sponge by cells called choanocytes which have hair-like structures that move the water through the sponge.


title: Gas exchange

text: The cnidarians include corals, sea anemones, jellyfish and hydras. These animals are always found in aquatic environments, ranging from fresh water to salt water. They do not have any dedicated respiratory organs; instead, every cell in their body can absorb oxygen from the surrounding water, and release waste gases to it. One key disadvantage of this feature is that cnidarians can die in environments where water is stagnant, as they deplete the water of its oxygen supply. Corals often form symbiosis with other organisms, particularly photosynthetic dinoflagellates. In this symbiosis, the coral provides shelter and the other organism provides nutrients to the coral, including oxygen.


title: Gas exchange

text: The roundworms (Nematoda), flatworms (Platyhelminthes), and many other small invertebrate animals living in aquatic or otherwise wet habitats do not have a dedicated gas-exchange surface or circulatory system. They instead rely on diffusion of and directly across their cuticle. The cuticle is the semi-permeable outermost layer of their bodies.


title: Gas exchange

text: Other aquatic invertebrates such as most molluscs (Mollusca) and larger crustaceans (Crustacea) such as lobsters, have gills analogous to those of fish, which operate in a similar way.


title: Gas exchange

text: Unlike the invertebrates groups mentioned so far, insects are usually terrestrial, and exchange gases across a moist surface in direct contact with the atmosphere, rather than in contact with surrounding water. The insect's exoskeleton is impermeable to gases, including water vapor, so they have a more specialised gas exchange system, requiring gases to be directly transported to the tissues via a complex network of tubes. This respiratory system is separated from their circulatory system. Gases enter and leave the body through openings called spiracles, located laterally along the thorax and abdomen. Similar to plants, insects are able to control the opening and closing of these spiracles, but instead of relying on turgor pressure, they rely on muscle contractions. These contractions result in an insect's abdomen being pumped in and out. The spiracles are connected to tubes called tracheae, which branch repeatedly and ramify into the insect's body. These branches terminate in specialised tracheole cells which provides a thin, moist surface for efficient gas exchange, directly with cells.


title: Gas exchange

text: The other main group of terrestrial arthropod, the arachnids (spiders, scorpion, mites, and their relatives) typically perform gas exchange with a book lung.


title: CBS Sports

text: CBS Sports is the sports division of the American television network CBS. Its headquarters are in the CBS Building on W 52nd Street in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, with programs produced out of Studio 43 at the CBS Broadcast Center on W 57th Street.


title: CBS Sports

text: CBS' premier sports properties include the National Football League (NFL), Southeastern Conference (SEC) football, NCAA Division I college basketball (including telecasts of the NCAA men's basketball tournament), PGA Tour golf, the Masters Tournament and the PGA Championship, and the UEFA Champions League.


title: CBS Sports

text: The online arm of CBS Sports is CBSSports.com. CBS purchased SportsLine.com in 2004, and today CBSSports.com is part of CBS Interactive. On February 26, 2018, following up on the success of their online news network CBSN, CBS Sports launched CBS Sports HQ, a 24/7, online only, linear sports news network. The network focuses entirely on sports news, results, highlights and analysis. (CBS Sports college sports and golf programming that it distributes over the air is generally made available for free via separate streams, as are a limited number of NFL national telecasts; the remainder requires a Paramount+ (formerly CBS All Access) subscription to be viewed online, with CBS Sports Network programming requiring a TV Everywhere subscription.)


title: CBS Sports

text: CBS Sports was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for Outstanding Achievement in Advanced Media Technology for Synchronous Enhancement of Original Television Content for Interactive Use for its program "March Madness on Demand."


title: CBS Sports

text: CBS Sports Network is a sports-oriented American digital cable and satellite channel that is operated by Paramount Global through CBS Sports. Launched as the National College Sports Network in 2002, then renamed as College Sports Television in 2003, CBS's then-parent company Viacom acquired the network in 2005 and later renamed it CBS College Sports Network in 2008. The network had always focused on college sports, but in 2011, CBS rebranded the network as CBS Sports Network as a move to reposition the network to include mainstream sports—including coverage of minor professional sports leagues such as the Arena Football League and Major League Lacrosse, although college sports are still aired frequently by the network.


title: CBS Sports

text: CBS Sports Radio is a sports radio network that launched on September 4, 2012, with hourly sports news updates. It began offering a full 24-hour schedule of sports talk programming on January 2, 2013. CBS Sports Radio although originally owned by CBS Radio is now owned directly by Paramount Global and operated by Audacy, with Westwood One handling distribution and marketing of the network. Sports radio stations that are owned by Entercom and Cumulus Media carry part of the full schedule of programming, while eight Entercom-owned stations carry network programming throughout the day. In addition to carriage on terrestrial stations, CBS Sports Radio also streams its programming on the internet.


title: CBS Sports

text: On February 26, 2018, CBS Sports launched CBS Sports HQ, a 24-hour streaming sports news channel modeled after CBS News's streaming news channel.


title: CBS Sports

text: On August 31, 2013, CBS Sports rolled out its previous graphics and animation package that was first used in the network's coverage of Super Bowl XLVII. Additionally, in compliance with the Active Format Description #10 code, CBS Sports switched to a letterbox presentation used for all sports programming, including the "SEC on CBS" and the "NFL on CBS" broadcasts.


title: CBS Sports

text: On November 30, 2015, CBS Sports unveiled a new rectangular logo, which premiered on-air during its coverage of Super Bowl 50, and was intended to provide consistency between the division's platforms. It replaced an existing logo that had dated back to 1981. In October 2020, CBS announced that all of its major divisions would adopt a unified branding scheme built around the components of the CBS eye logo, a new sonic branding, and TT Norms Pro as a corporate typeface. The implementation of the branding by CBS Sports launched during the lead-up to Super Bowl LV, which introduced a new on-air graphics package that conforms to the corporate design language.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: "Say It Ain't So" is a song by the American rock band Weezer. It was released as the third and final single from the band's self-titled 1994 debut album.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: Written by frontman Rivers Cuomo, the song came to be after he had all the music finished and one line, "Say it ain't so". Cuomo made a connection to an incident in high school where he came home and saw a bottle of beer in the fridge. He believed his mother and father's marriage ended because his father was an alcoholic, and this made him fear the marriage between his mother and step-father would end this way as well.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: "Say It Ain't So" is widely considered one of the band's best songs. In 2015, "Loudwire" ranked the song number three on their list of the 10 greatest Weezer songs, and in 2021, "Kerrang" ranked the song number two on their list of the 20 greatest Weezer songs. In 2008, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Say It Ain't So" #72 on "The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time." "Pitchfork" included the song at number 10 on its "Top 200 Tracks of the 1990s".


title: Say It Ain't So

text: "Say It Ain't So" is a playable track in the video games "Rock Band" and "Rocksmith 2014" in addition to appearing on an episode of "Hindsight".


title: Say It Ain't So

text: "Say It Ain't So" is an alternative rock and emo song that lasts a duration of 4 minutes, 18 seconds. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Music, it is written in the time signature of common time, with a moderate rock tempo of 76 beats per minute. "Say It Ain't So" is composed in the key of C minor (Cm), while Rivers Cuomo's vocal range spans two octaves, from the low-note of B to the high-note of B. The song has a basic sequence of Cm–G–A–E in the verses and interludes, changes to C–G–A–E at the chorus and follows B–B/A–E–G during the bridge as its chord progression.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: Two mixes of the song exist. The original album pressings had a mix with slightly different sounding drums, bass and no guitar feedback. However, when the band released the single, the mix that kept the guitar feedback in the song was used. The band liked this mix so much that the members asked for it to replace the version on the album, after the album had sold 3 million copies. The album now features the version with the feedback. The deluxe version features both mixes.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: The music video for "Say It Ain't So", directed by Sophie Muller, met with less success than the previous two Weezer videos directed by Spike Jonze, but the song still successfully climbed to the top 10 of the Modern Rock Tracks chart.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: As noted in the Weezer DVD collection "" and the slip cover of the re-released special edition of the group's debut album, the band filmed the music video at the house where the band used to rehearse and record. The video also features a cameo by the band's webmaster/band photographer/archivist and close friend for many years, Karl Koch.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: A small poster of Mercyful Fate/King Diamond frontman King Diamond is visible several times throughout the video, most clearly during the final chorus, just as Rivers Cuomo turns his mic around.


title: Say It Ain't So

text: The band Further Seems Forever covered the song on the Weezer tribute album "". An episode of "One Tree Hill" featured a cover by MoZella, Wakey!Wakey!, and Juliana Hatfield. Deftones, The Sleeping, Young Guns, Finch, Real Estate and Dashboard Confessional have also covered the song live. Asher Roth sampled the song for his debut rap single "I Love College". After the song leaked onto the internet, Rivers Cuomo reportedly refused to clear sample, which prompted Roth to debut a remixed version of his song as his official debut single. Canadian Hip hop artist K-OS has also covered "Say It Ain't So" for his live EP "Much Music Presents: k-os Live", featuring vocals from Benjamin Kowalewicz of Billy Talent in 2011. Foster The People also covered the song in August 2011, after Weezer did a version of "Pumped Up Kicks". Chiptune artist Inverse Phase parodied the song on a Commodore 64, titling it "Say It Ain't Sixty-FO" Calpurnia covered the song for Spotify's "Under Cover" podcast in 2018


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Battlefield Earth: A Saga of the Year 3000 is a 1982 science fiction novel written by L. Ron Hubbard, founder of Scientology. He also composed a soundtrack to the book called "Space Jazz".


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: In the year 3000, Earth has been ruled by an alien race, the Psychlos, for a millennium. The Psychlos discovered a deep space probe (suggested to be Voyager 1) with directions and pictures mounted on it and the precious material, gold, that led them straight to Earth.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: After one thousand years, humanity is an endangered species numbering fewer than 35,000 and reduced to a few tribes in isolated parts of the world while the Psychlos strip the planet of its mineral wealth. Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, a young man in one such tribe, lives in the shadow of the Rocky Mountains. Depressed by the recent death of his father and both the lethargy and sickness of most of the surviving adults in his tribe, later determined to be caused by radiation-leakage from decaying nuclear land-mines, he leaves his village to explore the lowlands and to disprove the superstitions long held by his people of monsters in those areas. He is soon captured in the ruins of Denver by Terl, the Psychlo chief of planetary security.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Psychlos stand up to tall and weigh up to . They originate from Psychlo, a planet with an atmosphere radically different from Earth, located in another universe with a different set of elements. Their "breathe-gas" explodes on contact with even trace amounts of radioactive material, such as uranium. The Psychlos have been the dominant species across multiple universes for at least 100,000 years. It becomes apparent in the later chapters that the Psychlos were originally non-violent miners but were subjugated by a ruling class called "Catrists" to become malicious, sadistic sociopaths.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Terl has been assigned to Earth, and his term has been arbitrarily extended by Numph, the planetary head of mining operations. Fearful at the thought of spending several more years on Earth, Terl decides to make himself a multi-millionaire to escape, by secretly mining a lode of gold in the Rocky Mountains that his planetary scanner drones have recently found. It is surrounded by uranium deposits that make Psychlo mining impossible, so Terl decides to capture a Man-Animal to mine the gold for him.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Terl forces Jonnie to submit to a learning machine programmed by a servile race that was exterminated centuries earlier for going on strike. It quickly teaches him numerous subjects, including the Psychlo language, by implanting the information directly into Jonnie's brain. He befriends a Psychlo midget named Ker, who is only tall but still possesses the impressive strength of a Psychlo, and is markedly less psychotic than the others.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Looking for leverage against Jonnie, Terl captures his childhood-love Chrissie and her sister, Pattie, who went searching for Jonnie a year after he left their clan, and holds them hostage to ensure his continued cooperation. Thereafter, Jonnie is free to move around the mining area. Terl and Jonnie travel to Scotland where Jonnie recruits eighty-three Scottish people to help with the mining, including several deliberately selected body-doubles for Jonnie, older women to perform the cooking and clothes mending, a doctor, a teacher, and a historian. Jonnie tells the Scots about the evil deeds of Terl, to include how he has imprisoned Jonnie's love and her little sister. Led by Robert the Fox, the Scots agree to help him fight against the Psychlo rule on Earth and rescue Chrissie and Pattie. Terl does not understand English, and is instead convinced that the Scots are motivated by a promise of pay on project completion.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: While Jonnie and his Scottish allies mine the gold deposit, they also secretly explore the ruins of humanity to look for uranium that can be weaponized for use against their Psychlo oppressors. This subterfuge is aided by the aforementioned body-doubles, making it appear to Terl's surveillance that the mining operation is the sole priority of the human contingent. Meanwhile, Terl finally gains leverage on Numph, discovering that he has been stealing company funds. Terl blackmails him, effectively negating Numph's power over him, allowing Terl to continue with his mining plans.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Terl has been busy obfuscating the purpose of the gold-mining operation and implementing his plan to ship the human-mined gold back to the Psychlo home-planet. Terl's plan involves replacing lead coffin-lids with lead-plated facsimiles made from the gold mined by the Scots, and shipping these coffins with dead Psychlos in them, home. When he finally returned to Psychlo, he could then dig up the coffins and sell the lids to make his fortune. All dead Psychlos are to be returned to home planet for burial, but recent safety measures have reduced accidents. Terl thus has to manufacture accidents to kill Psychlos, and decides to assassinate Numph as well, to get the bodies needed.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: During the semi-annual teleportation of personnel, goods, and coffins to Psychlo, Jonnie and his allies co-opt Terl's plan by packing the coffins with "dirty nukes" and "planet busters" they have found, and replacing the golden coffin-lids with the original lead lids. After the last teleportation, the humans use the Psychlos' own weapons against them and gain control of the planet. With humans in control of Earth, Jonnie works to discover the secret of Psychlo mathematics and teleportation. This is a difficult task, compounded by the fact that Psychlo math is based on the number eleven, and Psychlo equations appear to make no sense.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Before the teleportation, Jonnie is forced to oppose a longtime rival from his own clan, Brown Limper Staffor, who is seeking to wrest control of Earth for himself. Unwittingly used by Terl to advance his own plans, Brown Limper nearly succeeds after gaining assistance from a group of cannibalistic mercenaries from southern Africa called the Brigantes, and their leader, General Snith. But Brown Limper is killed by Terl just before the Psychlo's teleportation, and the Brigantes are defeated.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: It is discovered that all Psychlos have a deep brain-stimulation device implanted in their brains to make them controllable. Meant to make work pleasant for them, the device promotes extreme sadism in the males, causing them to attack any non-Psychlo who shows interest in Psychlo mathematics and teleportation. If the Psychlos are unsuccessful in killing their intended victims, the device compels them to commit suicide. The removal of this device frees the handful of remaining Psychlos on Earth from its effects. Curiously, Ker did not have any such device implanted in his brain.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: With the Earth being threatened by other alien races looking for restitution because they had suffered under the harsh rule of the Psychlos, Jonnie opposes a race of intergalactic bankers seeking to repossess the Earth for unpaid debts. The security and independence of humanity once again threatened, Jonnie redoubles his efforts to figure out Psychlo teleportation.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: It is eventually discovered that the dirty nukes sent with the intent of destroying the capital city on Psychlo instead started a chain reaction which reached into the planet's core due to over-mining, causing the planet to explode and transform into a star. Jonnie also discovers that other Psychlo facilities scattered about the multiple universes were destroyed by their own reliance on teleportation as they performed their scheduled teleportation shipments, and instead, brought back radioactive solar matter. This holocaust killed every single Psychlo in the multiple universes except for the handful remaining on Earth. Once it is revealed that all female Psychlos who leave the homeworld are sterilized to prevent off-world births, Johnny realizes that the Psychlos on Earth will not be able to reproduce, and eventually, the Psychlo race will become extinct.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Jonnie then works out a way to prevent the repossession of Earth via contracts Terl had signed with Brown Limper Staffor. The Psychlo had thought that it would be amusing to make Staffor believe that he was the legal owner of Earth as well as all Psychlo possessions across the multiple universes, by signing a contract that stated as much before his final teleportation to Planet Psychlo. Terl had no way of knowing that he was about to die, along with almost his entire race, with the destruction of his homeworld. Once planet Psychlo was destroyed, Terl was the highest ranking member of the Intergalactic Mining Company left alive, and his signature on Staffor's contract became legal. That meant that Jonnie, as the recognized leader of Earth with the death of Brown Limper, now owned what was left of the entire Psychlo empire. Using these contracts, the Earth Planetary Bank pays off all debts to the intergalactic bankers.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: However, Jonnie is still perplexed by Psychlo mathematics. With the help of an aged Psychlo engineer, he learns about Psychlos using a cipher system and dummy equations to make their mathematics unsolvable. At the same time, he also discovers how the Psychlos protected their teleportation technology in their local equipment, and records the circuits for future use. Using the existing teleportation console, Jonnie is able to bring back breathe-gas from a planet in the Psychlo star system that was never officially recorded. With the Psychlo math and the circuits, Earth begins to manufacture teleportation equipment, sold to numerous planetary systems via the intergalactic bankers. At the same time, Jonnie uses the Earth's newly acquired wealth to buy impenetrable force fields and automated orbiting defense platforms to protect the Earth from future threats.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: With the Earth secure and the human population growing and learning about its true history, Jonnie gives ownership of the Earth back to its people. A few years later, Jonnie and Chrissie are married and they have a son and a daughter. With human civilization being rebuilt and thriving, Jonnie and Chrissie take their children and leave for an isolated part of the world to train them in the old ways of survival, and to live out the rest of their lives in peace. But, after a year, their friends find them and implore them to return to civilization, which Jonnie reluctantly agrees to.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Years later, frustrated with un-ending fame and life away from nature, a middle-aged Jonnie takes some supplies and quietly slips away to the Rocky Mountains, never to be seen again. He becomes a figure of legend.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Initially titled "Man, the Endangered Species", "Battlefield Earth" was first published in 1982 by St. Martin's Press, though all subsequent reprintings have been by Church of Scientology publishing companies Bridge Publications and Galaxy Press. Written in the style of the pulp fiction era (during which Hubbard began his writing career), the novel is a massive work (over 750 pages in hardcover, 1000+ in paperback). It was Hubbard's first science fiction novel since his pulp magazine days of the 1940s, and it was promoted as Hubbard's return to science fiction after a long hiatus.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: The cover artwork of the original hardcover edition featured an image of hero Jonnie Goodboy Tyler which did not coincide with the physical description given in the novel. The subsequent paperback release corrected the cover art, most notably by giving Tyler a beard.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: The book was reissued in 2000 with a new cover, in connection with the release of the film adaptation. The book has also been released in audiobook and e-book versions.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Hubbard is also credited with writing the accompanying music, which was released as "Space Jazz"; Chick Corea and Stanley Clarke are some of the Scientology notables playing on the album, of which "The Vinyl Factory" Amar reviewer Ediriwira said, "if this isn't one of jazz's worst, it's certainly its craziest".


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: "Battlefield Earth" received polarized mixed reviews, with some critics, and readers, considering the book Hubbard's most enjoyable sci-fi work and a classic of the genre, while others consider it to be genuinely terrible. The book had a negative reception from some literary critics: "The Economist", for instance, called "Battlefield Earth" "an unsubtle saga, atrociously written, windy and out of control" while in the science fiction magazine "Analog", Thomas Easton criticized it as "a wish-fulfillment fantasy wholly populated by the most one-dimensional of cardboard characters." Other critics pointed to the book's slipshod writing, such as "the ineffably klutzy destruction of the planet of the evil Psychlos by atomic bombs, which turns it into a 'radioactive sun. "Punch" sarcastically commended Hubbard's "excellent understanding of evil impulses, particularly deviousness, which helps with the plot, and [he] is well-enough aware of his weaknesses not to dwell upon frailties like love, generosity, compassion". David Langford, after criticizing the plot, style and scientific implausibilities, concluded: "From this, "Battlefield" may sound almost worth looking at for its sheer laughable badness. No. It's dreadful and tedious beyond endurance".


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Neil Gaiman reviewed "Battlefield Earth" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "over 1000 pages of thrills, spills, vicious aliens, noble humans. Is mankind an endangered species? Will handsome and heroic Jonny Goodboy Tyler win Earth back from the nine-foot-high Psychlos? A tribute to the days of Pulp, I found it un-put-downable."


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Other critics praised the novel, however. "The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction" described the book as a "rather good, fast-paced, often fascinating SF adventure yarn". In a 2007 Fox News interview, former U.S. presidential candidate and former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney pointed to the book as "a very fun science fiction book."


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Shortly after its release, "Battlefield Earth" rose to the top of "The New York Times" Best Seller list and also those of the "Los Angeles Times", "Time", United Press International, Associated Press, B. Dalton and Waldenbooks. According to Hubbard's literary agents, Author Services Inc., by June 1983 the book had sold 150,000 copies and earned $1.5 million.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Not long afterwards, stories emerged of a reported Church of Scientology book-buying campaign mounted to ensure that the book would appear on the bestseller lists. According to newspaper reports, Church representatives promised the publishers that a particular number of copies would be bought by Church subsidiaries (the author and journalist Russell Miller cites a figure of 50,000 hardback copies.).


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Local churches of Scientology and individual Scientologists were reportedly also urged to buy copies of the book. Bookstore chains including Waldenbooks cited examples of Scientologists repeatedly coming into stores and buying armfuls of the book at a time. Several bookstores reported that shipments of the book arrived with the store's own price tags already affixed to them, even before they were unpacked from the shipping boxes, suggesting that copies were being recycled. According to Miller, Scientologists throughout the United States were instructed to go out and buy at least two or three copies each. Gerry Armstrong, who worked in the Church's archives at the time, states that "One of the wealthy Scientologists, by the name of Ellie Bolger, apparently paid a huge amount of money to the organization, which they then disbursed to staff members to go down to B. Dalton or whatever and buy the book". "The New York Times" reported that "two Scientology organizations bought a total of 30,000 copies of "Battlefield Earth" at discount directly from the publisher, apparently to sell or to give to current or prospective Scientology members". Booksellers told the newspaper that they had seen unusual purchasing patterns, including individuals buying as many as 800 copies of the book at a time. It was suggested that "church members could be trying to buy themselves a bestseller in order to obtain a large paperback or movie sale, both of which are often contingent on a book's first becoming a bestseller in hard cover." Two months after the reports emerged, Author Services Inc. announced that it had sold the film rights for "Battlefield Earth" to a Los Angeles production company, though it took another 16 years for the film to be made.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Former Scientologist Bent Corydon has described how pressure was put on the managers of Scientology "missions" – effectively franchises – to promote and purchase "Battlefield Earth". At a conference held in San Francisco on October 17, 1982, Scientologist "mission holders" were told by Wendall Reynolds, the Church's international finance dictator, to do their bit to make the book a success:


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: According to Corydon, "[W]e were ordered to sell 1,000 copies of Hubbard's recently released science-fiction book "Battlefield Earth" before Thursday or I would be kicked out as mission holder". The idea behind the publicity drive was said to be that it "would, in turn, get the Dianetics book selling"; "Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health" did in fact experience a marked increase in sales subsequently, reentering "The New York Times" Best Seller list four times in 1986. "Battlefield Earth", for its part, sold over 125,000 copies in its first print run and by March 1985 had sold 800,000 paperback copies.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Hubbard's role as the founder of Scientology has led to a long-running controversy about whether "Battlefield Earth" contains Scientology themes, and about the role that the Church of Scientology has played in publishing and promoting the book.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: Hubbard himself denied that the book was a vehicle for Scientology. He described his motives for writing as being that "it keeps my hand in, amuses people and whiles away the otherwise idle hour. It's better than playing video games!" He addresses the question directly in the book's introduction, where he says: "Some of my readers may wonder that I did not include my own serious subjects in this book. It was with no thought of dismissal of them. It was just that I put on my professional writer's hat. I also did not want to give anybody the idea I was doing a press relations job for my other serious works."


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: After Hubbard's book "" was published in 1950, the American Psychological Association passed a resolution stating that the book's claims were not supported by empirical evidence. Subsequently, Hubbard maintained an opposition to psychiatry, a viewpoint the novel reflects by portraying the "Psychlos" as being ruled by the "Catrists" ("Psychlo-Catrists" sounding similar to psychiatrists), described as a group of evil charlatans. Those Psychlos who disagree with or oppose the Catrists are subjected to various forms of persecution; particularly, the Catrists use surgical mind control or electroshock in order to maintain their power base. Hubbard frequently claimed in Scientology that psychiatrists used such tactics to maintain their influence and funding. Early in its history, the Psychlo species had no fixed name, instead being named after the Emperor of the day. The word "Psychlo" is revealed to have originally meant "brain" in its language, signifying that the Catrists feel (or in any case claim) that the entire population requires treatment as mental patients.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: One supporting character, a Psychlo mathematician named Soth, is described as having been shaped by the views of his mother. She was a member of a resistance group, referred to as a "church", which held religious meetings secretly. This "church", much like the Church of Scientology, opposes psychiatry.


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: In one passage of the book, a human doctor recalls a "cult" called psychology which existed before the Psychlo invasion, but is "forgotten now".


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: In December 1980, two months after he completed the book, Hubbard told fellow Scientologists that "I was a bit disgusted with the way the psychologists and brain-surgeons mess people up, so I wrote a fiction story based in part on the consequences that could occur if the shrinks continued to do it".


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: The subsequent film adaptation, released in 2000, was a commercial failure and was criticized as one of the "worst films ever made".


title: Battlefield Earth (novel)

text: From the book's release, Scientologist and science-fiction fan John Travolta aimed to bring Hubbard's book to the big screen in a series of two movies with himself playing Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, as well as producing. A first film was planned to be released in 1983, but due to rising costs, trouble in finding a studio that would fund the project, and Travolta's waning star power, the project was cancelled. It was finally produced by Franchise Pictures and released in 2000 as "Battlefield Earth". Directed by Roger Christian, it stars Travolta (who by now felt he was too old to play the hero) as Terl, Barry Pepper as Jonnie Goodboy Tyler, and Forest Whitaker as Ker.