title: Ronald Meyer

text: Throughout his career, Meyer built strong relationships with actors and filmmakers such as Jimmy Fallon, Dwayne Johnson, Jason Blum, Chris Meledandri, Angelina Jolie, Kevin Hart and Julia Roberts, and bringing them to Universal for both roles and overall production deals. His relationships with filmmakers such as Meledandri, Steven Spielberg, Peter Jackson, and Michael Bay, brought several large IPs to Universal Theme Parks. Meyer convinced Warner Bros. to license the Harry Potter franchise for Universal theme parks. The Wizarding World of Harry Potter has since become Universal theme park's biggest attraction.


title: Ronald Meyer

text: In August 2020, he stepped down from his role as Vice Chairman after he admitted to an affair with an unnamed woman and claimed he was being extorted. The woman was revealed to be Charlotte Kirk.


title: Ronald Meyer

text: On November 15, 2021, it was announced that Ron Meyer along with Sophie Jordan are CEO and co-CEO of Wild Bunch AG, a pan-European independent film distribution and production services company. Meyer also serves as an advisor to the Doha Film Institute (DFI) as Qatar continues to grow in the film business.


title: Ronald Meyer

text: Meyer has been recognized for his contributions to the American film and television industry. In 2000, he was awarded the Motion Picture Showmanship Award from the Publicists Guild of America. He received the Producers Guild of America Milestone Award in 2007. In 2018, National Museum of American History interviewed Meyer about his life and career as part of its "The American Scene" project, about the history of American entertainment.


title: Ronald Meyer

text: Meyer has been married twice. His first wife was Ellen Meyer; they had two children, movie production executive Sarah Meyer and jewelry designer Jennifer Meyer (who was previously married to actor Tobey Maguire). Meyer has five grandchildren. In 1993, he married model Kelly Chapman; they have a son and daughter. In May 2018, the couple announced that they were separating after 25 years of marriage. Meyer lives in Malibu, California.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsia (from the Greek Gorgon, a mythological beast, and 'aspect') is an extinct clade of sabre-toothed therapsids from the Middle to Upper Permian roughly 265 to 252 million years ago. They are characterised by a long and narrow skull, as well as elongated upper and sometimes lower canine teeth and incisors which were likely used as slashing and stabbing weapons. Postcanine teeth are generally reduced or absent. For hunting large prey, they possibly used a bite-and-retreat tactic, ambushing and taking a debilitating bite out of the target, and following it at a safe distance before its injuries exhausted it, whereupon the gorgonopsian would grapple the animal and deliver a killing bite. They would have had an exorbitant gape, possibly in excess of 90°, without having to unhinge the jaw.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: They markedly increased in size as time went on, growing from small skull lengths of in the Middle Permian to bear-like proportions of up to in the Upper Permian. The latest gorgonopsians, Rubidgeinae, were the most robust of the group and could produce especially powerful bites. Gorgonopsians are thought to have been completely terrestrial and could walk with a semi-erect gait, with a similar terrestrial locomotory range as modern crocodilians. They may have been more agile than their prey items, but were probably inertial homeotherms rather than endotherms unlike contemporary therocephalians and cynodonts, and thus were probably comparatively less active. Though gorgonopsians were able to maintain a rather high body temperature, it is unclear if they would have also had sweat glands or fur (and by extension whiskers and related structures). Their brains were reminiscent of modern reptilian brains, rather than those of living mammals. Most species may have been predominantly diurnal (active during the day) though some could have been crepuscular (active at dawn or dusk) or nocturnal (active at night). They are thought to have had binocular vision, a parietal eye (which detects sunlight and maintains circadian rhythm), a keen sense of smell, a functional vomeronasal organ ("Jacobson's organ"), and possibly a rudimentary eardrum.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The major therapsid groups had all evolved by 275 million years ago from a "pelycosaur" ancestor (a poorly defined group including all synapsids which are not therapsids). The therapsid takeover from pelycosaurs took place by the Middle Permian as the world progressively became drier. Gorgonopsians rose to become apex predators of their environments following the Capitanian mass extinction event which killed off the dinocephalians and some large therocephalians after the Middle Permian. Despite the existence of a single continent during the Permian, Pangaea, gorgonopsians have only been found in the Karoo Supergroup (primarily in South Africa, but also in Tanzania, Zambia, and Malawi), the Moradi Formation of Niger, western Russia, and in the Turpan Basin of Xinjiang, China, with probable remains known from the Kundaram Formation in the Pranhita–Godavari Basin of India. These places were semi-arid areas with highly seasonal rainfall. Gorgonopsian genera are all very similar in appearance, and consequently many species have been named based on flimsy and likely age-related differences since their discovery in the late 19th century, and the group has been subject to several taxonomic revisions.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: They became extinct during a phase of the Permian–Triassic extinction event taking place at the very end of the Permian, in which major volcanic activity (which would produce the Siberian Traps) and resultant massive spike in greenhouse gases caused rapid aridification due to temperature spike, acid rain, frequent wildfires, and potential breakdown of the ozone layer. The large predatory niches would be taken over by the archosaurs (namely crocodilians and dinosaurs) in the Mesozoic.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Earlier gorgonopsids in the Middle Permian were quite small, with skull lengths of , whereas some later genera attained massive, bear-like sizes with the largest being "Inostrancevia" up to in length and in body mass. Nonetheless, small gorgonopsians remained abundant until extinction (though small species may actually represent juvenile specimens of other taxa).


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Like other Permian therapsids, gorgonopsians had developed several mammalian characteristics. These might have included a parasagittal gait (the limbs were vertically oriented and moved parallel to the spine) as opposed to the sprawling gait of amphibians and earlier synapsids. This gait change in therapsids was possibly related to the reduction in tail size and phalangeal formula (the number of bones per digit, which for gorgonopsians was 2.3.4.5.3 like reptiles). Other developments included fibrous lamellar cortical bone and deeply-set teeth. Like reptiles, gorgonopsians lack a secondary palate separating the mouth from the nasal cavity, prohibiting chewing.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Anatomy varies incredibly little between gorgonopsians. Many species are distinguished by vague proportional differences, and consequently smaller species may actually represent juveniles of larger taxa. Notably, the vomer at the tip of the snout varies among species in terms of the degree of its expansion, as well as the positions, degree of splay, and shape of the 3 ridges. They typically feature a long and narrow skull. Juvenile "Rubidgea" appear to have had snouts wider than long. Unlike eutheriodonts, the occipital bone (at the back of the skull) is rectangular (wider than tall) and concave, as opposed to triangular.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The gorgonopsian brain, like other non-mammaliaform therapsids, lacks an expansion of the neocortex, has a relatively large hindbrain compared to the forebrain, a large epyphysial nerve (found in creatures with a parietal eye on the top of the head), an enlarged pituitary gland, and an overall elongated shape; all-in-all resembling a reptilian brain. The braincase was also rather reptilian, and is also comparatively smaller and not as thick as those of mammals. The flocculus, a lobe of the cerebellum, is proportionally large, and is related to the vestibulo–ocular reflex (which stabilises gaze while moving the head). Judging by the orientation of the semi-circular canals in the ear (which have to be oriented parallel to the ground), the head of the gorgonopsian specimen GPIT/RE/7124 would have tilted forward by about 41°, increasing the overlap between the visual fields of the two eyes and improving binocular vision – useful to a predator. Unlike either reptiles or mammals, the semi-circular canals are flat, probably because they were wedged between the opisthotic (an inner ear bone) and supraoccipital bones.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Like many mammals, gorgonopsians were heterodonts, with clearly defined incisors, canines, and postcanine teeth homologous with premolars and molars. They had five incisors in the upper jaw (for most, the first three were the same size as each other, and the last two were shorter) and four on the bottom.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: In the majority of gorgonopsians, the incisors were large, and the upper canines were elongated into sabres, much like those of later sabre-toothed cats. Some gorgonopsians had exceptionally long upper canines, such as "Inostrancevia", and some of them had a flange on the lower jaw to sheath the tip of the canine while the mouth was closed. Sabres are generally interpreted as having been used as stabbing or slashing weapons, which would have required an extremely wide gape. Both the upper and lower canines of "Rubidgea" were elongated, and the animal would have needed an even greater gape. The serration pattern of gorgonopsians was most similar to those of theropod dinosaurs than to other synapsids. The palate also features tuberosities and ridges which oftentimes have functional teeth, which may have been used to hold onto struggling prey, diverting these powerful forces away from the fragile canines. Similar ridges have been identified on the machairodont "Homotherium". The postcanine teeth were reduced in both size and number; many rubidgeines (the latest gorgonopsians) did not have postcanines in the lower jaw, and "Clelandina" lacked them entirely.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians were polyphyodonts, and teeth grew continuously throughout an individual's life. Like some therapsids, while there was one functional canine, another canine was growing to replace it when it inevitably broke off. The left and right sides of the jaws did not have to be synchronous, so, for example, the first canine on the left side could be functional while the first canine on the right side was still growing. Such a method might have been in play so as always to have a set of functional canines, as having a single or no canines would have severely impeded hunting, and growing such large teeth took a long time. On the other hand, because the functional canine is typically found in the foremost tooth socket (instead of equal occurrence in either socket), it is possible that canine replacement occurred a finite number of times, and the animal would eventually be left with a single, permanent set of functional canines in these sockets. In 1984, British palaeontologists Doris and Kenneth Kermack suggested that the canines grew to match the size of the skull, and continually broke off until the animal stopped growing, and that gorgonopsians featured an early version of finite tooth replacement exhibited in many mammals. The tooth replacement patterns of the other teeth are unclear. The postcanine teeth were replaced more slowly than the other teeth, likely due to their lack of functional significance.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The seven cervical vertebrae (in the neck) are all the same size as each other except for the last one, which is shorter and lower; there is one atlas and one axis. Like sabre-toothed cats, the neck is long with well developed muscles, which would have been especially useful when the canines were sunk into an animal. Like other early synapsids, gorgonopsians have a single occipital condyle, and the articulation (the joints) of the cervical vertebrae is overall reptilian, permitting side-to-side movement of the head but restricting up-and-down motion. The last cervical is shaped more like the dorsal vertebrae.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The dorsals are spool-shaped and all appear about the same as each other. The spinous processes jut out steeply from the centra, and feature sharp keels on the front and back sides. Unlike eutheriodonts, gorgonopsians do not have distinguished lumbar vertebrae. Nonetheless, the dorsals equating to that series are similar to the lumbars of sabre-toothed cats with steeply oriented zygopophases, useful in stabilising the lower back especially when pinning down struggling prey.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: There are three sacral vertebrae, and the series attached to the pelvis by the first vertebra. The pelvis is reptilian, with separated ilium, ischium, and pubis. The femur is slightly s-shaped, and is short but longer and slenderer than the humerus. For most, the tibia and fibula strongly curve into each other, and the tibia is more robust than the fibula. The joint between the ankle and the heel bones may have been somewhat mobile. The fifth digit for both the hands and feet was not attached to the carpus/tarsus, and instead connected directly to the ulna/heel bone.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: In 1876, the first gorgonopsian remains were identified in the Beaufort Group of the Karoo Supergroup of South Africa, by the biologist and paleontologist Richard Owen. He classified the fossils as "Gorgonops torvus", combining the Greek Gorgon, a mythological beast, with the word (), meaning 'aspect'. In Africa, gorgonopsians have also been found in Karoo outcroppings in the Ruhuhu Valley of Tanzania, the Upper Luangwa Valley of Zambia, and Chiweta, Malawi.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians were first identified in Russia in the 1890s at the Sokolki locality on the Northern Dvina in Siberia under the supervision of Russian palaeontologist Vladimir Prokhorovich Amalitskii. In a posthumous publication, it was described as "Inostrancevia alexandri", and it is one of the best known and largest gorgonopsians. Since then, only a few more Russian genera have been described: "Pravoslavlevia", "Viatkogorgon", "Suchogorgon", "Leogorgon", and "Nochnitsa".


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians are conspicuously absent beyond these 2 areas. In 1979, Chinese palaeontologist Yang Zhongjian described a Chinese gorgonopsian ""Wangwusaurus tayuensis"" based on teeth from the Late Permian Jiyuan Formation, but in 1981, palaeontologists Denise Sigogneau-Russell and Ai-Lin Sun found the assigned material to be a random assemblage of which only two have even a remote similarity to Gorgonopsia. In 2003, Indian palaeontologists Sanghamitra Ray and Saswati Bandyopadhyay assigned some skull fragments from the Late Permian Kundaram Formation to a medium-sized gorgonopsian, though the gorgonopsian characteristics have also been documented in some therocephalians. In 2008, a large and probably rubidgeine upper jaw fragment and canine was identified at the Late Permian Moradi Formation in Niger (one of the few low-latitude Late Permian tetrapod-bearing formations), and is the first evidence of a low-latitude gorgonopsian.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Upon discovery, Owen presumed that "Gorgonops" and several other taxa he described from the Karoo Supergroup were cold-blooded reptiles, despite bearing teeth resembling those of carnivorous mammals. He proposed classifying all of them under the newly coined order Theriodontia (which he placed in the class Reptilia). He decided to subdivide Theriodontia into families based on the anatomy of the nostrils (the bony narials)—"Mononarialia" for those with one opening in the skull for the nose as in mammals, "Binarialia" for those with two openings as in reptiles, and "Tectinarialia" for "Gorgonops" because its opening was overshadowed by a thick bone roof ("tectus" is Latin for "covered, roofed, decked"). In 1890, English naturalist Richard Lydekker made "Gorgonops" the type species of the family Gorgonopsidae. British palaeontologist Harry Seeley in 1895 believed "Gorgonops" lacked an opening in the temporal bone (temporal fenestra), which is a diagnostic feature of Theriodontia, and so elevated Gorgonopsidae to Gorgonopsia, distinct from Theriodontia. He classified all South African materials bearing both reptilian and mammalian traits into the order "Theriosuchia", and considered Gorgonopsia and Theriodontia suborders of it. American palaeontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn completely reworked the classification of Reptilia in 1903, and erected two major groups: Diapsida and Synapsida, and in 1905, South African palaeontologist Robert Broom created a third group, Therapsida, to house the "mammal-like reptiles", including Theriodontia. He also challenged Seeley's claim and relegated "Gorgonops" back to Theriodontia, but he placed it into his newly erected subgroup Therocephalia, dissolving Gorgonopsia. In 1913, especially in light of an almost complete "G. torvus" skull discovered by the Reverend John H. Whaits, Broom reinstated Gorgonopsia.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The number of South African genera rapidly grew in the 20th-century, headed principally by Broom, whose extensive work on the Karoo therapsids—from the beginning of his career in the country in 1897 to his death in 1951—led to his description of 57 gorgonopsian holotype specimens and 29 genera. Many of Broom's taxa would later be invalidated. Many other contemporary workers created wholly new species or genera based on single specimens. Consequently, Gorgonopsia has been the subject of much taxonomic turmoil, and is one of the most problematic synapsid groups. Because the skull anatomy differs very little across taxa, many are defined based on vague proportional differences, including even the well-known members. Nominal species are distinguished predominantly by traits which are known to be quite variable depending on the age of the individual, including eye orbit size, snout length, and number of postcanine teeth. Thus, it is possible that some taxa are synonymous with each other, and represent different stages of development.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Among the first attempts to organise the clade was carried out by British zoologist David Meredith Seares Watson and American palaeontologist Alfred Romer in 1956, who split it into twenty families, of which the members of three (Burnetiidae, Hipposauridae, and Phthinosuchidae) are not considered gorgonopsians anymore. In 1970 and again in 1989, predominantly considering African taxa, Sigogneau-Russell published a comprehensive monograph on Gorgonopsia (defining it as an infraorder), and recognised only two families: Watongiidae and Gorgonopidae. "Watongia" was moved to Varanopidae in 2004. She split Gorgonopidae into three subfamilies—Gorgonopsinae, Rubidgeinae, and Inostranceviinae—and reduced the number of genera to twenty-three. In 2002, Russian palaeontologist Mikhail Feodosʹevich Ivakhnenko, considering the Russian taxa, instead considered Gorgonopsia a suborder, and grouped it together with Dinocephalia into the order "Gorgodontia". He divided Gorgonopsia into the superfamilies "Gorgonopioidea" (families Gorgonopidae, Cyonosauridae, and Galesuchidae) and "Rubidgeoidea" (Rubidgeidae, Phtinosuchidae, and Inostranceviidae). In 2007, biologist Eva V. I. Gebauer, in her comprehensive review of Gorgonopsia (her PhD dissertation), rejected Ivakhnenko's model in favour of Sigogneau-Russell's, and further reduced the number of genera to fourteen in addition to the Russian genera: "Aloposaurus", "Cyonosaurus", "Aelurosaurus", "Sauroctonus", "Scylacognathus", "Eoarctops", "Gorgonops", ""Dixeya"" "nasuta (under the informal "nomen nudum" "Njalila"), "Lycaenops", "Arctognathus", "Aelurognathus", "Sycosaurus", "Clelandina", and "Rubidgea". In general, Sigogneau-Russell's model is supported, but there is little consensus on which genera can be assigned to which subfamilies. In 2015, American palaeontologist Christian F. Kammerer and colleagues redescribed "Eriphostoma" (which was labelled as an indeterminate theriodont) as a gorgonopsian, and sunk "Scylacognathus" and the next year "Eoarctops" into it.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The first phylogeny (family tree) of the members of Gorgonopsia was published in 2016 by American palaeontologist Christian F. Kammerer, who specifically investigated Rubidgeinae, and re-described both the subfamily and the nine species he assigned to it (reducing the number from thirty-six species). Kammerer also resurrected "Dinogorgon", "Leontosaurus", "Ruhuhucerberus", and "Smilesaurus". Kammerer was unsure if "Leontosaurus", "Clelandina", "Dinogorgon", and "Rubidgea" all represent the same taxon or not (for which "Dinogorgon" has priority), but he decided to classify all of them in the tribe Rubidgeini pending further examination. In 2018, Kammerer and Russian palaeontologist Vladimir Masyutin identified a new genus "Nochnitsa" as the basalmost known gorgonopsians, and found that all Russian taxa (except "Viatkogorgon", which is in the outclade) form a completely separate clade from the African taxa. Also in 2018, palaeobiologist Eva-Maria Bendel, Kammerer, and colleagues resurrected "Cynariops". In 2022, Kammerer and fellow palaeontologist Bruce S. Rubidge described "Phorcys" from South Africa.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Synapsida has traditionally been split into the basal "Pelycosauria" and the derived Therapsida. The former comprises cold-blooded creatures with a sprawling gait and presumably lower metabolism which evolved in the Upper Carboniferous. Through the middle to late 20th-century, American palaeontologist Everett C. Olson investigated synapsid diversity in the Middle Permian San Angelo, Flowerpot, and Chickasha Formations in North America, and noted that pelycosaur diversity reduced from six to three in these formations, and that they coexisted with several fragmentary specimens which he interpreted as therapsids. He then suggested the adaptive shift from pelycosaur-grade to therapsid-grade took place during the Middle Permian (Olson's Extinction); however, the classification of those "therapsids" and the age of the formations have since been challenged. Thus, the exact timing of the therapsid takeover is unclear, but the seven major therapsid groups (Biarmosuchia, Dinocephalia, Anomodontia, Gorgonopsia, Therocephalia, and Cynodontia) had evolved by 265 million years ago during the Wordian. The oldest gorgonopsian specimen is a partial snout (genus undeterminable) from the "Eodicynodon" Assemblage Zone of the Karoo Basin, roughly dating to the Wordian. "Phorcys" from the lowermost end of Karoo's "Tapinocephalus" Assemblage Zone, roughly dating a little later to the Wordian/Capitian boundary, is the oldest identifiable gorgonopsian taxon.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The Permian progressively became dryer and dryer. In the Upper Carboniferous and Lower Permian, pelycosaurs seem to have clung to the everwet coal swamp habitats near the equator (fossils known within 10° of either side of the palaeoequator); beyond this to about 30° was an expansive desert which extended all the way to the coast, separating the swamps from the temperate regions. By the Middle Permian, the equatorial forests had switched to a seasonal wet/dry system, but the swamps were connected to the temperate zones via coastal passages along East Pangaea, allowing cross-continental migration from what is now South Africa to what is now Russia. Therapsids appear to have evolved in this seasonally humid/dry landscape, expanding even into the temperate zones. At this point, synapsids were the only large terrestrial animals of their environment; and pelycosaurs may not have been able to adapt to the aridification. At about the time of pelycosaur extinction, therapsids experienced a major adaptive radiation (all carnivores) continuing into the Upper Permian.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Throughout the Middle Permian, the often gigantic dinocephalians were the dominant animals of their ecosystems. They disappear from the fossil record during the Capitanian mass extinction event caused by volcanic activity which has formed the Chinese Emeishan Traps. The exact cause of their extinction is unclear, but they were replaced by gorgonopsians and dicynodonts (which began to greatly increase in size) and the smaller therocephalians. The rubidgeans were the most derived gorgonopsians, and consequently the most massive and heavily built.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians were likely active predators. The rubidgeines have an especially robust skull among gorgonopsians, comparable to those of enormous macropredators which use their skulls as their primary weapon, such as mosasaurs or some theropod dinosaurs. Less robust gorgonopsians with longer canines and much weaker bite, such as "Smilesaurus" or "Inostrancevia", instead probably used their canines for slashing, much more similar to sabre-toothed cats. The postcanines of "Clelandina" were replaced by a smooth ridge unlike dicynodonts which have a blade-like keratinous ridge, and it may have predominantly gone after prey it could swallow whole. Gorgonopsian taxa did coexist with each other—as many as seven at one time–and the fact that some rubidgeines possess postcanines while some other contemporary ones do not suggests that they practiced niche partitioning and pursued different prey items.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The elongated canines have generally been thought to have been instrumental in their hunting tactics. The gorgonopsian jaw hinge was double jointed and made up of somewhat mobile and rotatable bones, which would have allowed them to open their mouths incredibly wide–perhaps in excess of 90°–without having to unhinge the jaw. It has alternatively been suggested (first in 2002 by biologists Blaire Van Valkenburgh and Tyson Secco, though in reference to cats) that sabres evolved primarily due to sexual selection as a form of mating display. This is exhibited in some modern deer species, but is difficult to test given the lack of living sabre-toothed synapsid predators. In sabre-toothed cats, long-sabred ("dirk-toothed") taxa are thought to have been pursuit hunters, whereas short-toothed ("scimitar-toothed") taxa are thought to have been ambush predators. Among the dirk-toothed cats, these predators are suggested to have killed with a well-placed slash to the throat after grappling prey, but gorgonopsians may have been less precise with bite placement, armed with reptilian jaws and tooth arrangements. Instead, gorgonopsians possibly used a bite-and-retreat tactic: the predator would ambush its quarry and take a sizable and debilitating bite out of it, and then follow as the prey tried to escape before succumbing to its injury, whereupon the gorgonopsian would deliver a killing bite. Because the postcanines are reduced or entirely absent, meat would have been forcibly torn away from the carcass and swallowed whole. This "puncture–pull" strategy is also hypothesised to have been used by theropod dinosaurs.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians, along with other early carnivores as well as crocodiles, predominantly relied on "Kinetic-Inertial system" (KI) of biting down onto prey, in which the pterygoid and temporalis muscles rapidly clamped the jaws shut, using momentum and the kinetic energy of the jaws and teeth to grapple the victim. Mammalian carnivores, including sabre-toothed cats, instead rely mainly on the "Static-Pressure system" (SP) where the temporalis and masseter muscles produce a strong bite force to kill prey. The temporalis and masseter had only separated in mammals, and gorgonopsians instead had a muscle stretching from the underside of the skull roof, back to the squamosal bone (at the back of the skull), and across the cheekbones. The part anchored by the cheeks stabilised the jawbone and allowed it to move side-to-side while closing. This may have been very important in biting, as the cheekbones get stronger in tandem with the canines getting longer.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Smaller gorgonopsians, such as "Cyonosaurus" (which may actually represent a juvenile of a different species), had gracile skulls and sabres, and may have acted much like jackals and foxes. Bigger gorgonopsians, such as "Gorgonops", had long robust snouts with strongly flared cheeks, which would have supported strong pterygoids and a powerful KI bite. The medium-size "Arctognathus" had a box-like skull and resultantly powerful snout, which would have allowed strong bending and torsion movements, and a combination of both KI and SP bite elements. Even bigger gorgonopsians, such as "Arctops", had a shorter and more convex snout like the earlier sphenecodont "Dimetrodon", and would have been able to rapidly clamp the jaws shut from a wide gape (which would have been necessary given the long canines). The even larger Rubidgeinae had extremely powerful, heavily built, buttressed skulls, with wide snouts, strongly flanged cheeks, and exceedingly long teeth; the sabres of "Rubidgea atrox" are longer than the teeth of "Tyrannosaurus".


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Unlike mammalian carnivores, gorgonopsians (and therocephalians) had reduced or completely lacked postcanines, and the jaw likely could not exert shearing pressure necessary for crushing bones open to access the bone marrow. It has largely been unclear if bone marrow had even evolved yet in Permian synapsids (fish and many amphibians lack this in present day), but in 2021 it was shown that the Early Permian amphibians "Seymouria" and "Discosauriscus" likely had haematopoietic (red-blood-cell-producing) bone marrow in their limbs.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians are considered to have been strictly terrestrial. They are thought to have been able to move with an erect gait similar to that used by crocodilians, the limbs positioned almost vertically as opposed to horizontally as in the sprawling gait of lizards. The glenoid cavity on the shoulder blade is strongly angled tailwards, so the limbs had limited forward movement, and they may have had a short stride length. Lizards often move their spines side to side to increase stride length, but the more vertically orientated facet joints connecting the vertebrae in gorgonopsians would have made the spine more rigid and stable, encumbering such movement.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The gorgonopsian shoulder joint has a highly unusual configuration. The humeral head which connects to the shoulder is longer than the glenoid, so it could not fit into the cavity. Consequently, they may have been attached with a large mass of cartilage, with the humerus performing a rolling movement over the glenoid. This could theoretically make the angle between the humerus and the glenoid anywhere from 80 to 145° when facing the animal. If the angle was on the lower end, this would have been a rather firm joint, allowing the deltoids to exert great force through the forelimb, such as when pinning down struggling prey, or holding down a carcass while ripping off flesh. If the humerus was positioned at a higher angle, this could have permitted enhanced extension forwards and backwards (along the long axis) and thus greater stride length, useful in an attack or short chases. The shoulder blade expands off to the sides of the animal (protrudes laterally), also providing a large attachment for the deltoids. All the scapulohumeral muscles had strongly developed attachments, particularly the deltoids. When extending the forelimbs, the deltoids may have raised the front side (anterior margin) of the humerus, and coracobrachialis muscle lowered the back side (posterior margin). When retracting the forelimb, the pectoralis muscle may have pushed the anterior margin down, and the subscapularis muscle pulled the posterior margin up.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The pelvis joint has the usual ball-and-socket joint configuration. The somewhat flattened femoral head could theoretically have fit into the hip socket at a wide range of angles. In 1982, palaeontologist Tom S. Kemp suggested that early theriodonts, including gorgonopsians, could place the femur at both a horizontal angle in a sprawling gait, as well as a more vertical angle in an erect gait. He compared the locomotory habits of these creatures to those of crocodilians, which utilise a sprawling gait over short distances, but switch to an erect one while running or moving over longer distances. Though the hip of "Sauroctonus" seems to be anatomically intermediate between "Dimetrodon" and mammals—with the ilium expanded more in the headwards direction than the tailwards, and the pubis somewhat reduced—the puboischiofemoralis muscle (a large muscle carried only by reptiles which runs from the pelvis to the femur) extensively attached to the underside of the pubis and ischium, which would have allowed it to produce a strong adducting force (drawing the legs closer to the body), useful in a sprawling gait. It is also conceivable that gorgonopsians primarily engaged this muscle while grappling struggling prey. The shins are relatively short compared to the femur, which suggests gorgonopsians were not well adapted for running long distances.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: In regard to how the feet were placed on the ground, gorgonopsians are the only early therapsids which present ectataxony (the last digit bears the most weight), homopody (footprints and handprints look the same), and semi-plantigrady (to some degree, the feet were placed flat on the ground). These adaptations may have made gorgonopsians swifter and more agile than their prey. Gorgonopsians had rather nimble digits, indicative of grasping capability for both the hands and feet, possibly for grappling struggling prey to prevent excessive load bearing on, and consequential fracturing or breaking of, the canines while they were sunk into the victim.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Unlike eutheriodonts, but like some ectothermic creatures today, all gorgonopsians possessed a pineal eye on the top of the head, which is used to detect daylight (and thus, the optimal temperature to be active). It is possible that other theriodonts lost this due to the evolution of either endothermy, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in the eyes—in tandem with the loss of colour vision and a shift to nocturnal life–or both. Nocturnal behaviour has long been assumed to have originated in mammals (nocturnal bottleneck), but the large orbit size and presence of sclerotic rings in many early synapsids, stretching as far back as the Carboniferous, would suggest that the ability to venture out in low-light conditions evolved much earlier. Based on these aspects, "Sauroctonus parringtoni" may have had mesopic vision, and "Cyonosaurus" scotopic or photopic vision. The diameters of the sclerotic rings for the small "Viatkogorgon" are proportionally large, with an inner diameter of and outer diameter of , compared to a diameter of for the orbit itself, which suggests it made predominantly nocturnal excursions. Among gorgonopsians, the rubidgeine "Clelandina" has unusually small sclerotic rings, indicating it had photopic vision and was strictly diurnal; Kammerer suggested that niche partitioning among rubidgeines (as there have been as many as seven different taxa coexisting in an area), in part, took the form of different species being active at different times of the day, but the sclerotic rings of only "Clelandina" among this subfamily have been identified, making this hypothesis highly speculative.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians have a rather short nasal cavity, like pelycosaurs, but it features abundant longitudinal ridges behind the internal nostrils (which connect the nasal cavity to the throat); because respired air would not have passed through them, these are typically interpreted as having been olfactory turbinates, and would have given gorgonopsians a rather highly developed sense of smell. Gorgonopsians possessed a vomeronasal organ ("Jacobson's organ")—a part of the accessory olfactory system–which would have been placed at the base of the nasal septum; unlike dicynodonts and therocephalians, there seems to have been a canal connecting the organ with the mouth, indicating it was functional in gorgonopsians.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Early theriodonts (including gorgonopsians) may have possessed an eardrum, unlike earlier pelycosaurs, indicated by the reduction of the connection between the quadrate bone (at the jaw hinge) and the pterygoid bone (at the palate), allowing the quadrate to independently vibrate to a degree. This may have allowed the detection of air-borne sounds with a low amplitude of less than , but the eardrum would have been supported by cartilage or ligaments instead of bone. If correct, then the postdentary bones (which in early mammals form the middle ear bones) would have needed to become detached from the dentary (jawbone); the gorgonopsian fossil record seems to indicate the postdentary-dentary connection was reduced. Though, given the specialisations required for biting, the condition of an isolating quadrate in gorgonopsians could alternatively be explained as streptostyly (rotatable quadrate) in order to widen the gape rather than facilitate hearing.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: A major anatomical shift occurred between earlier pelycosaurs and therapsids, which is postulated to have been related to an increasing metabolism and the origins of homeothermy (maintenance of a high body temperature). The evolution of a secondary palate, and the separation of the mouth from the nasal cavity, may have increased ventilation efficiency associated with high levels of aerobic activity; gorgonopsians did not have a bony secondary palate, but possibly had one of soft tissue. Nonetheless, the secondary palate could have instead aided in eating large quantities of food at once rather than in ventilation. The reorganisation of the skeleton (from a sprawling to a parasagittal gait) has been postulated to be indicative of the presence of a diaphragm, and thus also enhanced ventilation for aerobic activity; but it could have instead been to increase acceleration or agility, which does not necessarily equate to intense aerobic activity, much like in crocodiles. Fibrous lamellar cortical bone, which all early therapsids had, would indicate an increased growth rate, but this may not be linked to metabolic rate.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Modern large reptiles naturally give off body heat at a slower rate than smaller ones, and are considered "inertial homeotherms", but they maintain a low body temperature of . If therapsids required a higher body temperature of , they would either have needed to have been endotherms (generating their own body heat) or have had greater control over heat loss (that is, better homeothermy). The parasagittal gait may have aided the latter, as it would have kept most of the body off the ground as well as allowed blood to stay in the abdomen instead of having to circulate through the appendages, both of which would reduce heat transfer to the ground and stabilise core temperature. The reduced tail would have also reduced the total surface area of the animal, further minimising heat loss. Among therapsids, only eutheriodonts (not gorgonopsians) have respiratory nasal turbinates, which help retain moisture while breathing in large quantities of air, and its evolution is typically associated with the beginning of "mammalian" oxygen consumption rates and the origins of endothermy.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: If gorgonopsians were inertial homeotherms, it is not impossible that they had hair. The snout is typically riddled with foramina (small holes which confer with blood vessels), which could potentially point to the existence of loose skin (as opposed to scales), hair, various skin glands (such as sweat glands), and whiskers; however, some reptiles present a similar patterning of foramina, which are instead related to dental development rather than skin.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The anterolateral aspect of the left radius (a forearm bone) of the gorgonopsian specimen NHCC LB396 presents a circular bony lesion, featuring irregular-to-radial spikes made of cortical bone surrounded by a thin layer of subperiosteal bone, which grew rapidly over a single growing season. This is consistent with periostitis most likely stemming from subperiosteal haematoma. This specific condition as well as the fast growth rate are more reminiscent of mammals and dinosaurs than crocodilians or monitor lizards. Among early synapsids, the only other pathology noted is osteomyelitis in several pelycosaur groups.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The labial (tongue) side of the tooth root of a functional canine of RB382 presents as many as 8 lesions, clustering along the midline of the tooth, which resemble miniature teeth with a pulp, dentine, and a thin enamel coating. They are roughly circular—with diameters varying from –though they become less circular at around the middle point of the root until passing the cervix of the tooth. This is roughly consistent with the human ailment odontoma, the most frequent type of odontogenic tumour, which previously only extended a few million years back in the fossil record. At 255 million years old, RB382 presents the oldest known case of odontoma.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: The adult snout SAM-PK-11490 from an indeterminate Middle Permian gorgonopsian species has an imbedded tooth from an unidentifiable animal. The bone developed a callus around the tooth, indicating it healed and the individual survived the attack. It either came from a predator — namely a biarmosuchian, a therocephalian, or another gorgonopsian — or intraspecific face biting as is commonly exhibited in social predators — such as big cats or monitor lizards, and it has been suggested for several extinct lineages such as theropods, aquatic reptiles, and saber-toothed cats. Social biting is intended to assert dominance or facilitate breeding, and, if correct, suggests at least some Middle Permian gorgonopsians were social carnivores. The tooth was initially overlooked so it is unclear how common this pathology actually is.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Following the extinction of the dinocephalians and (in South Africa) the basal therocephalians Scylacosauridae and Lycosuchidae, gorgonopsians evolved from small and uncommon forms into large apex predators. Through the Middle to Upper Permian, in South Africa the dicynodonts were the most common animals, whereas the pareiasaurs "Deltavjatia" and "Scutosaurus" were the most abundant in the gorgonopsian-bearing Russian formations. During the Upper Permian, the South African Beaufort Group was a semi-arid cold steppe featuring large, seasonal (ephemeral) rivers and floodplains draining water sources much farther north into the Karoo Sea, with some occurrences of flash floods after sudden, heavy rainfall; the distribution of carbonates is consistent with present-day caliche deposits which form in climates with an average temperature of and of seasonal rainfall. The gorgonopsian-bearing Salarevskian Formation in western Russia was also probably deposited in a semi-arid environment with highly seasonal rainfall, and featured hygrophyte and halophyte plants in coastal areas, as well as more drought-resistant conifers at higher elevations. The Moradi Formation was an arid desert, primarily dominated by the captorhinid reptile "Moradisaurus" and the pareiasaur "Bunostegos". It featured voltzian conifers, and has environmentally been compared to the interior Namib Desert or the Lake Eyre basin.


title: Gorgonopsia

text: Gorgonopsians went extinct at the end of the Upper Permian during the Permian-Triassic extinction event, which was primarily caused by volcanism which formed the Siberian Traps. The resultant massive spike in greenhouse gases caused rapid aridification due to: temperature spike (as much as 8–10 °C at the equator, with average equatorial temperatures of 32–35 °C, or 90–95 °F, at the beginning of the Triassic), acid rain (with pH as low as 2 or 3 during eruption and 4 globally, and the subsequent dearth of forests for the first 10 million years of the Triassic), frequent wildfires (though they were already rather common throughout the Permian), and potential breakdown of the ozone layer (possibly briefly increasing UV radiation bombardment by 400% at the equator and 5000% at the poles). Among therapsids, small therocephalians and large herbivorous anomodonts managed to cross the Permian–Triassic boundary, and survived respectively until the Middle and Upper Triassic, but only small-bodied species of cynodonts survived into the Jurassic, whose descendants would include mammals. The niches gorgonopsians left open were eventually filled by the archosaurs (including crocodiles and dinosaurs) during the early stages of the Triassic.


title: Tyburn

text: Tyburn was a manor (estate) in the county of Middlesex, one of two which were served by the parish of Marylebone.


title: Tyburn

text: The parish, probably therefore also the manor, was bounded by Roman roads to the west (modern Edgware Road) and south (modern Oxford Street), the junction of these was the site of the famous Tyburn Gallows (known colloquially as the "Tyburn Tree"), now occupied by Marble Arch. For this reason, for many centuries, the name Tyburn was synonymous with capital punishment, it having been the principal place for execution of London criminals and convicted traitors, including many religious martyrs. It was also known as 'God's Tribunal', in the 18th century. Tyburn took its name from the Tyburn Brook, a tributary of the River Westbourne. The name Tyburn, from Teo Bourne, means 'boundary stream', but Tyburn Brook should not be confused with the better known River Tyburn, which is the next tributary of the River Thames to the east of the Westbourne.


title: Tyburn

text: The manor of Tyburn, along with neighbouring Lisson was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086, and were together served by the parish of Marylebone, itself named after the stream, the original name of the parish was simply Marybourne, the stream of St Mary; the French "le" appeared in the 17th century, under the influence of names like Mary-le-Bow. Domesday showed that the manor was held, both before and after the Norman Conquest, by the Barking Abbey nunnery. The Domesday survey records it as having eight households, suggesting a population of 40. In the 1230s and 1240s, the manor was held by Gilbert de Sandford, the son of John de Sandford, who had been the chamberlain to Eleanor of Aquitaine. In 1236, the city of London contracted with Sir Gilbert to draw water from Tyburn Springs, which he held, to serve as the source of the first piped water supply for the city. The water was supplied in lead pipes that ran from where Bond Street Station stands today, 800 m east of Hyde Park, down to the hamlet of Charing (Charing Cross), along Fleet Street and over the Fleet Bridge, climbing Ludgate Hill (by gravitational pressure) to a public conduit at Cheapside. Water was supplied free to all comers.


title: Tyburn

text: The junction of the two Roman Roads had significance from ancient times and was marked by a monument known as "Oswulf's Stone", which gave its name to the Ossulstone Hundred of Middlesex. The stone was covered over in 1851 when Marble Arch was moved to the area, but it was shortly afterwards unearthed and propped up against the Arch. It has not been seen since it was stolen in 1869.


title: Tyburn

text: Although executions took place elsewhere (notably on Tower Hill, generally related to treason by gentlemen), the Roman road junction at Tyburn became associated with the place of criminal execution after most were moved here from Smithfield in the 1400s. Prisoners were taken in public procession from Newgate Prison in the City, via St Giles in the Fields and Oxford Street (then known as Tyburn Road). From the late 18th century, when public executions were no longer carried out at Tyburn, they occurred at Newgate Prison itself and at Horsemonger Lane Gaol in Southwark.


title: Tyburn

text: The first recorded execution took place at a site next to the stream in 1196. William Fitz Osbert, populist leader who played a major role in an 1196 popular revolt in London, was cornered in the church of St Mary-le-Bow. He was dragged naked behind a horse to Tyburn, where he was hanged.


title: Tyburn

text: In 1537, Henry VIII used Tyburn to execute the ringleaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace, including Sir Nicholas Tempest, one of the northern leaders of the Pilgrimage and the King's own Bowbearer of the Forest of Bowland.


title: Tyburn

text: In 1571, the Tyburn Tree was erected near the junction of today's Edgware Road, Bayswater Road and Oxford Street, 200 m west of Marble Arch. The "Tree" or "Triple Tree" was a form of gallows, consisting of a horizontal wooden triangle supported by three legs (an arrangement known as a "three-legged mare" or "three-legged stool"). Multiple criminals could be hanged at once, and so the gallows were used for mass executions, such as on 23/06/1649 when 24 prisoners (23 men and 1 woman) were hanged simultaneously, having been conveyed there in eight carts.


title: Tyburn

text: After executions, the bodies would be buried nearby or in later times removed for dissection by anatomists. The crowd would sometimes fight over a body with surgeons, for fear that dismemberment could prevent the resurrection of the body on Judgement Day (see Jack Sheppard, Dick Turpin or William Spiggot).


title: Tyburn

text: The first victim of the "Tyburn Tree" was John Story, a Roman Catholic who was convicted and tried for treason. A plaque to the "Catholic martyrs" executed at Tyburn in the period 1535–1681 is located at 8 Hyde Park Place, the site of Tyburn convent. Among the more notable individuals suspended from the "Tree" in the following centuries were John Bradshaw, Henry Ireton and Oliver Cromwell, who were already dead but were disinterred and hanged at Tyburn in January 1661 on the orders of the Cavalier Parliament in an act of posthumous revenge for their part in the beheading of King Charles I.


title: Tyburn

text: The gallows seem to have been replaced several times, probably because of wear, but in general, the entire structure stood all the time in Tyburn. After some acts of vandalism, in October 1759 it was decided to replace the permanent structure with new moving gallows until the last execution in Tyburn, probably carried out in November 1783.


title: Tyburn

text: The executions were public spectacles which attracted crowds of thousands. Spectator stands provided deluxe views for a fee. On one occasion, the stands collapsed, reportedly killing and injuring hundreds of people. One such event was depicted by William Hogarth in his satirical print "The Idle 'Prentice Executed at Tyburn" (1747).


title: Tyburn

text: Tyburn was commonly invoked in euphemisms for capital punishment—for instance, to "take a ride to Tyburn" (or simply "go west") was to go to one's hanging, "Lord of the Manor of Tyburn" was the public hangman, "dancing the Tyburn jig" was the act of being hanged. Convicts would be transported to the site in an open ox-cart from Newgate Prison. They were expected to put on a good show, wearing their finest clothes and going to their deaths with insouciance.


title: Tyburn

text: On 19 April 1779, clergyman James Hackman was hanged there following his 7 April murder of courtesan and socialite Martha Ray, the mistress of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. The Tyburn gallows were last used on 3 November 1783, when John Austin, a highwayman, was hanged; for the next eighty-five years hangings were staged outside Newgate prison. Then, in 1868, due to public disorder during these public executions, it was decided to execute the convicts inside the prison.


title: Tyburn

text: The site of the gallows is now marked by three young oak trees that were planted in 2014 on an island in the middle of Edgware Road at its junction with Bayswater Road. Between the trees is a roundel with the inscription "The site of Tyburn Tree". It is also commemorated by the Tyburn Convent, a Catholic convent dedicated to the memory of martyrs executed there and in other locations for the Catholic faith.


title: Tyburn

text: Although most historical records and modern science agree that the Tyburn gallows were situated where Oxford Street meets Edgware Road and Bayswater Road, in the January 1850 issue of "Notes and Queries", the book collector and musicologist Edward Francis Rimbault published a list of faults he had found in Peter Cunningham's 1849 "Handbook of London", in which he claimed that the correct site of the gallows is where 49 Connaught Square later was built, stating that "in the lease granted by the Bishop of London, this is particularly mentioned".


title: Tyburn

text: Tyburn was primarily known for its gallows, which functioned as the main execution site for London-area prisoners from the 16th through to the 18th centuries. For those people found guilty of capital crimes who could not get a pardon, which accounted for approximately 40%, a probable destiny was to be hanged at Tyburn. Other contemporary methods of punishment that may have been used as alternatives to Tyburn included execution, followed by being hung in chains, where the crime was committed; or burning at the stake; and being drawn and quartered, of which the latter two were common in cases of treason.


title: Tyburn

text: The last days of the condemned were marked by religious events. On the Sunday before every execution, a sermon was preached in Newgate's chapel, which those unaffiliated with the execution could pay to attend. Furthermore, the night before the execution, around midnight, the sexton of St Sepulchre's church, adjacent to Newgate, recited verses outside the wall of the condemned. The following morning, the convicts heard prayers and, those who wished to do so, received the sacrament.


title: Tyburn

text: On the day of execution, the condemned were transported to the Tyburn gallows from Newgate in a horse-drawn open cart. The distance between Newgate and Tyburn was approximately , but due to streets often being crowded with onlookers, the journey could last up to three hours. A usual stop of the cart was at the Bowl Inn in St Giles, where the condemned were allowed to drink strong liquors or wine.


title: Tyburn

text: Having arrived at Tyburn, the condemned found themselves in front of a crowded and noisy square; the wealthy paid to sit on the stands erected for the occasion, in order to have an unobstructed view. Before the execution, the condemned were allowed to say a few words—the authorities expected that most of the condemned, before their death, before commending their own souls to God, would admit their guilt. It is reported that the majority of the condemned did so. A noose was then placed around their neck and the cart pulled away, leaving them hanging.


title: Tyburn

text: Instances of pickpocketing have been reported in the crowds of executions, a mockery of the deterrent effect of capital punishment, which at the time was considered proper punishment for theft.


title: Tyburn

text: Sites of public executions were significant gathering places and executions were public spectacles. Scholars have described the executions at Tyburn as "carnivalesque occasion[s] in which the normative message intended by the authorities is reappropriated and inverted by an irreverent crowd" that found them a source of "entertainment as well as conflict." This analysis is supported by the presence of shouting street traders and food vendors and the erection of seating for wealthier onlookers. Additionally, a popular belief held that the hand of an executed criminal could cure cancers, and it was not uncommon to see mothers brushing their child's cheek with the hand of the condemned. The gallows at Tyburn were sources of cadavers for surgeons and anatomists.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Dr. Tara Grace Knowles-Teller is a fictional character on the FX drama "Sons of Anarchy," played by Maggie Siff.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara is a native of Charming, California. She mentions her heritage is half-Irish. Her mother died when Tara was nine and, according to ATF Agent Stahl, Tara had a "drunk daddy", whom Tara described as a "bit of a packrat". Tara was Jax Teller's high-school sweetheart, and during that era she had a crow tattooed on her lower back representing her connection to SAMCRO. Tara was arrested in Jax's company at least three times in 1996. She left town when Jax was 19, in order to get away from small-town life and the influence of the club. According to his mother Gemma, this broke Jax's heart.


title: Tara Knowles

text: After leaving Charming, Tara moved in with a cousin of her father's, who lived in San Diego, studied at UC San Diego, and graduated with honors. She then attended medical school in Chicago (either Feinberg Medical School at Northwestern University, according to her file in "Fun Town", or "Loyola Med" according to Agent Stahl in "Better Half") where she was at the top of her class, then she completed an internship at Chicago Presbyterian.


title: Tara Knowles

text: While in Chicago, Tara dated ATF agent Joshua Kohn, and got pregnant, and had an abortion at six weeks. Kohn became intimidating, violent, and obsessive, so she took out a restraining order against him several months before she returned to Charming, after an absence of 10 years.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara works as a Pediatric resident at the local hospital, St. Thomas. It is there that she tends to Jax's gravely ill infant son Abel during Abel's hospitalization.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara lives in her childhood home, which she inherited from her father when he died. She also drives a Cutlass her father had parked in the garage under "two tons of old newspapers".


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara's relationship with Jax upon her return to Charming is based primarily on their mutual concern for gravely ill Abel. Her psychotic ex-boyfriend Agent Kohn comes to Charming under the pretext of investigating SAMCRO, but is really there because he wants to resume his relationship with Tara. Afraid for her life, Tara seeks Jax's help in driving off Kohn. Jax stabs Kohn's car on her behalf, beats him bloody in an altercation at Floyd's barber shop, and then escorts him out of town. When Kohn returns in the dead of night and attacks Tara in her home, she shoots him in the gut and calls Jax for help.


title: Tara Knowles

text: When Jax arrives he is furious about the attack and shoots Agent Kohn in the head. Tara and Jax then fall into each other's arms and make love while Kohn's iPod plays the Andy Williams song "Can't Get Used to Losing You" on a continuous loop.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Following the killing of Kohn, Jax and Tara seem to settle into a largely healthy and positive romantic relationship. Tara spends more time with Jax at the clubhouse, plays nice with Gemma, and works to heal wounded club associate Cameron Hayes.


title: Tara Knowles

text: The Jax-Tara relationship soon seems to disintegrate after his ex-wife Wendy returns from rehab. In the penultimate season-one episode "The Sleep of Babies", Tara is seen sleeping alone while Jax and Wendy make love. In the final episode of the first season, "The Revelator", Tara tells Jax that she has arranged to return to Chicago as she does not believe she is cut out for life in Charming. This angers Jax, and he storms off. At the end of the episode Tara is seen to have changed her mind, and she turns up at Donna's funeral, where she and Jax share a kiss.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara officially becomes Jax's "old lady" and is integrated into the club's world. After Gemma is raped and abused, she turns to Tara for medical help. Tara encourages Gemma to seek out counseling to deal with the psychological repercussions of the attack but Gemma is reluctant. Tara's help with Gemma combined with her efforts at raising Abel begins to heal the rift between Tara and Gemma. Tara's connection with Jax and SAMCRO, on the other hand, causes problems for her at work. When Gemma accidentally breaks Tara's nose after being startled, Margaret Murphy (a hospital administrator) assumes that Jax is responsible and warns Tara about the possible repercussions of being associated with SAMCRO. Later, Margaret files a "hostile work environment" complaint against Tara after Gemma confronts the administrator about the hospital's desire to move Chibs to another facility because of an insurance issue. Chibs later falsely complains of head pain and is able to stay at the hospital. Margaret accuses Tara of coaching Chibs with his symptoms and has Tara's privileges suspended.


title: Tara Knowles

text: When Jax decides that he wanted to go nomad, Tara is upset that he made the decision without consulting her. However, unlike everyone else connected to the club, she feels like it might be the right decision given the tension between Jax and Clay.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Gemma lets Tara know that as Jax's "old lady", Tara has considerable prestige and respect in the club when other women in the club defer to her, and that she shouldn't "take any shit" from anyone. Later, Tara confronts Margaret. The altercation turns violent and Tara then chokes and punches her. She tells Margaret, "I know where you live, I know where your kids go to school" and informs her that the cops are on SAMCRO's payroll and that the club runs Charming. Tara advises Margaret to keep her mouth shut and retract her complaint. Margaret immediately agrees to do so.


title: Tara Knowles

text: In the season two finale, Tara attempts to convince Gemma to not get revenge on those that raped her, but is unsuccessful. She is present at Jax's home when Cameron Hayes appears, and is tied to a chair by him before he kidnaps Abel Teller. Tara is untied by Jax and tells him what has happened to his son. Jax and the rest of the club unsuccessfully try to save Abel while Tara is later seen being consoled by Deputy David Hale.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara is still saddened by the loss of Abel. As time goes by, Jax continues to push her away with increasing vehemence. She feels Jax is pushing her away because he blames her for not preventing Abel's kidnapping. She visits a fugitive Gemma and helps her kill Gemma's father's caretaker. Tig helps the two of them cover it up. Tara later reveals to Gemma that she is six weeks pregnant.


title: Tara Knowles

text: After Jax leaves Tara, she catches him with CaraCara porn star, Ima. Tara then starts packing her things at Jax's house. He apologizes for what she saw earlier, but she feels he wanted her to see it, because he wants her gone and knew it was the one thing that would drive her away. She expresses that she thinks he is doing this because he hates her for what happened to Abel. Jax says that it is to protect her, but Tara doesn't believe him. When Jax goes after her, she is already pulling out of the driveway. As Tara leaves Jax's house it is shown that the recently ousted Calaveras MC leader, Hector Salazar, has been secretly stalking her and Jax.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara considers having an abortion, as she believes Jax is not ready for another child. Gemma tries to convince Tara to wait until Jax gets back from Belfast and look into Abel's eyes before she does anything. Gemma wants Tara to try to mend the relationship, because Jax hasn't been thinking clearly since Abel's abduction. Tara ultimately helps Gemma escape police custody so Gemma can go with Clay and Jax to Belfast.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Lyla asks Tara if she knows of any clinics that conduct abortions. When she goes with Lyla to have the procedure, they have a conversation about why Lyla is having the abortion. It turns out Lyla is having the same problems with Opie. He won't open up to her in fear of what might happen. Lyla also feels the baby is an inconvenience because she wants to continue working as a porn star. After the conversation, Tara schedules an abortion for herself, as well. Later, Tara reveals to Margaret Murphy that she is going to have an abortion; Margaret agrees it is a good idea and offers to drive Tara to the clinic. On the way, Salazar stages a car accident and abducts Margaret and Tara.


title: Tara Knowles

text: While Tara and Margaret are being held by Salazar, he becomes upset when his hostage demands aren't met and threatens to kill Margaret. Tara tries to persuade him not to and when he doesn't listen to her, she causes a distraction. She attacks Salazar's girlfriend and tries to get away. Salazar kicks her hard in the stomach. He goes to kick her a second time but stops when Tara tells him that she is pregnant.


title: Tara Knowles

text: When Tara gets a chance to go to the bathroom, she breaks off a piece of a mirror to use as a weapon. When Salazar's girlfriend breaks into the bathroom, Tara cuts her neck and almost escapes with Margaret, but Salazar stops them. After a stand off, Tara tells him his girlfriend is in the bathroom bleeding badly. She says she will keep his girlfriend alive if he lets Margaret go. When Salazar's girlfriend dies in the car, he throws Tara against the car and puts a gun to her head.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Salazar takes Tara to Jacob Hale's office, where he takes Hale hostage as well. When he gives his list of demands, one of them is for Jax to come to Hale's office. Tara sees Salazar pull out a knife, and he tells her he plans to kill her while Jax watches and then kill Jax. As Jax enters the office, Salazar is about to kill Tara, but Jacob Hale stabs him instead. Jax wrestles the gun from Salazar, gives it to Tara, and tells her to kill anyone who is not a cop. When the whole ordeal is over with Jax and Tara go to the doctor for an ultrasound to make sure the baby was not harmed. The baby is healthy and Jax and Tara hear the heartbeat and see the baby on the ultrasound. Jax and Tara then go to Gemma's house where Gemma hugs her. Tara sees Abel and happily holds him and welcomes him back home. In the season finale, Tara has become more involved with the club. She drives Jimmy O back to the garage in the trunk after SAMCRO buys him from the Russians. Jax makes sure that she wears a bulletproof vest to ensure her safety in case something goes wrong. When Stahl tells the club about the deal Jax made with her, which was actually a trap by the club to kill Stahl and Jimmy, she runs and hugs him distraught and fearing that the club will kill him in prison. In the closing minute of the season 3 finale, Tara reads letters from John Teller to his mistress Maureen Ashby implying that Gemma and Clay would be responsible for his death should it happen. The close up shot of Tara's face transitions to Jax's face, thus ending season 3.


title: Tara Knowles

text: By the end of season 3 when Jax and the other Samcro members were hauled off to prison, Tara is a little over 8 weeks pregnant. However, in a special feature "appisode" (titled: Tara and Piney)- that took place day 85 of Jax's incarceration; a pregnant Tara is shown about 5 months along. In this appisode, Tara goes to Piney for information on John Teller's death but is rebuked and told not to investigate further and that the past was "dead and buried" . In another special "appisode" (titled: Second Son) - which bridges the gap between seasons; Tara and Gemma visit Jax in prison. Tara has just given birth to baby Thomas, and she brings the baby to meet Jax for the first time. Jax is overjoyed. He apologizes for missing the delivery and promises he wouldn't miss anything important ever again.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara is waiting to greet Jax on his return home. When Jax arrives he and Tara spend a little time with Abel and Thomas before Jax has to go inside the clubhouse for a meeting. When Tara and Jax meet at their house later, they waste no more time and begin making love. Jax then proposes to Tara by putting a ring on their son Thomas's finger. Before Tara can fully accept they have a serious talk about the future of their family. Jax explains that he is done with SAMCRO, but he has to stay until Clay steps down as president because he and Gemma won't let Jax walk away without conflict. He does assure her that as soon as Clay retires and once he has saved enough money to avoid living off his wife he will leave SAMCRO and they will start fresh as a normal family.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Later, at Opie and Lyla's wedding, Jax is the best man and Tara is the maid of honor. The next day Tara and Jax are having breakfast with their sons when they see on the news a story about four dead bodies found at the construction site of Charming Heights. She asks Jax to tell her all he knows about it. He tells her it was retaliation for him getting stabbed in prison. Later on she encounters Gemma in her office who asks why Tara is not wearing her engagement ring. Tara simply tells Gemma that she and Jax are just waiting for the right time to tell everyone. Later at the clubhouse a distraught Tara is reunited with Jax after he is rescued from the Russians. There she discovers, along with Jax, that the clubhouse had been trashed by Sheriff Roosevelt. To lighten up the mood she decides to announce the engagement.


title: Tara Knowles

text: During the season (and before) Tara has become more fearful of the consequences of being involved with SAMCRO and increasingly begins to think about the effect it will have on her son. This leads Tara to make the decision of leaving town with her son until things settle down. Tara is also conflicted about the letters from Maureen Ashby. Gemma has found out she has them and tries most of the season to obtain them and destroy them. Piney also shows interest in them as a way to blackmail Clay, but Tara keeps them protected. Clay finds out about the letters and he is so fearful of them getting out, that he takes out a hit on her life from Romeo. Eventually after confronting Gemma about the letters, Tara admits that she is not capable of showing the letters to Jax, feeling that if he knew who his father truly was, Jax would get deeper into the club out of guilt, therefore getting him further from her.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara eventually heads to a medical conference in Oregon and takes Abel and Thomas with her, most likely for an indefinite stay. Jax accompanies her and on the way there the assassins hired by Clay try to kill her. Tara survives thanks to Jax, however during the fight her right hand gets smashed in a van door. Her hand is repaired, but the nerves are terribly damaged. Her doctor affirms it is unknown if it is permanent but she feels otherwise and believes her career to be over. Jax, extremely upset himself, tries to comfort her, but Tara has become distant and asks him to leave her alone. She feels that now their future is set and they will never get out of Charming. She's later encouraged by Jax that everything will go as they had planned, which Tara barely believes.


title: Tara Knowles

text: During the day she's visited by Jax's ex-wife Wendy, who makes it clear that she wants to know Abel better, as she gave up custody but not the right to know him. This unnerves Tara who feels she is Abel's true mother and becomes fearful that Wendy will take him away from her. Wendy leaves her number and Tara smashes the vase of flowers, screaming in anger. She's later put under psych watch and restrained to her bed. Jax begins to feel at a loss as how to take care of and comfort her.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Later Gemma comes to see her and confesses that it was Clay who wanted her dead because of the letters, which she gives to Gemma. She reveals later to Gemma that she was fully aware of her plan to have Clay killed by Jax and hide the letters that involve her and Unser, to prompt Jax to stay as President. Tara gives Jax a blood thinner to inject into Clay, who is recuperating at St. Thomas. She then tells Jax, in front of Gemma, that he will kill Clay and come get her and the boys, so they can leave Charming forever. This plan fails as Jax is forced to stay due to the influence of Romeo Parada and Luis Torres who are undercover CIA agents. They need SAMCRO to provide weapons and transport drugs or they will crush the club. Understanding that Jax has to become President, Tara decides to remain with him. In the season finale, with Gemma watching Tara stands behind Jax at the head of the table, one arm draped around him, mirroring a photo of Gemma and John Teller.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara's hand is still in a cast, meaning that she's unable to perform surgeries. Despite losing ability to operate, she supports Jax as President of SAMCRO. The couple lacks certainty of "where it all goes," but Jax is clear that "no matter what happens, I want you to be my wife." Tara mocks the romanticism of a spontaneous wedding at Diosa to which Jax jokes, "I killed a Fed for you ... nothing says endless love like capital murder." A judge marries them in a quick ceremony with wedding rings that belonged to Gemma and JT. Tension rises between Tara and Gemma over controlling the family. Tara places Abel and Thomas in hospital daycare with Jax's support. Tara gains power by shutting out Gemma, who is not on visitor list at first. Gemma tries to hurt Tara by using Wendy to threaten a custody suit. Tara stands firm by warning Gemma not to hurt her or her family or Jax "might kill you." Tara strategically plans squashing RICO case with Lowen, Bobby and Jax. She volunteers at Stockton State Prison and asks Otto to recant his RICO statement.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara extends an olive branch to Gemma by placing her on daycare visitor's list and allowing her to watch the boys. Gemma is stoned when she wrecks her car with Abel and Thomas in the backseat. Tara punches Gemma when she confesses to being high while driving with the boys. Tara's fears intensify over the increasing threats to her family; she starts to defend and protect them in Gemma-like ways. Tara cuts her out of the family, but agrees to let Gemma back in if she helps Jax with getting intel from Clay on plot to undermine his leadership. Tara receives good prognosis for her hand and gets recruited for a surgical job in Oregon. Meanwhile, Otto agrees to Tara's plea on RICO if she will bring him Luann's crucifix.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Tara's career is on the line when she is investigated as an accessory to Otto's brutal murder of a prison nurse that was killed with Luann's crucifix. Jax assures Tara that they will get through the investigation just like they get through everything else to which she quips, "that's what scares me." She becomes guarded when Jax doesn't walk away after meeting his goal to save the MC with RICO shutdown. She is pressed to reply to the offer and internally struggles with moving on as it is the "last chance" for her and Jax to get out of Charming. While meeting to prepare Tara's defense, Lowen prompts Tara to think about legal custody of sons if anything was to happen to her. Tara agrees to Providence Health & Services job offer before telling Jax.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Wendy confronts Tara with reality of risk associated with MC and shows her the shoulder bruise from the force of Jax jamming a speedball needle into it. Tara gasps with shock realizing that Jax is losing his way. The prison nurse's brother, Lee Toric, confronts Tara at the hospital and threatens to avenge her death. More than ever, Tara needs someone trustworthy to name as guardian of her sons in case of imprisonment or death. Tara has no permanent nerve damage and will be able to operate again. Tara requests clarity from Jax who does not come clean about intimidating Wendy.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Gemma confronts Tara about Providence Health & Services offer and threatens Tara "I'm done with your power push." Gemma threatens to tell investigators that Tara planned the killing of an innocent nurse to reverse RICO. Tara enlists Wendy as guardian and is now more determined to pull her sons out of Charming's "cesspool." Jax disapproves of Wendy as Guardian, but Tara insists it is her 'job as an old lady to be strong ... when and where [he] can't be." She tells him she accepted a job offer in Oregon to spare them from becoming like Gemma and Clay, which will force the boys to relive their mistakes.


title: Tara Knowles

text: The season begins with Tara dealing with the hardships of jail. Tara brutally beats an inmate who stole her blanket while minding her own business. She is later released, however her medical license has been revoked and she lost her job offer from Oregon.


title: Tara Knowles

text: After a number of failed attempts to get herself and her sons out of Charming (including a false pregnancy and subsequently faked miscarriage to bar Gemma Teller-Morrow from gaining custody of Abel and Thomas, should Tara go to prison), and after Tara and Jax's relationship was tested (Tara and Jax are having problems with her being behind bars for her involvement in the death of a nurse. Jax is seen at the end of episode 1 cheating on Tara with Colette Jane, an escort handler) Tara finds herself at odds with everyone she was supposed to be able to trust and chooses to use the bullet she pulled from Bobby Munson's shoulder as evidence necessary to grant her witness protection, in turn making her a rat and a liability to the MC and to Jax himself. In a last-minute plot twist, Jax finds Tara at a park in Lodi. They talk for several minutes and then the scene cuts to the motel room Tara had been hiding in. The two come to an understanding and Jax surrenders himself to the mercy of DA Tyne Patterson in exchange for Tara's immunity for all the crimes she committed on behalf the MC, specifically that of the murder of Pamela Toric, for which she was accused in season 5 but did not have anything to do with. The DA agrees to what Jax offers her after a few moments of reluctance to believe that he will come through. With that, Jax has let Tara know that he truly loves her and their sons more than anything. They cry and make love. Tara and Jax agree to meet the DA at the Teller home at 6pm after he spends his last hours as a free man with his sons. He tells Chibs and Bobby he will most likely be sentenced to 25 years, with parole in 10, 7 if he's lucky. Tara gets home earlier than expected and the house is empty, save for Eli Roosevelt, the sheriff, who entered the house with her so they could talk in private and he could help her bring her suitcases into the house, as she decided not to run away and do what Jax asked of her; raise their sons.


title: Tara Knowles

text: When Roosevelt leaves, stating he'll be outside, Tara calls for Wayne, assuming his truck outside meant he was in the house. Caught off guard, Gemma comes out of the laundry room and lunges for Tara, who cannot escape in time. Gemma hits her with an iron but doesn't knock her out. Tara struggles against Gemma's beating and her head is badly smashed on the sink, where Gemma then attempts to drown her. In one of the show's most gruesome moments, Tara struggles for several seconds before Gemma grabs a barbecue fork and stabs Tara multiple times in the back of her head and neck. With blood gushing out of the back of her head, Tara collapses and dies.


title: Tara Knowles

text: Roosevelt walks in on the scene and discovers Gemma sitting on the floor next to Tara's body, in obvious shock. Gemma is mumbling incoherently about how it had to be done because she was going to rat out the MC. Roosevelt tells her she didn't rat out the MC, and that Jax is giving himself up to protect her. Immediately after this, Juice walks in, shoots Roosevelt twice in the back and then comforts Gemma. After this he begins cleaning up the murder scene. Jax returns home later that evening. He sees Roosevelt's legs on the kitchen floor, draws his gun, and then enters the kitchen, where he finds both Roosevelt and Tara dead on the floor. Stunned and heartbroken, he drops his gun at Roosevelt's feet and begins sobbing as he cradles Tara in his arms.


title: Tara Knowles

text: "The New York Times"<nowiki>'</nowiki> series-premiere review remarked on the "chemistry" between Jax and Tara, and described the character as "beautiful...refined and book-smart."


title: Tara Knowles

text: TV Squad credited Siff with a "superior performance" and the "Chicago Tribune" described her as "excellent."


title: Caterham F1

text: The Caterham F1 Team was a Malaysian, later British owned Formula One team based in the United Kingdom which raced under a Malaysian licence. The Caterham brand competed in the Formula One World Championship from to , following the acquisition of British sportscar manufacturer Caterham Cars by former owner and team principal Tony Fernandes, forming the Caterham Group.


title: Caterham F1

text: In July 2014, Tony Fernandes and his partners announced that they had sold the team to a consortium of Swiss and Middle Eastern investors. The "Caterham" name was later used under licence after the Caterham Group separation.


title: Caterham F1

text: In October 2014, Caterham entered administration and did not attend a race weekend for the first time in its history beginning from the United States Grand Prix. In November 2014, after also missing the Brazilian Grand Prix, Caterham became the first F1 team ever to resort to crowdfunding, enabling it to race at the final Grand Prix for 2014 and take part in end of season testing both held in Abu Dhabi. On 27 February 2015, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) published a revised entry list with Manor Marussia being reintroduced and Caterham being removed from the list, and by March of the same year, the team's assets were put up for auction, spelling the official demise of the team.


title: Caterham F1

text: Fernandes's team originally entered Formula One in as Lotus Racing, using the Lotus name under licence from Group Lotus. Dubbed as 1Malaysia F1, the team was operated by 1Malaysia Racing Team Sdn Bhd. The project was part of the former Prime Minister Najib Razak's 1Malaysia initiative. When Proton – the parent company of Group Lotus – terminated the licence, Fernandes acquired the privately owned Team Lotus name for use in the season. As Proton began legal proceedings against the team, Fernandes acquired Caterham Cars. In November 2011, the team applied to the Formula One commission to formally change their constructor name for the season from Lotus to Caterham, while Renault changed their name to Lotus. Permission was granted before being formally ratified at a meeting of the FIA World Motor Sport Council. The team finished 10th in the Constructors' Championship in 2011, with three 13th-place finishes (two from Trulli, one from Kovalainen).


title: Caterham F1

text: On 18 January 2012, it was announced that the team would be moving to the Leafield Technical Centre in Leafield, Oxfordshire, the previous headquarters of both Arrows and Super Aguri F1 teams. The Caterham CT01 was the first car the team had built to run KERS.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 17 February, the team announced that Vitaly Petrov would replace Trulli alongside Kovalainen for the 2012 season. Mark Smith took over pitwall operations from Group CTO Mike Gascoyne starting from the Chinese Grand Prix.


title: Caterham F1

text: The Caterham car looked slower than expected at the beginning of the season. However, Caterham quickly found pace through Kovalainen, who made it into Q2 for the , eliminating Michael Schumacher in the process. At the , Kovalainen achieved a season's best thirteenth place, staving off McLaren's Jenson Button until the latter spun trying to overtake him. Kovalainen again made it into the second part of qualifying, in Valencia, qualifying 16th for the race, after eliminating both Toro Rossos and title contender Mark Webber with the final lap of the first session. Caterham continued their good form into the race with both Kovalainen and Petrov running well until Kovalainen collided with Toro Rosso's Jean-Éric Vergne. The incident caused a safety car, but Kovalainen recovered to finish 14th behind Petrov, who managed what was at this point the team's joint best finish in 13th. At the , an engine failure on Vitaly Petrov's Caterham on his way round to the grid meant he had to return to the pits and retire the car before the race had even begun. The team then went on to secure 10th place in the Constructors' Championship, pipping Marussia at the final post, after a hard last race where Vitaly Petrov achieved a team record-breaking 11th-place finish in front of Charles Pic while Kovalainen finished in 14th behind STR-Ferrari's Daniel Ricciardo.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 23 November 2012, it was announced that Marussia driver Charles Pic signed a multi-year contract with the team and his teammate was rookie Giedo van der Garde. On 1 March 2013, the team announced that Alexander Rossi and Ma Qinghua would be its reserve drivers for the 2013 season.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 17 April 2013, it was confirmed that the team had re-signed Heikki Kovalainen as a reserve driver (formal technical development role) in order to test their upgrades. Ma Qinghua consequently lost his reserve driver seat. At the 2013 Belgian Grand Prix, Giedo van der Garde achieved Caterham's best ever qualifying position with 14th place. Despite having a faster car than rivals Marussia, Caterham finished behind them on the Constructors' Championship finishing 11th.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 21 January 2014, it was announced that the team would have a brand new driver line-up with Marcus Ericsson and Kamui Kobayashi taking the seats. Team owner Fernandes warned team members that he would quit if results did not improve in the 2014 season. After the 2014 Monaco Grand Prix, Caterham became the record holders for the most race starts without scoring a single point, after fellow rivals Marussia scored their first points finish since entering the sport in 2010, courtesy of the 9th-place finish from Jules Bianchi.


title: Caterham F1

text: In July 2014, Caterham F1 announced that it was now owned by a consortium of Swiss and Middle Eastern investors, advised by former F1 Team Principal Colin Kolles. Former Dutch F1 driver, Christijan Albers, assisted by Manfredi Ravetto, became responsible for the day-to-day running of the team. Under this new management, unexpectedly, Kobayashi did not compete in the at Spa-Francorchamps. In his place, former Jaguar F1 test driver and three-time 24 Hours of Le Mans winner, André Lotterer, made his début in Formula One. He retired early from the race due to mechanical issues and turned down the chance to further race for Caterham, or in Formula One unless under better conditions.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 21 October 2014, it was announced that Caterham had entered administration, and had withdrawn its management team. A statement issued on behalf of Caterham said that the administrators, Smith & Williamson, were now in control of the team. Bernie Ecclestone gave Caterham special dispensation to miss the United States and Brazilian Grands Prix while they attempted to find a buyer for the team.


title: Caterham F1

text: In spite of the above dispensation, absence from any Grand Prix breached Formula One regulations. Nevertheless, at the United States Grand Prix, because of the team's current financial circumstances – similar to those of Marussia F1 – the FIA stewards decided to not impose any penalties. Instead, they referred the matter to the attention of the FIA president. In addition, for 2015, Sauber announced the engagement of Caterham's driver, Marcus Ericsson, who terminated his contract with Caterham on 12 November 2014.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 5 November 2014, the FIA released the provisional 2015 entry list which included Caterham, who were listed as CF1 Caterham F1 Team. During the same week, it was also revealed that the team had arranged a surprise 3-race deal with Rubens Barrichello who last raced in 2011 and would have taken over Kobayashi's seat for the remainder of the 2014 season.


title: Caterham F1

text: During the 2014 Brazilian Grand Prix weekend, Caterham's administrators resorted to crowdfunding in order to keep the team's chances of a return to the sport alive, much to the dismay of some Formula One personalities including Bernie Ecclestone. On 14 November 2014, it was reported that Caterham had succeeded in raising the necessary funds, via the crowdfunding initiative, to compete at the final Grand Prix of the season in Abu Dhabi. In contrast to multi-national logos adorning other team cars, according to media reports, a crowdfunding on-car sponsor for Caterham was a small UK pub: the Windmill Inn in Littleworth, West Sussex.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 16 November 2014, it was announced by Caterham that Kobayashi would drive for the team in Abu Dhabi, and, on 20 November, that the second driver would be 23-year-old British driver, Will Stevens who had previously tested for the team and would also take part in post-season testing also at Abu Dhabi, immediately after the race weekend.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 1 December 2014, it was announced that the team had received special dispensation to use their 2014 cars in the season, which would assist the administrator in finding a buyer for the team. Despite this, the team's assets were sold by auction, starting March 2015, meaning that attempts to race in 2015 had failed. The team then officially folded.


title: Caterham F1

text: On 25 July 2014, it was announced that over 40 former employees were taking legal action against the team for unfair dismissal, following a number of cost cuts by Caterham F1's new owners.


title: Caterham F1

text: In November 2014, despite Caterham F1 returning to racing under the control of its administrator following a successful crowdfunding initiative, 230 staff members not directly involved in Grand Prix preparations were made redundant.


title: Caterham F1

text: The staff that were redundant received a redundancy payment in January 2019, over 4 years after the team was declared bankrupt.


title: Caterham F1

text: During Caterham's time in F1, the team supported multiple drivers through the Caterham Racing Team in the GP2 Series and gave them the opportunity to participate in Formula One test sessions. Giedo van der Garde and Will Stevens were the only drivers of the program to compete for the team in F1. The drivers included:


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder was born in Fresno, California. She is of Italian and German descent. She has two younger sisters, Jocelyn and Jillian Lybarger, who are a mixed martial arts twin duo.


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder was a competitive swimmer and participated in water polo leagues from the time she was eight years old until her junior year in high school.


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder used to work as a drug and alcohol rehabilitation counselor for prison inmates in California. She was also a prison officer in Arizona.


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder entered the adult film industry in 2004 around age 23. She came up with her stage name when she was looking through a pornographic magazine and saw the name "Dylan" and the phrase "Ride Her". She left the industry after six months and returned in 2008.


title: Dylan Ryder

text: In March 2011, Bluebird Films signed Ryder to an exclusive performing contract. This contract ended in 2012. Later that year, "Complex" ranked her 52nd on their list of "The Top 100 Hottest Porn Stars (Right Now)".


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder co-hosted the 28th Annual XRCO Awards Show on April 19, 2012. After finishing second in the Miss Freeones competition, she announced her retirement from active involvement in the adult industry in May 2012, though she continues to operate her website.


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder has made several magazine appearances such as Australia's "Picture" and "People", men's magazines "Penthouse" and "Velvet", and the March 2012 issue of" Maxim" as "reason number 17 to watch UFC".


title: Dylan Ryder

text: Ryder was a contributor to the 2010 book "Porn - Philosophy for Everyone: How to Think With Kink" where she co-authored Chapter One. Also in 2010, Ryder interviewed several female MMA fighters at a Tuff-N-Uff Amateur Fighting Championships event in Las Vegas for her website. Her sisters were competitors in the event.


title: Cross-matching

text: Cross-matching or crossmatching is a test performed before a blood transfusion as part of blood compatibility testing. Normally, this involves adding the recipient's blood plasma to a sample of the donor's red blood cells. If the blood is incompatible, the antibodies in the recipient's plasma will bind to antigens on the donor red blood cells. This antibody-antigen reaction can be detected through visible clumping or destruction of the red blood cells, or by reaction with anti-human globulin. Along with blood typing of the donor and recipient and screening for unexpected blood group antibodies, cross-matching is one of a series of steps in pre-transfusion testing. In some circumstances, an electronic cross-match can be performed by comparing records of the recipient's ABO and Rh blood type against that of the donor sample. In emergencies, blood may be issued before cross-matching is complete. Cross-matching is also used to determine compatibility between a donor and recipient in organ transplantation.


title: Cross-matching

text: Immediate-spin cross-matching (ISCM) is an abbreviated form of cross-matching that is faster, but less sensitive; its primary use is to detect a mismatch between ABO blood types. It is an immediate test that involves combining the patient's serum and donor's red blood cells at room temperature, then centrifuging the sample and observing for agglutination or hemolysis. A lack of agglutination or hemolysis indicates a negative test reaction, or compatible match. ISCM is not appropriate in all circumstances; if the recipient's antibody screen is positive, or if they have had a positive antibody screen in the past, a full crossmatch is performed instead.


title: Cross-matching

text: The AHG crossmatch is done by incubating the recipient serum/plasma with the donor's red blood cells and adding anti-human globulin. It is essentially an indirect Coomb's test. It is also called "full cross-matching", "IAT cross-matching" and "Coomb's cross-matching".


title: Cross-matching

text: Electronic cross-matching is a computer-assisted analysis using data, from the donor unit (where a donor's blood is tested prior to donation) and testing done on blood samples from the intended recipient. This includes ABO/Rh typing of the unit and of the recipient, and an antibody screen of the recipient. Electronic cross-matching can only be used if a patient has a negative antibody screen, which means that they do not have any active red blood cell atypical antibodies, or they are below the detectable level of current testing methods. If all of the data entered is compatible, the computer will print a compatibility label stating that the unit is safe to transfuse.


title: Cross-matching

text: As the complete cross-matching process takes approximately 1 hour, it is not always used in emergencies.


title: Cross-matching

text: In the case of an emergency, a type-specific blood to which the recipient has no antibodies, can be requested. It is thought that this lifesaving measure is of more benefit than any risk of an antibody-mediated transfusion reaction. This type of blood has less risk of a serious transfusion reaction because it is both ABO compatible and Rhesus (Rh)-compatible.


title: Cross-matching

text: Universal donor blood, which is both type O and Rh negative, can be given if the recipient's blood group is not known, as may happen in an emergency. It is the policy of some institutions to reserve the releasing of O- blood only for female patients of childbearing age. This serves two purposes. First, it preserves the lower stock of O- blood and secondly, this eliminates the risk of O- negative mothers forming anti-D (Rh) antibodies from exposure to O+ blood. Anti-D (Rh) can cross the placenta during pregnancy and attack an unborn child's RBCs if they are D (Rh) positive causing haemolytic disease of the newborn.


title: Cross-matching

text: In an emergency, blood grouping can be done easily and quickly in 2 or 3 minutes in the laboratory on glass slides with appropriate reagents, by trained technical staff. This method depends on the presence or absence of agglutination (clumping of red blood cells), which can usually be visualized directly. Presence of agglutination indicates incompatibility. Occasionally a light microscope may be needed. If laboratory services are not available, the bedside card method of blood grouping may be used, where a drop of the intended recipients blood is added to dried reagents on a prepared card. This method may not be as reliable as laboratory methods, which are preferable.


title: Architecture of Windows NT

text: The architecture of Windows NT, a line of operating systems produced and sold by Microsoft, is a layered design that consists of two main components, user mode and kernel mode. It is a preemptive, reentrant multitasking operating system, which has been designed to work with uniprocessor and symmetrical multiprocessor (SMP)-based computers. To process input/output (I/O) requests, they use packet-driven I/O, which utilizes I/O request packets (IRPs) and asynchronous I/O. Starting with Windows XP, Microsoft began making 64-bit versions of Windows available; before this, there were only 32-bit versions of these operating systems.


title: Architecture of Windows NT

text: Programs and subsystems in user mode are limited in terms of what system resources they have access to, while the kernel mode has unrestricted access to the system memory and external devices. Kernel mode in Windows NT has full access to the hardware and system resources of the computer. The Windows NT kernel is a hybrid kernel; the architecture comprises a simple kernel, hardware abstraction layer (HAL), drivers, and a range of services (collectively named Executive), which all exist in kernel mode.