title: Model organism

text: Often, model organisms are chosen on the basis that they are amenable to experimental manipulation. This usually will include characteristics such as short life-cycle, techniques for genetic manipulation (inbred strains, stem cell lines, and methods of transformation) and non-specialist living requirements. Sometimes, the genome arrangement facilitates the sequencing of the model organism's genome, for example, by being very compact or having a low proportion of junk DNA (e.g. yeast, arabidopsis, or pufferfish).


title: Model organism

text: When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. As comparative molecular biology has become more common, some researchers have sought model organisms from a wider assortment of lineages on the tree of life.


title: Model organism

text: The primary reason for the use of model organisms in research is the evolutionary principle that all organisms share some degree of relatedness and genetic similarity due to common ancestry. The study of taxonomic human relatives, then, can provide a great deal of information about mechanism and disease within the human body that can be useful in medicine.


title: Model organism

text: Various phylogenetic trees for vertebrates have been constructed using comparative proteomics, genetics, genomics as well as the geochemical and fossil record. These estimations tell us that humans and chimpanzees last shared a common ancestor about 6 million years ago (mya). As our closest relatives, chimpanzees have a lot of potential to tell us about mechanisms of disease (and what genes may be responsible for human intelligence). However, chimpanzees are rarely used in research and are protected from highly invasive procedures. Rodents are the most common animal models. Phylogenetic trees estimate that humans and rodents last shared a common ancestor ~80-100mya. Despite this distant split, humans and rodents have far more similarities than they do differences. This is due to the relative stability of large portions of the genome, making the use of vertebrate animals particularly productive.


title: Model organism

text: Genomic data is used to make close comparisons between species and determine relatedness. Humans share about 99% of their genome with chimpanzees (98.7% with bonobos) and over 90% with the mouse. With so much of the genome conserved across species, it is relatively impressive that the differences between humans and mice can be accounted for in approximately six thousand genes (of ~30,000 total). Scientists have been able to take advantage of these similarities in generating experimental and predictive models of human disease.


title: Model organism

text: There are many model organisms. One of the first model systems for molecular biology was the bacterium "Escherichia coli", a common constituent of the human digestive system. Several of the bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) that infect "E. coli" also have been very useful for the study of gene structure and gene regulation (e.g. phages Lambda and T4). However, it is debated whether bacteriophages should be classified as organisms, because they lack metabolism and depend on functions of the host cells for propagation.


title: Model organism

text: In eukaryotes, several yeasts, particularly "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" ("baker's" or "budding" yeast), have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are quick and easy to grow. The cell cycle in a simple yeast is very similar to the cell cycle in humans and is regulated by homologous proteins. The fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster" is studied, again, because it is easy to grow for an animal, has various visible congenital traits and has a polytene (giant) chromosome in its salivary glands that can be examined under a light microscope. The roundworm "Caenorhabditis elegans" is studied because it has very defined development patterns involving fixed numbers of cells, and it can be rapidly assayed for abnormalities.


title: Model organism

text: Animal models serving in research may have an existing, inbred or induced disease or injury that is similar to a human condition. These test conditions are often termed as animal models of disease. The use of animal models allows researchers to investigate disease states in ways which would be inaccessible in a human patient, performing procedures on the non-human animal that imply a level of harm that would not be considered ethical to inflict on a human.


title: Model organism

text: The best models of disease are similar in etiology (mechanism of cause) and phenotype (signs and symptoms) to the human equivalent. However complex human diseases can often be better understood in a simplified system in which individual parts of the disease process are isolated and examined. For instance, behavioral analogues of anxiety or pain in laboratory animals can be used to screen and test new drugs for the treatment of these conditions in humans. A 2000 study found that animal models concorded (coincided on true positives and false negatives) with human toxicity in 71% of cases, with 63% for nonrodents alone and 43% for rodents alone.


title: Model organism

text: In 1987, Davidson et al. suggested that selection of an animal model for research be based on nine considerations. These include


title: Model organism

text: Animal models can be classified as homologous, isomorphic or predictive. Animal models can also be more broadly classified into four categories: 1) experimental, 2) spontaneous, 3) negative, 4) orphan.


title: Model organism

text: Experimental models are most common. These refer to models of disease that resemble human conditions in phenotype or response to treatment but are induced artificially in the laboratory. Some examples include:


title: Model organism

text: Spontaneous models refer to diseases that are analogous to human conditions that occur naturally in the animal being studied. These models are rare, but informative. Negative models essentially refer to control animals, which are useful for validating an experimental result. Orphan models refer to diseases for which there is no human analog and occur exclusively in the species studied.


title: Model organism

text: The increase in knowledge of the genomes of non-human primates and other mammals that are genetically close to humans is allowing the production of genetically engineered animal tissues, organs and even animal species which express human diseases, providing a more robust model of human diseases in an animal model.


title: Model organism

text: Animal models observed in the sciences of psychology and sociology are often termed animal models of behavior. It is difficult to build an animal model that perfectly reproduces the symptoms of depression in patients. Depression, as other mental disorders, consists of endophenotypes that can be reproduced independently and evaluated in animals. An ideal animal model offers an opportunity to understand molecular, genetic and epigenetic factors that may lead to depression. By using animal models, the underlying molecular alterations and the causal relationship between genetic or environmental alterations and depression can be examined, which would afford a better insight into pathology of depression. In addition, animal models of depression are indispensable for identifying novel therapies for depression.


title: Model organism

text: Model organisms are drawn from all three domains of life, as well as viruses. The most widely studied prokaryotic model organism is "Escherichia coli" ("E. coli"), which has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. It is a common, gram-negative gut bacterium which can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting. It is the most widely used organism in molecular genetics, and is an important species in the fields of biotechnology and microbiology, where it has served as the host organism for the majority of work with recombinant DNA.


title: Model organism

text: Simple model eukaryotes include baker's yeast ("Saccharomyces cerevisiae") and fission yeast ("Schizosaccharomyces pombe"), both of which share many characters with higher cells, including those of humans. For instance, many cell division genes that are critical for the development of cancer have been discovered in yeast. "Chlamydomonas reinhardtii", a unicellular green alga with well-studied genetics, is used to study photosynthesis and motility. "C. reinhardtii" has many known and mapped mutants and expressed sequence tags, and there are advanced methods for genetic transformation and selection of genes. "Dictyostelium discoideum" is used in molecular biology and genetics, and is studied as an example of cell communication, differentiation, and programmed cell death.


title: Model organism

text: Among invertebrates, the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster" is famous as the subject of genetics experiments by Thomas Hunt Morgan and others. They are easily raised in the lab, with rapid generations, high fecundity, few chromosomes, and easily induced observable mutations. The nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans" is used for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. It was first proposed as a model for neuronal development by Sydney Brenner in 1963, and has been extensively used in many different contexts since then. "C. elegans" was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced, and as of 2012, the only organism to have its connectome (neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.


title: Model organism

text: "Arabidopsis thaliana" is currently the most popular model plant. Its small stature and short generation time facilitates rapid genetic studies, and many phenotypic and biochemical mutants have been mapped. "A. thaliana" was the first plant to have its genome sequenced.


title: Model organism

text: Among vertebrates, guinea pigs ("Cavia porcellus") were used by Robert Koch and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, becoming a byword for "laboratory animal," but are less commonly used today. The classic model vertebrate is currently the mouse ("Mus musculus"). Many inbred strains exist, as well as lines selected for particular traits, often of medical interest, e.g. body size, obesity, muscularity, and voluntary wheel-running behavior.


title: Model organism

text: The rat ("Rattus norvegicus") is particularly useful as a toxicology model, and as a neurological model and source of primary cell cultures, owing to the larger size of organs and suborganellar structures relative to the mouse, while eggs and embryos from "Xenopus tropicalis" and "Xenopus laevis" (African clawed frog) are used in developmental biology, cell biology, toxicology, and neuroscience. Likewise, the zebrafish ("Danio rerio") has a nearly transparent body during early development, which provides unique visual access to the animal's internal anatomy during this time period. Zebrafish are used to study development, toxicology and toxicopathology, specific gene function and roles of signaling pathways.


title: Model organism

text: Other important model organisms and some of their uses include: T4 phage (viral infection), "Tetrahymena thermophila" (intracellular processes), maize (transposons), "hydras" (regeneration and morphogenesis), cats (neurophysiology), chickens (development), dogs (respiratory and cardiovascular systems), "Nothobranchius furzeri" (aging), and non-human primates such as the rhesus macaque and chimpanzee (hepatitis, HIV, Parkinson's disease, cognition, and vaccines).


title: Model organism

text: The organisms below have become model organisms because they facilitate the study of certain characters or because of their genetic accessibility. For example, "E. coli" was one of the first organisms for which genetic techniques such as transformation or genetic manipulation has been developed.


title: Model organism

text: The genomes of all model species have been sequenced, including their mitochondrial/chloroplast genomes. Model organism databases exist to provide researchers with a portal from which to download sequences (DNA, RNA, or protein) or to access functional information on specific genes, for example the sub-cellular localization of the gene product or its physiological role.


title: Model organism

text: Many animal models serving as test subjects in biomedical research, such as rats and mice, may be selectively sedentary, obese and glucose intolerant. This may confound their use to model human metabolic processes and diseases as these can be affected by dietary energy intake and exercise. Similarly, there are differences between the immune systems of model organisms and humans that lead to significantly altered responses to stimuli, although the underlying principles of genome function may be the same. The impoverished environments inside standard laboratory cages deny research animals of the mental and physical challenges are necessary for healthy emotional development. Without day-to-day variety, risks and rewards, and complex environments, some have argued that animal models are irrelevant models of human experience.


title: Model organism

text: Mice differ from humans in several immune properties: mice are more resistant to some toxins than humans; have a lower total neutrophil fraction in the blood, a lower neutrophil enzymatic capacity, lower activity of the complement system, and a different set of pentraxins involved in the inflammatory process; and lack genes for important components of the immune system, such as IL-8, IL-37, TLR10, ICAM-3, etc. Laboratory mice reared in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) conditions usually have a rather immature immune system with a deficit of memory T cells. These mice may have limited diversity of the microbiota, which directly affects the immune system and the development of pathological conditions. Moreover, persistent virus infections (for example, herpesviruses) are activated in humans, but not in SPF mice, with septic complications and may change the resistance to bacterial coinfections. “Dirty” mice are possibly better suitable for mimicking human pathologies. In addition, inbred mouse strains are used in the overwhelming majority of studies, while the human population is heterogeneous, pointing to the importance of studies in interstrain hybrid, outbred, and nonlinear mice.


title: Model organism

text: Some studies suggests that inadequate published data in animal testing may result in irreproducible research, with missing details about how experiments are done omitted from published papers or differences in testing that may introduce bias. Examples of hidden bias include a 2014 study from McGill University in Montreal, Canada which suggests that mice handled by men rather than women showed higher stress levels. Another study in 2016 suggested that gut microbiomes in mice may have an impact upon scientific research.


title: Model organism

text: Ethical concerns, as well as the cost, maintenance and relative inefficiency of animal research has encouraged development of alternative methods for the study of disease. Cell culture, or "in vitro" studies, provide an alternative that preserves the physiology of the living cell, but does not require the sacrifice of an animal for mechanistic studies. Human, inducible pluripotent stem cells can also elucidate new mechanisms for understanding cancer and cell regeneration. Imaging studies (such as MRI or PET scans) enable non-invasive study of human subjects. Recent advances in genetics and genomics can identify disease-associated genes, which can be targeted for therapies.


title: Model organism

text: Many biomedical researchers argue that there is no substitute for a living organism when studying complex interactions in disease pathology or treatments.


title: Model organism

text: Debate about the ethical use of animals in research dates at least as far back as 1822 when the British Parliament under pressure from British and Indian intellectuals enacted the first law for animal protection preventing cruelty to cattle. This was followed by the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 and 1849, which criminalized ill-treating, over-driving, and torturing animals. In 1876, under pressure from the National Anti-Vivisection Society, the Cruelty to Animals Act was amended to include regulations governing the use of animals in research. This new act stipulated that 1) experiments must be proven absolutely necessary for instruction, or to save or prolong human life; 2) animals must be properly anesthetized; and 3) animals must be killed as soon as the experiment is over. Today, these three principles are central to the laws and guidelines governing the use of animals and research. In the U.S., the Animal Welfare Act of 1970 (see also Laboratory Animal Welfare Act) set standards for animal use and care in research. This law is enforced by APHIS's Animal Care program.


title: Model organism

text: In academic settings in which NIH funding is used for animal research, institutions are governed by the NIH Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare (OLAW). At each site, OLAW guidelines and standards are upheld by a local review board called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). All laboratory experiments involving living animals are reviewed and approved by this committee. In addition to proving the potential for benefit to human health, minimization of pain and distress, and timely and humane euthanasia, experimenters must justify their protocols based on the principles of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement.


title: Model organism

text: "Replacement" refers to efforts to engage alternatives to animal use. This includes the use of computer models, non-living tissues and cells, and replacement of “higher-order” animals (primates and mammals) with “lower” order animals (e.g. cold-blooded animals, invertebrates) wherever possible.


title: Model organism

text: "Reduction" refers to efforts to minimize number of animals used during the course of an experiment, as well as prevention of unnecessary replication of previous experiments. To satisfy this requirement, mathematical calculations of statistical power are employed to determine the minimum number of animals that can be used to get a statistically significant experimental result.


title: Model organism

text: "Refinement" refers to efforts to make experimental design as painless and efficient as possible in order to minimize the suffering of each animal subject.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Pierre Alexandre Claudius Balmain (; 18 May 1914 – 29 June 1982) was a French fashion designer and founder of leading post-war fashion house Balmain. Known for sophistication and elegance, he described the art of dressmaking as "the architecture of movement."


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Balmain's father, who died when the future designer was seven years old, was the owner of a wholesale drapery business. His mother Françoise ran a fashion boutique called Galeries Parisiennes with her sisters. He went to school at Chambéry and, during weekends with his uncle in the spa town of Aix-les-Bains, his interest in couture fashion was inspired by society women he met.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Balmain began studying architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts in 1933, also undertaking freelance work drawing for the designer Robert Piguet.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: After visiting the studio of Edward Molyneux in 1934, he was offered a job, leaving his studies and working for the designer for the succeeding five years. He joined Lucien Lelong during World War II – where he met the young designer Christian Dior.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Pierre Balmain died at the age of 68 of liver cancer at the American Hospital of Paris, having just completed the sketches for his fall collection.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: The fashion house of Balmain opened in 1945. Initially it showcased long bell-shaped skirts with small waists – a post-war style that was popularised in 1947 as Dior's New Look. The first collection was showcased in "Vogue" in the November issue and the reviewer's reaction was that Balmain delivered "beautiful clothes that you really want to wear." A positive write-up in the magazine from Balmain's friend Gertrude Stein helped to seal the designer's success – early celebrity fans included the Duchess of Windsor who ordered from the collection.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Balmain was active in promoting himself internationally from the early days – touring Australia in 1947 and designing a line to be produced in the country. He expanded operations to the United States in 1951, selling ready-to-wear clothes that earned him a prestigious Neiman Marcus Fashion Award in 1955. He was, by this stage, designing clothes worn by Vojislav Stanimirovic and stars, such as Marlene Dietrich and Katharine Hepburn.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Such was Balmain's reputation that he was chosen to design the wardrobe of Queen Sirikit of Thailand during her 1960 tour of the United States. In 1968, he created outfits for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble and he also designed outfits for both TWA and Malaysia–Singapore Airlines' (later Singapore Airlines) cabin crew in the 1960s and '70s. Air France's first female pilot in 1975 wore a uniform by Balmain


title: Pierre Balmain

text: After he dressed Nicaraguan first lady Hope Portocarrero, she appeared on the 1968 International Best Dressed List Hall of Fame.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Erik Mortensen, a student of the Danish designer Holger Blum, began as a design assistant at Balmain in 1948. He and Balmain worked well together, and Mortensen quickly went from assistant to collaborator. He and Balmain worked together for the rest of Balmain's life. Margit Brandt worked as a young designer with Pierre Balmain in the early 1960s. Balmain also spotted the talent of Karl Lagerfeld, hiring him in 1954 after judging a fashion competition that the young German designer won.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Balmain's vintage couture gowns remain popular, and have been worn by Angelina Jolie, Penélope Cruz, Alexandra Kerry, Tatiana Sorokko, Kate Moss, Kristin Davis and Zendaya.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Balmain was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Costume Design and won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Costume Design for "Happy New Year" (1980). Additional Broadway theatre credits include costumes for Sophia Loren in "The Millionairess" (1960) and Josephine Baker for her eponymous 1964 revue. He also was a costume designer for 16 films, including the Brigitte Bardot vehicle "And God Created Woman" and "La Parisienne", and designed on-screen wardrobes for the actresses Vivien Leigh and Mae West. He made a lot of dresses for Dalida.


title: Pierre Balmain

text: Pierre Balmain also created perfumes. His fersf scent – "Elysees 64-83" (1946, perfumer Germaine Cellier). "Vent Vert" (1947, G.Cellier) – one of the best-selling perfumes of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Other scents included "Jolie Madame" (1953), "Monsieur Balmain" (1964), "Miss Balmain" (1967) – perfumes of Germaine Cellier, "Ivoire" (1979).


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad is the home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Las Animas County, Colorado, United States. The population was 8,329 as of the 2020 census. Trinidad lies north of Raton, New Mexico, and south of Denver. It is on the historic Santa Fe Trail.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad was first explored by Spanish and Mexican traders, who liked its proximity to the Santa Fe Trail. It was founded in 1862 soon after coal was discovered in the region. This led to an influx of immigrants eager to capitalize on this natural resource. By the late 1860s, the town had about 1,200 residents. Trinidad was officially incorporated in 1876, just a few months before Colorado became a state. In 1878 the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway reached Trinidad, making it easier for goods to be shipped from distant locations. In the 1880s Trinidad became home to a number of well-known people, including Bat Masterson, who briefly served as the town's marshal in 1882. By 1900 Trinidad's population had grown to 7,500 and it had two English-language newspapers and one in Spanish. In 1885, Holy Trinity Catholic Church was constructed.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: In the early 1900s Trinidad became nationally known for having the first woman sports editor of a newspaper, Ina Eloise Young. Her expertise was in baseball, and in 1908 she was the only woman sportswriter to cover the World Series. During the same time, Trinidad was home to a popular semiprofessional baseball team that was briefly coached by Damon Runyon.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: On August 7, 1902, the Bowen Town coal mine, six miles north of Trinidad, experienced a horrific gas explosion, killing 13 miners. It was one of the worst mining disasters so far in the state; conditions in the mine provided the impetus for several labor strikes. At one point in late 1903, an estimated 3,000 miners, members of the United Mine Workers of America, went on strike. In 1904 Trinidad experienced several disasters. In mid-January a fire destroyed two blocks of the town's business section, causing more than $75,000 in damages. In late September, the Trinidad area and the region along the Purgatoire River endured an unusually heavy rainstorm, leading to severe flooding; the flood destroyed the Santa Fe railroad station, wiped out every bridge in town, and caused several hundred thousand dollars' worth of property damage. As Trinidad continued to grow, a number of new construction projects began in the downtown area, including a new library, a new city hall, an opera house, and a new hotel.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad became the a focal point of the 1913-1914 United Mine Workers of America strike against the Rockefeller-owned Colorado Fuel & Iron company, which has come to be known as the Colorado Coalfield War. The Colorado and Southern Railway stop that connected Trinidad with Denver and Walsenburg made the town strategically important for both the strikers and Colorado National Guard. On April 20, 1914, just 18 miles north of town, the events of the Ludlow Massacre occurred.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad was dubbed the "Sex Change Capital of the World", because a local doctor had an international reputation for performing sex reassignment surgery. In the 1960s, Stanley Biber, a veteran surgeon returning from Korea, decided to move to Trinidad because he had heard that the town needed a surgeon. In 1969 a local social worker asked him to perform the surgery for her, which he learned by consulting diagrams and a New York surgeon. Biber attained a reputation as a good surgeon at a time when very few doctors were performing sex-change operations. At his peak he averaged four sex-change operations a day, and the term "taking a trip to Trinidad" became a euphemism for some seeking the procedures he offered. Biber was featured in an episode of "South Park", in which elementary school teacher Mr. Garrison undergoes a sex-change operation. Biber's surgical practice was taken over in 2003 by Marci Bowers. Bowers has since moved the practice to San Mateo, California. The 2008 documentary "Trinidad" focuses on Bowers and two of her patients.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Drop City, a counterculture artists' community, was formed in 1965 on land about north of Trinidad. Founded by art students and filmmakers from the University of Kansas and University of Colorado at Boulder, Drop City became known as the first rural "hippie commune", and received attention from "Life" and "Time" magazines, as well as from reporters around the world. Drop City was abandoned by the early 1970s, but influenced subsequent alternative-living projects across the country.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: In 2015 Trinidad started to experience a new boom due to the marijuana industry. The town raised $4.4 million in tax revenue from $44 million in annual marijuana sales, about 5.13% of the state's total sales. In 2018 "High Times" called Trinidad "Weed Town, USA", noting that its 23 licensed retail marijuana dispensaries serving less than 10,000 people amounts to one dispensary per 352 people. "In one downtown block alone along Commercial Street, there are eight dispensaries in a section of town some locals jokingly refer to as the Trinidad 'weed mall'."


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad is located at (37.170944, −104.506447). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all of it land.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad is situated in the Purgatoire River valley in far southern Colorado at an elevation of . The city lies 13 mi north of the New Mexico border. On the northern end of the town is Simpson's Rest, a prominent bluff named for early resident George Simpson, who is buried atop it. North Avenue leads to a rut-prone county road to the top of Simpson's Rest for overviews of the city. The vista from Simpson's Rest includes Fishers Peak, a prominent mountain of in elevation, southeast of the city. To the northwest are the prominent Spanish Peaks.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad experiences a semiarid climate, with hot summers and cold winters. Summer days are hot, but due to Trinidad's high elevation summer nights are cool, and temperatures drop sharply after sunset. Winters are cold, but milder than in many mountain towns in Colorado. In the winter, daytime highs are usually above freezing, but temperatures below are possible, especially at night.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: As of the census of 2000, 9,078 people, 3,701 households, and 2,335 families resided in the city. The population density was . The 4,126 housing units averaged 654.2 per square mile (252.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 79.97% White, 0.54% African American, 3.02% Native American, 0.43% Asian, 0.14% Pacific Islander, 12.12% from other races, and 3.78% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 48.07% of the population.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Of the 3,701 households, 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 14.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.9% were not families; 32.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.98.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 24.9% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 18.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.8 males.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: The median income for a household in the city was $36,681, and for a family was $33,992. Males had a median income of $27,817 versus $19,064 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,271. About 16.2% of families and 18.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.6% of those under age 18 and 20.0% of those age 65 or over.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: For many years Trinidad housed the miners who worked in the coal mines of the Raton Basin south and west of the town. Major operators included Colorado Fuel and Iron and Victor-American Fuel Company. The mines are now closed, but since the 1980s companies have been drilling new gas wells to extract coalbed methane from the remaining coal seams.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: Trinidad's location at the foot of Raton Pass, along the Santa Fe Trail between St. Joseph, Missouri, and Santa Fe, New Mexico, has always made it a favored route for travelers, first by foot, then horse and ox-drawn wagon, then railroad. Interstate 25 is the most highly traveled route between Colorado and New Mexico and bisects Trinidad.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: In the early 20th century Trinidad was the closest town to what many consider the beginning of the labor movement. Later that century the town saw swings of boom and bust as the oil industry heated and cooled.


title: Trinidad, Colorado

text: The Trinidad Triggers are a professional baseball team in the independent Pecos League which is not affiliated with Major League Baseball or Minor League Baseball. They play their home games at Trinidad Central Park.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman (sometimes shortened as Fetch!) is an American live-action/animated television series that aired on PBS Kids Go! and is largely targeted towards middle school children. It is a reality-game show that is hosted by an animated anthropomorphic dog named Ruff Ruffman who dispenses challenges to the show's real-life contestants. The series ran for five seasons and 100 episodes from May 29, 2006, to November 4, 2010, on PBS, with 30 contestants in that time. Although a sixth season was planned, with auditions taking place in January 2010, WGBH announced on June 14, 2010, that due to lack of funding, the series would end. In June 2008, the series received its first Emmy for Best Original Song for its theme.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Fetch! is a reality-based game show where young contestants (ages 10–14) take on various challenges to gain points. During these challenges, the contestants must complete a variety of tasks assigned to them ahead of time (and on the fly) by Ruff and surrogates, depending on the situation. There is also an educational component, as contestants often must learn something (i.e. Astronomy, Puzzles, Carpentry, Engineering, Food Science, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, etc.) in order to complete the task.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Not all contestants leave the studio each episode to complete tasks. "As determined by the Fetch 3000" (according to Ruff), the contestants who remain behind in the studio participate in the "Half-Time Quiz Show", in which Ruff asks them up to ten questions with the limited time based on the activities of the contestants out on challenges. Out on challenges, contestants will have the potential to earn up to 100 points. The contestants in the studio will have a chance to win a maximum of 50 in the "Half-Time Quiz Show". The show has a "Fetch Fairness Guarantee"; that every contestant will "compete for the same number of points" through thirteen challenges and six "Half-time Quiz Shows" before the final episode. Additionally, Ruff assigns "Bone-us" points (usually 5 or 10, but sometimes 15 or 20) to the stand-out contestants. On rare occasions, there is the possibility to earn more than 100 points (outside of any bonuses). The record for most points earned in one episode was 125, by Brian, Noah, and Khalil in episode 5, season 1. In Season 4, contestants are able to have 1/2 points (i.e. 515 points). At the end of the season, a final point tally is conducted, with the winner of the tally being declared winner of that season to win the "Grand Prize" and will get a poster and put it on the Fetch Wall of Fame.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Prizes are not always desirable, and sometimes the prize holder winds up with a "booby prize"; for example, in "Good Dancing and Bad Breath", Anna and Brian had to dance a waltz in the studio. During the first season, the contestant had the choice of keeping the prize or giving it to a fellow contestant. During the remaining four seasons, there are two unknown prizes between which the winner chooses. The chosen prize may be "mailed" to the mailbox in Studio G, although occasionally large prizes are hidden elsewhere on the set. In one episode of Season 2, Rosario gave his prize to Nina. In a season 4 episode, Sterling returned his prize to the mailbox.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: "Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman" contains a considerable number of direct cultural references for a PBS Kids show, which makes up a large chunk of the series's comedic style. In the season 2 premiere, when Nina does a rather sloppy job at making chocolate candy, Ruff remarks that it is the "Jackson Pollock candy." In the following episode, Ruff mentions that he likes REO Speedwagon. In Season 3, Episode 13, when Sam and Harsha throw sacks in a pail, Ruff makes a comment saying, "I feel like Shaq in the free throw line", making a reference to Shaquille O' Neal. In season 4, Episode 14, when Talia found a horseshoe crab while working on a shrimp boat, a horrified Ruff exclaimed, "Looks like Darth Vader's face with a billion legs coming out of it!" In Episode 17 of the same season, Talia was starstruck when she discovered that she was holding Roger Federer's tennis racket. In Episode 15 of Season 2, when the scuba instructors arrived at the beach, Ruff claimed that they were "faster than Batman" and that he "hoped [Batman] was watching the show". In Episode 14 of Season 5, when Rubye and Marc learned skydiving signs, Ruff remarked that one of the signs looked like "one of Beyoncé's dance moves." In Season 2, Episode 4, when Rosario voiced Ruff for the first time, Ruff remarked: "Is that Ruff Ruffman or Marge Simpson?" In Season 4, Episode 16, when Ruff called Isaac, who was dressed as an old lady, he accidentally called him "Mrs. Doubtfire" and then corrects himself and says Mrs. Issacson. In Season 5, Episode 18, when Joe explained to the FETCHers, he told Michelle about the book she read. Michelle said: "I believe that was Green Eggs and Ham."


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: The show also had some guest stars. In episode 6 of season 1, Aaron Carter and the contestants all appeared in his new music video. In episode 10 of season 1, Anna and Noah must earn some quick cash by building a lemonade stand with the help of master carpenter Norm Abram. In season 2, episode 2, Ruff sends Madi and Willie to meet the Blue Man Group. In episode 4 of season 2, Bridget and Rosario met puppeteer John Kennedy posing as Bernie the Pig. In Season 3, Episode 4, Sam meets Senator Ted Kennedy. In season 5, episode 4, Crush the sea turtle from the movie "Finding Nemo" makes an appearance via Ruff's Fetch 3000. Andrew Stanton reprises his role as Crush here. In episode 2 of season 4, the host of Design Squad Nathan Ball appeared in a pole vault challenge. In episode 17 of season 4, Gary Sohmers, an appraiser for 13 seasons of "Antiques Roadshow", made his appearance challenging two of the contestants to explore Brimfield Antiques and Collectibles Show in Brimfield, Massachusetts.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: "Fetch!" (an acronym for "Fabulously Entertaining TV with a Canine Host") was produced at WGBH Studios in Boston. Seasons were filmed about a year before they aired. Season 4 was the first season to be filmed in High Definition (HD) in 2009.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: The challenges were filmed mostly in Boston (as well as other areas in the US state of Massachusetts) and various other parts of the USA, depending on the challenges, during summertime when the children are out of school. The challenges, which were out on the field, are cut documentary-style, very similar to network reality TV shows.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: After the FETCHers finished filming the challenges, contestants acted in-studio, with the voice of Ruff. Jim Conroy traveled to Boston from New York for the two weeks they spent shooting in the studio. The fourth camera simply captured Conroy doing his lines as Ruff in the audio booth. The kids heard him in the studio and he heard their reactions in his headphones. Ruff's lines were the only lines that were scripted out, though he would sometimes ad-lib an answer to a question or comment from a FETCHer. Once the lines were recorded, the show went into editing, where the challenges were sorted into the show order.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Then they were sent to Jim Conroy in New York City, to voice the dialog for Ruff's animation. Once that was complete, it was sent back to WGBH where editors placed audio clips of the animated characters. Once all of this was done, the episode was sent to Global Mechanic to animate the show. One out of the four editors had an off-set four-week system in place where one of them was ready to send a cut of a new episode to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada every Friday. It took about six months to complete one season of the show.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Due to a lack of funding, WGBH announced that "Fetch!" would be canceled at the end of its fifth season even though casting had been completed for a sixth.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Studio G is the studio for "Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman". Three segments of the show take place in the studiothe intro, half-time quiz show, and "Triumph Tally". In season 1, the contestants recognized that Studio G looked like a garage and asked Ruff why. This really annoyed Ruff, who told them it was not a garage but "Studio G". Over the course of the show's five seasons, the studio changed. For season 1 and 2, the studio remained relatively unaltered, but sizable changes were made to the studio for season 3. The television through which the contestants communicate with Ruff was changed to a more current flat-screen TV, and Ruff's owner parked her car, a dusty Volkswagen Karmann Ghia, in the studio. A flamingo and trees as well as a "Studio G" sign and a "wall of fame" displaying past Fetch! contestant season winners were added to the studio in season 2. In season 4, a new remote control mailbox was placed on the TV Screen, which popped out when a challenge was in the mailbox. Season 5's major renovation occurred during the season finaleit became the Go Get It! studio (Studio P), and was a remodeled version of the Studio G set with new carpeting and pink chairs.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: To audition for the program, potential contestants were required to be between the ages of 10 and 14 by the first day of shooting, and be able to live in the greater Boston area over the summer, during school vacations, and a few weekends during the school year. FETCHers needed to be filmed without missing school. Auditions were handled by Maura Tighe Casting.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: The show had auditions for their sixth season in January 2010, but on June 14, 2010, due to lack of funding, WGBH Boston announced that Season 5 will be the final season. On June 27, 2010, Jim Conroy (the voice of Ruff) made the official announcement at the Daytime Emmy Awards ceremony. On his Facebook page, he said, "It's such an impossible task going up against "Sesame Street", "Cyberchase", and "The Electric Company". So you have to consider the nomination as a win. Can't complain. PBS gave us 100 episodes and 5 seasons. Many good shows never saw that kind of time." "Fetch!" aired its fifth and final season in October 2010, with the final episode date being November 4, 2010. After the series ended, reruns aired on selected PBS stations until August 31, 2014. It aired on the PBS Kids channel from January 16, 2017, to November 20, 2018.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: Later, in May 2014, a new spin-off was announced, called "Ruff Ruffman: Humble Media Genius". This spin-off debuted in Fall 2014 and features short animations of Ruff Ruffman, focusing on internet safety.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: On July 30, 2017, PBS Kids and WGBH announced that Ruff Ruffman along with his two assistants Blossom and Chet will be making a comeback in a new digital series called "The Ruff Ruffman Show", where they answer questions from real kids, take on challenges and learns the value of perseverance—all while modeling science inquiry skills. The digital series premiered on September 28, 2017.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: On December 15, 2020, a web series called "Team Hamster!" premiered. It is a spin-off focusing on Ruff Ruffman's hamsters - Sadie, Mateo, and Tasha. The series also ties-in with games on the PBS KIDS website.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: WGBH and Global Mechanic had announced plans to produce a spin-off of "Fetch!" based on the online game "Spyhounds". It would feature Ruff, Blossom, and Chet having a new career as super-spies, and Ruff is in "way" over his head. Luckily, he has much help: five clever kids, a purple poodle named Trixie, and millions of kids online. The spinoff plans were announced but were later canceled.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: On July 21, 2022, WGBH and Jim Conroy released "FetchTok", a TikTok-based challenge where Ruff (voiced again by Conroy) asks viewers to record themselves performing his challenges and posting them on the app.


title: Fetch! with Ruff Ruffman

text: The show was an instant hit with audiences and received critical acclaim. "The New York Times" praised the series, writing "The show’s creators have written in all the sarcasm and amazingness of a more sophisticated and harder-edged show, but not in a way that condones such behavior. There’s a kind of genius to the setup." Larisa Wiseman of Common Sense Media gave the series four out of five stars, saying this entertaining PBS series combines the comedy of a cartoon, the challenge of a game show, and the best of reality TV.


title: Tina (musical)

text: Tina: The Tina Turner Musical is a jukebox musical featuring the music of Tina Turner and depicting her life from her humble beginnings in Nutbush, Tennessee, to her transformation into a rock 'n roll star. Directed by Phyllida Lloyd with a book by Katori Hall, Frank Ketelaar, and Kees Prins, the musical had its world premiere on 17 April 2018 at the Aldwych Theatre in London. The Broadway production opened on 7 November 2019.


title: Tina (musical)

text: On 16 December 2016 a workshop presentation was held with Tina Turner in attendance, announcing that a biographical musical about Tina's life had been in development by Stage Entertainment for over a year. The creative team of the musical consists of Katori Hall, with Frank Ketelaar and Kees Prins as writers of the book, Phyllida Lloyd as the director, Mark Thompson as set and costume designer, Anthony van Laast as choreographer and Nicholas Skilbeck as musical supervisor. Frank Ketelaar and Kees Prins wrote the early draft of the book, with Katori Hall taking over partway through development.


title: Tina (musical)

text: The show began previews on 21 March 2018 at the Aldwych Theatre, officially opened on 17 April. Adrienne Warren played the title role, with Jenny Fitzpatrick alternating in the role in some performances. The production was nominated for three Laurence Olivier Awards, including Best Musical. After Warren's departure, the title role has been played by Nkeki Obi-Melekwe, Aisha Jawando, and Elesha Paul Moses.


title: Tina (musical)

text: The show began on Broadway in previews at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on 12 October 2019 and officially opened on 7 November 2019. Warren reprised the title role in the Broadway production, with direction by Phyllida Lloyd and choreography by Anthony van Laast. The show was suspended on 12 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and resumed performances on 8 October 2021. In June 2022, it was announced that the production is slated to close on 14 August 2022 after 27 previews and 482 regular performances.


title: Tina (musical)

text: On 9 February 2020, the show opened at the Beatrix theater in Utrecht, the Netherlands. After the suspension of the show a little more than a month after its opening, performances resumed on 14 July 2021.


title: Tina (musical)

text: On 11 September 2022, the show will embark on a North American Tour opening at the Providence Performing Arts Center (PPAC) in Providence, Rhode Island, before visiting 40 cities in its first year.


title: Tina (musical)

text: The musical opens with Anna Mae Bullock's childhood in Nutbush Tennessee, where she sings exuberantly in the community church despite her mother Zelma's embarrassment at her loudness ("Nutbush City Limits"). Anna Mae's parents have a difficult relationship, which culminates in Zelma walking out with her eldest daughter Alline, leaving Anna Mae to be brought up by her grandmother, Gran Georgeanna.


title: Tina (musical)

text: Some years later, Anna Mae is invited to join Zelma and Alline in St Louis, and she goes with Gran Georgeanna's encouragement ("Don't Turn Around"). In St Louis, Alline introduces Anna Mae to the nightlife ("Shake a Tail Feather"), eventually crossing paths with Ike Turner and his band, the Kings of Rhythm ("The Hunter"). One night Anna Mae joins Ike on stage to sing ("Matchbox"), and the success of the performance leads Ike to ask Zelma for permission for Anna Mae to join his band ("It's Gonna Work Out Fine").


title: Tina (musical)

text: Ike gives Anna Mae the stage name "Tina Turner" despite her protests. Although Tina enjoys performing with him, she's aware of Ike's vicious temper ("A Fool in Love"), and has to hide her love affair with Raymond, a member of Ike's band ("Let's Stay Together"). After touring successfully for some time, Ike asks Tina to marry him, since people already think they are because of her stage name. Tina agrees, despite being pregnant with Raymond's child; in response, Raymond leaves her ("Better Be Good to Me"). Tina keeps performing with Ike and his band, through Ike's infidelities, violence, and demands of Tina's health despite her having another child ("I Want to Take You Higher"). Ike's road manager, Rhonda Graam advises Tina to leave him, but she refuses.


title: Tina (musical)

text: Ike gets a recording deal with Phil Spector, but is angered when he wants to record Tina solo ("River Deep Mountain High"). Ike is dismissive of Tina's ability as a solo artist, and during an argument attempts to hit her son, Craig. Tina almost walks out, but Ike apologises and begs her forgiveness ("Be Tender with Me Baby"). Tina overdoses and is sent to hospital, but is forced to check out for a performance ("Proud Mary"). Backstage, Tina and Ike get into another violent fight, which is the final straw and causes Tina to run away. Bruised and bleeding, she asks a hotel clerk for a room to stay, using only her stage name as a promise to pay later since she doesn't have any money ("I Don't Wanna Fight").


title: Tina (musical)

text: Tina, free from Ike, has been performing in Las Vegas with the help of Rhonda, now her manager. They're struggling to make ends meet because no record label wants to sign a black woman who's nearing forty years old, and Ike has claimed copyright over all songs from the "Ike & Tina Revue", preventing her from singing the songs she's known for ("Private Dancer"). While dropping off a demo tape at Capitol Records, they meet Roger Davies, a young Australian music producer who's a fan of Tina. Roger goes to Vegas to watch Tina perform ("Disco Inferno") and afterward asks to be her manager. Rhonda is upset about being put aside, but Tina insists that she needs to try something new, and that she needs Rhonda more as a sister than a manager ("Open Arms").


title: Tina (musical)

text: Tina travels to London for Roger's recording session. Among the people she meets is Erwin Bach, a German music executive. Tina wants to reinvent herself and transition to rock and roll, but she struggles with Roger's advice, and dreams of Ike watching her ("I Can't Stand the Rain"). Erwin visits her hotel room to provide comfort, and the pair kiss.


title: Tina (musical)

text: While preparing a performance showcase for the record label, Tina rails against Roger's instructions, refusing to be anyone's puppet any longer. Tina asks everyone to leave, and performs her Buddhist mantra to calm herself. She has a vision of her younger self and Gran Georgeanna encouraging her ("Tonight"). The showcase is a success, but the record label still refuses to sign her out of racism. Roger decides to promote her himself through touring performances back in the United States. Erwin asks her to stay in London and declares his love for her, but she rejects him. Tina's performance of the new material is a success ("What's Love Got to Do with It?"). Capitol Records begs her to sign with them, and she agrees only on her own terms.


title: Tina (musical)

text: Alline arrives with news Zelma is dying. Tina visits Zelma at the hospital, where Ike has been visiting Zelma as well. Zelma encourages them to reconcile; Tina demands that Ike apologise, but he can't and leaves. Zelma and Tina have an emotional confrontation, after which Zelma dies. Tina and Alline mourn their mother ("We Don't Need Another Hero (Thunderdome)").


title: Tina (musical)

text: Riding high, Tina prepares for a concert before 180,000 people in Brazil. Erwin arrives, having flown over to be with her. The pair reconcile, which leads into Tina's walking on stage for the concert ("The Best"). For the finale and encore, Tina and her band perform reprises of "Nutbush City Limits" and "Proud Mary".


title: Tina (musical)

text: The musical received generally positive reviews from the critics, with particular praise reserved for Adrienne Warren in the title role as Tina Turner. Michael Billington of "The Guardian" described the "whirlwind performance" of Warren as "astonishing", and concluded on the production: "As bio-musicals go, this is as good as it gets." Similarly Dominic Cavendish of "The Daily Telegraph" described Warren's performance as a "tour de force" and considered the show "slickly choreographed, beautifully designed and roof-raisingly well-sung". Adam Mattera in "Echoes" noted "the production plays fast and loose with catalogue chronology... it's a crowd-pleasing decision meaning all the solo mega-hits aren't squeezed into the final act, but simultaneously it derails the dramatic reveal of Tina's 80s rock'n'roll reinvention," while concluding "it's so resounding joyous you don't care."


title: Tina (musical)

text: Will Gompertz of the BBC criticised the script as "rather disappointingly two-dimensional", but thought the musical "elegantly staged" with Warren a "24-carat, all singing, all dancing, bona fide star". Stephen Dalton of "The Hollywood Reporter" noted that while its grand finale contains "stilted, corny elements", "the production becomes a full-blooded rock show that is "roof-raising" and "life-affirming", with a climax that "swept the crowd to its feet. Pure button-pushing melodrama, maybe. But irresistibly uplifting entertainment, too."


title: Cannabigerol

text: Cannabigerol (CBG) is one of more than 120 identified cannabinoid compounds found in the plant genus "Cannabis". Cannabigerol is the decarboxylated form of cannabigerolic acid, the parent molecule from which other cannabinoids are synthesized.


title: Cannabigerol

text: Cannabigerol is normally a minor constituent of cannabis. During plant growth, most of the cannabigerol is converted into other cannabinoids, primarily tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) or cannabidiol (CBD), leaving about 1% cannabigerol in the plant. Some strains, however, produce larger amounts of cannabigerol and cannabigerolic acid, while having low quantities of other cannabinoids, like THC and CBD.


title: Cannabigerol

text: Although cannabigerol is sold as a dietary supplement, its effects and safety for human consumption are undefined.


title: Cannabigerol

text: The biosynthesis of cannabigerol begins by loading hexanoyl-CoA onto a polyketide synthase assembly protein and subsequent condensation with three molecules of malonyl-CoA. This polyketide is cyclized to olivetolic acid via olivetolic acid cyclase, and then prenylated with a ten carbon isoprenoid precursor, geranyl pyrophosphate, using an aromatic prenyltransferase enzyme, geranyl-pyrophosphate—olivetolic acid geranyltransferase, to biosynthesize cannabigerolic acid, which can then be decarboxylated to yield cannabigerol.


title: Cannabigerol

text: , no clinical research has been conducted to test the specific effects of cannabigerol in humans. Cannabigerol is under laboratory research to determine its pharmacological properties and potential effects in disease conditions, with no conclusions about therapeutic effects or safety, as of 2021.


title: Cannabigerol

text: Cannabigerol has affinity and activity at CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors in vitro. It appears to be unique among cannabinoid compounds by also having high affinity and activity at alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and moderate activity at serotonin (5-HT) 1A receptors.


title: Cannabigerol

text: Although general effects of its use as a dietary supplement remain undefined, the potent activity of cannabigerol at alpha-2 adrenergic receptors raises concerns about its safety for human consumption, possibly having unintended effects, such as bradycardia, arterial hypotension, and xerostomia.


title: Cannabigerol

text: As of 2022, the US Food and Drug Administration has issued numerous warning letters to American companies for illegally marketing cannabis supplement products, including one selling cannabigerol products with unproven illegal claims of efficacy against the COVID-19 virus and inflammation.


title: Cannabigerol

text: Cannabigerol is not scheduled by the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In the United States, cannabigerol derived from cannabis is illegal under the Controlled Substances Act, while cannabigerol derived from hemp is legal, as long as the hemp THC content is less than 0.3% of dry weight.


title: Cannabigerol

text: In Switzerland, it is legal to produce hemp rich in cannabigerol as a tobacco substitute, as long as its THC content remains below 1.0%.


title: Nasal cycle

text: The nasal cycle is the unconscious alternating partial congestion and decongestion of the nasal cavities in humans and other animals. This results in greater airflow through one nostril with periodic alternation between the nostrils. It is a physiological congestion of the nasal conchae, also called the nasal turbinates (curled bony projections within the nasal cavities), due to selective activation of one half of the autonomic nervous system by the hypothalamus. It should not be confused with pathological nasal congestion.


title: Nasal cycle

text: The nasal cycle was studied and discussed in the ancient Indian yoga of literature of pranayama. In the modern western literature, it was first described by the German physician Richard Kayser in 1895.


title: Nasal cycle

text: In 1927, Heetderks described the alternating turgescence of the inferior turbinates in 80% of a normal population. According to Heetderks, the cycle is the result of alternating congestion and decongestion of the nasal conchae or turbinates, predominantly the inferior turbinates, which are by far the largest of the turbinates in each nasal fossa. Turbinates consist of bony projections covered by erectile tissue, much like the tissues of the penis and clitoris. The turbinates in one fossa fill up with blood while the opposite turbinates decongest by shunting blood away. This cycle, which is controlled by the autonomic nervous system, has a mean duration of two and a half hours but varies widely with age, body-posture, and other conditions. He further observed and documented that the turbinates in the dependent nasal fossa fill when the patient is in the lateral decubitus position. The nasal cycle is an alternation in both time and between left and right sides, with the total resistance in the nose remaining constant. The asymmetric airflow may have some benefit to overall olfactory sensitivity. In patients with a fixed septal deviation and intermittent nasal obstruction, the interplay of the nasal cycle becomes evident; the sensation of obstruction frequently mirrors the congestion phase.


title: Nasal cycle

text: It is possible that the nasal cycle may exacerbate the nasal congestion caused by the common cold, as the lack of motility of the cilia in one half of the nose may lead to an uncomfortable sensation of not being able to shift mucus by blowing the nose.


title: Nasal cycle

text: It has been shown that the cilia of the congested side suspend their motility until that side decongests. Thus the cycle ensures that one side of the nose is always moist, to facilitate humidification, which is one of the three functions of the nose, the other two being filtration and warming of inspired air prior to its entering the lungs.


title: Nasal cycle

text: Some odor chemicals bind with olfactory receptors easily, even under conditions of high airflow, and other odors need more time, under low airflow conditions, to bind with receptors. With high airflow on one side and low airflow on the other side, the olfactory center detects a greater range of smells.


title: Nasal cycle

text: The nasal cycle should not be confused with pathological nasal congestion: individuals with normal nasal breathing usually do not realize their breathing is asymmetric unless there is underlying nasal obstruction. In pathological conditions, however, the nasal cycle may influence the symptoms.


title: Nasal cycle

text: In 1994, breathing through alternate nostrils showed effects on brain hemisphere symmetry on EEG topography. D.S. Shannahoff-Khalsa published in 2007 on the effect of this cycle and manipulation through forced nostril breathing on one side on the endogenous ultradian rhythms of the autonomic and central nervous system.


title: Nasal cycle

text: More recent research has shown no statistically significant correlation between spontaneously (i.e. not forced) dominant nostril and active brain hemisphere.


title: Brad Roberts

text: Bradley Kenneth Roberts (born January 10, 1964) is the lead singer and guitarist for the Canadian folk-rock band Crash Test Dummies. He sings in the bass-baritone range. The band is best known internationally for their 1993 album God Shuffled His Feet and single "Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm" and best known in Canada for the 1991 single "Superman's Song".


title: Brad Roberts

text: Roberts began performing with his brother Dan in a house band for the Blue Note Cafe in Winnipeg under the moniker Bad Brad Roberts and the St. James Rhythm Pigs. The band gradually evolved into The Crash Test Dummies. While studying at university and working as a bartender at The Spectrum Cabaret, Roberts began writing his own songs and introducing them to the band. After attending a songwriters' workshop with Lyle Lovett at the Winnipeg Folk Festival, he wrote "Superman's Song".


title: Brad Roberts

text: Demos of Roberts's songs found themselves in the hands of various music company execs across Canada, and the quirky bar band that had just begun to write original material found itself with record deal options which led The Crash Test Dummies into a rushed, but nevertheless well-received debut album, "The Ghosts That Haunt Me". The album introduced the band to the rest of the Canadian provinces, selling over 400,000 copies in Canada alone and also garnering a 1991 Juno Award for Group of the Year.


title: Brad Roberts

text: With more time and finances, Roberts set about writing the band's second album, "God Shuffled His Feet". This to date is the band's best selling and most popular album, taking them into the international arena of musical exposure. The album has sold over six million copies and caused The Crash Test Dummies to be nominated for three Grammy Awards in 1994. The group was nominated for eleven other Junos from 1992 to 2000.


title: Brad Roberts

text: "A Worm's Life" was released in 1996, selling over one million copies and showcasing a harder-edged sound as the band continued to evolve, producing this album on their own.


title: Brad Roberts

text: 1999 introduced a mix of electronic funk and spontaneous wordplay with "Give Yourself a Hand". Roberts met Greg Wells at a songwriters' workshop and invited him to co-write and assist in recording this album inspired by influences and flavours of Roberts' new home in Harlem, New York.


title: Brad Roberts

text: On September 28, 2000, Roberts was severely injured when he crashed his car on a dirt road in Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia. Marijuana was discovered in his pocket while he was loaded into an ambulance and he was then charged for possession by the RCMP. While he was recuperating from the accident, he began jamming with locals (The Great Wind Jammers from Argyle, Yarmouth County) and produced from these sessions "I Don't Care That You Don't Mind". This was the first album released by the band independent of a major record label.


title: Brad Roberts

text: A Crash Test Dummies album, "Oooh La La!", was released in 2010. This was followed with the solo release on an album of Mantras, entitled "", in 2011.


title: Brad Roberts

text: His influences as a musician are primarily rooted in late-'60s, '70s and '80s British music, from the albums "Let It Bleed" by The Rolling Stones, "Abbey Road" by The Beatles, "Diamond Dogs" by David Bowie and "Oranges & Lemons" by XTC, which was introduced to him by his friend on his car stereo in the late '80s.


title: Brad Roberts

text: At age 12 he bought his first record, "Dressed to Kill" by Kiss, and was inspired by guitarist Ace Frehley. He took guitar lessons for four years from that point.


title: Bronchospasm

text: Bronchospasm or a bronchial spasm is a sudden constriction of the muscles in the walls of the bronchioles. It is caused by the release (degranulation) of substances from mast cells or basophils under the influence of anaphylatoxins. It causes difficulty in breathing which ranges from mild to severe.


title: Bronchospasm

text: Bronchospasms occur in asthma, chronic bronchitis and anaphylaxis. Bronchospasms are a possible side effect of some drugs: pilocarpine, beta blockers (used to treat hypertension), a paradoxical result of using LABA drugs (to treat COPD), and other drugs. Bronchospasms can present as a sign of giardiasis.


title: Bronchospasm

text: Some factors that contribute to bronchospasm include consuming certain foods, taking certain medicines, allergic responses to insects, and fluctuating hormone levels, particularly in women.


title: Bronchospasm

text: The overactivity of the bronchioles' muscle is a result of exposure to a stimulus which under normal circumstances would cause little or no response. The resulting constriction and inflammation causes a narrowing of the airways and an increase in mucus production; this reduces the amount of oxygen that is available to the individual causing breathlessness, coughing and hypoxia.


title: Bronchospasm

text: Bronchospasms are a serious potential complication of placing a breathing tube during general anesthesia. When the airways spasm or constrict in response to the irritating stimulus of the breathing tube, it is difficult to maintain the airway and the patient can become apneic. During general anesthesia, signs of bronchospasm include wheezing, high peak inspiratory pressures, increased intrinsic PEEP, decreased expiratory tidal volumes, and an upsloping capnograph (obstructive pattern).  In severe cases, there may be complete inability to ventilate and loss of ETCO2 as well as hypoxia and desaturation.


title: Bronchospasm

text: Bronchospasms can occur for a number of reasons. Lower respiratory tract conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and emphysema can result in contraction of the airways. Other causes are side effects of topical decongestants such as oxymetazoline and phenylephrine. Both of these medications activate alpha-1 adrenergic receptors that result in smooth muscle constriction. Non-selective beta blockers are known to facilitate bronchospasm as well. Beta blockers bind into the β2 receptors and block the action of epinephrine and norepinephrine from binding to its receptors, causing shortness of breath.


title: Bronchospasm

text: Additionally, the pediatric population is more susceptible to disease and complications from bronchospasm due to their airway diameter being smaller; applying Poiseuille's Law to the airways it is clear that airflow resistance through a tube is inversely related to the radius of the tube to the fourth power, therefore, decreases in airway results in significant flow impediments.


title: Bronchospasm

text: The neurotransmitter acetylcholine is known to decrease sympathetic response by slowing the heart rate and constricting the smooth muscle tissue. Ongoing research and successful clinical trials have shown that agents such as diphenhydramine, atropine and Ipratropium bromide (all of which act as receptor antagonists of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors) are effective for treating asthma and COPD-related symptoms.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven is a town and port on the English north west coast and near to the Lake District National Park in Cumbria, England. Historically in Cumberland, it lies by road south-west of Carlisle and to the north of Barrow-in-Furness. It is the administrative seat of the Borough of Copeland, and has a town council for the parish of Whitehaven. The population of the town was 23,986 at the 2011 census.


title: Whitehaven

text: The town's growth was largely due to the exploitation of the extensive coal measures by the Lowther family, driving a growing export of coal through the harbour from the 17th century onwards. It was also a major port for trading with the American colonies, and was, after London, the second busiest port of England by tonnage from 1750 to 1772. This prosperity led to the creation of a Georgian planned town in the 18th century which has left an architectural legacy of over 170 listed buildings. Whitehaven has been designated a "gem town" by the Council for British Archaeology due to the historic quality of the town environment.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven was the site of a major chemical industry after World War II, but both that and the coal industry have disappeared, and today the major industry is the nearby Sellafield nuclear complex, which is the largest local employer of labour and has a significant administrative base in the town. Whitehaven includes a number of former villages, estates and suburbs, such as Mirehouse, Woodhouse, Kells and Hensingham, and is served by the Cumbrian coast railway line and the A595 road.


title: Whitehaven

text: Although there was a Roman fort at Parton, around to the north, there is no evidence of a Roman settlement on the site of the present town of Whitehaven.


title: Whitehaven

text: The area was settled by Irish-Norse Vikings in the 10th century. The area name of Copeland, which includes Whitehaven, indicates that the land was purchased from the Kingdom of Strathclyde, possibly with loot from Ireland.


title: Whitehaven

text: Following the arrival of the Normans, in about 1120 St Bees Priory was founded by William de Meschin, which was granted a large tract of land from the coast at Whitehaven to the river Keekle, and then south down the River Ehen to the sea. This included the small fishing village of Whitehaven. Following Henry VIII's dissolution of the priory in 1539, ownership of this estate passed through a number of secular landlords until it passed into the hands of the Lowther family in the 17th century.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven was a township within the "Preston Quarter" of the parish of St Bees. and the town's churches were chapels-of-ease of St Bees until 1835 when three ecclesiastical districts were created in Whitehaven.


title: Whitehaven

text: The modern growth of Whitehaven started with the purchase by Sir Christopher Lowther of the Whitehaven estate in 1630 and the subsequent development of the port and the mines. In 1634 he built a stone pier providing shelter and access for shipping, enabling the export of coal from the Cumberland Coalfield, particularly to Ireland. This was a key event in the rapid growth of the town from a small fishing village to an industrial port.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 1642 the manor of St. Bees was inherited by Sir John Lowther, 2nd Baronet, of Whitehaven (1642–1706), who developed the town of Whitehaven, its coal industry and the trade with Ireland. He oversaw the rise of Whitehaven from a small fishing village (at his birth consisting of some fifty houses and a population of about 250) to a planned town three times the size of Carlisle. At his death the 'port of Whitehaven' had 77 registered vessels, totalling about four thousand tons, and was exporting more than 35,000 tons of coal a year.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven's growing prosperity was also based on tobacco. By 1685 there were ships regularly bringing tobacco from the British colonies of Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania in America, and by the early 18th century about 10% of England's tobacco imports passed through Whitehaven. By the middle of the 18th century it was the second or third port in England for tobacco imports. The tobacco was then sold on the domestic market or re-exported, e.g. to Ireland, France and the Netherlands.


title: Whitehaven

text: However after the Acts of Union 1707 united England with Scotland, thereby abolishing excise duties between them, the port of Glasgow began to take over Whitehaven's tobacco trade, leading to the later creation of Glasgow's Tobacco Lords. By the second half of the 18th century there was a marked decline in shipping of tobacco via Whitehaven, and by 1820 the Customs Collector did not mention tobacco in his report on Whitehaven. Whitehaven Town Hall, which started life as a private house built for a merchant, was completed in 1710.


title: Whitehaven

text: To replace the tobacco trade Whitehaven turned to importing sugar from Barbados, cotton from Antigua and coffee and cocoa from St Lucia. Due to the coal trade Whitehaven was, after London, the second port of England in terms of tonnage of shipping from 1750 to 1772. Even by 1835 Whitehaven was still the fifth placed port, with 443 ships registered, but by the end of the 19th century only 68 vessels were registered. Whitehaven was involved with the transatlantic slave trade, and records show slave ships leaving Whitehaven for voyages to Africa between 1711 and 1767. In 2006, the Copeland Council (Whitehaven's local authority) issued a formal apology for Whitehaven's role in the slave trade.


title: Whitehaven

text: Scottish-American naval officer John Paul Jones raided the town in 1778 during the American Revolutionary War, burning some merchant ships in the harbour.


title: Whitehaven

text: During the 19th century the port of Whitehaven was overtaken by Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow, as they had deep-water dock facilities and were closer to large centres of population and industry. The huge development of a national railway network had also reduced Whitehaven's 18th century competitive advantage of having coal extracted very close to a harbour for shipment by sea.


title: Whitehaven

text: The earliest reference to coal mining in the Whitehaven area is in the time of Prior Langton (1256–82) of St Bees Priory, concerning the coal mines at Arrowthwaite. St Bees Priory was dissolved in 1539, and the lands and mineral rights passed to secular owners. The first of these, Sir Thomas Chaloner, granted leases of land in 1560 for digging coal, and in 1586 he granted St Bees School liberty "to take 40 loads of coal at his coal pits in the parish of St Bees for the use of the school". Such workings were small-scale and near the surface, using adits and bell pits. But the Lowther family later developed and dominated the coal industry in Whitehaven from the mid 17th century to the early 20th century.


title: Whitehaven

text: Sir John Lowther, 2nd Baronet (1642–1706) significantly developed the coal industry and the trade with Ireland. He spent over £11,000 in expanding the Lowther holdings in the area, and considerably improved the drainage of his pits; thus allowing mining at greater depths.


title: Whitehaven

text: Sir James Lowther, 4th Baronet FRS (1673–1755) continued the work of his father and reputedly became the richest commoner in England. Between 1709 and 1754, over £46,000 was spent to extend the Lowther holdings of land and coal royalties in West Cumberland. By the 1740s Lowther was the dominant exporter at every harbour in the Cumberland coalfield and from the late 17th to the mid-19th centuries this coal represented 6%-7% of all English exports to Ireland; most of the coal burnt in Dublin came from here. However, Lowther was noted for his unscrupulous business practices, and a lease of the coal royalties owned by St Bees School was obtained in 1742 on manifestly unfair terms: an annual rent of £3.50, with no payment per ton raised, for 867 years. The lease was eventually quashed in 1827, with compensation of over £13,000 paid to the school.


title: Whitehaven

text: Sir John, and after him Sir James, had concerns that there were few reserves of economically retrievable coal under dry land. They felt that exploration under the sea was necessary, but this carried the risk of flooding. However, Sir James had two very able managers, the brothers Carlisle and John Spedding, who were willing to explore new technology and techniques. In 1712 John Spedding urged Lowther to consider pumping by steam, and in 1715 he became one of the earliest customers for the newly-invented Newcomen engine. Spedding concluded that such an engine would drain a flooded pit in two-thirds the time that horse gins would take, and would do so at a quarter of the cost. Consequently, a small (17-inch diameter cylinder) "Engine No. 5", built by Thomas Newcomen and John Calley, was erected. It was so successful that in 1727 Lowther bought an additional pumping engine.


title: Whitehaven

text: With this proven method of pumping Lowther was able to exploit the coal measures under the sea by sinking a pit at Saltom on land below the cliffs south of the harbour, to a depth of 456 ft (138m). Work began early in 1730, and the pit was officially opened in May 1732 with great celebration. Carlisle Spedding had charge of the design and construction, and successfully sank only the second sub-sea pit in Britain. It was reported that "A shaft twelve foot by ten had been sunk seventy-seven fathoms" (141 metres) "(the deepest a pit had been sunk in any part of Europe) to a three-yard thick coal seam (the Main Band) in twenty-three months, using thirty barrels of gunpowder, and without any loss of life or limb by the workforce'.


title: Whitehaven

text: Saltom Pit ceased working coal in 1848, and is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument (SM 27801) and is the best known surviving example of an 18th-century colliery layout. Evidence of the shaft, horse gin, stable, winding engine house, boiler house and chimney, cottages, cart roads and retaining walls, all survives. Coal excavated from Saltom Pit was raised by horse gin to the surface, then transported by tramway through a tunnel to Ravenhill Pit for lifting to the cliff top. Saltom Pit was used as a central pumping station, draining many of the other local mines via a drift driven in the 1790s, and continued in use long after it had ceased to work coal.


title: Whitehaven

text: To counter the considerable danger of methane gas explosion, Carlisle Spedding invented a forerunner to the Davy Lamp, known as the Spedding Wheel or Steel Mill. This used the sparks generated by a flint against a rotating steel wheel to provide light, on the basis the sparks were not quite hot enough to ignite the gas. On occasions it caused explosions or fires but it was a major improvement over the naked flame.


title: Whitehaven

text: Lowther also supported experimental work on firedamp by William Brownrigg, a local doctor and scientist, and he presented papers by Brownrigg at the Royal Society. Brownrigg had gas piped from a nearby pit to his workshop, which provided light and heat, and bladders of the gas were taken to London to be demonstrated at the Royal Society. Brownrigg was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) for this work.


title: Whitehaven

text: After Sir James, there was a succession of Lowthers who inherited the coal interests but did not emulate his close interest. The Lowthers' direct involvement in coal diminished, and in 1888 the mines were leased to the Whitehaven Colliery Company. By 1893 nearly all the coal was being extracted from under the sea, and William pit extended 4 miles out under the Solway. In 1900 the output of the collieries was 536,000 tons. However they became less economic; the company failed in 1933, and the pits were sold to Priestman collieries. They in turn failed in 1935, and the pits were closed for 18 months. Work resumed with help from a Nuffield foundation, and the Cumberland Coal Company was formed, re-opening the pits in 1937. In 1947 the pits came under the nationalised body, the National Coal Board.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 300 years over seventy pits were sunk in the Whitehaven area. During this period some five hundred or more people were killed in pit disasters and mining accidents. The largest disaster in the area was in 1910 at Wellington Pit, where 136 miners died. In another disaster in 1947 at William Pit, 104 men were killed. Four separate explosions over the period 1922–1931 at Haig Pit together killed 83. Haig was the last pit to operate in Whitehaven.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 1983, a major geological fault was encountered at Haig pit which increased the difficulty of operation. This, combined with the political situation, and the miners' strike in 1984–85, contributed to problems at the colliery. The workforce attempted to open a new face, but a decision had been taken to close, and after two years of recovery work, Haig finally ceased mining on 31 March 1986. Today there is no mining carried out in Whitehaven though there is a proposal to sink a new mine out under the sea for coking coal. In November 2019 the UK government gave the green light for this mine to go ahead.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 2007, Copeland Council declared that it could no longer afford to maintain the remaining Saltom Pit buildings, and preserve them from damage by the sea. But after an online campaign by myWhitehaven.net, the council changed their mind. They teamed up with the National Trust to try to save Saltom Pit, and obtained the necessary funding from various sources, including a 50% grant from the European Union. On Monday 8 December 2007, Saltom Pit was reopened as an historic monument. The pit buildings have been conserved and are now part of the 'Whitehaven Coast' project, a scheme to regenerate the coastal area of Whitehaven.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven is within the Copeland UK Parliamentary constituency. , its Member of Parliament (MP) is the Conservative Party's Trudy Harrison, who has held the seat since a by-election in 2017.


title: Whitehaven

text: The existence of a harbour or landing place at Whitehaven can be traced back to 1517, when quay-dues, otherwise known as wharfage,were recorded.


title: Whitehaven

text: The purchase of the manor of St Bees in 1630 by the Lowther family started the development of Whitehaven harbour primarily to export coal. Sir Christopher Lowther built a stone pier in 1631–34, and it survives, albeit very modified, as the Old Quay.


title: Whitehaven

text: By the 1660s the pier was suffering from storm damage and by the 1670s it was considered too small for the growing number of vessels wanting to use it. In 1677 a description refers to "a little pier, in shallow water, built with some wooden piles and stones".


title: Whitehaven

text: The prospect of a rival pier being built at Parton to the north of Whitehaven galvanised Sir John Lowther into developing the harbour, and by 1679 further work was under way. In the late 17th and 18th century the harbour was extended by ballast walls, moles and piers to become one of the most complex pier harbours in Britain. April 1778 saw the harbour as the first site of an American attack on the British Isles during the American War of Independence.


title: Whitehaven

text: The port's trade waned rapidly when ports with much larger shipping capacity, such as Bristol and Liverpool, began to take over its main trade. Its peak of prosperity was in the 19th century when West Cumberland experienced a brief boom because haematite found locally was one of the few iron ores that could be used to produce steel by the original Bessemer process. Improvements to the Bessemer process and the development of the open hearth process removed this advantage. In the 20th century, as in most mining communities, the inter-war depression was severe; this was exacerbated for West Cumbria by Irish independence which suddenly placed tariff barriers on its principal export market.


title: Whitehaven

text: The harbour lost its last commercial cargo handling operation in 1992 when Marchon ceased their phosphate rock import operations. Drivers Jonas and marine consulting engineers Beckett Rankine drew up a new master plan to impound the inner basins of the harbour to create a large marina and fishing harbour, and refocus the town on a renovated harbour.


title: Whitehaven

text: The harbour has seen much other renovation due to millennium developments, and the rejuvenation project cost an estimated £11.3 million. This has provided 100 more moorings within the marina. Another £5.5 million has been spent on developing a 40 m (130 ft) high crow's nest and a wave light feature that changes colour depending on the tide, together with The Rum Story on Lowther Street, voted Cumbria Tourism's small visitor attraction of the year 2007. A picture of the harbour was used on the front page of the Tate Modern's promotional material for an exhibition of Millennium Projects in 2003.


title: Whitehaven

text: In June 2008, Queen Elizabeth II visited Whitehaven as part of the 300th Anniversary Celebrations. The Queen and Prince Philip then officially re-opened the refurbished Beacon museum at the harbour; 10,000 people attended the event.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven was, with Falmouth, the first post-medieval new planned town in England. It is the most complete example of planned Georgian architecture in Europe and there are over 170 listed buildings. Whitehaven's planned layout was with streets in a right-angled grid which it is thought was imitated by the new towns of the American Colonies, with which there were strong trade links.


title: Whitehaven

text: Although Sir Christopher Lowther initially purchased Whitehaven it was his son, Sir John Lowther, 2nd Baronet, who was responsible for its growth and development. Sir John acquired a market charter in 1660 for the town, but the urban expansion did not start until the 1680s when he laid out a spacious rectangular grid of streets to the north east of the existing tiny hamlet.


title: Whitehaven

text: Sir John specified that the houses were "to be three storeys high, not less than 28 feet from the street level to the square of the side walls, the windows of the first and second storeys to be transomed and the same, together with the doors to be of hewn stone." Ample provision was made for gardens.


title: Whitehaven

text: One block was left vacant for a new church and in 1694 another site was given for a Presbyterian chapel. Most of the streets were relatively narrow, about ten yards, but the principal thoroughfare, Lowther Street, which ran through the town centre from the Lowther family residence to the waterfront, was 16 yards wide. The old St Nicholas chapel was demolished in 1693 to make way for Lowther Street, and its materials used to build a new school.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven Castle was built in 1769 for Sir John Lowther as his private residence at the end of Lowther Street, replacing an earlier building destroyed by fire. In 1924, the Earl of Lonsdale sold Whitehaven Castle to Herbert Wilson Walker, a local industrialist. Walker donated the building to the people of West Cumberland, along with £20,000 to convert it into a hospital to replace the old Whitehaven Infirmary at Howgill Street, which was established in 1830.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven is on the Cumbrian Coast Line which runs from Carlisle to Barrow-in-Furness. The town has two railway stations: Whitehaven (Bransty) and Corkickle, joined by a tunnel underneath the town.


title: Whitehaven

text: The first railway to reach Whitehaven was the Whitehaven Junction Railway (WJR) in 1847 from , which terminated at the Bransty Row station and allowed rail access to Carlisle and Newcastle upon Tyne. On the southern side of the town, the first section of the Whitehaven and Furness Junction Railway (W&FJR) opened on 1 June 1849 from a terminus at Whitehaven (Preston Street) to , and thereafter gradually in stages until Barrow in Furness and ultimately Carnforth were reached. This gave access to the south onto the main West Coast line, and later became the main line of the Furness Railway. The two lines were separated by the town centre, and a tramway was constructed through the market place allowing goods wagons to be horse-drawn from Preston Street to the harbour, but there was still no through route for passenger trains. In 1852, a tunnel long was built under the town, and in 1854 the W&FJR passenger trains ran through to the Bransty station from a new station at Corkickle. Preston Street became a goods-only station and served as the main goods depot for the town.


title: Whitehaven

text: As in other colliery areas, horse-drawn tramways and then locomotive-powered railways were used extensively to move coal. The first steam locomotive made an early appearance in 1816, to a design similar to the noted Steam Elephant built by William Chapman of Newcastle. However this pioneering engine was not too successful and was converted to a pumping and winding engine. Nonetheless the harbour and collieries eventually developed an extensive network of industrial railways within the constraints of the steep valley sides and the coast. The system had two roped inclines. The Howgill incline connected Ladysmith pit on the steep north-western side of the valley to Wellington pit at the harbour, and operated to the 1970s, and on the south of the town the Corkickle incline, known locally as "The Brake", was built in 1881 from the Furness Railway main line to Croft Pit. This closed in 1931 but was reopened in May 1955 to serve Marchon Products' chemical factory. The Brake closed for good on 31 October 1986, when it was the last commercial roped incline in Britain. It was in length with gradients of between 1 in 5.2 and 1 in 6.6.


title: Whitehaven

text: The nearby Lowca engineering works began to produce locomotives in 1843, including the first Crampton locomotives, which became the fastest locomotives of the day; one was reported to have reached 62 mph. Over the life of the works, some 260 locomotives were produced – mainly for industrial lines. The works entered shipbuilding in 1842-3, producing "Lowca", the first iron ship launched in Cumberland.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 1941, Fred Marzillier and Frank Schon relocated Marchon Products Ltd from London to Whitehaven, which was a special development area, after their offices were destroyed by German bombing. At Whitehaven they started manufacturing firelighters, then in 1943 they moved production to the site of the Ladysmith pit coke ovens at Kells, where they formed a sister company, "Solway Chemicals", to produce liquid fertilisers and foaming agents. At the end of the war, a number of chemists and engineers were released after the closure of the Royal Ordnance Factories at Drigg and Sellafield. This helped drive the pioneering expansion into detergent bases to include some of the first soap-substitutes to reach the UK market.


title: Whitehaven

text: The new detergents were a big success, as soap was in short supply after the war; however the original reason for moving to Whitehaven, remoteness from Europe, was now a serious handicap as the site was remote from raw materials. The answer was to manufacture as much processed raw material as possible on the site. New plants were built for the production of fatty alcohols in a pioneering process; tripolyphosphate was produced on site using phosphate rock from Casablanca imported via the harbour; and sulphuric acid was produced using anhydrite from the specially-created Sandwith mine adjacent to the factory. Production diversified further into specialist additives and chemicals, and continued to expand to become the town's largest employer, with 2,300 employees.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 1955 the companies were taken over by Albright and Wilson, and they in turn were taken over by the French company, Rhodia, in 1999. The decline of this site had started in the late 1980s, and finally in 2005 the site was closed down after a number of production processes had been terminated over the years.


title: Whitehaven

text: To help counter the 50% unemployment in the area, John Adams, of the West Cumberland Industrial Development Company, invited Miki Sekers and his cousin, Tomi de Gara to establish the West Cumberland Silk Mills at Hensingham, Whitehaven in 1938. The intention was to manufacture high quality silk and rayon fabrics for the fashion trade, but during World War II they mainly produced parachute nylon. After the war, it became Sekers Fabrics and reverted to its original purpose. It supplied material to the great fashion houses such as Edward Molyneux and Bianca Mosca in London and Christian Dior, Pierre Cardin and Givenchy in Paris. At the same time it supplied luxury-style dress materials within the purchasing power of most home dressmakers working in nylon.


title: Whitehaven

text: The company was awarded the Duke of Edinburgh prize for elegant design in 1962, 1965 and 1973, and a Royal warrant was awarded as suppliers of furnishing fabric to Her Majesty the Queen. In 1964, they established a large showroom at 190-192 Sloane Street, London.


title: Whitehaven

text: Miki Sekers was appointed an MBE in 1955 for services to the fashion industry, and was knighted in 1965 for services to the arts.


title: Whitehaven

text: In 1945, Kurt Oppenheim, a 26-year-old refugee from Nazi Germany, bought the abandoned Whitehaven Brewery site on Inkerman Terrace and began using it to prove both a home for the family and a factory to house the production of curled hair. Curled hair was used as the a part of the filling for bed mattresses, railway and carriage seating, car and domestic upholstery and when rubberised it was used in flooring. Kurt's family had been in the curled hair manufacturing business for many generations in Kassel, Germany and had factories in Kassel and Basel, Switzerland but after the war there was little left of the business, and it offered no assistance to Kurt who started in Whitehaven on a small amount of borrowed funds. The product was manufactured from horse and cow hair sourced from China and Argentina. Hair was cleansed, spun into rope (on machinery mainly produced in continental Europe) and then the rope was broken up to produce the hair with a spring like curl in it. This bulky product was bagged and sent off to customers all over the UK. With the introduction of synthetic upholstery fillings in the late 1950s and early '60s, the UK curled hair business began to contract and Cumberland Curled Hair consolidated the industry by buying up competitors that were closing down and moved their production to Whitehaven. The business expanded into a factory in Hensingham industrial area and brought employment to about eighty people of the town.


title: Whitehaven

text: In the 1960s the product of choice for furniture, motor and other curled hair users turned towards polyurethane foam. Kurt set about learning from the chemical manufacturers just how foam was produced. The producers were large public companies like Dunlop and Vita-foam to name but two of about five producers. Many small firms sprang up to buy the foam 'blocs' that these prime makers produced , and convert (cut up) the foam into useable shapes for users further down the production chain, like car manufacturers, furniture and bedding etc. A foam production machine was beyond the financial resources of Cumberland Curled Hair Ltd to buy so with the help of his trusty band of factory mechanical fitters and electrician Kurt assembled his own machine – and it worked. It produced smaller but high quality foam blocs than those being produced by the big competitors, and it found a market with one of the UK's then largest furniture manufacturers.


title: Whitehaven

text: The new foam business was called Cheri Foam and it was not long before its fourteen container lorries were to be seen all over the roads of Cumbria and Northumberland.


title: Whitehaven

text: By the mid 1960s, the space requirements outgrew the factory in Hensingham and only the offices were kept in the original Tower Brewery in Whitehaven, whilst production of curled hair and flexile urethane foam was moved to an 11-acre site with two large aircraft hangars at Silloth Airfield.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven is a rugby league stronghold, its team Whitehaven R.L.F.C. play in the second tier of the British rugby league system. Their mascot is a lion called "Pride".


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven Cricket Club play in the Cumbria Cricket League and jointly share their pitch "The Playground" with Whitehaven RUFC.


title: Whitehaven

text: The term "jam eater" is often used by the people of neighbouring Workington to refer to the people of Whitehaven, or more generally to people from West Cumbria. When the "Financial Times" ran a lighthearted article on famous feuds in September 2008, featuring this, the local "Whitehaven News" published its own complementary feature, reporting that: "The common view is that the term is insulting because it implies people could not afford to buy meat for their sandwiches, so they had to eat jam instead."


title: Whitehaven

text: The original article had summed up the situation in terms of the long-term rivalry between Whitehaven and nearby Workington: "Legend has it that one town's miners had jam on their sandwiches and the other did not, but no one agrees on which town it was or whether they did it because they were snobs or peasants." A reader from Maryport, a few miles further up the Cumbria coast (which, as occasionally mentioned in discussions on the topic, used to have a jam factory) reported that he had understood the term originally referred to people from Whitehaven, and this was echoed in the comments on the "Whitehaven News" article, suggesting that a former distinction between the Whitehaven "jam eaters" and Workington "high siders" had gradually been lost in the trading of insults across the rugby pitch.


title: Whitehaven

text: Whitehaven has also played host to a Maritime Festival, which started in 1999 and was held every two years, and then annually (the last being in 2013) attracting an estimated 350,000 people to the small town.