title: Climate of Sydney

text: Summer in Sydney tends to vary, but it is generally warm to hot. Though at times, sea breezes moderate the temperatures and raise humidity. Temperatures tend to be stable in late summer where temperature maxima rarely go below or over , unlike late spring and early summer where such extremes may occur. Summer is often humid, particularly late summer – However, when temperatures soar over , the humidity is generally low as such high temperatures are brought by searing winds from the Australian desert. Sydney summers are characterised by rapid changes of weather, with humidity and rain not uncommon in the city although thunderstorms are more common in the west. The ultraviolet index rating in the summer averages at 12, but can reach 13 in the midst of the season, which may lead to skin damage among those having light skin.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: When temperatures reach over , the relative humidity seldom exceeds 45%, although low pressure troughs can increase humidity in some hot days, especially in late summer, where they may provide afternoon thunderstorms that are usually accompanied by heavy rainfall and, at times, hail. Furthermore, most mornings and nights are muggy, with the 9am relative humidity ranging from 69% to 75%. The average 3pm dewpoint temperature in the summer ranges from at the coast, to inland. Dewpoints are higher in late summer, reaching , especially in the mornings and evenings, although they are usually lower in the heat of the day, dipping as low as in the extremely hot day.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In late spring and summer, Sydney can sometimes get northwesterly winds from the Outback, which are dry and hot, making the temperatures soar above , with the relative humidity as low as 15%. This happens after the northwesterlies are carried entirely over the continental landmass, not picking up additional moisture from a body of water and retaining most of their heat. On these occasions, Sydney can experience the fury of the desert climate, although they are often ended with a Southerly Buster, which is a windy, shallow cold front that sweeps up from the southeast abruptly cooling the temperature. At times, it may be accompanied by a thunderstorm and drizzle, and it may keep the temperatures cool the following few days as well. These strong, hot, northwesterly winds from the interior always precede a vigorous, westerly cold front (which usually drags warm inland air towards the southern and eastern coasts).


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In the Sydney central business district, an average of 15 days a year have temperatures of more than and 3 days with temperatures over . In contrast, western suburbs such as Liverpool and Penrith have 41 and 67 days with temperatures above , 10 and 19 days above , and, 1 and 4 days above , respectively.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The highest recorded maximum temperature in Sydney was recorded at Penrith with a high of 48.9 °C (120 °F) on 4 January 2020. The highest recorded maximum temperature at Observatory Hill was on 18 January 2013 during a prolonged heat wave across Australia from early December 2012 to late January 2013. The highest recorded minimum at Observatory Hill is , registered on 6 February 2011. A similar minimum temperature has also been recorded in the western suburbs.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Late summer conditions usually continue until the first few weeks of April where maximum temperatures hover between with the dewpoint being around on average. Although, unlike late summer, the nights may be seemingly cooler and crispier. Most heavy rainfall events usually occur in late summer and early autumn as the subtropical ridge of high pressure, which rotates counterclockwise, is to the south of Australia and therefore give way for moist easterlies from the Tasman Sea and as well as low pressure systems to penetrate the region.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The transition from late summer to autumn is gradual, with noticeably cooler and crisper conditions taking in effect by around mid-April. In mid-autumn, the highs typically average at a pleasant , rarely going above or below . In May, the average highs are around with cool and usually humid nights, that seldom dip below . Wintry highs of may be expected in the last week of autumn.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Temperatures in autumn are usually consistent and stable, lacking any extremes that tend to be experienced in spring and summer. Due to moist easterlies that prevail in this season, foggy mornings should be expected. The average 9am relative humidity in autumn ranges from 72% to 80% in the Sydney region, the highest in the year. The lowest maximum temperature in autumn is , recorded on 24 May 1904.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In winter, the diurnal range in the western suburbs is relatively high, with temperatures being as high as during the day and as low as at night. Such low temperatures may provide mild to moderate frost in the western suburbs. Winter in central Sydney tends to be more mild where the lows rarely drop below , and highs hovering at around mainly due to proximity to the ocean. Furthermore, Sydney CBD (Observatory Hill) has never recorded frost, whereas coastal cities in the country on similar latitudes, such as Perth, Esperance and Adelaide, and those further north of Sydney such as Coffs Harbour, Port Macquarie, Hervey Bay and Sunshine Coast, have recorded frost or temperatures below .


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In the west, Liverpool and Richmond have 4 and 38 nights, respectively, where temperatures dip below . On average, only 1 night in Liverpool and 17 nights in Richmond have lows going below . Such cool lows in the far west are contributed to by a temperature inversion and a mountain breeze effect caused by the Blue Mountains, which impact the suburbs on their footsteps. The lowest maximum temperature in Liverpool was , recorded on 28 July 1981. Similar low maximums have been recorded in the Sydney region in winter. 9am humidity ranges from 61% to 74% across the Sydney region, with the more higher figures experienced in June mornings. Highs of , whilst rare, are not unheard of in winter.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Sydney receives around 15 days of fog annually, which occurs in winter mornings, but more often in June when moist easterlies dominate. The inland suburbs generally receive radiation fog due to nocturnal cooling under a clear sky of humid maritime air that was brought inland by the previous day's sea breeze. The coastal suburbs mostly get an advective fog, which floats ashore from the meeting of warm water offshore and cold water nearby on the land. Heavier rain and cloudiness are also to be expected more in June, on average, than the latter winter months.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: During late winter, warm dry westerly winds which dominate may raise the maximum temperatures as high as in some instances. As the subtropical ridge is north of Sydney in mid-to-late winter, it picks up dry westerlies from the continent's interior because of its anticlockwise rotation, thus producing more sunny days in the region, hence why August has the highest sunshine percentage of any other month. In early winter, the UV index averages at 2, which means it's safe to be outdoors unprotected, but it reaches 3 by the end of the season (therefore sun protection is required for the general population).


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The lowest recorded minimum at Observatory Hill was on 22 June 1932, while the coldest in the Sydney metropolitan area was , in Richmond. The lowest recorded maximum temperature at Observatory Hill was . Although not usually considered a suburb of Sydney, Picton, a town in the Macarthur Region of Sydney, recorded a low of on 16 July 1970.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Early spring is rapidly transitional. Cool conditions from late winter may continue in September with the maximum temperature dipping as low as at the coldest, but due to the drastic transition, temperatures above can also be expected in that month. By November, summery conditions begin, with temperatures normally ranging between and as high as , albeit with relatively low humidity.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Because the subtropical ridge lies to the north of Sydney this time of the year, it will bring westerly winds from the interior that produce mostly sunny conditions, at times warm, with the temperatures averaging between with relatively low dewpoints, hovering between . Some days may be windy due to the dry westerlies and nights may be relatively cool, where temperatures plummet down to around in some suburbs. Hot air from the interior that soars temperatures to over can be expected, especially in the months of October and November. These conditions are rare in September, but not unheard of.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Extreme, changeable and inconsistent temperatures are much more prevalent in spring than other seasons. On some occasions, hot dry days are cooled down by a southerly buster, which eventually lowers the temperatures from to as low as . Such extremes usually happen in mid-to-late spring. Other seasons seldom see such fluctuations in a day's span. Furthermore, the diurnal range is higher in this season than it is in autumn.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The lowest maximum temperature in spring was , recorded on 8 September 1869. 9am relative humidity is the lowest in the year during spring, ranging from 58% to 68%, with early spring receiving lower figures.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The Sydney Basin is in the traditional lands of the Dharawal people. The Dharawal describe six seasons for their country which extends from the southern shores of Port Jackson (Sydney Harbour) to the northern shores of the Shoalhaven River, and from the eastern shores of the Wollondilly River system to the eastern seaboard.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The Bureau of Meteorology reported in 2011 that 2002 to 2005 had been the warmest years in Sydney since records began in 1859. 2004 saw an average daily maximum temperature of , 2005 of , 2002 of , and 2003 of . The average daily maximum between 1859 and 2004 was . Seven (of the ten) warmest years in 151 years of recordkeeping have occurred in the ten years between 2001 and 2010, with this decade being the warmest on record for minimum temperatures.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The Bureau of Meteorology reported that the summer of 2007–08 was the coolest in 11 years, the wettest in six years, the cloudiest in 16 years, and one of only three summers in recorded history to lack a maximum temperature above . The Bureau of Meteorology reported that 2009 was a warm year. The average annual daytime temperature at Observatory Hill was , which is above the historical annual average. This ranks as the seventh highest annual average maximum temperature since records commenced in 1859. 2010 was the equal fourth warmest year on record for Sydney, with an average maximum of , which was above the historical annual average.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In 2013, the city had the warmest July and September on record, with September being one of the driest. In September, temperatures were above average and the city had over seven days where temperatures reached , making it more similar to November's weather pattern. October 2015 had the warmest nights on record, which were above average. The warming trend continued in 2016 as Sydney's warmest autumn ever was recorded. July 2017 to June 2018 in southeastern Australia proved to be the hottest financial year on record with maximum temperatures being the warmest on record and minimums above average.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Sydney experienced its hottest summer since records began in the summer of 2016–17, with more than 10 days over . Sydney's 2017 mean temperature of degrees was degrees above the long term average and the second highest value in 158 years of records. The warmest year on record was 2016, with a mean temperature of degrees. On 7 January 2018, Sydney was the hottest place on Earth. In April 2018, Sydney had the longest running hot spell for that month with nine consecutive days of temperatures reaching . Furthermore, the airport and parts of the western suburbs also broke heat records in that month.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The 2020-21 summer was the coolest in a decade due to La Nina's influence. During May 2021, Sydney CBD recorded its coldest stretch of May days in 54 years due to a polar blast that swept across Australia's southeast, which kept the temperatures below in the early mornings for five consecutive nights, in addition to the inland suburbs dipping down to and . On June 10, 2021, Sydney CBD had its coldest day since 1984 and the coldest June day since 1899, where it reached a maximum of just . Bankstown, a western suburb, only reached , its coldest day in 50 years, with nearby suburbs registering a similar temperature. These unusually cold maximums were caused by a cut-off low, which is a slow moving, sizeable Antarctic cold air mass that got "cut-off" from the westerly trough systems of cold air in the south where it reached the east coast. August 2021 registered 15 consecutive winter days above , the first time in 163 years of records, which was achieved due to a lack of cold fronts or rain over NSW during the month and a blocking high in Southern Australia that prevented cold fronts from reaching the continent.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The region of Sydney is subject to phenomena typical of a microclimate, namely in late spring and summer, where the western suburbs are hotter than the Sydney CBD by due to urban sprawl exacerbating the urban heat island effect and less exposure to mitigating sea breezes which cool down Sydney's eastern edge and fail to move inland. The dramatic temperature difference between coastal and inland areas is caused by a combination of desert-warmed air from central Australia reaching the west, and as well as density of housing, lack of vegetation or open spaces, and the Blue Mountains which help trap the hot air.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: When it is at Bondi for instance, the temperature will be around just west of the Sydney Harbour Bridge, around near Parramatta and as much as inland. Such extreme temperature differences in the Sydney metropolitan area usually occur in late spring when the western Pacific Ocean is still quite cool and the inland air is warm. Furthermore, within the CBD, heat maps show the area around Central Station (in Haymarket) is warmer than Circular Quay and surrounds, making it the hottest place in the CBD.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: According to ecologist Sebastian Pfautsch from the University of Freiburg, in Sydney's hot days there could be discrepancies of up to 22 more days above recorded in urban space compared to a weather station from the Bureau of Meteorology. Because was recorded in Penrith (on 4 January 2020), it won't be unusual to have a reading somewhere nearby, especially if it lacked green space and retained heat to intensify heatwave temperatures. Moreover, a heat logger registered a temperature of at Berkshire Park, making it the hottest temperature ever recorded in the Sydney basin, albeit being an unofficial one. Richmond has the second largest overall temperature range recorded in Australia, after Mitchell, Queensland; .


title: Climate of Sydney

text: A study by the University of Western Australia and RMIT indicated that the western suburbs have a much stronger urban heat island effect than those east of the CBD and that hotter temperatures in the west are human contributed due to solar radiation absorbing materials in black asphalt and dark roofs, anthropogenic heat from cars and less natural environments, thereby creating a "heat dome" that blocks the cooler air from the sea. Greening Australia stated that January mean maximum temperatures in the west have risen at a pace of 0.65 °C per decade, over twice as much as eastern Sydney's 0.28 °C per decade. The OEH warned that further development could cause more exceedingly hot days in the west by 2030. Annually, coastal Sydney sees five heat-related deaths per 100,000 people while the western suburbs see 14 per 100,000.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Urban heat island of the CBD has been efficaciously blocking the cooler air from reaching the inland suburbs because the CBD's "high temperature, is like a wall that stops the sea breeze in its tracks. Over Sydney’s CBD is a heat dome because of the high density of concrete and asphalt. If we want to cool western Sydney and demolish this wall, we need to cool the CBD first", Professor Mattheos Santamouris from UNSW states. He explained that cooling the CBD would reduce the temperature by 1.5 °C in the west and tree coverage could cool down suburban streets by as much as in hot days since high-density housing developments and scarce trees trap heat. Waterbodies and open spaces also provide cooling benefits in urban areas.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: According to climate researchers, relatively easy modifications such as constructing fountains and water playgrounds could also lower temperatures in the western suburbs. The city now has 3.6% more trees in 2016 than it did in 2009 and Penrith City Council had planned to plant 100,000 trees from August 2018, in addition to planning a large city park, creating a water-sensitive urban design, street shading, and the use of cool materials in its building developments. Furthermore, Parramatta City Council has installed 20 temperature sensors among different tree species in its suburbs to compare how different species can help reduce urban heat.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Rainfall is slightly higher or dominant during the first half of the year, particularly in late summer and early autumn, when the ocean has peaked its warmth. At this time of the year, the subtropical ridge is to the south of the continent, thereby directing easterly winds towards the east coast. Rainfall will tend to be lower in the second half of the year when the subtropical ridge is just to the north of the city where it picks up dry winds from the continent's interior towards Sydney (as it rotates counter-clockwise) and this will be when clockwise-rotating low pressure systems are to the south of the continent.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Due to the unpredictability of rain, the wettest and driest months change on a yearly basis. The "wet" and "dry season" is more pronounced in the inland suburbs with late winter to early spring (July–September) having a drying trend and late summer to early autumn being wetter and greener (February–March), making the region more close to the humid subtropical subtype "Cwa". The drier winters are due to its rain shadow position on the leeward (eastern) side of the Great Dividing Range, which shield the region from south-westerly cold fronts that arrive from the Southern Ocean.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Within the city and surrounds, rainfall varies, from around at Badgerys Creek (in the west) to at Turramurra (the northeast) in the Northern Suburbs, which create an orographic rainfall. Even in its months of highest rainfall, Sydney has relatively few rainy days, with an average mean of 7 to 8 rainy days per month on the threshold, despite having a moderate to high amount of annual rainfall at around to (depending on the area) – This illustrates that Sydney generally receives short-lived, heavy rainfall day events, usually not lasting more than 2 or 3 days, which give away to mostly propitious conditions for many weeks to months even, especially during an El Niño period (though during a La Niña event, rainfall may be intermittent for many days or weeks).


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In 2022, Sydney recorded its wettest March on record with the rain gauge picking up of rain, beating from 1942 – this also brought Sydney's annual total up to , which is the highest January-to-March total in records that date back to 1859. The high amount of rainfall was caused by a combination of the La Nina phase, an anomalously warm Tasman Sea, and a consistently positive Southern Annular Mode (SAM). In April that year, Sydney CBD exceeded its long-term annual average rainfall of , which set a new record for the fastest time to accumulate a year's worth of rain in the CBD. This surpassed the previous record by a month – The old record was May 3 in 1990 and the following record was May 6 in 1890. Sydney also recorded its wettest July on record that year where of rain fell during the month, surpassing the July 1950 record.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: East coast lows, which strike from the southeast in the Tasman Sea, provide heavy rainfall typically in autumn to early winter with Sydney CBD being greatly impacted due to its location on the coast. They can make landfall at any time of the year, typically usually during a positive SAM phase. The precipitation of the low comes from a nimbostratus cloud that dumps as much as of rain for as much as two days, though when the cloud is thick enough of rain can fall in three hours as was the rare case in August 1986. Other rainfall drivers include Black nor'easters (in the warm months), upper-level lows (all year round), Australian northwest cloudbands (autumn-spring) and as well as, albeit rarely, tropical cyclone remnants (warm months) and cut-off lows (cool months).


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Due to onshore winds, the CBD is susceptible to some light rain and drizzle – These conditions usually do not penetrate the inland suburbs. However, the western suburbs are more inclined to receive thunderstorms in summer due to the stabilizing effect of a sea breeze in the afternoon near the CBD and Eastern Suburbs, however the stabilizing effect does not always occur as was the case during the 1947 event as according to Newmans report there was a sea breeze on the day it occurred.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: On some days, rain may come in drizzle form, though this is rare as most rain comes mostly from major storms. In the warm months, rain comes in short heavy downpours in the afternoons, usually cooling the conditions and providing some respite. Sometimes these afternoon showers give away to the sun again, although black nor'easters may provide rainfall for a few consecutive days.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The city is rarely affected by cyclones, although remnants of ex-cyclones do affect the city. The city is prone to severe hail storms, such as the 1947 Sydney hailstorm, wind storms, and flash flooding from rain caused either by East Coast Lows (such as the major storm in early June 2007) or ex-tropical cyclone remnants. Scientists have predicted that rainfall will become more unpredictable and temperatures will be on the rise. Parts of western Sydney were substantially flooded during the New South Wales 2021 floods, with many areas around Richmond and Windsor submerged in floodwaters. In early 2022, Sydney recorded its wettest start to a year on record with the running annual total being , topping to the same date in 1956 and in 1990, respectively (rainfall data at Sydney Observatory Hill dates back to 1858).


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Snow is extremely rare in Sydney, with significant snowfall being last reported in the Sydney area on 28 June 1836. On that date, it was reported that convicts and British settlers in Hyde Park woke up to snow "nearly deep", with the meteorological table in The Sydney Herald recording that on the morning of the snow the temperature dropped to . The snow event affected trading where sellers were unable to transport goods to markets in the colony. The snowfall occurred at the end of the dalton minimum, a solar cycle period representing low solar activity, where colder temperatures were recorded globally. A keeper of weather observations during that period, T. A. Browne noted:


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Scant snowfall has been recorded in latter dates: On 22 June 1951, light snowflakes (which melted into rain) were reported in the suburbs of Liverpool, Pymble and Kingsgrove. On 18 July 1965, very light snow fell in Berowra Heights and Hornsby. On 21 June 1972, settling snow was allegedly observed in what is now Kellyville Ridge, although it may have been soft hail or ice pellets. On 25 July 1986, melting snow was observed in metropolitan Sydney, in addition to some settling snow being reported in North Ryde. On 27 July 2008, a fall of graupel or soft hail (which was mistaken for snow by residents), blanketed Lindfield, Roseville and Killara in white. Owing to this event, a senior forecaster from the Bureau of Meteorology doubted the 1836 snow account, stating that weather observers in that time period lacked the technology and skill to distinguish snow from soft hail.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The Blue Mountains, a temperate oceanic region bordering on Sydney's metropolitan area, have a reputation for snow in winter, with places such as Katoomba, Leura and Blackheath receiving the most snow due to their higher elevation. Despite the reputation, there are only around five snowy days per year in the upper mountains area with two settled falls per season, and another five to ten days of light snow showers or sleet. Settled snow has become less common in recent decades. It is extremely rare to see snow below Lawson.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Sydney's climate appears to be becoming drier; The city has had fewer rain days in recent years than shown in the long-term climate table above. In summer, Sydney can go for long periods without rainfall. The other phenomenon that arises from these long, dry and hot periods is bushfires, which occur frequently in the areas surrounding the city. Water supply is a recurring concern for the city during drought periods. In 2005 the reservoirs reached an all-time low.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Many areas of the city bordering bushland have experienced bushfires, notably in 1994 and 2001–02 — these tend to occur during the spring and summer. Heatwaves, which are regularly occurring in recent years, usually lead to water restrictions and a high risk of bushfires, which sometimes bring a smoky haze to the city. Smog is noticeable on hot days, even without bushfires. On 23 October 2002, drought and record maximum temperatures in eastern Australia produced a large dust storm – The storm arrived in Sydney at about 11am, reducing visibility to a few kilometres. Previous dust storms in the city occurred in April 1994, September 1968, December 1957, and January 1942 – The most severe dust storm to hit Sydney, reducing visibility at Sydney Airport to 500 metres.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: The years 2009 and 2010 had dry conditions, according to Bureau of Meteorology. On 23 September 2009, a dust storm that started in South Australia and inland New South Wales blanketed the city with reddish orange skies early in the morning. Originating from the north-eastern region of South Australia, the dust storm lifted thousands of tons of dirt and soil which were then dumped in Sydney Harbour and the Tasman Sea. It stretched as far north as southern Queensland and it was the worst dust storm in 70 years. During that year, Sydney experienced a number of warm winter days, dry gusty winds and another milder dust storm.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In 2011, Sydney had the driest February in 30 years with only of rain falling, which is well below the average of . Some of the western suburbs recorded the lowest total February rainfall on record. In September 2013, the combination of dry weather, warm temperatures and strong winds brought early-season bushfires. Major bushfires impacted western Sydney and the Blue Mountains, resulting in some evacuations, closed roads, and destroyed homes. The summer of 2013-14 was the driest in 72 years. The precipitation of December 2013 and January 2014, inclusively, only added up to , which is only a quarter of a typical amount for December and January. Observatory Hill only received of rain in January.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: September 2017 was the driest on record, with the gauge receiving only of rain. Furthermore, in that year, the city received less than half of its long-term average rainfall between July and December. In the late morning and early lunchtime of 22 November 2018, a dust storm, stretching about 500 kilometres, swept through Sydney due to a low pressure trough and cold front that picked up dry soil in drought-ridden areas of far western NSW that week. Milder compared to the 2009 storm, the effect of the dust was still apparent across iconic locations such as the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge. 2018 in Sydney has been one of the driest in a century, with the Greater Western Sydney farming region being the worst affected.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Due to the widespread bushfires in December 2019, which even affected the western periphery of the city, the Sydney metropolitan area suffered from dangerous smoky haze for several days throughout the month, with the air quality being 11 times the hazardous level in some days, even making it worse than New Delhi's, where it was also equalled to "smoking 32 cigarettes." 2019 was one of Sydney's warmest in 161 years and the driest since 2005, which had a few days of raised dust and as well as declining dam levels. Rainfall in December was just 1.6 millimetres at Observatory Hill, overthrowing the record low of 2.8 millimetres recorded for the month in 1979. June 2022 was the driest in 36 years, registering only of rain, despite the city having the wettest first half of a year on record.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Averaging at , November is the windiest month, whilst March is the calmest at in the CBD. Some suburbs in the metropolitan area tend to be the windiest in January, September, October or December, and calmest in the months of May or June. As a whole, the Sydney region is generally the windiest from October to January and calmest from March to June. The more windier locations are those by the coast, such as the eastern suburbs. The prevailing wind annually is northeasterly. In the warm months, only 40% of the time Sydney gets wind directions from the northwest or southwest, which are the dry winds flown from the heated interior of Australia.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Northeasterlies and easterly sea breezes are dominant from early summer to early autumn, because the anticlockwise-rotating subtropical ridge is to the south of the city where it allows winds from the sea to penetrate. Westerlies are dominant in late winter to mid-spring as the subtropical ridge is just to the north of the city, picking up winds from the interior and blocking easterlies from the sea. Westerly winds in Sydney are intensified when the Roaring forties contract towards the southeastern Australia.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Southerly busters are expected from October to the end of March. They typically look like as if a sheet of cloud is rolled up like a scroll by the advancing wind. The change of wind (in the warm months) is sometimes very sudden, where it may be fresh northeasterly and in ten minutes a southerly gale. Katabatic winds are light, south-westerly drainage winds, akin to land breezes, that occur when air of higher density in the Blue Mountains descends under gravity force into the Sydney metropolitan area and the Hawkesbury Basin, usually during a winter night.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Since Sydney is located on the Great Dividing Range's eastern side, and thus falls on its rain shadow, it experiences a föhn-like type of wind, particularly between late autumn and spring, which is a dry south-westerly that raises the air temperature and provides clear to partly cloudy conditions in the lee of the mountains (in this case, the Sydney Basin). During the phenomena, atmospheric moisture is reduced due to the partial orographic obstruction of comparatively damp low-level air and the subsiding of drier upper-level air in leeward of the mountains.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: In the cool season, these föhn-like winds can be particularly damaging to homes and affect flights, in addition to being uncomfortable, as the wind chill factor usually makes the temperatures feel cooler than what they are.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: Conversely, the foehn effect is one the few reasons why Sydney and other places in the coastal plain register high temperatures in the warm season but seldom attain cold maximum temperatures in the winter, and also the reason why late winter and early spring have the most clear days in the year, as the Great Dividing Range shelters the region from vigorous westerly cold fronts that arrive from the Southern Ocean.


title: Climate of Sydney

text: On 23 August 2012, a foehn effect caused Sydney to record its 3rd warmest August day on record where it reached at the CBD and at Sydney Airport.


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: Susannah Melvoin (born January 26, 1964) is an American vocalist and songwriter. Melvoin is best known for her association with Prince in the mid-1980s. Melvoin comes from a musical family and is the twin sister of musician Wendy Melvoin, sister of Jonathan Melvoin (former touring keyboardist with the Smashing Pumpkins), and daughter of jazz pianist (and former NARAS president) Michael Melvoin.


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: Melvoin got her start working with Prince in the mid-1980s during sister Wendy's stint with The Revolution. During this period, Melvoin was tapped to be a joint lead vocalist of one of Prince's side projects: The Family. Prince wrote The Family's 1985 song "Nothing Compares 2 U" about Melvoin. It charted when Sinéad O'Connor covered it in 1990.


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: Melvoin later joined the expanded line-up of The Revolution – adding backing vocals to "Parade" including the 1986 single "Anotherloverholenyohead." She designed the "Dream Factory" jacket and received a credit on "Sign o' the Times" co-writing the song "Starfish and Coffee."


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: Melvoin has subsequently worked as a background vocalist for such artists as Roger Waters, Eric Clapton, and Mike Oldfield and has performed vocals on Wendy & Lisa albums.


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: She also co-wrote songs performed by Madonna, such as "Ray of Light"s fourth track "Candy Perfume Girl", which was written with William Orbit. It was to have been "what she thought would either become her solo debut or an album by Orbit’s Strange Cargo project, which she – and, it turns out, Madonna – both loved." Orbit offered Madonna the songs he had written with Melvoin, who received no credit or compensation. She stated that she "has no beef with Madonna," but added that "had I gotten proper publishing on "Ray of Light", I wouldn’t be worried about my financial life.”


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: Outside of music, she has performed in small or cameo roles in three small-budget films, including "Skin & Bone" and "Luster".


title: Susannah Melvoin

text: Melvoin was married to Doyle Bramhall II, with whom she had two children. The couple separated in 2010. Their subsequent divorce proceedings were characterized in the tabloids as being "messy," due in part to Bramhall's relationship with actress Renee Zellweger, which started in 2012 before the divorce was settled.


title: Al Imran

text: Al Imran (, ; The Family of Imran his wife Hanth his daughter Hazrat Maryam and his grand son Hazrat Isa) is the third chapter (sūrah) of the Quran with two hundred verses ("āyāt").


title: Al Imran

text: Imran in Islam is regarded as the father of Mary. This chapter is named after the family of Imran, which includes Imran, Saint Anne (wife of Imran), Mary, and Jesus.


title: Al Imran

text: Regarding the timing and contextual background of the believed revelation ("asbāb al-nuzūl"), the chapter is believed to have been either the second or third of the Medinan surahs, as it references both the events of Badr and the Uhud. Almost all of it also belongs to the third year of the Hijra, though a minority of its verses might have been revealed during the visit of the Najrān Christian deputation at the Mubahala, which occurred around the 10th year of the Hijrah.


title: Al Imran

text: According to Christian tradition, Joachim is the husband of Saint Anne and the father of Mary, the mother of Jesus.


title: Al Imran

text: According to Iraqi scholar and translator, N.J. Dawood, the Quran confuses Mary mother of Jesus with Mary the sister of Moses, by referring to Mary, the mother of Jesus' father as Imran, which is the Arabic version of Amram, who in , is shown to be the father of Moses. Dawood, in a note to Surah 19:28, where Mary the Mother of Jesus is referred to as the "Sister of Aaron", and Aaron was the brother of Mary sister of Moses, states: "It Appears that Miriam, Aaron's sister, and Maryam (Mary), mother of Jesus, were according to the Quran, the same person." Although Islamic studies of the beginning of the 20th century tended to note genealogical discrepancies, in more recent Islamic Studies of the 21st century the general consensus is, according to Angelika Neuwirth, Nicolai Sinai and Michael Marx, that the Quran does not make a genealogical error but instead makes use of typology. This is, following Wensinck's conclusion, supported by the figurative speech of the Quran and the Islamic tradition:


title: Al Imran

text: Similarly, Stowasser concludes that "to confuse Mary the mother of Jesus with Mary the sister of Moses and Aaron in Torah is completely wrong and in contradiction to the sound Hadith and the Qur'anic text as we have established".


title: Al Imran

text: Ibn Kathir (d.1373) also commented on this in his Quranic exegesis ("tafsir"), recalling the Arab tradition of addressing a person as the brother or sister of their notable ancestor:


title: Jagadeesh Prathap Bandari

text: Jagadeesh Prathap Bandari is an Indian actor who prominently works in Telugu films, He made his debut with Avanti Cinema's "Nirudyoga Natulu" in 2018 and was seen in Raj Rachakonda's "Mallesham" followed by "George Reddy" and "Palasa 1978". His role as Kesava in the 2021 film "" brought him nation wide recognition.


title: Jagadeesh Prathap Bandari

text: Jagadeesh was born and raised in Warangal and he came to Hyderabad in looking for help to finish his first unreleased short film, which eventually made him a regular to the short films screenings at Prasad Labs, and eventually got him a role in "Nirudyoga Natulu."


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: The Feynman Lectures on Physics is a physics textbook based on some lectures by Richard Feynman, a Nobel laureate who has sometimes been called "The Great Explainer". The lectures were presented before undergraduate students at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), during 1961–1963. The book's co-authors are Feynman, Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: "The Feynman Lectures on Physics" is perhaps the most popular physics book ever written. More than 1.5 million English-language copies have been sold; probably even more copies have been sold in a dozen foreign-language editions. A 2013 review in "Nature" described the book as having "simplicity, beauty, unity ... presented with enthusiasm and insight".


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: The textbook comprises three volumes. The first volume focuses on mechanics, radiation, and heat, including relativistic effects. The second volume covers mainly electromagnetism and matter. The third volume covers quantum mechanics; for example, it shows how the double-slit experiment demonstrates the essential features of quantum mechanics. The book also includes chapters on the relationship between mathematics and physics, and the relationship of physics to other sciences.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: In 2013, Caltech in cooperation with The Feynman Lectures Website made the book freely available, on the web site.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: By 1960, Richard Feynman’s research and discoveries in physics had resolved a number of troubling inconsistencies in several fundamental theories. In particular, it was his work in quantum electrodynamics for which he was awarded the 1965 Nobel Prize in physics. At the same time that Feynman was at the pinnacle of his fame, the faculty of the California Institute of Technology was concerned about the quality of the introductory courses for undergraduate students. It was thought the courses were burdened by an old-fashioned syllabus and the exciting discoveries of recent years, many of which had occurred at Caltech, were not being taught to the students.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: Thus, it was decided to reconfigure the first physics course offered to students at Caltech, with the goal being to generate more excitement in the students. Feynman readily agreed to give the course, though only once. Aware of the fact that this would be a historic event, Caltech recorded each lecture and took photographs of each drawing made on the blackboard by Feynman.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: Based on the lectures and the tape recordings, a team of physicists and graduate students put together a manuscript that would become "The Feynman Lectures on Physics". Although Feynman's most valuable technical contribution to the field of physics may have been in the field of quantum electrodynamics, the Feynman Lectures were destined to become his most widely-read work.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: "The Feynman Lectures" are considered to be one of the most sophisticated and comprehensive college-level introductions to physics. Feynman himself stated in his original preface that he was “pessimistic” with regard to his success in reaching all of his students. The Feynman lectures were written “to maintain the interest of very enthusiastic and rather smart students coming out of high schools and into Caltech”. Feynman was targeting the lectures to students who, “at the end of two years of our previous course, [were] very discouraged because there were really very few grand, new, modern ideas presented to them”. As a result, some physics students find the lectures more valuable after they have obtained a good grasp of physics by studying more traditional texts, and the books are sometimes seen as more helpful for teachers than for students.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: While the two-year course (1961–1963) was still underway, rumors of it spread throughout the physics research and teaching community. In a special preface to the 1989 edition, David Goodstein and Gerry Neugebauer claimed that as time went on, the attendance of registered undergraduate students dropped sharply but was matched by a compensating increase in the number of faculty and graduate students. Co-author Matthew Sands, in his memoir accompanying the 2005 edition, contested this claim. Goodstein and Neugebauer also stated that, “it was [Feynman’s] peers — scientists, physicists, and professors — who would be the main beneficiaries of his magnificent achievement, which was nothing less than to see physics through the fresh and dynamic perspective of Richard Feynman”, and that his "gift was that he was an extraordinary teacher of teachers".


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: Addison-Wesley published a collection of exercises and problems to accompany "The Feynman Lectures on Physics". The problem sets were first used in the 1962–1963 academic year, and were organized by Robert B. Leighton. Some of the problems are sophisticated and difficult enough to require an understanding of advanced topics, such as Kolmogorov's zero–one law. The original set of books and supplements contained a number of errors, some of which rendered problems insoluble. Various errata were issued, which are now available online.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: Addison-Wesley also released in CD format all the audio tapes of the lectures, over 103 hours with Richard Feynman, after remastering the sound and clearing the recordings. For the CD release, the order of the lectures was rearranged from that of the original texts. The publisher has released a table showing the correspondence between the books and the CDs.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: In March 1964, Feynman appeared once again before the freshman physics class as a lecturer, but the notes for this particular guest lecture were lost for a number of years. They were finally located, restored, and made available as "".


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: In 2005, Michael A. Gottlieb and Ralph Leighton co-authored "Feynman's Tips on Physics", which includes four of Feynman's freshman lectures which had not been included in the main text (three on problem solving, one on inertial guidance), a memoir by Matthew Sands about the origins of the "Feynman Lectures on Physics", and exercises (with answers) that were assigned to students by Robert B. Leighton and Rochus Vogt in recitation sections of the Feynman Lectures course at Caltech. Also released in 2005, was a "Definitive Edition" of the lectures which included corrections to the original text.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: An account of the history of these famous volumes is given by Sands in his memoir article “Capturing the Wisdom of Feynman", and another article "Memories of Feynman" by the physicist T. A. Welton.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: In a September 13, 2013 email to members of the Feynman Lectures online forum, Gottlieb announced the launch of a new website by Caltech and The Feynman Lectures Website which offers "[A] free high-quality online edition" of the lecture text. To provide a device-independent reading experience, the website takes advantage of modern web technologies like HTML5, SVG, and MathJax to present text, figures, and equations in any sizes while maintaining the display quality.


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: Six readily-accessible chapters were later compiled into a book entitled "Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher". Six more chapters are in the book "Six Not So Easy Pieces: Einstein's Relativity, Symmetry and Space-Time".


title: The Feynman Lectures on Physics

text: “"Six Easy Pieces" grew out of the need to bring to as wide an audience as possible, a substantial yet nontechnical physics primer based on the science of Richard Feynman... General readers are fortunate that Feynman chose to present certain key topics in largely qualitative terms without formal mathematics…”


title: Medical certificate

text: A medical certificate or doctor's certificate is a written statement from a physician or another medically qualified health care provider which attests to the result of a medical examination of a patient. It can serve as a sick note (UK: fit note) (documentation that an employee is unfit for work) or evidence of a health condition.


title: Medical certificate

text: An aegrotat (; ) or 'sick note' is a type of medical certificate excusing a student's absence from school for reasons of illness.


title: Medical certificate

text: Medical certificates are sometimes required to obtain certain health benefits from an employer, to make an insurance claim, for tax purposes, or for certain legal procedures. Medical certificates are used to indicate eligibility of activity, such as the use of disabled parking. Medical certificates can also be used to describe a medical condition a person has, such as blindness. Medical certificates are often used to certify that someone is free of contagious diseases, drug addiction, mental illness, or other health issues.


title: Medical certificate

text: Health criteria are often required when making an application for something, such as an eye examination to get a driver's license. Other times medical criteria are presented voluntarily by an applicant in a self-assessment, without either a doctor or access to the person's medical record. Specific health criteria or medical history are required for certain jobs.


title: Medical certificate

text: In the United States, most aviators are required to possess a valid medical certificate that certifies sound health as part of the requirements for piloting an airplane or helicopter. While airman certificates are issued for life, the medical certificate expires and must be renewed periodically in order continue flying privileges. Sport pilots may use a valid state driver's license in place of a medical certificate, and glider and hot air balloon pilots are not required to obtain them.


title: Medical certificate

text: A "Fit to Fly Health Certificate" (also known as "Fit to Fly Letter" or "Fit for Travel Health Certificate") is a type of doctor's note assessing the risk of an individual that they might pose to either themselves or others during air travel. This type of letter was traditionally most relevant for pregnant passengers—particularly while in the third trimester or pregnancy. However, since the COVID-19 pandemic, many airlines now require a Fit to Fly Certificate for international travel to minimize the risk of COVID-19 infections through air travel. It can be issued by most general practitioners or via telemedicine services like QuickMD.


title: Medical certificate

text: Since January 26, 2021, the CDC requires a "Documentation of Recovery" letter for all travelers to the United States who had a documented COVID-19 infection within the past 3 months but have now recovered. This type of letter, which needs to be signed by a licensed healthcare provider, needs to state that the patient has met the criteria to end quarantine and is no longer infectious and cleared to travel. This document may be obtained through a telemedicine service like QuickMD or by an in-person general practitioner. A "Documentation of Recovery" may also be required by some schools, universities or employers for persons who have recently tested positive for COVID-19.


title: Medical certificate

text: The term "aegrotat" (abbreviated as "aegrot") is used primarily in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations. In the context of British undergraduate degrees a student who is too ill to finish may be awarded an aegrotat degree if the student otherwise would have passed exams or other requirements.


title: Medical certificate

text: Except in certain unique circumstances, a holder of a medical certificate in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration may not "act as pilot in command or in any other capacity as a required flight crewmember of an aircraft".


title: Medical certificate

text: A patient with conditions such as: measles, chicken-pox, hepatitis A, leprosy, typhoid fever, and whooping cough, can return to work immediately after their healing phase or medical tests. Almost always the patient may only be allowed to return to work upon submission of a medical certificate.


title: Medical certificate

text: Sometimes, there are standards and procedures in place, for workers in a certain field to be eligible to receive a medical certificate. Any airman who is required to hold a medical certificate must give the Federal Aviation Administration access to the National Driver Register. On top of this, other tests which are required for first-, second- and third-class airmen are: eye, ear/nose/throat/equilibrium, mental, neurologic, and cardiovascular.


title: Medical certificate

text: "The India List and India Office List 1905" explains that officers on "Long Leave in Europe" must, among other things, provide a medical certificate, which is obtained at the Medical Board of India Office.


title: Medical certificate

text: "Practical Guide to Employees' State Insurance Act, Rules and Regulations" explains that under the ESI Act, the employee must obtain a medical certificate via the ESI Dispensary/Hospital, which then gets deposited at the nearest office of the ESI Corporation.


title: Medical certificate

text: Falsifying a medical certificate is a form of fraud. Regulations concerning fabrication or forgery of medical certificates vary by jurisdiction, but users of falsified medical certificates may face legal and health consequences. In New South Wales, medical professionals who "deliberately issue a false, misleading or inaccurate certificate" can be charged under the Medical Practice Act.


title: Medical certificate

text: For students, providing a forged medical certificate is viewed as academic misconduct. There have been discussions regarding whether submitting a fabricated medical certificate constitutes grounds for firing an employee. In many cases, it is deemed wrong, such as in Australia where a bank officer was dismissed after handing in a forged certificate, which prompted a Fair Work Australia Commissioner to say the former bank employee had a "continued lack of regard for the truth". Another example is a WA police officer who was stood down after committing the same offense. In one case, a woman claimed she was "coerced into falsifying [a] medical certificate [which ultimately led to her being fired] because she was 'being bullied and treated unfairly' by two managers".


title: Medical certificate

text: Medical certificates must respect patients' right to confidentiality. Patient consent is required for sharing of personal medical information, and medical certificates should therefore not contain a diagnosis without permission from the patient. A number of key principles govern the issuing of medical certificate, although there are variations in procedure between jurisdictions.


title: Sanity check

text: A sanity check or sanity test is a basic test to quickly evaluate whether a claim or the result of a calculation can possibly be true. It is a simple check to see if the produced material is rational (that the material's creator was thinking rationally, applying sanity). The point of a sanity test is to rule out certain classes of obviously false results, not to catch every possible error. A rule-of-thumb or back-of-the-envelope calculation may be checked to perform the test. The advantage of performing an initial sanity test is that of speedily evaluating basic function.


title: Sanity check

text: In arithmetic, for example, when multiplying by 9, using the divisibility rule for 9 to verify that the sum of digits of the result is divisible by 9 is a sanity test—it will not catch "every" multiplication error, however it's a quick and simple method to discover "many" possible errors.


title: Sanity check

text: In computer science, a "sanity test" is a very brief run-through of the functionality of a computer program, system, calculation, or other analysis, to assure that part of the system or methodology works roughly as expected. This is often prior to a more exhaustive round of testing.


title: Sanity check

text: A sanity test can refer to various orders of magnitude and other simple rule-of-thumb devices applied to cross-check mathematical calculations. For example:


title: Sanity check

text: In software development, a sanity test (a form of software testing which offers "quick, broad, and shallow testing") evaluates the result of a subset of application functionality to determine whether it is possible and reasonable to proceed with further testing of the entire application. Sanity tests may sometimes be used interchangeably with smoke tests insofar as both terms denote tests which determine whether it is "possible" and "reasonable" to continue testing further. On the other hand, a distinction is sometimes made that a smoke test is a non-exhaustive test that ascertains whether the most crucial functions of a programme work before proceeding with further testing whereas a sanity test refers to whether specific functionality such as a particular bug fix works as expected without testing the wider functionality of the software. In other words, a sanity test determines whether the intended result of a code change works correctly while a smoke test ensures that nothing else important was broken in the process. Sanity testing and smoke testing avoid wasting time and effort by quickly determining whether an application is too flawed to merit more rigorous QA testing, but needs more developer debugging.


title: Sanity check

text: Groups of sanity tests are often bundled together for automated unit testing of functions, libraries, or applications prior to merging development code into a testing or trunk version control branch, for automated building, or for continuous integration and continuous deployment.


title: Sanity check

text: Another common usage of "sanity test" is to denote checks which are performed programme code, usually on arguments to functions or returns therefrom, to see if the answers can be assumed to be correct. The more complicated the routine, the more important that its response be checked. The trivial case is checking to see whether the return value of a function indicated success or failure, and to therefore cease further processing upon failure. This return value is actually often itself the result of a sanity check. For example, if the function attempted to open, write to, and close a file, a sanity check may be used to ensure that it did not fail on any of these actions—which is a sanity check often ignored by programmers.


title: Sanity check

text: These kinds of sanity checks may be used during development for debugging purposes and also to aid in troubleshooting software runtime errors. For example, in a bank account management application, a sanity check will fail if a withdrawal requests more money than the total account balance rather than allowing the account to go negative (which wouldn't be sane). Another sanity test might be that deposits or purchases correspond to patterns established by historical data—for example, large purchase transactions or ATM withdrawals in foreign locations never before visited by the cardholder may be flagged for confirmation.


title: Sanity check

text: Sanity checks are also performed upon installation of stable, production software code into a new computing environment to ensure that all dependencies are met, such as a compatible operating system and link libraries. When a computing environment has passed all the sanity checks, it's known as a sane environment for the installation programme to proceed with reasonable expectation of success.


title: Sanity check

text: A "Hello, World!" program is often used as a sanity test for a development environment similarly. Rather than a complicated script running a set of unit tests, if this simple programme fails to compile or execute, it proves that the supporting environment likely has a configuration problem that will prevent "any" code from compiling or executing. But if "Hello world" executes, then any problems experienced with other programmes likely can be attributed to errors in that application's code rather than the environment.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called () is the highest order conferred by both the Russian Imperial Family (as an Order of Knighthood) and by the Russian Federation (as a state order).


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: Established as the first and highest order of chivalry of the Russian Tsardom and the Russian Empire in 1698, it was removed from the honours system under the USSR before being re-established as the top Russian civil and military order in 1998.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The Order was established in 1698 by Tsar Peter the Great, in honour of Saint Andrew, the first apostle of Jesus and patron saint of Russia. It was bestowed in a single class and was only awarded for the most outstanding civilian or military merit.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: Peter learned of the practice of bestowing awards from his travels in the West during the Great Embassy. In the past, service to the Russian state was rewarded with money or large estates. He witnessed first hand the awards ceremonies for England's Order of the Garter and Austria's Order of the Golden Fleece and noticed the loyalty and pride of the awardees. It also saved the state land and money.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: Count Fyodor Golovin was the first Knight of the order. Until the Russian Revolution of 1917, just over one thousand awards had been made. During the monarchy, Knights of the Order of St. Andrew also automatically were granted hereditary nobility and received the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, the Order of the White Eagle, the Order of Saint Anna and the Order St. Stanislaus Knight Grand Cross. Moreover, recipients of lower ranks were automatically promoted to the rank of lieutenant general or vice admiral. The Order of Saint Andrew continues to be awarded by the Russian Imperial House in exile, with most recent investitures having been conferred in 2021. The first post-revolutionary presentation was to Prince Georgy Konstantinovich of Russia on attaining his dynastic majority in April 1923.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: Due to a of the order, the French phrase "Cordon Bleu", initially associated with Order of the Holy Spirit, also referred to knights St Andrew's order.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The insignia of the order could be awarded "with diamonds" as a special distinction. Saint Andrew's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg was the chapter church of this order of chivalry.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: An order with the same name but with different insignia and statutes was first unofficially re-established by the Orthodox Church of Russia on December 27, 1988. The order was officially re-instated as the highest Russian civilian and military award by Presidential Decree No.757 on June 1, 1998. The Order's award criteria were modified by Presidential Decree 1099 of September 7, 2010.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The Order of St. Andrew the Apostle the First-Called is used to award prominent statesmen and public figures, eminent representatives of science, culture, the arts and various industries for exceptional services, for promoting the prosperity, grandeur and glory of Russia.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The Order may also be awarded to foreign heads of states for outstanding service to the Russian Federation.


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The design of the insignia of the modern Order of St. Andrew has changed very little from the imperial design. It consists of:


title: Order of St. Andrew

text: The colour of the sash differs from the colour of the Imperial era, and resembles the shade of the sash of the British Order of the Garter. Members of the military division of the Order have crossed swords added below the crown above the two eagles' heads. On the reverse of the eagle on a white ribbon the motto of the Order appears inscribed in gold letters: «За веру и верность» ("For faith and loyalty").


title: Tommie Earl Jenkins

text: Tommie Earl Jenkins, also credited in some productions as Tee Jaye or Tommie Jenkins, is an American actor, musician and stage performer most noted for his work as Ubercorn from the television show "Go Jetters". "Go Jetters" was nominated for a 2016 BAFTA in the Preschool - Animation section. Other notable work includes the origination of the role Barry Belson in "Jersey Boys", and the narration of the audiobook "Twelve Years a Slave" and the narration of two documentaries released concurrently with "Roots". Tommie Jenkins also provided motion capture and voice acting for the character Die-Hardman in Hideo Kojima's award-winning video game, "Death Stranding" (2019).


title: Tommie Earl Jenkins

text: A native of Canton, Ohio, he has spent more than twenty years in the United Kingdom. He returned to the United States in 2014.


title: Tommie Earl Jenkins

text: Tommie Earl Jenkins originally trained as a classical ballet dancer. He has worked with the Canton Ballet in Ohio, the Duluth Ballet of Minnesota and the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater in New York City. He has worked in numerous theatrical performances as both a dancer and actor as well as a film and voice actor.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Raymond Ernest Nitschke (December 29, 1936 – March 8, 1998) was a professional American football middle linebacker who spent his entire 15-year National Football League (NFL) career with the in the Pro Football Hall of Fame in , he was the anchor of the defense for head coach Vince Lombardi in the 1960s, leading the Packers to five NFL championships and victories in the first two Super Bowls.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Nitschke was born in Elmwood Park, Illinois, the youngest of three sons to Robert and Anna Nitschke. His father was killed in a car accident in 1940, and his mother died of a blood clot when Ray was 13. Older brothers Robert Jr. (age 21) and Richard (age 17) decided they would raise Ray on their own.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Nitschke entered Proviso Township High School in Maywood shortly before his mother's death. The loss of both parents enraged Nitschke, and the lack of a parental disciplinarian to quell his rage caused him to engage in fights with other kids in the neighborhood. During his freshman year at Proviso, he played fullback on one of the school's three football teams. He was a poor student and his grades eventually caught up with him as he was declared academically ineligible to play sports his sophomore year. He would lament this embarrassment for the rest of his life.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: He succeeded in raising his grades enough in his sophomore year to allow him to play sports his junior year, when he had grown significantly (to six feet tall). He starred on the varsity football team, playing quarterback on offense and safety on defense for coach Andy Puplis. He played varsity basketball and was a pitcher and left fielder for the varsity baseball team. His baseball skills brought him an offer from the professional St. Louis Browns with a $3,000 signing bonus. Nitschke was also offered scholarships from college football programs around the country. Puplis advised him to accept a football scholarship. Wanting to play at a Big Ten university, with a chance to appear in the Rose Bowl, he accepted a football scholarship to the University of Illinois in 1954.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: While at Illinois, Nitschke smoked, drank heavily, and fought at the drop of a hat. Never a good student in high school, his grades suffered at college. In his sophomore year in 1955, due to a depletion of players in the offensive backfield, Illini head coach Ray Eliot moved Nitschke from quarterback to fullback, shattering his childhood dream of quarterbacking a team to a victory in the Rose Bowl. At this time, college football had reverted to primarily single-platoon football, meaning those players that were on offense had to switch to defense, and vice versa, when ball possession changed. On defense, Nitschke played linebacker. He proved to be a very skilled player and tackler as a linebacker, so much so that, by his senior year, Paul Brown considered him the best linebacker in college football.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: In his junior year in 1956 Nitschke lost his four front teeth on the opening kick-off against Ohio State. Nitschke never wore a face mask and one of the Buckeye's player's helmets hit him in the mouth knocking out two teeth initially; the other two were hanging by the roots. He played the rest of the game.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Growing up in the outskirts of Chicago, Nitschke had idolized the Bears and he hoped to be chosen by them in the 1958 NFL Draft, held on December 2, 1957. However, he was chosen by the Green Bay Packers late in the third round (36th overall) of what is considered the greatest draft in the franchise's history. It included three other significant Packers of the 1960s, linebacker Dan Currie of Michigan State (3rd overall), fullback Jim Taylor of LSU (15th overall) and right guard Jerry Kramer of Idaho (39th overall). Their rookie season in 1958 under first-year head coach Ray "Scooter" McLean was dismal, with just one win and one tie for the worst record in the 12-team league. Nitschke wore number 33 in 1958 and 66 the rest of his career with the Packers.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: A month after the 1958 season ended, Vince Lombardi was hired as head coach. Nitschke became a full-time starter in 1962, the anchor of a disciplined defense that helped win five NFL titles and the first two Super Bowls in the 1960s. He was the MVP of the 1962 NFL Championship Game, accepting the prize of a 1963 Chevrolet Corvette. In the game, Nitschke recovered two fumbles and deflected a pass that was intercepted. The Packers won and finished the season with a In Super Bowl I, Nitschke contributed six tackles and a sack. In Super Bowl II, Nitschke led Green Bay's defense with nine tackles.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Nitschke remained a starter through the 1970 season, but in 1971 he was benched by new coach Dan Devine and became a reserve to Jim Carter. At the end of the 1972 season, the Packers traveled to New Orleans to play the Saints on December 17 at Tulane Stadium, which turned out to be Nitschke's last regular season game. He recorded the only pass reception of his career, a 34-yard gain after a blocked Packer field goal attempt, and they won to finish , their best regular season record Green Bay had clinched the NFC Central division title the week before at Minnesota for their first playoff berth in In the divisional round of the playoffs on Christmas Eve, Green Bay lost Nitschke returned for a 16th training camp in 1973, then retired in


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Nitschke was known for his strength and toughness, exhibited prior to his third season in 1960. On the Packers' practice field on September 1, a steel coaching tower was blown over by a strong gust of wind, on top


title: Ray Nitschke

text: (It was erroneously first reported as Lombardi ran over to see what had happened, but when told it had fallen on Nitschke, said, "He'll be fine. Get back to work!" According to Nitschke's biography, a spike was driven into his helmet, but did not injure him. The helmet (with the hole) is currently on display in the Packer Hall of Fame in Green Bay. Although Nitschke was known for his hard hitting, he was an athletic all-around linebacker who also intercepted 25 passes over his career.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Nitschke was married on June 26, 1961, to Jackie Forchette. Jackie was unable to have children, so they adopted three: John in 1963, Richard in 1966, and Amy in 1972. Ray and Jackie had a winter home in Naples, Florida. Lombardi gave partial credit for Nitschke's success to Nitschke's wife, whose calming influence helped Ray focus on his career. Nitschke remained popular in Green Bay after retiring, even having his phone number and home address published in the Green Bay phone book.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: In 1973, "Mean on Sunday: The Autobiography of Ray Nitschke" ("as told to Robert W. Wells") was published by Doubleday. The review in "Kirkus Reviews" concluded, "This lacks the wider appeal of, say, an "Instant Replay" and it's antithetical to the juicy "Ball Four" genre. But Packer fans and others around the league who admired Nitschke's professional skills might pick this up as a reminder of the man beneath the armor."


title: Ray Nitschke

text: In the late 1980s, Nitschke owned an automobile dealership in Green Bay. He performed several of his own TV commercials in which he brought out his dog, "Butkus", named in honor of his Chicago Bears nemesis, Dick Butkus (who like Nitschke, grew up in the Chicago area and played for the Illinois Fighting Illini). He appeared in the comic film "Head", starring The Monkees, as a footballer who repeatedly tackles Peter Tork in a mock war movie sequence. His character is listed in the credits as "Private One" because his jersey is emblazoned with the number "1". Nitschke also appeared in the 1974 football comedy "The Longest Yard" as Guard Bogdanski.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Nitschke died of a heart attack in Venice, Florida at the age of 61 in 1998. He had been driving to the home of a family friend, according to his daughter, Amy Klaas, who was with him when he was stricken. He was pronounced dead at Venice Hospital.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: His No. 66 was retired in 1983, the fourth of six numbers retired by the Packers. The only other Lombardi-era player to have his number retired is quarterback Bart Starr, whose number 15 was retired in 1973. Also, the team has named one of its two outdoor practice fields "Ray Nitschke Field". Prior to its retirement, number 66 had remained in circulation and was last worn in 1983 by offensive lineman Lawrence Pfohl, who would go on to fame as a professional wrestler under the ring name Lex Luger.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: In 1969, he was named the NFL's all-time top Linebacker by the NFL in honor of the NFL's 50th Anniversary. Thus he is the only linebacker to have made both the NFL's 50th and 75th Anniversary Teams.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1978. Every year, the Pro Football Hall of Fame has a luncheon the day before its induction ceremony, attended by most of the living members and honoring the new inductees. Nitschke always spoke at this luncheon, telling the new inductees what a great honor they were receiving, and that they were now members of the greatest team of them all. Following his death, the Hall named the luncheon after him. He was elected to the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 1981.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: Upon the election of former teammate Henry Jordan to the Pro Football Hall of Fame on the eve of Super Bowl XXIX in Miami Gardens, Florida, Nitschke flew down to Florida to participate in the game's coin-toss ceremonies, joining three other 75th Anniversary Team representatives--Otto Graham (1950s), Mean Joe Greene (1970s) and Gale Sayers (1960s), all three of whom had been announced as representatives of their respective decades in the ceremony months prior to the PFHOF election—as well as three of Jordan's fellow Class of 1995 newcomers, all of whom represented the 1980s: Kellen Winslow, Lee Roy Selmon, and then-U.S. Congressman Steve Largent, who ended the pregame ceremonies by flipping the coin.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: In 1999, he was ranked number 18 on "The Sporting News"' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players, making him the highest-ranked player coached by Vince Lombardi, second among Packers behind Don Hutson, and third among linebackers behind Lawrence Taylor and Dick Butkus.


title: Ray Nitschke

text: The Ray Nitschke Memorial Bridge, a twin-leaf bascule bridge over the Fox River on Main Street (US 141) in Green Bay, was named in honor of Nitschke. The bridge was constructed in 1998 to replace the former Main Street Bridge built in 1923.


title: Preikestolen

text: Preikestolen or Prekestolen () is a tourist attraction in the municipality of Strand in Rogaland county, Norway. Preikestolen is a steep cliff which rises above Lysefjorden. Atop the cliff, there is an almost flat top of approximately . Preikestolen is located near the Western part of the fjord, and on its North side.


title: Preikestolen

text: Tourism at the site has been increasing in the early 21st century, with between 150,000 and 200,000 visitors in 2012, making it one of the most visited natural tourist attractions in Norway. BASE jumpers often leap from the cliff. Due to its increased popularity, the most used path to the site (an long hike) was improved by Nepalese Sherpas in 2013.


title: Preikestolen

text: The old local name of the site is ; . The name "Prekestolen" (without the "i") was coined around the year 1900 when the local tourist organisation, , wanted to promote the site for trekking. The "i" was added later to concord with Nynorsk, the official local form of Norwegian, and the site is now known both locally and officially as "Preikestolen."


title: Preikestolen

text: Preikestolen is located in the southern part of the Ryfylke district in Rogaland county in Western Norway. The city of Stavanger, the fourth largest in Norway, with a number of direct flights between European cities, is located from the site, and the parking facility for Preikestolen is located, thanks to the April 2020 opening of Hundvåg Tunnel, about 40 minutes from Stavanger by car.


title: Preikestolen

text: Access to Preikestolen from Stavanger is via the Norwegian National Road 13 (Rv13) and the ferry from Tau. From the south, access is by the Rv13 through Sandnes via the ferry from Lauvvika to Oanes. The road is usually open and the ferries running year-round. However, due to snow, it is not always possible to do the hike to the top in the winter.


title: Preikestolen

text: The road to the site ends in the municipality of Strand, just south of the town of Jørpeland at a parking facility at the Preikestolen Fjellstue, with a trail extending from the parking facility to the site. A round-trip hike to Preikestolen from the closest car park takes about 3–4 hours for someone of average fitness.


title: Preikestolen

text: The walk to Preikestolen is very steep in places. The path starts at the Preikestolhytta, at an elevation of approximately above sea level, and climbs to . The walk takes 2–3 hours depending on traffic along the trail, experience, and fitness level. Even though the elevation differential is only and the walk is not particularly long, about each way, the total elevation gain and loss over the course of the hike is more than one might initially expect, as the path climbs and descends various ridges. The walk is more difficult in winter and spring when there is snow and ice.


title: Preikestolen

text: Alternative access is available via a path from Bratteli – a stop for the tourist ferry from to Lysebotn that passes beneath the Pulpit Rock. This walk is more demanding, and takes 4–5 hours each way.


title: Preikestolen

text: An alternative is to sail through the Lysefjorden, with trips running year-round. Outside of summer, the weather may be wet and cold, and clouds may obstruct views of the cliff. The ship stops at several small docks on the way in and out, including a layover at the end of the Lysefjorden at the village of Lysebotn.


title: Preikestolen

text: In early April 2013, a project started to improve the path up to Preikestolen as the old one was so small that it often caused "delays", and at some points on the path it was sometimes impossible to get through. By 2016 the path was completed.


title: Preikestolen

text: The authorities have opted not to install fencing or other safety devices as they felt it would detract from the site and the fact that fatalities at the site are extremely rare, despite having approximately 200,000 visitors each year. Furthermore, there were concerns that fences or other devices might encourage dangerous behavior such as climbing onto the fences. Norwegian authorities have stated that "we cannot fence in all nature in this country".


title: Preikestolen

text: Up until 2013 there had been no accidental fatalities at the site. However, there were previously suicides and suicide attempts. In February 2000, an Austrian woman and a Norwegian man committed a joint suicide by jumping together off the cliff after meeting on the internet and forming a suicide pact. In October 2004, a young German couple were on their way to the cliff to commit suicide but were stopped by the Norwegian authorities before being able to carry out the act when their families alerted authorities. In autumn 2013, a Spanish tourist became the first person to die from what was originally ruled to be an accident; however, right after the accident, a suicide note was posted on his Facebook account indicating that the incident was in fact a suicide.


title: Preikestolen

text: The cliff was formed during the ice age, approximately 10,000 years ago, when the edges of the glacier reached the cliff. The water from the glacier froze in the crevices of the mountain and eventually broke off large, angular blocks, which were later carried away with the glacier. This is the cause of the angular shape of the plateau. Along the plateau itself there continues to be a deep crack. Due to these cracks, the plateau will at some point fall down, but all the geological investigations have revealed that this will not happen in the foreseeable future, and geologists have confirmed the safety of the plateau.


title: Preikestolen

text: The cliff overlooks the valleys of the Ryfylke region. The mountains surrounding the cliff reach heights of up to . Some of the hilltops have plains which are interspersed with lakes.


title: Preikestolen

text: Nearby, close to the end of the Lysefjord, is the tall mountain Kjerag which is also a hiking destination. Some tourists elect to forego trips to Preikestolen and go to Kjerag instead.


title: Red Delicious

text: Red Delicious is a type of apple with a red exterior and sweet taste that was first recognized in Madison County, Iowa, in 1872. Today, the name "Red Delicious" comprises more than 50 cultivars. From 1968 to 2018, it was the most produced cultivar in the United States. Gala became the most produced after that.


title: Red Delicious

text: The 'Red Delicious' originated at an orchard in 1872 as "a round, blushed yellow fruit of surpassing sweetness". Stark Nurseries held a competition in 1892 to find an apple to replace the 'Black Ben Davis' apple. The winner was a red and yellow striped apple sent by Jesse Hiatt, a farmer in Peru, Iowa, who called it "Hawkeye". Stark Nurseries bought the rights from Hiatt, renamed the variety "Stark Delicious", and began propagating it. Another apple tree, later named the 'Golden Delicious', was also marketed by Stark Nurseries after it was purchased from a farmer in Clay County, West Virginia, in 1914; the 'Delicious' became the 'Red Delicious' as a retronym.


title: Red Delicious

text: The apple became a victim of its own popularity. As consumers began to purchase more of their food from large supermarkets, the apple's popularity encouraged commercial growers to increasingly select for longer storage and cosmetic appeal rather than flavor and palatability, which resulted in a less palatable fruit. In particular the selection of redder fruit caused deselection of flavor, and the genes that produced the yellow stripes on the original fruit were on the same chromosomes as those for the flavor-producing compounds. Breeding for uniformity and storability favored a thicker skin. Later, as other cultivars entered supermarkets, demand for the 'Red Delicious' declined.


title: Red Delicious

text: In the 1940s the apple was the most popular in the US. In the 1980s, 'Red Delicious' represented three-quarters of the harvest in Washington state, but the selection of beauty and long storage over taste was making the apples less popular, and demand was declining as supermarkets started carrying other varieties. By the 1990s, reliance on the now-unwanted 'Red Delicious' had helped to push Washington state's apple industry "to the edge" of collapse. In 2000, Congress approved and President Bill Clinton signed a bill to bail out the apple industry, after apple growers had lost $760 million since 1997.


title: Red Delicious

text: Farmers began to replace their orchards with other cultivars such as Gala, Fuji, and Honeycrisp. By 2000, this cultivar made up less than one half of the Washington state output, and in 2003, the crop had shrunk to 37 percent of the state's harvest, which totaled 103 million boxes. Although Red Delicious still remained the single largest variety produced in the state in 2005, others were growing in popularity, notably the Fuji and Gala varieties. By 2014 the Washington Apple Commission was recommending growers plan to export 60% or more of production. In 2018 the Gala apple overtook US sales of the Red Delicious for the first time. Through 2020 production continued to decline. The COVID-19 pandemic was expected to further continue decline in demand as many cafeterias and other typical sales points for the apple were closed.


title: Red Delicious

text: Over the years many propagable mutations, or sports, have been identified in 'Red Delicious' apple trees.


title: Red Delicious

text: In addition to those propagated without any legal protection (or cut out because they were seen as inferior), 42 sports have been patented in the United States:


title: Red Delicious

text: In 1977, the application for #4159 noted the "starchy and bland taste of some of the newer varieties".


title: Red Delicious

text: The plant patent for #4926 promoted the sport as a dwarfing interstock, a dwarfing rootstock for pears, or to produce "crab apple"-sized 'Delicious' apples.


title: RWDM47

text: Racing White Daring de Molenbeek 47, also known as RWD Molenbeek and often referred to as RWDM, is a Belgian professional football club founded in 1951 as Standaard Wetteren. In 2015, Wetteren folded and merged with another club, liberating the matricule which was sold to people wanting to revive the former RWDM with matricule 47 which folded in 2002. As such the new club was named RWDM47. The club has been on the rise ever since winning two consecutive promotions from the fifth tier to the fourth and fourth to third. In December 2021, the club announced that it had come under the ownership of American business executive John Textor, who also holds stakes in English side Crystal Palace, Brazilian side Botafogo and French side Lyon.


title: RWDM47

text: RWDM's academy is considered one of the best in Belgium, and many footballers have come from there, notably Adnan Januzaj and Michy Batshuayi to name a few Belgian internationals as well as a few internationals for other countries.


title: RWDM47

text: The club currently plays in the Belgian First Division B. It participated in the 2015–16 Belgian Cup, where it reached the fourth round.


title: RWDM47

text: RWDM's traditional rival is Union Saint-Gilloise, which goes back to the 19th century when RWDM were known as Daring Club. RWDM also have a rivalry with RSC Anderlecht, with just 3 kilometres separating the two clubs and the fixtures often taking over the mantle of the "Derby of Brussels" in the professional era due to Union's relative decline. RWDM also have rivalries with Eendracht Aalst, Lierse and RFC Liège.


title: RWDM47

text: RWDM drew support from across the Belgian capital due to its merger of 4 teams, as well as in the Periphery, where many "Brusseleirs" migrated to, in contrast to the more locally based Saint-Gilles support and the nationwide Anderlecht support. It had high attendances for a big part of its existence as RWDM, until financial troubles and the subsequent changeover with Johan Vermeesch in charge of the new club led to the name change to FC Brussels, and caused a split in the fanbase. During their years as FC Brussels, the Ultra group Brussels Power 05 emerged, while many of the "old school" casuals "Brussels Boys" boycotted. These days both supporter groups sit in the same "Bloc A".


title: Lead paint

text: Lead paint or lead-based paint is paint containing lead. As pigment, lead(II) chromate (, "chrome yellow"), lead(II,IV) oxide, (, "red lead"), and lead(II) carbonate (, "white lead") are the most common forms. Lead is added to paint to accelerate drying, increase durability, maintain a fresh appearance, and resist moisture that causes corrosion. It is one of the main health and environmental hazards associated with paint. Lead paint has been generally phased out of use due to the toxic nature of lead. Alternatives such as water-based, lead-free traffic paint are readily available.


title: Lead paint

text: In some countries, lead continues to be added to paint intended for domestic use, whereas countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom have regulations prohibiting its use. However, lead paint may still be found in older properties painted prior to the introduction of such regulations. Although lead has been banned from household paints in the United States since 1978, it may still be found in road marking paint.


title: Lead paint

text: White lead was being produced during the 4th century BC; the process is described by Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius, and the ancient Greek author Theophrastus.


title: Lead paint

text: The traditional method of making the pigment was called the stack process. Hundreds or thousands of earthenware pots containing vinegar and lead were embedded in a layer of either tan bark or cow dung. The pots were designed so that the vinegar and lead were in separate compartments, but the lead was in contact with the vapor of the vinegar. The lead was usually coiled into a spiral and placed on a ledge inside the pot. The pot was loosely covered with a grid of lead, which allowed the carbon dioxide formed by the fermentation of the tan bark or the dung to circulate in the pot. Each layer of pots was covered by a new layer of tan, then another layer of pots. The heat created by the fermentation, acetic acid vapor, and carbon dioxide within the stack did their work, and within a month the lead coils were covered with a crust of white lead. This crust was separated from the lead, washed, and ground for pigment. This was an extremely dangerous process for the workmen. Medieval texts warned of the danger of "apoplexy, epilepsy, and paralysis" from working with lead white.


title: Lead paint

text: In 1786, Benjamin Franklin wrote a letter warning a friend about the hazards of lead and lead paint, which he considered well-established. Despite the risks, the pigment was very popular with artists because of its density and opacity; a small amount could cover a large surface. It was widely used by artists until the 19th century, when it was replaced by zinc white and titanium white.


title: Lead paint

text: The dangers of lead paint were considered well-established by the beginning of the 20th century. In the July 1904 edition of its monthly publication, Sherwin-Williams reported the dangers of paint containing lead, noting that a French expert had deemed lead paint "poisonous in a large degree, both for the workmen and for the inhabitants of a house painted with lead colors". As early as 1886, German health laws prohibited women and children from working in factories processing lead paint and lead sugar.


title: Lead paint

text: Lead paint is hazardous. It can cause nervous system damage, stunted growth, kidney damage, and delayed development. It is dangerous to children because it tastes sweet, therefore encouraging children to put lead chips and toys with lead dust in their mouths. Lead paint can cause reproductive problems, including a decrease in sperm concentration in men. Lead is also considered a likely carcinogen. High levels of exposure can be lethal.


title: Lead paint

text: In Canada, regulations were first enacted under the Hazardous Products Act in 1976 that limited lead content of paints and other liquid coatings on furniture, household products, children's products, and exterior and interior surfaces of any building frequented by children to 0.5% by weight. New regulations on surface coating materials, which came into force in 2005, further limit lead to its background level for both interior and exterior paints sold to consumers. Canadian paint manufacturers have been conforming to this background level in their interior and exterior consumer paints since 1991. Nevertheless, a Canadian company, Dominion Colour Corporation, is "the largest manufacturer of lead-based paint pigments in the world" and has faced public criticism for obtaining permission from the European Chemicals Agency to continue to export lead chromate paints from its Dutch subsidiary to countries where its uses are not tightly regulated.


title: Lead paint

text: Lead paint is banned in the European Union by the 2003 Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS), which forbids hazardous substances in consumer goods, including paint. This act superseded and harmonized existing laws of the member states, many of which had banned lead paint years before.


title: Lead paint

text: To protect the health of painters, France had passed in 1909 a law banning the use of paints containing lead for the painting of the interior and exterior of all buildings.


title: Lead paint

text: Lead paint was not prohibited in India until 2016. A 2015 study found that over 31% of household paints in India (small brands manufactured by small and medium enterprises in India, with limited local reach and distribution) had lead concentration above 10,000 parts per million (ppm), which far exceeds the BIS standard of 90 ppm for lead in paint. The Regulation on Lead Contents in Household and Decorative Paint Rules came into effect on 1 November 2017, according to which the paints should have lead less than 90 ppm and their label should say so. However, two years later, an analysis of 32 locally-manufactured paint samples from nine states found lead content ranging from 10 ppm to 186,062 ppm, with 90% of samples having lead levels above 90 ppm.


title: Lead paint

text: The Philippines banned lead paint in 2013, but in 2017, 15% of the paint still was not certified. The EcoWaste Coalition and the Philippine Association of Paint Manufacturers declared on 1 January 2020 that the Philippines has phased-out lead paint following the implementation of Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Administrative Order 2013–24, or the Chemical Control Order for Lead and Lead Compounds, which directed manufacturers of lead-containing paints for industrial uses to phase out such paints by 31 December 2019.


title: Lead paint

text: In South Africa, the Hazardous Substances Act of 2009 classifies lead as a hazardous substance and limits its use in paint to 600 parts per million (ppm). A proposed amendment will modify this to 90 ppm, thereby almost completely eradicating lead from paint. The amendment would also include all industrial paints, which were previously excluded.


title: Lead paint

text: The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) banned lead paint in 1977 in residential properties and public buildings (16 CFR 1303), along with toys and furniture containing lead paint. The cited reason was "to reduce the risk of lead poisoning in children who may ingest paint chips or peelings". For manufacturers, the CPSC instituted the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008, which changed the cap on lead content in paint from 0.06% to 0.009% starting 14 August 2009. In 2018 the State of Delaware banned the use of lead paint on outdoor structures. Also, the Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard Reduction Act ( the "Lead Paint Act") was created in order to ensure that the disclosure of any lead-based hazards in a building be discussed with potential buyers or renters of units. While EPA and HUD have defined LBP as being 1.0 mg/cm2 (as measure by XRF) or 0.5% lead by dry weight (aka 5,000 ppm), some states and municipalities gone beyond this. For example, New York City's Local Law 66 of 2019 defines LBP as 0.500 mg/cm2 (XRF) or 0.25% lead dry weight (2,500 ppm).


title: Lead paint

text: In April 2010 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) required that all renovators working in homes built before 1978 and disturbing more than of lead paint inside the home or outside the home be certified. EPA's Lead Renovation, Repair and Painting Rule (RRP Rule) lowers the risk of lead contamination from home renovation activities. It requires that firms performing renovation, repair, and painting projects that disturb lead-based paint in homes, child care facilities and pre-schools (any child occupied facility) built before 1978 be certified by EPA and use certified renovators who are trained by EPA-approved training providers to follow lead-safe work practices.


title: Lead paint

text: In art, white lead paint is known as "flake white" or "Cremnitz white". It is valued for the ease of handling and resilience the lead confers to oil paints. Lead white paint dries relatively quickly to form a strong, flexible paint film. Lead-based white is one of the oldest manufactured pigments. It was the only white pigment available to artists in appreciable quantities until the twentieth century, when zinc white and titanium white became available. Industrially produced lead white, the typical pigment from the 19th century until its ban, was thought to be inferior to traditionally fabricated forms, which had larger "flake" particles that conferred ease of handling.


title: Lead paint

text: Titanium and zinc whites are far less toxic than lead white and have largely supplanted it in most fine arts applications. Safety regulations have also made lead white more expensive and difficult to obtain in some regions, such as the EU. Lead white oil paints are still produced and in use by artists who prefer their unique handling, mixing, and structural qualities. Lead white has also shown to have extended longevity compared to zinc and titanium which will to crack much earlier.


title: Lead paint

text: Flake white has various drawbacks, including a tendency to become transparent over time. It also blackens in the presence of certain atmospheric pollutants, although this can be reversed.


title: Lead paint

text: Lead is not a traditional pigment in water media, as zinc is superior for works on paper, as is calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) for frescos. Lead-based paints, when used on paper, often cause the work to become discolored after long periods; the paint's lead carbonate reacts with hydrogen sulfide in the air and with acids, which often come from fingerprints.


title: Lead paint

text: Paint manufacturers have replaced white lead with a less toxic substitute, titanium dioxide, which was first used in paints in the 19th century. Titanium dioxide is considered safe enough to use as a food coloring and in toothpaste, and is a common ingredient in sunscreen. Titanium white has far greater opacity and tinting strength than lead white, and it can easily overpower most other pigments if not mixed carefully. Titanium white has been criticized for leading to "chalkiness" in mixtures.


title: Lead paint

text: Zinc white is less opaque and weaker in tinting strength than either titanium white or lead white. It is commonly used to lighten mixtures subtly while maintaining transparency. Although zinc white is the standard white in watercolors, its structural soundness in oils has been debated. Zinc white dries slowly and creates a relatively inflexible paint film. Critics of the pigment argue that its use leads to excessive cracking and delamination, even when used sparingly.