title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: Clemson Area Transit (CAT) is a free transportation service that offers fare free service throughout the Clemson, Anderson, Pendleton and Seneca areas. All CAT buses are made accessible for patrons with disabilities and can accommodate any special needs. The CAT buses also provide transfer services to the local Electric City Transit bus in Anderson. Riders can receive vouchers from CAT bus operators in order to continue their ride fare-free on the Anderson shuttles.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: The city of Clemson has an Amtrak station at the corner of Calhoun Memorial Highway and College Avenue. The Crescent Route travels from New Orleans to New York City and stops through the Clemson station (CSN).


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: The Clemson area is near three major airports. The closest, Greenville-Spartanburg International Airport, is 45 minutes away in Greenville, South Carolina. Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL) is two and a half hours away in Atlanta, Georgia, and The Charlotte-Douglas International Airport (CLT) is two and a half hours away, as well, in Charlotte, North Carolina. Many different services provide transportation to and from the airport from the Clemson area, including The Airport Shuttle, Anderson/Clemson Shuttle Service, Yellow Cab and Andrews Airport Services.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: The city of Clemson is in the school district of Pickens County. Students living in the city of Clemson attend Clemson Elementary School, RC Edwards Middle School and D.W. Daniel High School.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: Clemson Elementary School was originally called the Calhoun-Clemson School and was on College Avenue. In 1964, the school burned down, destroying everything but the cafeteria. The school was rebuilt on Frontage Road and was named Maggie Morrison Elementary School. The old building was renamed the Morrison annex and was used to house the primary grades. After the schools had outgrown their buildings, construction began in 1999 on a new school building on Berkeley Drive. This is now the site of the current Clemson Elementary. Clemson Elementary colors are orange and blue, and its mascot is the tiger cub.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: RC Edwards was built and opened in 1971. It currently educates sixth-, seventh- and eighth-graders. The campus is between the cities of Central and Six Mile, and has about 800 students. Its colors are purple and white, and the mascot is the panther.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: The current D.W. Daniel High School was constructed in 2010 and had its first class enter the doors for the 2012–2013 school year. The school is named after David Wistar Daniel, a professor at Clemson University, who was invested in the public school system and spent many years on the South Carolina Board of Education. It recently was named one of the best regular public schools in the state by US News magazine. Its colors are blue and gold, and the mascot is the lion. The school is well known for its football team. In the 2013–2014 season, the team ended the year 14 wins to one loss, which occurred in the 3A State Championship against Myrtle Beach High School.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: The city has a City Council and participates as a member of the Pickens County Council. Clemson's senators in the United States Senate are Lindsey Graham and Tim Scott. In the House, Clemson's representative is Jeff Duncan. The state senator is Thomas C. Alexander, and the state representative is Jerry Carter.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: Clemson City Council consists of an Arts and Culture Commission, a Planning Commission, a Board of Architectural Review and a Board of Zoning Appeals.


title: Clemson, South Carolina

text: The city of Clemson also works directly with the International Town Gown Association (ITGA) that works to provide information on common issues between universities and their neighboring towns. Two Clemson representatives serve on the ITGA Executive Board: Jim Oswald, ITGA Treasurer, and Beth Bagwell, ITGA Director.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: The Aero L-29 Delfín (, NATO reporting name: Maya) is a military jet trainer developed and manufactured by Czechoslovakian aviation manufacturer Aero Vodochody. It is the country's first locally designed and constructed jet aircraft, as well as likely being the biggest aircraft industrial programme to take place in any of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) countries except the Soviet Union.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: In response to a sizable requirement for a common jet-propelled trainer to be adopted across the diverse nations of the Eastern Bloc, Aero decided to embark upon their own design project with a view to suitably satisfying this demand. On 5 April 1959, an initial prototype, designated as the XL-29, performed its maiden flight. The L-29 was selected to become the standard trainer for the air forces of Warsaw Pact nations, for which it was delivered from the 1960s onwards. During the early 1970s, the type was succeeded in the principal trainer role by another Aero-built aircraft, the L-39 Albatros, heavily contributing to a decline in demand for the earlier L-29 and the end of its production during 1974.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: During the course of the programme, in excess of 3,000 L-29 Delfin trainers were produced. Of these, around 2,000 were reported to have been delivered to the Soviet Union, where it was used as the standard trainer for the Soviet Air Force. Of the others, which included both armed and unarmed models, many aircraft were delivered to the various COMECON countries while others were exported to various overseas nations, including Egypt, Syria, Indonesia, Nigeria and Uganda. Reportedly, the L-29 has been used in active combat during several instances, perhaps the most high-profile being the use of Nigerian aircraft during the Nigerian Civil War of the late 1960s and of Egyptian L-29s against Israeli tanks during the brief Yom Kippur War of 1973.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: In the late 1950s, the Soviet Air Force commenced a search for a suitable jet-powered replacement for its fleet of piston-engined trainers; over time, this requirement was progressively broadened towards the goal of developing a trainer aircraft that could be adopted and in widespread use throughout the national air forces of the Eastern Bloc countries. Around the same time, the nation of Czechoslovakia had also been independently developing its own requirements for a suitable jet successor to its current propeller-powered trainer aircraft. In response to these demands, Aero decided to develop its own aircraft design; the effort was headed by a pair of aerospace engineers, Z. Rublič and K. Tomáš. Their work was centered upon the desire to produce a single design that would be suitable both performing basic and advanced levels of the training regime, carrying pilots straight through to being prepared to operate frontline combat aircraft.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: The basic design concept was to produce a straightforward, easy-to-build and operate aircraft. Accordingly, both simplicity and ruggedness were stressed in the development process, leading to the adoption of manual flight controls, large flaps, and the incorporation of perforated airbrakes positioned on the fuselage sides. Aerodynamically, the L-29 was intentionally designed to possess stable and docile flight characteristics; this decision contributed to an enviable safety record for the type. The sturdy L-29 was able to operate under austere conditions, including performing take-offs from grass, sand or unprepared fields. On 5 April 1959, the prototype XL-29 conducted its maiden flight, powered by a British Bristol Siddeley Viper turbojet engine. The second prototype, which flew shortly thereafter, was instead powered by the Czech-designed M701 engine. The M-701 engine was used in all subsequent aircraft.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: During 1961, a small pre-production batch of L-29s were evaluated against the Polish PZL TS-11 Iskra and the Russian Yakovlev Yak-30, the main rival submissions for the Warsaw Pact's standardised trainer. Shortly after the completion of the fly-offs, it was announced that the L-29 had been selected as the winner; according to aviation author John C. Fredrikson, this outcome had been highly unexpected and surprising to several observers. Regardless of the result, Poland chose to continue to pursue the development and procurement of the TS-11; however, all of the other Warsaw Pact countries decided to adopt the Delfin under the agreements of COMECON.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: During April 1963, full-scale production of the L-29 commenced; 3,600 aircraft were manufactured over a production run of 11 years. During its production life, several derivatives of the L-29 were developed, such as a dedicated, single-seat, aerobatic version, which was designated as the L-29A "Akrobat". Another model, an armed reconnaissance version complete with multiple downwards-looking cameras installed in the rear cockpit position, referred to as the L-29R, was also under development; however, during 1965, the L-29R project was terminated. Optional armaments could be installed upon some models, consisting of either a detachable gun pod or a pod containing up to four unguided missiles, which could be set upon hardpoints underneath each wing.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: The Aero L-29 Delfín was a jet-powered trainer aircraft, known for its straightforward and simplistic design and construction. In terms of its basic configuration, it used a mid-wing matched with a T-tail arrangement; the wings were unswept and accommodated air intakes for the engines within the wing roots. The undercarriage was reinforced and capable of withstanding considerable stresses. According to Fredriksen, the L-29 was relatively underpowered, yet exhibited several favourable characteristics in its flight performance, such as its ease of handling. The primary flying controls are manually operated; both the flaps and airbrakes were actuated via hydraulic systems.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: Production aircraft were powered by the Czech-designed Motorlet M-701 turbojet engine, which was capable of generating up to 1,960lbf of thrust. Between 1961 and 1968, approximately 9,250 engines were completed; according to reports, no fewer than 5,000 of these engines were manufactured in support of the Delfin programme. The student pilot and their instructor were placed in a tandem seating layout underneath separate canopies, the instructor being placed in a slightly elevated position to better oversee the student. Both the student and instructor were provisioned with ejection seats; these were intentionally interlinked to fire in a synchronised manner if either seat was deployed as to eliminate any possibility of a mid-air collision between the two ejector seats.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: During their late life, many L-29s were resold onto private operators and have seen use in the civil sector. It has become common for various modifications to be carried out to convert the type for such use; these changes would commonly include the removal of military-orientated equipment (such as the gun sight), the replacement of the metric altimeters with Western counterparts, the addition of alternative radio systems, and new ejection seats. It was also routine for several subsystems, such as the oxygen system, to be disabled rather than removed.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: In excess of 2,000 L-29 Delfins were ultimately supplied to the Soviet Air Force. Like the majority of Soviet-operated aircraft, it acquired its own NATO reporting name, "Maya." In the trainer role, the L-29 enabled air forces to adopt an "all-through" training regime using only jet-powered aircraft, entirely replacing earlier piston-engined types.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: The Delfin served in basic, intermediate and weapons training roles. For this latter mission, they were equipped with hardpoints to carry gunpods, bombs or rockets; according to Fredrikson, the L-29 functioned as a relatively good ground-attack aircraft when deployed as such. It saw several uses in this active combat role, such as when a number of Egyptian L-29s were dispatched on attack missions against Israeli ground forces during the Yom Kippur War of 1973. The type was also used in anger during the Nigerian Civil War of the late 1960s. On 16 July 1975, a Czechoslovak Air Force L-29 reportedly shot down a Polish civilian biplane piloted by Dionizy Bielański, who had been attempting to defect to the West.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: The L-29 was supplanted in the inventory of many of its operators by the Aero L-39 Albatros. The L-29 which was commonly used alongside the newer L-39 for a time. The type was used extensively to conduct ground attack missions in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War by Azeri forces. At least 14 were shot down by Armenian air-defences, out of the total inventory of 18 L-29s; the Azeri Air Force lost large amounts of its air force due to anti aircraft fire.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: On 2 October 2007, an unmodified L-29 was used for the world's first jet flight powered solely by 100 per cent biodiesel fuel. Pilots Carol Sugars and Douglas Rodante flew their Delphin Jet from Stead Airport, Reno, Nevada to Leesburg International Airport, Leesburg, Florida in order to promote environmentally friendly fuels in aviation.


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: The L-29, much like its L-39 successor, has found use in air racing, some of which have been re-engined with the British Armstrong Siddeley Viper turbojet engine. From 10 September to 14 September 2008, a pair of L-29s took first and second place at the Reno Air Races. Both L-29s consistently posted laps at or above 500 miles per hour; former Astronaut Curt Brown took first place in "Viper," followed by Red Bull racer Mike Mangold in "Euroburner."


title: Aero L-29 Delfín

text: Russia has claimed that it destroyed a pair of Georgian L-29s during the 2008 South Ossetia war. On 18 January 2015, separatist forces in the War in Donbass claimed that they possessed an operational L-29.


title: North Sea Germanic

text: North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic , is a postulated grouping of the northern West Germanic languages that consists of Old Frisian, Old English, and Old Saxon, and their descendants.


title: North Sea Germanic

text: Ingvaeonic is named after the Ingaevones, a West Germanic cultural group or proto-tribe along the North Sea coast that was mentioned by both Tacitus and Pliny the Elder (the latter also mentioned that tribes in the group included the Cimbri, the Teutoni and the Chauci). It is thought of as not a monolithic proto-language but as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison.


title: North Sea Germanic

text: The grouping was first proposed in "Nordgermanen und Alemannen" (1942) by German linguist and philologist Friedrich Maurer as an alternative to the strict tree diagrams, which had become popular following the work of 19th-century linguist August Schleicher and assumed the existence of a special Anglo-Frisian group. The other groupings are Istvaeonic, from the Istvaeones, including Dutch, Afrikaans and related languages; and Irminonic, from the Irminones, including the High German languages.


title: North Sea Germanic

text: Broadly speaking, the changes that characterise the Ingvaeonic languages can be divided into two groups, those being changes that occurred after the split from Proto-Northwest-Germanic (Ingvaeonic B) and those preceding it (Ingvaeonic A). Linguistic evidence for Ingvaeonic B observed in Old Frisian, Old English and Old Saxon is as follows:


title: North Sea Germanic

text: Several, but not all, characteristics are also found in Dutch, which did not generally undergo the nasal spirant law (except for a few words), retained the three distinct plural endings (only to merge them in a later, unrelated change), and exhibits the "-s" plural in only a limited number of words. However, it lost the reflexive pronoun (even though it did later regain it via borrowing) and had the same four relic weak verbs in Class III.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Liberty City is a neighborhood in Miami, Florida, United States. The area is roughly bound by NW 79th Street to the north, NW 27th Avenue to the west, the Airport Expressway to the South, and Interstate 95 to the east. The neighborhood is home to one of the largest concentrations of African Americans in South Florida, as of the 2000 census. Although it was often known as "Model City" both historically and by the City of Miami government, residents more commonly call it Liberty City.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: It is serviced by the Miami Metrorail at Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Plaza and Brownsville stations along NW 27th Avenue.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Once part of the sparsely populated outskirts of northern Miami, what became Liberty City developed during the Great Depression of the 1930s when President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the construction of the Liberty Square housing project in 1933, the first of its kind in the Southern United States. Built as a response to the deteriorating housing conditions in densely populated and covenant-restricted slums of Overtown, construction on the initial housing project began in 1934 and it opened in 1937.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Into the 1940s and 1950s, the growing Liberty City and adjacent Brownsville thrived as a middle-income black American community, hosting several churches, hospitals, and community centers. The area served as home to prominent figures such as Kelsey Pharr, M. Athalie Range (the first black American elected to serve on the Miami city commission) and boxer Muhammad Ali. Although segregation laws prohibited black Americans from resting and residing in popular Miami Beach, service establishment and resorts such as the Hampton House Motel and Villas catered to and entertained the likes of notables such as Martin Luther King Jr., Althea Gibson, and even whites such as Mickey Mantle.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Construction of Interstate 95 in Florida in Overtown and declining use of restrictive covenants in the wake of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 dramatically altered the neighborhood into the 1960s. Increasing numbers of lower-income elderly and welfare-dependent families migrated to Liberty City after their displacement primarily from inner city Overtown, turning the area into a dangerous ghetto, leading to large-scale black flight of middle- and higher-income blacks and other blacks like West Indian Americans largely to suburban areas like Florida City and Miami Gardens in southern and northern Dade County, respectively.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Crime grew prevalent in the increasingly poverty-stricken area in the immediate post–civil rights movement era of the 1960s and 1970s. The ensuing problems of the poor and disenfranchised grew most apparent and notable in race riots that occurred in Liberty City in August 1968 during the Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, and in May 1980 following the acquittal of police officers charged with the killing of Arthur McDuffie


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: The plight of inner-city black Miamians increasingly came to be highlighted in national press into the 1980s as the University of Miami Hurricanes football team won several national college football championships led by players recruited mostly from black, lower-income neighborhoods such as Liberty City and Overtown. National exposure continued with the popularity of nationally broadcast programs such as the NBC crime drama "Miami Vice", which brought the deteriorating conditions of the area to greater prominence.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Into the 1990s and 2000s, music grew to reflect the area, with locals such as Luther Campbell of 2 Live Crew pioneering the Miami bass genre, which dominated Southern hip hop during the decade. Other music and sports talents rose to national prominence from the area such as rappers Trina and Trick Daddy and NFL players Chad "Ocho Cinco" Johnson, Antonio Brown, and Willis McGahee.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: Climate change is affecting the value of flood-prone real estate in Miami. Miami neighborhoods with higher elevations such as Liberty City are experiencing increasing real estate values. By 2017, Liberty City, along with Little Haiti, started becoming more attractive to investors. A community land trust is planned to maintain affordability for current residents. Home prices appreciated more slowly in 2018 in Miami Beach and lower-elevation areas of Miami-Dade County.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: In 2000, Liberty City had a population of 23,009 and 43,054 residents, with 7,772 households, and 5,428 families residing in the neighborhood. The median household income was $18,809.87. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 94.69% Black, 3.04% Hispanic or Latino of any nationality, 1.68% Other races (non-Hispanic), and 0.59% White.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: The zip codes for the Liberty City include 33127, 33142, 33147, and 33150. The area covers . In 2000, there were 19,286 males and 23,768 females. The median age for males was 25.9 years, while the median age for females was 30.3 years. The average household size had 3.1 people, while the average family size had 3.7 members. The percentage of married-couple families (among all households) was 20.3%, while the percentage of married-couple families with children (among all households) was 9.1%, and the percentage of single-mother households (among all households) was 33.1%. The percentage of never-married males 15 years old and over was 21.9%, while the percentage of never-married females 15 years old and over was 29.7%.


title: Liberty City (Miami)

text: In 2000, 2.7% of the population spoke little to no English. The percentage of residents born in Florida was 74.5%, the percentage of people born in another U.S. state was 16.7%, and the percentage of native residents but born outside the U.S. was 0.8%, while the percentage of foreign born residents was 7.9%.


title: Jinkee Pacquiao

text: Jinkee Capeña Jamora Pacquiao (née Jamora; born January 12, 1979) is a Filipina socialite, media personality, occasional film producer and former politician who served as a vice governor of Sarangani, Mindanao, Philippines from 2013 to 2016. She is well known as the wife of professional Filipino boxer and incumbent Senator Manny Pacquiao. She also had a brief career in the film industry as a producer for her husband's documentaries and for several box-office titles.


title: Jinkee Pacquiao

text: Jinkee Jamora was born at St. Elizabeth Hospital in General Santos City on January 12, 1979 into the conservative family of Nestor Jamora (born c. 1956, Kiamba, Sarangani) and Rosalina Capeña (born c. 1957, Silago, Southern Leyte). She was born along with her identical twin sister, Janet.


title: Jinkee Pacquiao

text: In 2013, Pacquiao decided to run for vice governor of Sarangani province in Mindanao, after her husband was reluctant to choose between two friends who both wanted his support for the position. She was elected in the May 2013 election as the candidate of the United Nationalist Alliance.


title: Jinkee Pacquiao

text: After her first and only term, Jinkee decided to retire from politics to focus on their family and her businesses.


title: Jinkee Pacquiao

text: She was working as a round girl when she met Manny Pacquiao, whom she married in 1999. They have five children.


title: Jabberjaw

text: Jabberjaw is an American animated television series created by Joe Ruby and Ken Spears and produced by Hanna-Barbera which aired 16 original episodes on ABC from September 11 to December 18, 1976. Reruns continued on ABC until September 3, 1978.


title: Jabberjaw

text: Jabberjaw, a 15-foot amphibious great white shark, is the drummer for The Neptunes, a rock group made up of four teenagers — Biff, Shelly, Bubbles and Clamhead — who live in an underwater civilization in the year 2076. Jabberjaw and The Neptunes travel to various underwater cities where they encounter and deal with assorted megalomaniacs and supervillains who want to conquer the undersea world.


title: Jabberjaw

text: Like a great deal of Hanna-Barbera's 1970s output, the format and writing for "Jabberjaw" was similar to that for "Scooby-Doo", "Josie and the Pussycats" and "Speed Buggy". The show also drew inspiration (in the use of a shark as a character) from the overall shark mania of the mid-1970s caused by the then-recent film "Jaws". It also shared "The Flintstones"' penchant for making use of puns as the names of locations, people, etc., in this case, ocean-themed puns (such as "Aqualaska" instead of Alaska). Every episode ended with a musical chase sequence where Jabberjaw and the gang would run from the villains, performing zany cartoon antics in order to escape while a song by The Neptunes played in the background.


title: Jabberjaw

text: Sixteen 30-minute episodes of "Jabberjaw" were produced, which aired on ABC Saturday Morning from September 11, 1976, to September 3, 1977, and rebroadcast for a second season of reruns on Sunday Morning from September 11, 1977, to September 3, 1978. In the 1980s, repeats resurfaced as part of "USA Cartoon Express" on USA Network, in the 1990s on Cartoon Network and in the 2000s on Boomerang. This is one of a number of shows made before the mid-1980s seen on the Cartoon Network and Boomerang to have been taken from PAL prints.


title: Jabberjaw

text: Like many animated series created by Hanna-Barbera in the 1970s, the show contained a laugh track created by the studio.


title: Jabberjaw

text: In 1977–78, Rand McNally released two coloring books ("Jabberjaw and The Neptunes" and "Jabberjaw Does It Again"), a story book ("Jabberjaw Out West" by Jean Lewis, illustrated by Jim Franzen) and a read & color book ("Jabberjaw and the Rustlers").


title: Jabberjaw

text: Other merchandise in the late 1970s–early 1980s included a lunchbox and thermos, iron-on transfers, jigsaw puzzles, Presto Magix, bubble maker set, a school tablet, Avon pendant, a plush toy and Hanna-Barbera Marineland Jabberjaw picture viewer.


title: Jabberjaw

text: On July 28, 1988, an 85-minute videocassette of "Jabberjaw" containing four episodes ("Dr. Lo Has Got to Go", "There's No Place Like Outer Space", "The Sourpuss Octopuss" and "The Great Shark Switch") was released by Worldvision Home Video.


title: Jabberjaw

text: On February 15, 2011, Warner Archive released "Jabberjaw: The Complete Series" on DVD in region 1 as part of their Hanna–Barbera Classics Collection. This is a manufacture-on-demand (MOD) release, available exclusively through Warner's online store and Amazon.com.


title: Castle (season 3)

text: The third season of American crime-comedy-drama television series "Castle" was ordered on March 30, 2010, by ABC. The season aired from September 20, 2010, to May 16, 2011. The third season was originally ordered with a 22 episode count, but ABC extended the order to 24 episodes on November 11, 2010.


title: Castle (season 3)

text: Richard Castle (Fillion) is a famous mystery novelist who has killed off the main character in his popular book series and has writer's block. He is brought in by the NYPD for questioning regarding a copy-cat murder based on one of his novels. He is intrigued by this new window into crime and murder, and uses his connection with the mayor to charm his way into shadowing Detective Kate Beckett (Katic). Castle decides to use Beckett as his muse for Nikki Heat, the main character of his next book series. Beckett, an avid reader of Castle's books, initially disapproves of having Castle shadow her work, but later warms up and recognizes Castle as a useful resource in her team's investigations.


title: Castle (season 3)

text: The third season of "Castle" received mixed to positive reviews from critics. The season received a 60% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 5 reviews. Courtney Morrison from "TV Fanatic" praised the season finale, calling it "easily one of the best Castle episodes yet" and was impressed over the entire cast in the episode. However, the third season was criticized for being too average. "The A.V. Club" reviewer called the show "This is a cute piece of work that coasts largely on the charms of its cast". Michael Crider from "Screenrant" was also negative towards the show's premise as he said "Without the light-hearted and even flirty back-and-forth, there’s not a whole lot to distinguish Castle from any mystery made in the last twenty years".


title: After Eight

text: After Eight Mint Chocolate Thins, often referred to as simply "After Eights", are a brand of mint chocolate covered sugar confectionery. They were created by Rowntree Company Limited in the UK in 1962 and have been manufactured by Nestlé since its acquisition of Rowntree in 1988.


title: After Eight

text: The mints were originally manufactured at Rowntree's York factory, before production transferred to Castleford, West Yorkshire, in 1970. For the UK market they are now manufactured in Halifax following Nestlé's closure of the Castleford factory in 2012. However on the limited edition 2020 casing it states "made in Germany, with sugar not solely of German origin". "More than 1bn After Eights, thin fondant mints, are made every year in the Castleford factory scheduled for closure in 2012 by the Switzerland-based confectionery giant."


title: After Eight

text: After Eights were originally made from dairy-free dark chocolate. In 2002, however, Nestlé started adding butterfat to After Eights made at certain production facilities so as to increase resistance to chocolate bloom. This practice expanded to all production facilities in 2009. Nestlé has also made special editions of After Eights, including orange After Eights and milk chocolate After Eights.


title: After Eight

text: The fondant in the centre of After Eights is made from a stiff paste of common sugar, water, and a small amount of the enzyme invertase. This fondant can readily be coated with dark chocolate. After manufacture, the enzyme gradually splits the common sugar into the much more soluble sugars glucose and fructose, resulting in a more liquid consistency. Maturing of the mint is said to take over three days. Once manufactured, each completed chocolate is packaged in a sheath and then loaded into a box.


title: True Love (2023 film)

text: True Love is an upcoming American science fiction drama thriller crime comedy film written, directed, and produced by Gareth Edwards. The film stars John David Washington, Gemma Chan, Ralph Ineson, Allison Janney, Ken Watanabe, Anthony Ramos, Joey King,


title: True Love (2023 film)

text: "True Love" is scheduled to be released in the United States on October 6, 2023, by 20th Century Studios.


title: True Love (2023 film)

text: In February 2020, Gareth Edwards signed on to direct and write an untitled science fiction project for New Regency, along with "Rogue One" (2016) co-producer Kiri Hart serving as producer. In May 2021, John David Washington was announced to star and the film's title was revealed to be "True Love". In June 2021, Gemma Chan, Danny McBride, and Benedict Wong entered negotiations to star. The involvements of Chan and Wong were confirmed in January 2022, with Allison Janney, Sturgill Simpson, and Marc Menchaca joining the cast. Simpson was reported to be taking over for McBride who departed due to scheduling conflicts. In February 2022, Ken Watanabe joined the cast to replace Wong, who also had to drop out due to scheduling conflicts.


title: True Love (2023 film)

text: Filming began in Thailand on January 17, 2022, with Greig Fraser and Oren Soffer serving as cinematographers. Principal photography on the film wrapped on May 30, 2022.


title: Zen of Python

text: The Zen of Python is a collection of 19 "guiding principles" for writing computer programs that influence the design of the Python programming language. Software engineer Tim Peters wrote this set of principles and posted it on the Python mailing list in 1999. Peters's list left open a 20th principle "for Guido to fill in", referring to Guido van Rossum, the original author of the Python language. The vacancy for a 20th principle has not been filled.


title: Zen of Python

text: Peters's Zen of Python was included as entry number 20 in the language's official Python Enhancement Proposals and was released into the public domain. It is also included as an Easter egg in the Python interpreter, where it can be displayed by entering import this.


title: Abarth 124 Spider

text: The Abarth 124 Spider is a performance version of the Fiat 124 Spider (2016) manufactured by Mazda for FCA under the Abarth marque. It was introduced at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show, along with the racing car Abarth 124 Spider Rally. Final assembly of the car takes place in the Officine Abarth in Turin, Italy, where the model specific parts are installed on the Japanese built roadster.


title: Abarth 124 Spider

text: The Abarth 124 carries over the MultiAir turbo I4, upgraded to deliver at 5,500 rpm and of torque at 2500 rpm. It has a top speed of and can accelerate from 0– in 6.8 seconds.


title: Abarth 124 Spider

text: The Abarth 124 Spider features many changes from its counterpart at Fiat. On the exterior, these include Abarth badging, an optional black racing stripe hand painted on the hood and decklid, and 17 inch aluminium wheels. The interior features heated black leather and microfiber sport seats with the option of leather and Alcantara suede Recaro seats.


title: Abarth 124 Spider

text: It also features a leather wrapped sport steering wheel and gear knob, as well as red accent stitching.


title: Abarth 124 Spider

text: The North American-spec version was originally announced at the 2016 New York International Auto Show as the Fiat 124 Spider Elaborazione Abarth (meaning "tuned by Abarth"), with equipment roughly equivalent to the Mazda MX-5 Miata's Club Package. Unlike the standard Abarth model, it did not feature any power increase over the standard Fiat 124 Spider, and wore Fiat badges instead of Abarth badges, aside for the Elaborazione Abarth badges on the front fenders. However the 124 Spider Elaborazione Abarth was cancelled in favour of the standard Abarth model, sold as the Fiat 124 Spider Abarth due to Abarth's status as a performance trim in North America rather than a full brand. Although it wore full exterior Abarth badging, it used the Fiat badge on the steering wheel up until the 2019 model-year, due to the airbag recertification.


title: Abarth 124 Spider

text: The Abarth 124 Spider Rally is a rally version of the 124 homologated in the FIA R-GT category. It has a 1.8 litre turbocharged engine with at 6,500 rpm.


title: David Sheff

text: David Sheff (born December 23, 1955) is an American author of the books "", "Clean: Overcoming Addiction and Ending America's Greatest Tragedy", "Game Over","The Buddhist on Death Row" and "All We Are Saying: The Last Interview with John Lennon and Yoko Ono". He also writes for magazines and newspapers, including The New York Times, New York Times Magazine, Wired, Rolling Stone and other publications.


title: David Sheff

text: Sheff is originally from Boston, Massachusetts. His family is of Russian Jewish descent. He graduated from the University of California, Berkeley.


title: David Sheff

text: Sheff, a journalist, wrote articles and conducted interviews for "The New York Times", "Rolling Stone", "Playboy", "Wired", "Fortune", and National Public Radio's "All Things Considered". His interview subjects have included John Lennon, Frank Zappa, Steve Jobs, Ai Weiwei, Keith Haring, David Hockney, Jack Nicholson, Ted Taylor, Carl Sagan, Betty Friedan, Barney Frank, and Fareed Zakaria, among others. In addition to "Beautiful Boy", Sheff wrote the books "Game Over", "Clean: Overcoming Addiction and Ending America's Greatest Crisis", "China Dawn", and "All We Are Saying: The Last Major Interview with John Lennon and Yoko Ono". He has also been an editor of "New West", "California", and other magazines.


title: David Sheff

text: "Beautiful Boy" was based on Sheff's article, "My Addicted Son", that first appeared in the "New York Times Magazine".


title: David Sheff

text: In January 2019, "High: Everything You Want to Know About Drugs, Alcohol, and Addiction" was published. A resource for middle-school readers offering clear, direct information about the realities of drugs and alcohol, it is Sheff and his son Nic's first collaborative project.


title: David Sheff

text: In 2019, Sheff founded the Beautiful Boy Fund, a charity devoted to making quality, evidence-based treatment for substance-use disorder accessible to those in need of treatment, and identifying and supporting research to further the field of addiction medicine.


title: David Sheff

text: In 2009, Sheff was included in "Time" magazine's "Time" 100 and on the magazine's World's Most Influential People list. "Beautiful Boy" won the Barnes & Noble "Discover Great New Writers Award" for nonfiction and was an Amazon Best Book of the Year in 2008. The article in which the book is based won an award for "Outstanding Contribution to Advancing the Understanding of Addictions" from the Society of Addiction Psychology.


title: David Sheff

text: He received media awards from College on Problems of Drug Dependence (CPDD), American Society of Addiction Medicine, the Partnership for Drug-free Kids, American College of Neuropsychopharmacology (ACNP), American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM), and was the first recipient of the American Academy of Addiction Psychiatry (AAAP) Arts and Literature Award.


title: David Sheff

text: Sheff educates about addiction as a brain disease and is an advocate for putting addicts into therapy programs early.


title: David Sheff

text: He believes life stresses and traumas are risk factors, and that therapy for these can help addiction prevention. He is an advocate of life skills training to aid addiction prevention.


title: David Sheff

text: Sheff lives in Northern California with his wife, Karen Barbour, an artist, illustrator, and author of children's books. He has three children: Nic, Jasper, and Daisy Sheff. Nic Sheff, who has also written a memoir recounting his years of addiction in the book "Tweak: Growing Up on Methamphetamines", is a writer for television and film. Jasper Sheff is a Grammy Award-nominated musician who has cowritten and produced songs for Lil Nas X, Elton John, Halsey and XXXTentacion. Daisy Sheff is an artist whose paintings have been exhibited at White Columns Gallery, Ratio 3, Clearing Gallery, Grimm Gallery and elsewhere.


title: David Sheff

text: In 2018, Felix van Groeningen adapted Sheff's book "Beautiful Boy" into a feature film of the same name. In the film, Sheff is portrayed by Steve Carell, with Timothée Chalamet as his son, Nic. Actress Maura Tierney portrays David's wife, artist Karen Barbour, and Amy Ryan plays Nic's mother, Vicki.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The Harley-Davidson Twin Cam are motorcycle engines made by Harley-Davidson from 1998 to 2017. Although these engines differed significantly from the Evolution engine, which in turn was derived from the series of single camshaft, overhead valve motors that were first released in 1936, they share a number of characteristics with nearly all previous Harley-Davidson engines. Both engines have two cylinders in a V-twin configuration at 45°, are air-cooled (some touring models use liquid cooling for the heads), and activate valves with push-rods. The crankshafts have a single pin with a knife and fork arrangement for the connecting rods. These are sandwiched between a pair of flywheels.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The Twin Cam 88 was a traditional design from Harley-Davidson, using two cams to drive the valvetrain, with the first being the famous '8-Valve' OHV V-twin racing models of 1915. Their 1920s single-cylinder models (the A, AA, BA, BB, and Peashooter) also used twin camshafts in the timing chest, and did their 1930s flathead engine models, like the VL and UL Big Twins, and the entire range of 45ci (750cc) V-twins from 1930 onwards: the Models D and W and their variants, such as the WLA military motorcycle and WR racing motorcycle.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The Twin Cam 88 was released for the 1999 model year in September 1998. The Twin Cam 96 was released for the 2007 model year.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The Twin Cam initially was not used in the Softail model family before the year 2000. This was due to the chassis design and vibration transfer to the Softail frame as a result of the direct (hard) mounting of the engine. Dyna models are "rubber mounted", damping the majority of vibration transfer to the frame and rider. Another reason was that the engine and transmission on a Twin Cam are directly bolted (but are still separate units) to each other, with the chassis seat post on a Softail getting in the way of a Twin Cam transmission case. As the company determined that a rubber-mounted Softail would affect the line's visual styling, Harley solved the issue by designing an engine variant known as Twin Cam 88B. It is basically the same engine as the original (now retroactively referred to by enthusiasts as "Twin Cam 88A"), but with a modified engine block design that incorporates twin chain-driven balance shafts. The Twin Cam 96B engine was released at the same time as the Twin Cam 96A model, for the 2007 model year, and was equipped on all Softail models until it was replaced by the 103 ci version.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: It is possible, however, to mount a regular Twin Cam motor to a pre-2000 Softail (or any chassis that accepts an Evolution engine) through third-party adapters.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The engine design differed considerably from its predecessor the "Evo" although it shared some design elements with the Sportster line. The "88" represents the displacement in cubic inches of the standard engine. The bore is and the stroke is , meaning the displacement is . The Twin Cam 95 was introduced with the Screamin' Eagle (Later known as CVO) Models and ran until the 88 was discontinued after 2006. The Twin Cam 95 displaces . The Twin Cam 96 displaces . The company released for 2010 Electra Glide Ultra Limited models, and later for 2012 Softail models and for Screamin' Eagle/CVO Models.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: Development of the Twin Cam started in the early 1990s, as Harley sought to address problems affecting the previous Evolution engine, particularly structural weaknesses within the crankcase, oil circulation and leakages. While aftermarket firms such as S&S Cycle previously responded with stronger crankcase components for high-performance Evolutions, Harley went for a completely new design, while keeping the engine fundamentally and aesthetically similar to the traditional 45-degree, air-cooled overhead valve V-twin.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The Twin Cam only shared 18 parts with its predecessor, as almost all of the components were unique to the engine. As the name implies, the engine uses two chain-driven cams, to comply with EPA noise regulations. The drivetrain was reinforced through a mounting scheme called the "Revised Rear Interface", allowing the transmission case to be mounted directly to the rear of the engine, with the primary drive and clutch covers playing less of a structural role; this was also partly the reason for Softails not initially receiving a Twin Cam for the 1999 model year.


title: Harley-Davidson Twin Cam engine

text: The early prototype Twin Cam engines had considerable trouble with the oiling system. These problems delayed release of the engine as scheduled for the 1997 model year. When the engines were run, oil came out any gasketed joint as well as the breather. Harley sought the help of Paul Troxler, a young engineer from Southwest Research Institute and eventually the problem was traced to a design which drained the cam case into the crankcase, and used a single scavenge pump. Due to airflow through ports in the crankcase wall, the cam case was not draining properly. After much testing, the solution was to seal the cam case from the crankcase and use a dual scavenge system, which was incorporated into the engine, rather than as an outboard pump as used on older Big Twins since the original Knucklehead. However, oil was still not scavenging properly from the crankcase, and this was traced to an acoustic phenomenon due to the caliber of the scavenge inlet. Restricting the diameter of the inlet, a counter-intuitive solution, solved that problem.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: The landing craft mechanized (LCM) is a landing craft designed for carrying vehicles. They came to prominence during the Second World War when they were used to land troops or tanks during Allied amphibious assaults.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: There was no single design of LCM used, unlike the landing craft, vehicle, personnel (LCVP) or Landing Craft Assault (LCA) landing craft made by the US and UK respectively. There were several different designs built by the UK and US and by different manufacturers.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: The British motor landing craft was conceived and tested in the 1920s and was used from 1924 in exercises. Nine were in service at the start of the war. It was the first purpose built tank landing craft. It was the progenitor of all subsequent LCM designs.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: The landing craft, mechanised Mark I was an early British model. It was able to be slung under the davits of a liner or on a cargo ship boom with the result that it was limited to a 16-ton tank.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: The LCM Mark I was used during the Allied landings in Norway (one alongside the MLCs), and at Dieppe and some 600 were built.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: The first American LCM design, from the US Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair. Approximately 150 were built by American Car & Foundry and Higgins Industries.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: In appearance very similar to the LCVP which Higgins Industries also constructed, with a wide load area at the front and a small armoured (1/4 inch steel) wheelhouse on the aft decking over the engine room. A Higgins LCM-3 is on display at the Battleship Cove maritime museum in Fall River, Massachusetts. Another Higgins LCM-3 is displayed at the Museo Storico Piana delle Orme in Province of Latina, Italy, 18 miles East of Anzio.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: In the years 1943 and 1944, seventy-seven LCM(4)s were built. Outwardly, the LCM(4) was almost completely identical to a late model LCM(1) – the difference lay inside the pontoon. Here special bilge pumps and special ballast tanks allowed the LCM(4) to alter trim to increase stability when partially loaded.


title: Landing Craft Mechanized

text: An LCM (3) extended by amidships. Many were later adapted as armoured troop carriers (ATCs or "Tangos") for the Mobile Riverine Force in the Vietnam War; others became "Monitors" with 105mm guns, "Zippos" with flamethrowers or "Charlie" command variants.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: Quick Draw McGraw is a fictional anthropomorphic horse and the protagonist and title character of "The Quick Draw McGraw Show". He is a white horse, wearing a red Stetson cowboy hat, a red holster belt, a light blue bandana, and occasionally spurs. He was voiced by Daws Butler. All 45 of his cartoons that originally aired between 1959 and 1961 were written by Michael Maltese, known best for his work at the Warner Bros. cartoon studio. The cartoon was nominated for an Emmy Award in 1960.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: Quick Draw was usually depicted as a sheriff in a series of short films set in the Old West. Quick Draw was often accompanied by his deputy, a Mexican burro called Baba Looey (also voiced by Daws Butler), who spoke English with a Mexican accent and called his partner "Queeks Draw". In the Spanish American version, Quick Draw (Tiro Loco McGraw) speaks in a very English-influenced accent, and Baba Looey (Pepe Trueno, or Pepe Luis in some episodes) speaks in a very Mexican accent, so it was clear that Quick Draw was the alien, and there was no need to adapt any feature of the story. In the Brazilian version, Quick Draw speaks in a drawling Portuguese which along with his hispanized name (Pepe Legal) would suggest he was either a Texan-American or Mexican cowboy.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: Quick Draw satirized the westerns that were popular among the American public at the time. His character was well-intentioned, but somewhat dim. His main catchphrases were "Now hold on there!" and "I'll do the thin'in' around here and don't you forget it!" Also if he got hurt he would often say "Ooooh that smarts!" One of the main running gags in the shorts was him accidentally shooting himself with his own six-shooter.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: Another featured character was Snuffles, the bloodhound dog that would point to his mouth and "ah-ah-ah-" when he wanted a biscuit, then hug himself, leap up in the air, and float back down after having eaten one.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: Quick Draw was himself a horse caricature that walked on two legs like a human (as did Baba Looey), and had "hands" that were hooves with thumbs and could hold objects such as guns. This did not stop the show's producers from depicting him riding into town on a realistic horse, or as seen in the show's opening credits, driving a stagecoach pulled by a whole team of realistic horses. This aspect was made light of in the 1980s made-for-television film "The Good, the Bad, and Huckleberry Hound", which featured Quick Draw.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: In certain cases, Quick Draw would also assume the identity of the Spanish masked vigilante El Kabong (a spoof of Zorro). His introduction went as follows – "Of all the heroes in legend and song, there's none as brave as El Kabong". As El Kabong, Quick Draw would attack his foes by swooping down on a rope with the war cry "OLÉ!" and hitting them on the head with an acoustic guitar (after shouting "KABOOOOOONG!"), which is always referred to as a "kabonger", producing a distinctive kabong sound and usually destroying the guitar in the process. The "guitar" was usually drawn as a four strung cuatro. On the cartoon's soundtrack, the "kabong" sound effect was produced by a foley artist striking the detuned open strings of a cheap acoustic guitar. Comedian Kenny Moore received the nickname of "El Kabong" on some websites due to his infamous assault of a heckler with the guitar he played as part of his act.


title: Quick Draw McGraw

text: Quick Draw McGraw is referred to in Busta Rhymes' songs "So Hardcore" and "Everything Remains Raw". He is also referred to in MF Doom's Viktor Vaughn song "Modern Day Mugging". Lil Wayne refers to Quick Draw McGraw in his songs "Fireman" and "What's Wrong With Them?" Quick Draw McGraw is also referred to in House of Pain's song "Boom Shalock Lock Boom (Butch Vig Mix)". The song appeared on the EP, "Shamrocks and Shenanigans". The Game's "One Blood (Remix)" refers to Quick Draw McGraw.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: The Pacific sleeper shark (Somniosus pacificus) is a sleeper shark of the family Somniosidae, found in the North Pacific on continental shelves and slopes in Arctic and temperate waters between latitudes 70°N and 22°N, from the surface to deep. Records from southern oceans are likely misidentifications of relatives. Its length is up to , although it could possibly reach lengths in excess of .


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: Pacific sleeper sharks, which are thought to be both predators and scavengers, can glide through the water with little body movement and little hydrodynamic noise, making them successful stealth predators. They feed by means of suction and cutting of their prey. They have large mouths that can essentially inhale prey and their teeth cut up any pieces that are too large to swallow. They show a characteristic rolling motion of the head when feeding. Only in Alaska has the shark's diet been studied - most sharks' stomachs contain remains of giant Pacific octopus. They are also known to feed on bottom-dwelling teleost fishes, as well as soles, flounders, Alaska pollock, rockfishes, shrimps, hermit crabs, and even marine snails. Larger Pacific sleeper sharks are also found to feed on fast-swimming prey such as squids, Pacific salmon, and harbor porpoises. The diet of the Pacific sleeper shark seems to broaden as they increase in size. For example, a 3.7-m female shark found off Trinidad, California was found to have fed mostly on giant squid. Sleeper sharks found in Alaskan waters from seem to feed mostly on flounder, pollock, and cephalopods, while sleeper sharks long seem to consume teleosts and cephalopods, as well as marine mammals. A recent study in the Gulf of Alaska suggests that sleeper sharks may prey on juvenile Steller sea lions.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: Very little is known about the early life of Pacific sleeper sharks. They are believed to produce eggs that hatch inside the female's body (reproduction is ovoviviparous), but gestation time is unknown and litter sizes are thought to be about 10 pups. Its length at birth is about or less.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: The average mature size is and . The largest Pacific sleeper shark verified in size measured long and weighed , although it could possibly reach or more. In 1989, an enormous Pacific sleeper shark was attracted to a bait in deep water outside Tokyo Bay, Japan, and filmed. The shark was estimated by Eugenie Clark to be about long.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: Due to living in frigid depths, the sleeper shark's liver oil does not contain squalene, which would solidify into a dense, nonbuoyant mass. Instead, the low-density compounds in the sharks' liver are diacylglyceryl ethers and triacylglycerol, which maintain their fluidity even at the lowest temperatures. Also, they store very little urea in their skin (like many deep sea sharks), but like other elasmobranchs, have high concentrations of urea and trimethylamine oxide (nitrogenous waste products) in their tissues as osmoprotectants and to increase their buoyancy. Trimethylamine oxide also serves to counteract the protein-destabilizing tendencies of urea and pressure. Its presence in the tissues of both elasmobranch and teleost fish has been found to increase with depth.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: Because food is relatively scarce on the deep sea floor, the sleeper shark is able to store food in its capacious stomach. The sleeper shark's jaws are able to produce a powerful bite due to their short and transverse shape. The upper jaw teeth of the sleeper shark are spike-like, while the lower jaw teeth are oblique cusps and overlapping bases. This arrangement allows grasping and sawing of food too large to swallow. Pacific sleeper sharks have a short caudal fin, which allows them to store energy for fast and violent bursts of energy to catch prey.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: In 2015 a pacific sleeper shark was filmed near the Solomon Islands underneath an active volcano. The shark is able to survive in water with a high temperature and acidity.


title: Pacific sleeper shark

text: Sleeper sharks are preyed on by the offshore ecotype of killer whale off British Columbia. In addition, like the Greenland shark, the parasitic copepod "Ommatokoita elongata" can often be observed consuming the shark's corneal tissue.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The Province of Maryland was an English and later British colony in North America that existed from 1632 until 1776, when it joined the other twelve of the Thirteen Colonies in rebellion against Great Britain and became the U.S. state of Maryland. Its first settlement and capital was St. Mary's City, in the southern end of St. Mary's County, which is a peninsula in the Chesapeake Bay and is also bordered by four tidal rivers.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The province began as a proprietary colony of the English Lord Baltimore, who wished to create a haven for English Catholics in the New World at the time of the European wars of religion. Although Maryland was an early pioneer of religious toleration in the English colonies, religious strife among Anglicans, Puritans, Catholics, and Quakers was common in the early years, and Puritan rebels briefly seized control of the province. In 1689, the year following the Glorious Revolution, John Coode led a rebellion that removed Lord Baltimore, a Catholic, from power in Maryland. Power in the colony was restored to the Baltimore family in 1715 when Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, insisted in public that he was a Protestant.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Despite early competition with the colony of Virginia to its south, and the Dutch colony of New Netherland to its north, the Province of Maryland developed along very similar lines to Virginia. Its early settlements and population centers tended to cluster around the rivers and other waterways that empty into the Chesapeake Bay and, like Virginia, Maryland's economy quickly became centered on the cultivation of tobacco, for sale in Europe. The need for cheap labor, and later with the mixed farming economy that developed when tobacco prices collapsed, led to a rapid expansion of indentured servitude, penal transportation, and forcible immigration and enslavement of Africans. Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The Province of Maryland was an active participant in the events leading up to the American Revolution, and echoed events in New England by establishing committees of correspondence and hosting its own tea party similar to the one that took place in Boston. By 1776 the old order had been overthrown as Maryland citizens signed the Declaration of Independence, forcing the end of British colonial rule.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The Catholic George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, (1579–1632), former Secretary of State to King Charles I of England, wished to create a haven for English Catholics in the New World. After having visited the Americas and founded a colony in the future Canadian province of Newfoundland called "Avalon", he convinced the King to grant him a second territory in more southern, temperate climes. Upon Baltimore's death in 1632 the grant was transferred to his eldest son Cecil, the 2nd Baron Baltimore.


title: Province of Maryland

text: On 20 June 1632, Charles granted the original charter for Maryland, a proprietary colony of about twelve million acres (49,000 km²), to the 2nd Baron Baltimore. Some historians view this grant as a form of compensation for the 2nd Lord Baltimore's father's having been stripped of his title of Secretary of State upon announcing his Roman Catholicism in 1625. The charter offered no guidelines on religion, although it was assumed that Catholics would not be molested in the new colony.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Whatever the reason for granting the colony specifically to Lord Baltimore, however, the King had practical reasons to create a colony north of the Potomac in 1632. The colony of New Netherland begun by England's great imperial rival in this era, the United Provinces, specifically claimed the Delaware River valley and was vague about its border with Virginia. Charles rejected all the Dutch claims on the Atlantic seaboard, but was anxious to bolster English claims by formally occupying the territory. The new colony was named after the devoutly Catholic Queen Henrietta Maria, by an agreement between the 1st Lord Baltimore and King Charles I.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Colonial Maryland was considerably larger than the present-day State of Maryland. The original charter granted the Calverts a province with a boundary line that started "from the promontory or headland, called Watkin's Point, situate upon the bay aforesaid near the river Wighco on the West, unto the main ocean on the east; and between that boundary on the south, unto that part of the bay of Delaware on the north, which lyeth under the 40th degree of north latitude from the aequinoctial, where New England is terminated." The boundary line would then continue westward along the fortieth parallel "unto the true meridian of the first fountain of the river Pattowmack". From there, the boundary continued south to the southern bank of the Potomac River, continue along the southern river bank to the Chesapeake Bay, and "thence by the shortest line unto the aforesaid promontory, or place, called Watkin's Point." Based on this deceptively imprecise description of the boundary, the land may have comprised up to , 50% larger than today’s State.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In Maryland, Baltimore sought to create a haven for English Catholics and to demonstrate that Catholics and Protestants could live together peacefully, even issuing the Act Concerning Religion in matters of religion. The 1st Lord Baltimore was himself a convert to Catholicism, a considerable political setback for a nobleman in 17th century England, where Roman Catholics could easily be considered enemies of the crown and potential traitors to their country. Like other aristocratic proprietors, he also hoped to turn a profit on the new colony.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The Calvert family recruited Catholic aristocrats and Protestant settlers for Maryland, luring them with generous land grants and a policy of religious toleration. To try to gain settlers, Maryland used what is known as the headright system, which originated in Jamestown. Settlers were given of land for each person they brought into the colony, whether as settler, indentured servant, or slave.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Of the 200 or so initial settlers who traveled to Maryland on the ships "Ark" and "Dove," the majority were Protestant. On November 22, 1633, Lord Baltimore sent the first settlers to the new colony, and after a long voyage with a stopover to resupply in Barbados, the "Ark" and the "Dove" landed on 25 March 1634 (thereafter celebrated as "Maryland Day"), at Blackistone Island, thereafter known as St. Clement's Island, off the northern shore of the Potomac River, upstream from its confluence with the Chesapeake Bay and Point Lookout. The new settlers were led by Lord Baltimore's younger brother the Honorable Leonard Calvert, whom Baltimore had delegated to serve as governor of the new colony.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Here at St. Clement's Island they raised a large cross, and led by Jesuit Father Andrew White celebrated Mass. The new settlement was called "St. Mary's City" and it became the first capitol of Maryland. It remained so for sixty years until 1695 when the colony's capital was moved north to the more central, newly established "Anne Arundel's Town (also briefly known as "Providence") and later renamed as "Annapolis".


title: Province of Maryland

text: More settlers soon followed. The tobacco crops that they had planted from the outset were very successful and quickly made the new colony profitable. However, given the incidence of malaria and typhoid, life expectancy in Maryland was about 10 years less than in New England.


title: Province of Maryland

text: "Historic St. Mary's City" (a historic preservationist/tourism agency) has been established to protect what is left of the ruins of the original 17th century village, and several reconstructed, government buildings, little of which remained intact. With the exception of several periods of rebellion by early Protestants and later colonists, the colony/province remained under the control of the several Lords Baltimore until 1775–1776, when it joined with other colonies in rebellion against Great Britain and eventually became the independent and sovereign U.S. State of Maryland.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1642, the Province of Maryland declared war on the indigenous Susquehannock nation (Conestoga peoples). The Susquehannock (with the help of the colony of New Sweden) defeated Maryland in 1644. As a result, the Conestoga traded almost exclusively with New Sweden to the north while the colony was young. The Susquehannocks remained in an intermittent state of war with Maryland until a peace treaty was concluded in 1652, but would become allies in the following decades. Records from this era are poor and accounts of these early conflicts are incomplete.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In the peace treaty of 1652 the Susquehannock ceded to Maryland large territories on both shores of the Chesapeake Bay in return for arms and for safety on their southern flank. This decision was also related to the unrest among Native Americans caused by the Beaver Wars of the late 1650s, in which the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) swept south and west against other tribes and territories to expand their hunting grounds for the fur trade. With the help of Maryland's arms, the Susquehannock fought off the Iroquois Confederacy effectively, and a brief peace followed. In 1666 the Susquehannock decisively defeated two tribes of the Five Nations of the Iroquois, recasting the power relationships in the upper Susquehanna Valley and those into the lower parts of New York. This kept the colony free of incursions by the warlike Iroquois. However, the buffer of the Susquehannock nation soon failed to protect the colony from the threat of the powerful Iroquois: the Susquehannock tribe became decimated by an epidemic. They went from being a regional power to nearly extinct in the first years of the 1870s. In a later peace with the colonial governments of Virginia and Maryland, the Iroquois agreed in a treaty to absorb their remaining distant cousins, and the remaining Susquehannock people became a mere shadow of their former power. By 1878 only 300 or so remained in the Wyoming Valley.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1629, George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore "driven by 'the sacred duty of finding a refuge for his Roman Catholic brethren," applied to Charles I for a royal charter to establish a colony south of Virginia. He also wanted a share of the fortunes being made in tobacco in Virginia, and hoped to recoup some of the financial losses he had sustained in his earlier colonial venture in Newfoundland.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1631, William Claiborne a Puritan from Virginia received a royal trading commission granting him the right to trade with the natives on all lands in the mid-Atlantic where there was not already a patent in effect. Claiborne established a trading post on Kent Island on 28 May 1631.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Meanwhile, back in London, the Privy Council persuaded the 1st Lord Baltimore that he be granted a charter for lands north of the Virginia colony, in order to put pressure on the Dutch settlements further north along the Delaware and Hudson Rivers. Calvert agreed, but died in 1632 before the charter was formally signed by King Charles I. The Royal Grant and Charter for the new colony of Maryland was then granted to his son, Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, on 20 June 1632. This placed Claiborne on Calvert land. Claiborne refused to recognize Lord Baltimore's charter and rights.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Following the arrest of one of his agents for trading in Maryland waters without a license in 1635, Claiborne fitted out an armed ship, and there ensued a naval battle on April 23, 1635 by the mouth of the Pocomoke River during which 3 Virginians were killed. Following this battle, Leonard Calvert captured Kent Island by force in February 1638.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1644, during the English Civil War Claiborne led an uprising of Protestants in what came to be called the Plundering Time, also known as "Claiborne and Ingle's Rebellion" and retook Kent Island. Meanwhile, privateer Captain Richard Ingle (Claiborne's co-commander) seized control of St. Mary's City, the capital of the Maryland colony. Catholic Governor Calvert escaped to the Virginia Colony which remained nominally loyal to the crown until 1652. The Protestant pirates began plundering the property of anyone who did not swear allegiance to the English Parliament, mainly Catholics. The rebellion was put down in 1647 by Governor Calvert.


title: Province of Maryland

text: A Parliamentary victory in England renewed old tensions leading to the Battle of the Severn, now present-day Annapolis, in 1655 between moderate Protestants and Catholics loyal to Lord Baltimore under the command of William Stone and Puritans loyal to the Commonwealth of England from the settlement of "Providence" under the command of Captain William Fuller. 17 of Stones men and two Puritans were killed, resulting in victory for the Puritans.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The issue of the ongoing Claiborne grievance was finally settled by an agreement reached in 1657. Lord Baltimore provided Claiborne amnesty for all of his offenses, Virginia laid aside any claim it had to Maryland territory, and Claiborne was indemnified with extensive land grants in Virginia for his loss of Kent Island.


title: Province of Maryland

text: "Multiple colonial charters, two negotiated settlements by the states in 1785 and 1958, an arbitrated agreement in 1877, and several Supreme Court decisions have defined how Maryland and Virginia would deal with the Potomac River as a boundary line, and shaped the boundary on the Eastern Shore (separating Accomack County in Virginia from Worcester/Somerset counties in Maryland)."


title: Province of Maryland

text: The border dispute with Pennsylvania continued and led to Cresap's War, a conflict between settlers from Pennsylvania and Maryland fought in the 1730s. Hostilities erupted in 1730 with a series of violent incidents prompted by disputes over property rights and law enforcement, and escalated through the first half of the decade, culminating in the deployment of military forces by Maryland in 1736 and by Pennsylvania in 1737. The armed phase of the conflict ended in May 1738 with the intervention of King George II, who compelled the negotiation of a cease-fire. A provisional agreement had been established in 1732.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Maryland lost some of its original territory to Pennsylvania in the 1660s when King Charles II granted the Penn family, owners of Pennsylvania, a tract that overlapped the Calvert family's Maryland grant. For 80 years the powerful Penn and Calvert families had feuded over overlapping Royal grants. Surveyors Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon mapped the Maryland-Pennsylvania border in 1767, setting out the Mason–Dixon line.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1672, Lord Baltimore declared that Maryland included the settlement of Whorekills on the west shore of the Delaware Bay, an area under the jurisdiction of the Province of New York (as the British had renamed New Netherland after taking possession in 1664). A force was dispatched which attacked and captured this settlement. New York could not immediately respond because New York was soon recaptured by the Dutch. This settlement was restored to the Province of New York when New York was recaptured from the Dutch in November, 1674.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Frederick died in 1771, by which time relations between Britain and her American colonies were fast deteriorating. In his will, Frederick left his proprietary Palatinate of Maryland to his eldest illegitimate son, Henry Harford, then aged just 13. The colony, perhaps grateful to be rid of Frederick at last, recognized Harford as Calvert's heir. However, the will was challenged by the family of Frederick's sister, Louisa Calvert Browning, who did not recognize Harford's inheritance. Before the case could grind its way through the Court of Chancery, Maryland had become engulfed by the American Revolution and by 1776 was at war with Britain. Henry Harford would ultimately lose almost all his colonial possessions.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Lord Baltimore held all the land directly from the King for the payment of "two Indian arrowheads annually and one fifth of all gold and silver found in the colony." Maryland's foundation charter was drafted in feudal terms and based on the practices of the ancient County Palatine of Durham, which existed until 1646. He was given the rights and privileges of a Palatine lord, and the extensive authority that went with it. The Proprietor had the right and power to establish courts and appoint judges and magistrates, to enforce all laws, to grant titles, to erect towns, to pardon all offenses, to found churches, to call out the fighting population and wage war, to impose martial law, to convey or lease the land, and to levy duties and tolls.


title: Province of Maryland

text: However, as elsewhere in English North America, English political institutions were re-created in the colonies, and the Maryland General Assembly fulfilled much the same function as the House of Commons of England. An act was passed providing that:


title: Province of Maryland

text: In some ways the General Assembly was an improvement upon the institutions of the mother country. In 1639, noting that Parliament had not been summoned in England for a decade, the free men of Maryland passed an act to the effect that "assemblies were to be called once in every three years at the least," ensuring that their voices would be regularly heard.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Due to immigration, by 1660 the population of the Province had gradually become predominantly Protestant. Political power remained concentrated in the hands of the largely Catholic elite. Most councilors were Catholics and many were related by blood or marriage to the Calverts, enjoying political patronage and often lucrative offices such as commands in the militia or sinecures in the Land Office.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Although Maryland was an early pioneer of religious toleration in the British colonies, religious strife among Anglicans, Puritans, Roman Catholics, and Quakers was common in the early years, and Puritan rebels briefly seized control of the province. In 1644 the dispute with William Claiborne led to armed conflict. Claiborne seized Kent Island while his associate, the pro-Parliament Puritan Richard Ingle, took over St. Mary's. Both used religion as a tool to gain popular support. From 1644 to 1646, the so-called "Plundering Time" was a period of civil unrest aggravated by the tensions of the English Civil War (1641–1651). Leonard Calvert returned from exile with troops, recaptured St. Mary's City, and eventually restored order.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1649 Maryland passed the Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, a law mandating religious tolerance for trinitarian Christians. Passed on 21 September 1649 by the assembly of the Maryland Colony, it was the first law requiring religious tolerance in the English North American colonies. In 1654, after the Third English Civil War (1649–1651), Parliamentary (Puritan) forces assumed control of Maryland for a time.


title: Province of Maryland

text: When dissidents pressed for an established church, Caecilius Calvert's noted that Maryland settlers were "Presbyterians, Independents, Anabaptists, and Quakers, those of the Church of England as well as the Romish being the fewest ... it would be a most difficult task to draw such persons to consent unto a Law which shall compel them to maintaine ministers of a contrary perswasion to themselves."


title: Province of Maryland

text: In 1689, Maryland Puritans, by now a substantial majority in the colony, revolted against the proprietary government, in part because of the apparent preferment of Catholics like Colonel Henry Darnall to official positions of power. Led by Colonel John Coode, an army of 700 Puritans defeated a proprietarial army led by Colonel Darnall. Darnall later wrote: "Wee being in this condition and no hope left of quieting the people thus enraged, to prevent effusion of blood, capitulated and surrendered." The victorious Coode and his Puritans set up a new government that outlawed Catholicism, and Darnall was deprived of all his official roles. Coode's government was, however, unpopular; and William III installed a Crown-appointed governor in 1692. This was Lionel Copley who governed Maryland until his death in 1694 and was replaced by Francis Nicholson.


title: Province of Maryland

text: After this "Protestant Revolution" in Maryland, Darnall was forced, like many other Catholics, to maintain a secret chapel in his home in order to celebrate the Roman Catholic Mass. In 1704, an Act was passed "to prevent the growth of Popery in this Province", preventing Catholics from holding political office.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Full religious toleration would not be restored in Maryland until the American Revolution, when Darnall's great-grandson Charles Carroll of Carrollton, arguably the wealthiest Catholic in Maryland, signed the American Declaration of Independence.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Early settlements and population centers tended to cluster around the rivers and other waterways that empty into Chesapeake Bay. In the 17th century, most Marylanders lived in rough conditions on small farms. While they raised a variety of fruits, vegetables, grains, and livestock, the main cash crop was tobacco, which soon dominated the province's economy.


title: Province of Maryland

text: The Province of Maryland developed along lines very similar to those of Virginia. Tobacco was used as money, and the colonial legislature was obliged to pass a law requiring tobacco planters to raise a certain amount of corn as well, in order to ensure that the colonists would not go hungry. Like Virginia, Maryland's economy quickly became centered around the farming of tobacco for sale in Europe. The need for cheap labor to help with the growth of tobacco, and later with the mixed farming economy that developed when tobacco prices collapsed, led to a rapid expansion of indentured servitude and, later, forcible immigration and enslavement of Africans.


title: Province of Maryland

text: By 1730 there were public tobacco warehouses every fourteen miles. Bonded at £1,000 sterling, each inspector received from £25 to £60 as annual salary. Four hogsheads of 950 pounds were considered a ton for London shipment. Ships from English ports did not need port cities; they called at the wharves of warehouses or plantations along the rivers for tobacco and the next year returned with goods the planters had ordered from the shops of London.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Outside the plantations, much land was operated by independent farmers who rented from the proprietors, or owned it outright. They emphasized subsistence farming to grow food for their large families. Many of the Irish and Scottish immigrants specialized in rye-whiskey making, which they sold to obtain cash.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Maryland developed into a plantation colony by the 18th century. In 1700 there were about 25,000 people and by 1750 that had grown more than 5 times to 130,000. By 1755, about 40% of Maryland's population was black. Maryland planters also made extensive use of indentured servants and penal labor. An extensive system of rivers facilitated the movement of produce from inland plantations and farms to the Atlantic coast for export. Baltimore, on the Patapsco River, leading to the Chesapeake Bay, was the second-most important port in the 18th-century South, after Charleston, South Carolina.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Dr. Alexander Hamilton (1712–1756) was a Scottish-born doctor and writer who lived and worked in Annapolis. Leo Lemay says his 1744 travel diary "Gentleman's Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton" is "the best single portrait of men and manners, of rural and urban life, of the wide range of society and scenery in colonial America."


title: Province of Maryland

text: The Abbé Claude C. Robin, a chaplain in the army of General Rochambeau, who travelled through Maryland during the Revolutionary War, described the lifestyle enjoyed by families of wealth and status in the colony:


title: Province of Maryland

text: The first printing press was introduced to the Province of Maryland in 1765 by a German immigrant, Nicholas Hasselbach, whose equipment was later used in the printing of Baltimore's first newspapers, "The Maryland Journal" and "The Baltimore Advertiser", first published by William Goddard in 1773.


title: Province of Maryland

text: In the late colonial period, the southern and eastern portions of the Province continued in their tobacco economy, but as the American Revolution approached, northern and central Maryland increasingly became centers of wheat production. This helped drive the expansion of interior farming towns like Frederick and Maryland's major port city of Baltimore.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Up to the time of the American Revolution, the Province of Maryland was one of two colonies that remained an English proprietary colony, Pennsylvania being the other. Maryland declared independence from Britain in 1776, with Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton signing the Declaration of Independence for the colony. In the 1776–77 debates over the Articles of Confederation, Maryland delegates led the party that insisted that states with western land claims cede them to the Confederation government, and in 1781 Maryland became the last state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. It accepted the United States Constitution more readily, ratifying it on 28 April 1788.


title: Province of Maryland

text: Maryland also gave up some territory to create the new District of Columbia after the American Revolution.


title: Tong Liya

text: Tong was born in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County, Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang province. Her father () was of Xibe ethnicity from Xinjiang while her mother Mao Haiying () was of Han ethnicity from Gansu.


title: Tong Liya

text: Tong majored in dance at the Xinjiang Arts Institute, and due to her excellent results, was able to gain a placement at the Xinjiang Singing & Dancing Troupe. She subsequently obtained a qualification to teach dance at Xinjiang Arts Institute in 2000. In 2004, she enrolled in Central Academy of Drama, majoring in performance.


title: Tong Liya

text: Tong made her debut in the Hong Kong television series "C'est La Vie, Mon Chéri" in 2008, and gained attention for her beautiful looks. Following her role as Zhao Feiyan in the 2009 historical drama "The Queens", Tong experienced a rise in popularity.


title: Tong Liya

text: Tong successfully broke into the mainstream with her subsequent roles in "Palace" (2011) and "Beijing Love Story" (2012), which were both major hits. Throughout her career, Tong has portrayed various roles in hit dramas "My Economical Man" (2012), "Weaning" (2013), "Sword Family Woman" (2014) and "Obstetrician" (2014); and was named the "Ratings Queen" by the Chinese media. She also starred in films, most notably Tsui Hark's wuxia film "The Taking of Tiger Mountain" (2014) and Chen Sicheng's comedy film "Detective Chinatown" (2015).


title: Tong Liya

text: In 2015, Tong starred in the period drama "Ordinary World" (2015), based on the Mao Dun Literature Prize novel of the same name by Lu Yao. She received acclaim for her performance, and won the Golden Eagle Award for Best Actress.


title: Tong Liya

text: In 2017, Tong starred in the wuxia drama "Nirvana in Fire 2", the sequel to the critically acclaimed drama "Nirvana in Fire" by Hai Yan.


title: Tong Liya

text: In 2018, Tong starred in two spy dramas. In "Great Expectations", she played the role of a wealthy lady who disguises as a man to infiltrate the underworld to seek revenge for her dead father. In "Patriot", she played the role of an underground spy. Tong won the Audience's Loved Character award at the China TV Drama Awards for her portrayal. The same year, Tong won acclaim and numerous accolades for her performance in the romance comedy film "How Long Will I Love U".


title: Tong Liya

text: Tong and actor Chen Sicheng got married on 16 January 2014. The couple met and fell in love while filming the television series "Beijing Love Story", which Chen directed and co-scripted. They announced their relationship on the set of "Happy Camp" in 2012. The couple got married in 2014 at Tahiti.


title: Tong Liya

text: On 30 January 2016, Tong announced that she had given birth to their first child, a son named Chen Duoduo. On 20 May 2021, Tong and Chen announced their divorce.


title: Sathish Krishnan

text: After winning the first season of the reality dance show, Maanada Mayilada, Sathish was first seen portraying Vinay Rai's friend in Jeeva's "Unnale Unnale" (2007). Sathish played a small role in "Vaaranam Aayiram" (2008) as Suriya's school friend. He also acted in Achcham Yenbadhu Madamaiyada, a film by Gautham Vasudev Menon, as Silambarasan's friend. He was the choreographer for all the songs in Achcham Yenbadhu Madamaiyada.


title: Liza Colón-Zayas

text: Liza Colón was born and raised in The Bronx borough of New York City in 1972 and began her career off-Broadway. She broke into mainstream theatre when she wrote, produced, and starred in a one-woman show titled "Sistah Supreme", a semi-autobiographical play in which she chronicles growing up as a Latina woman in New York during the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Liza Colón-Zayas

text: Colón-Zayas has been a member of the LAByrinth Theatre Company, a New York-based traveling actors' group, since 1992. On stage, she originated the role of Norca in the off-Broadway productions of "Our Lady of 121st Street" and appeared in "In Arabia, We'd All Be Kings" (co-starring Ana Ortiz and directed by Philip Seymour Hoffman). "Time Out New York" named the latter production one of the ten best plays of 1999.


title: Liza Colón-Zayas

text: She has also appeared in television series such as "Sex and the City", "", and "Blue Bloods" episode 124, "Stomping Grounds" (in the latter, as Ana Baez, the sister of Detective Maria Baez). She guest starred in "Dexter" (season 5, episode 8), as the mother of Yasmin Aragon, a snitch to the detectives investigating the "Santa Muerte killings." She came into the detachment to identify her daughter's body, after she was killed during a sting by Miami Metro Homicide. On the large screen, she played a passenger in the film "United 93" (2006) and Judge Angel Rodriguez in "Righteous Kill" (2008). In 2016, she played Dawn in the horror film "".


title: Liza Colón-Zayas

text: Colón-Zayas is married to actor David Zayas, known for his role as Angel Batista on Showtime's "Dexter".


title: 360-degree feedback

text: 360-degree feedback (also known as multi-rater feedback, multi source feedback, or multi source assessment) is a process through which feedback from an employee's subordinates, peers, colleagues, and supervisor(s), as well as a self-evaluation by the employee themselves is gathered. Such feedback can also include, when relevant, feedback from external sources who interact with the employee, such as customers and suppliers or other interested stakeholders. 360-degree feedback is so named because it solicits feedback regarding an employee's behavior from a variety of points of view (subordinate, lateral, and supervisory). It therefore may be contrasted with "downward feedback" (traditional feedback on work behavior and performance delivered to subordinates by supervisory or management employees only; see traditional performance appraisal), or "upward feedback" delivered to supervisory or management employees by subordinates only.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Organizations have most commonly utilized 360-degree feedback for developmental purposes, providing it to employees to assist them in developing work skills and behaviors. However, organizations are increasingly using 360-degree feedback in performance evaluations and employment administrative decisions (e.g., pay; promotions). When 360-degree feedback is used for performance evaluation purposes, it is sometimes called a "360-degree review".


title: 360-degree feedback

text: There is a great deal of debate as to whether 360-degree feedback should be used exclusively for development purposes or for evaluation purposes as well. This is due primarily to feedback providers' subjectivity and motivations, inter-rater variations, and whether feedback providers have the ability to fairly evaluate attainment of work and organizational objectives. While these issues exist when 360-degree feedback is used for development, they may be more prominent when employers use them for performance evaluation purposes.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: The origins are with the German Reichswehr around 1930, when the military psychologist developed a methodology to select officer candidates. One of the earliest recorded uses of surveys to gather information about employees occurred in the 1950s at the Esso Research and Engineering Company. From there, the idea of 360-degree feedback gained momentum, and by the 1990s most human resources and organizational development professionals understood the concept. The problem was that collecting and collating the feedback demanded a paper-based effort including either complex manual calculations or lengthy delays.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: However, due to the rise of the Internet and the ability to conduct evaluations online, multi-rater feedback use steadily increased in popularity. Outsourcing of human resources functions also has created a strong market for 360-degree feedback products from consultants. This has led to a proliferation of 360-degree feedback tools on the market.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Today, studies suggest that over one-third of U.S. companies use some type of multi-source feedback. Others claim that this estimate is closer to 90% of all Fortune 500 firms. In recent years, this has become encouraged as Internet-based services have become standard in corporate development, with a growing menu of useful features (e.g., multiple language options, comparative reporting, and aggregate reporting).


title: 360-degree feedback

text: 360-degree feedback is not equally useful in all types of organizations and with all types of jobs. Additionally, using 360-degree feedback tools for appraisal purposes has come under fire as performance criteria may not be valid and job based, employees may not be adequately trained to evaluate a co-worker's performance, and feedback providers can manipulate these systems. Employee manipulation of feedback ratings has been reported in some companies who have utilized 360-degree feedback for performance evaluation, including GE (Welch 2001), IBM (Linman 2011), and Amazon (Kantor and Streitfeld 2015).


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Some members of the U.S. military have criticized its use of 360-degree feedback programs in employment decisions because of problems with validity and reliability. Other branches of the U.S. government have questioned 360-degree feedback reviews as well. Still, these organizations continue to use and refine their assessments that offer multi-rater feedback in their development processes.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Adopting the 360-degree review approach is purported by many to be superior to other traditional forms of evaluation and feedback for evaluating employee performance. When successfully implemented, this method can provide a more efficient, thorough, and accurate assessment of performance reviews.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: The amount and level of training in 360-degree feedback for both the rater and ratee can affect the level of accuracy of the feedback. If no guidance is given, individual bias may affect the rater's ratings and the ratee's interpretation of the feedback. However, even with training measures in place, unconscious bias may still occur due to factors such as the cultural influences or relationship quality between the rater and ratee. Additionally, if there are potential consequences from rater feedback, rater motivation may shift from providing accurate feedback to providing feedback based on self-motivated reasons such as promoting or harming a particular individual. Therefore, it is imperative that a baseline of trust be established between the raters and ratees to improve rater accountability and feedback accuracy.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: It is important to recognize who will receive the data collected and who will maintain the confidentiality of that data. The manager or HR employee who manages the collection of data will need to ensure its confidentiality. When participants remain anonymous, they are more likely to provide more accurate feedback. Moreover, the data should only be available to the employee who has been reviewed and the manager who will be facilitating the feedback for developmental purposes.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: It is also important to standardize how information is collected during the review process. 360-degree feedback may be susceptible to decreased accuracy based on the style of assessment used. Research has shown that feedback results may change based on the rating scale used in the assessment as well as the length of the assessment. Furthermore, rater feedback may change based on the time they completed the assessment.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: A study on the patterns of rater accuracy shows that the length of time that a rater has known the individual being evaluated has the greatest effect on the accuracy of a 360-degree review. The study shows that subjects in the group "known for one to three years" are the most accurate, followed by those "known for less than one year," followed by those "known for three to five years" and the least accurate being those "known for more than five years." The study concludes that the most accurate ratings come from those who have known the individual being reviewed long enough to get past the first impression, but not so long that they begin to generalize favorably.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: It has been suggested that multi-rater assessments often generate conflicting opinions and that there may be no way to determine whose feedback is accurate. Studies have also indicated that self-ratings are generally significantly higher than the ratings given from others. The motivations and biases of feedback providers must be taken into account.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Several studies indicate that the use of 360-degree feedback helps to improve employee performance because it helps the evaluated see different perspectives of their performance. In a 5-year study, no improvement in overall rater scores was found from the 1st year to the 2nd, but scores rose with each passing year from 2nd to 4th. Reilly et al. (1996) found that performance increased between the 1st and 2nd administrations, and sustained this improvement 2 years later. Additional studies show that 360-degree feedback may be predictive of future performance.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Some authors maintain, however, that there are too many confounding variables related to 360-degree evaluations to reliably generalize their effectiveness. Bracken et al. (2001b) and Bracken and Timmreck (2001) focus on process features that are likely to also have major effects on creating behavior change. Greguras and Robie (1998) tracked how the number of raters used in each particular category (direct report, peer, manager) affects the reliability of the feedback. Their research showed that direct reports are the least reliable and, therefore, more participation is required to produce a reliable result. Multiple pieces of research have demonstrated that the scale of responses can have a major effect on the results, and some response scales are better than others. Goldsmith and Underhill (2001) report the powerful influence of the evaluated individual following up with raters to discuss their results, which cannot be done when feedback is anonymous. Other potentially powerful factors affecting behavior change include how raters are selected, manager approval, instrument quality, rater training and orientation, participant training, supervisor training, coaching, integration with HR systems, and accountability.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: One group of studies proposed four paradoxes that explain why 360-degree evaluations do not elicit accurate data: (1) the Paradox of Roles, in which an evaluator is conflicted by being both peer and the judge; (2) the Paradox of Group Performance, which admits that the vast majority of work done in a corporate setting is done in groups, not individually; (3) the Measurement Paradox, which shows that qualitative, or in-person, techniques are much more effective than mere ratings in facilitating change; and (4) the Paradox of Rewards, which shows that individuals evaluating their peers care more about the rewards associated with finishing the task than the actual content of the evaluation itself.


title: 360-degree feedback

text: Additional studies found no correlation between an employee's multi-rater assessment scores and his or her top-down performance appraisal scores (provided by the person's supervisor). They advise that although multi-rater feedback can be effectively used for appraisal, care needs to be taken in its implementation or results will be compromised. This research suggests that 360-degree feedback and performance appraisals get at different outcomes. Therefore, traditional performance appraisals as well as 360-degree feedback should be used in evaluating overall performance.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Channel Awesome, Inc. is an American online media production company based in Lombard, Illinois. The company was created in 2008 by Mike Michaud, Mike Ellis, and Bhargav Dronamraju. Channel Awesome operated the That Guy with the Glasses website (often abbreviated TGWTG) until late 2014, when it was phased into the "Channel Awesome" website. The site is best known for the comedic film review series "Nostalgia Critic", starring Doug Walker.