title: History of Berlin

text: Loshitzky depicts the role of the Berlin Wall as a symbol of the Cold War, détente, and the collapse of the Communist regimes in Eastern Europe. She divides the history of the Wall into six major stages: the erection of the Wall (1961); the period of the "geography of fear" from the Cold War; the period of détente; the short period of glasnost and perestroika; the fall of the Wall (1989); and after the Wall.


title: History of Berlin

text: On August 13, 1961, the Communist East German government started to build a wall, physically separating West Berlin from East Berlin and the rest of East Germany, as a response to massive numbers of East German citizens fleeing into West Berlin as a way to escape. The wall was built overnight with no warning. This separated families for as long as the wall was up. The East German government called the Wall the "anti-fascist protection wall". The tensions between East and West were exacerbated by a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie on 27 October 1961. West Berlin was now a de facto part of West Germany, but with a unique legal status, while East Berlin remained part of East Germany.


title: History of Berlin

text: The western sectors of Berlin were now completely separated from the surrounding territory of East Berlin and East Germany. It was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other only through strictly controlled checkpoints. For most Easterners, travel to West Berlin or West Germany was no longer possible. During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes into West Berlin; 136 people were officially killed trying to cross (see "List of deaths at the Berlin Wall") and around 200 were seriously injured. The sandy soil under the Wall was both a blessing and a curse for those who attempted to tunnel their way to West Berlin and freedom. Although it was easy to dig through quickly, it was also more prone to collapse.


title: History of Berlin

text: When the first stone blocks were laid down at Potsdamer Platz in the early hours of August 13, US troops stood ready with ammunition and watched the wall being built, stone by stone. The US military with West Berlin police kept Berliners 300 meters away from the border. President John F. Kennedy and the United States Congress decided not to interfere and risk armed conflict. They conveyed their protest to Moscow, and Kennedy sent his vice president, Lyndon B. Johnson, together with Lucius D. Clay, the hero of the Airlift to the city. Massive demonstrations took place in West Berlin.


title: History of Berlin

text: Almost two years later, on June 26, 1963, John F. Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a much-acclaimed speech in front of the Schöneberg City Hall in which he said, ""Ich bin ein Berliner""– "I am a Berliner". This was meant to demonstrate America's lasting solidarity with the city as a Western island in Soviet satellite territory.


title: History of Berlin

text: Much Cold War espionage and counter-espionage took place in Berlin, against a backdrop of potential superpower confrontation in which both sides had nuclear weapons set for a range that could hit Germany. In 1971, the Four-Power Agreement on Berlin was signed. While the Soviet Union applied the oversight of the four powers only to West Berlin, the Western Allies emphasized in a 1975 note to the United Nations their position that four-power oversight applied to Berlin as a whole. The agreement guaranteed access across East Germany to West Berlin and ended the potential for harassment or closure of the routes.


title: History of Berlin

text: As many businesses did not want to operate in West Berlin due to its physical and economic isolation from the outside, the West German government subsidized any businesses that did operate in West Berlin.


title: History of Berlin

text: In the 1960s, West Berlin became one of the centers of the German student movement. West Berlin was especially popular with young German left-wing radicals, as young men living in West Berlin were exempted from the obligatory military service required in West Germany proper: the Kreuzberg district became especially well known for its high concentration of young radicals.


title: History of Berlin

text: The Wall afforded unique opportunities for social gatherings. The physical wall was set some distance behind the actual sector border, up to several meters behind in some places. The West Berlin police were not legally allowed to enter the space between the border and the wall, as it was technically in East Berlin and outside their jurisdiction: many people took the opportunity to throw loud parties in this space, with the West Berlin authorities powerless to intervene. In 1968 and after, West Berlin became one of the centers of the student revolt; in particular, the Kreuzberg borough was the center of many riots.


title: History of Berlin

text: The Fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 ended the 28 year long division of Berlin. On the morning of the 9 November 1989, SED member Günter Schabowski announced at a press conference that border restrictions would be lifted between East and West Berlin. Although the conditions of the press release had been intended to be only temporary, Schabowski gave the impression that all restrictions would be lifted immediately, leading to large crowds forming on the eastern side of the border.Overwhelmed by the unexpected pressure, at 11:30PM, border guards eventually allowed crowds from East Berlin to cross the frontier at the Bornholmer Strasse crossing. People of East and West Berlin climbed up and danced on the wall at the Brandenburg Gate in scenes of celebration broadcast worldwide. The checkpoints never closed again, and was soon on its way to demolition, with countless Berliners and tourists wielding hammers and chisels to secure souvenir chunks.


title: History of Berlin

text: After the fall of Communism in Europe, on 3 October 1990 Germany and Berlin were both reunited. By then the Wall had been almost completely demolished, with only small sections remaining. Various impacts of partition on Berlin were removed in subsequent months - the ghost stations of Berlin U-Bahn were reopened and the Berlin S-Bahn which had been operated by the east German Deutsche Reichsbahn also in the west (until 1984) and consequently boycotted and neglected in the west was refurbished and traffic on the Berlin ring railway resumed along its full length in 2002. Still, many S-Bahn lines shut down during partition are not yet rebuilt as of 2020.


title: History of Berlin

text: In June 1991 the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the (West) German capital back from Bonn to Berlin. The decision was reached after 10 hours of debate. In the voting Berlin won by a narrow margin: 338 for, 320 against. Berlin once more became the capital of a unified Germany.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1999 federal ministries and government offices moved back from Bonn to Berlin, but most employees in the ministries still work in Bonn. Also in 1999, about 20 government authorities moved from Bonn to Berlin, as planned in the compensation agreement of 1994, the Berlin/Bonn Act.


title: History of Berlin

text: Berlin has been targeted by terrorists on several occasions; the most severe incident being a vehicle-ramming attack in 2016 that killed 13 and injured 55.


title: History of Berlin

text: Today, Berlin has become a global city for international affairs, young business founders, creative industries, higher education services, corporate research, popular media and diverse cultural tourism. Population-wise, Berlin became one of the most rapidly growing urban centers in Europe after 2010, much of which has been due to immigration.


title: History of Berlin

text: While the status of west Berlin was "de facto" that of a "Bundesland" of west Germany, the "de jure" situation remained unclear until reunification made it a moot point. In the 1990s there was an attempt to merge the "Land" with the adjacent State of Brandenburg which failed in a referendum due to opposition in Brandenburg. The Berlin banking scandal of 2001 led to strained state finances and austerity measures under then senator of finances Thilo Sarrazin. After the breakdown of Eberhard Diepgen's grand coalition over the banking scandal the snap 2001 Berlin state election produced the first German state government led by an openly homosexual man, Klaus Wowereit. Potsdamer Platz which had been a central traffic and commerce hub in the 1920s but heavily impacted by the wall during partition became one of Europe's biggest building sites and is now once again one of Berlin's most representative addresses. The museums on Museum Island were renovated and are once again museums of world renown. The Palast der Republik, the former seat of East Germany's parliament was torn down to make way for the Humboldtforum, a reconstruction of the former "Stadtschloss" on that site. The traffic infrastructure of Berlin became another post unification priority, leading to the shutdown of Tempelhof Airport in 2008, the opening of a new Berlin Hauptbahnhof in 2006, and finally the long delayed opening of Berlin Brandenburg airport in 2020 accompanied by the shutdown of Tegel Airport. The Central bus station ZOB Berlin which opened in the 1960s is undergoing renovations which began in 2016 and are ongoing as of 2020.


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: Brotherhood is the fourth studio album by English rock band New Order, released on 29 September 1986 by Factory Records. It contains a mixture of post-punk and electronic styles, roughly divided between the two sides. The album includes "Bizarre Love Triangle", the band's breakthrough single in the United States and Australia; it was the only track from the album released as a single and as a video (although "State of the Nation" was added to most CD editions).


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: The album sleeve, created by Peter Saville, is a photograph of a sheet of titanium–zinc alloy. Some early releases came in a metallic sleeve.


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: "Brotherhood" saw the band further exploring their mix of post-punk and electronic styles, with the track listing being conceptually divided into "disco and rock sides". Stephen Morris stated that the album "was kind of done in a schizophrenic mood that we were trying to do one side synthesizers and one side guitars", which he retrospectively stated "didn't quite work".


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: In a 1987 interview with "Option", Morris commented that the "mad ending" to "Every Little Counts" – which sounds like a vinyl record needle skipping the groove – is similar to the ending of The Beatles' "A Day in the Life". Morris said: "What we should have done is make the tape version sound like the tape getting chewed up. The CD could have the sticking sound."


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: Influences of Richard Wagner's "Prelude" to "Das Rheingold" can be heard throughout the track "All Day Long." New Order have subsequently used the piece as a concert opener.


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: Reviewing "Brotherhood" for the "Los Angeles Times", Steve Hochman wrote that New Order "makes atmospheric grooves with more finesse than any contemporary computer-rocker." In his "Consumer Guide" column for "The Village Voice", Robert Christgau selected the album as a "pick hit" and said: "The tempos are a touch less stately, the hooks a touch less subliminal. Bernard Albrecht's vocals have taken on so much affect they're humane. And the joke closer softens up a skeptic like me to the pure, physically exalting sensation of the music."


title: Brotherhood (New Order album)

text: In a 1993 retrospective review, "Q" critic Stuart Maconie described "Brotherhood" as "often overlooked, nestling as it does between two superior studio albums", and ultimately "more for the initiated than the first-time buyer." John Bush of AllMusic was more favourable, writing that "for better and worse, this was a New Order with nothing more to prove – witness the tossed-off lyrics and giggles on 'Every Little Counts' – aside from continuing to make great music." David Quantick of "Uncut" noted "an increased tension between the frequent beauty of the music and the band's Northern self-consciousness" and concluded: "This was New Order becoming New Order and if anyone was entitled to not be Joy Division, they certainly were." "The A.V. Club" Josh Modell called "Brotherhood" "an unsung great of the catalog that's dwarfed a bit by its massive single".


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC V8 may refer to either of two distinct OHV V8 engine designs that were developed and manufactured by American Motors Corporation (AMC). The engines were used in cars and trucks by AMC, Kaiser, and International Harvester as well as in marine and stationary applications.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The first design was produced from 1956 through 1967. An Electrojector version was to be the first commercial electronic fuel injected (EFI) production engine for the 1957 model year.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The second design was introduced in 1966 and became available in several displacements over the years as well as in high-performance and racing versions.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: In 1987, Chrysler Corporation acquired AMC and continued manufacturing the AMC "tall-deck" version until 1991 for use in the Jeep Grand Wagoneer SUV.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: This engine is most commonly referred to as the Rambler V8. It's also referred to as the AMC GEN1 (first generation AMC V-8) and sometimes as the Nash V8.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: Design work on AMC's first V8 engine began in 1954, yielding an engine produced in three displacements between and from 1956 to 1967 - including a pioneering electronic fuel injected (EFI) "Electrojector" in that larger size beginning in 1957.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: American Motors' president, George W. Mason, had negotiated a verbal agreement with Packard that the two companies would supply parts for each other when practical. This was a prelude to a possible merger of the two companies at a later date, but that never occurred. With the industry-wide acceptance of V8 engine designs after World War II, AMC started buying Packard V8s in 1954 for the 1955 Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet. These Packard V8s were supplied with extra-thick head gaskets to reduce power output and came mated to Packard "Ultramatic" automatic transmissions only. In addition to the verbal agreement, Packard sent AMC some parts bids, but these were rejected as too expensive. George W. Romney, AMC's new leader, decided against further relationships with Packard shortly after entering the position of CEO in October 1954 after Mason's sudden death. It is said that Romney gave orders to design an in-house V8 engine as quickly as possible.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The entire program was under the direction of Meade F. Moore, Vice-President of Automotive Research and Engineering, and through his efforts, the project was carried on cooperatively by our Kenosha and Detroit Engineering Departments. Obviously, such a division of both design and development required the utmost in teamwork by F. F. Kishline, Chief Engineer, and his assistants, E. L. Monson and J. S. Voigt in Kenosha, and by R. H. Isbrandt, Chief Design Engineer, and W. S. Berry, Chief Mechanical Engineer, in Detroit."


title: AMC V8 engine

text: American Motor's first V8 engine debuted having in 1956 with a version in 1957. Production of the 250 was discontinued with a new version replacing it in 1963.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: All these engines share common external dimensions, light weight - about - forged crankshaft and rods, as well as most other parts. The stroke for all Gen-1 V8s is . Engine displacement was a factor of the bore: the has a bore, , and the a bore. A number indicating the bore size is cast on the top of the engine block's flywheel housing immediately behind the right bank cylinder head.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The block features a deep skirt where the casting extends below the crankshaft centerline, forming a very rigid crankcase gallery. The oil system feeds a central gallery to the cam and crankshaft first from front to rear, and then dividing at the front to feed the two lifter galleries from front to rear. From the rear of the two lifter galleries oil is then supplied up to the two rocker arm shafts which serve as galleries to lubricate the valvetrain. The fore and aft direction changes are designed to eliminate stale oil areas which tend to form sludge deposits.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: American Motors' first V8 in-house engine, the 250, was used in AMC automobiles from 1956 through 1961. It was a modern OHV/pushrod engine design and made its debut in the Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet "Specials" of 1956. These cars had the top-of-the-line model trim, but were built on the shorter wheelbase (Statesman and Wasp) models (hence the "Special" name). The 250 uses solid lifters and came in two- and four-barrel carburetor varieties (4V only in Nash/Hudson "Specials").


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The 250 V8 was optional in the 1957 Rambler. All 1958-60 V8 Ramblers were called "Rebels" and designated as a different series. It is easy to confuse the 1957 Rambler V8 and the 1958-'60 Rebel line with the special 1957 Rambler Rebel, a limited edition muscle car (see 327 below). In 1961, The Rambler Six was renamed the "Rambler Classic" to avoid model confusion in the Rambler line-up. A V8 engine then became an option in the Classic instead of a separate model.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: When the 250 was discontinued in 1961. A V8 engine was not offered in the Rambler models with the exception of the 327, which was only available in the top-of-the-line Ambassador.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: Dealers complained, so the V8. was introduced in mid-model year 1963 as an option for the "mid-size" Rambler. Like the 327, it uses hydraulic valve lifters. Only two-barrel models were produced, there were no four-barrel options from the factory for the 287 as this was the economy model V8. The 287 engine was produced through the 1966 model year.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC 327 is similar to the 287, but displaces due to the bore increase to . Unlike the 250, most 327s were produced with hydraulic valve lifters. (all Gray Marine 327s came with solid lifters, as did the '57 Rebel) Contrary to some myths, the AMC V8 was not built by Chevrolet, whose better known 327 V8 was introduced five years later.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC 327 engine debuted in a special edition Rambler Rebel, of which 1,500 were made. They were an early American muscle car. All Rebels had silver paint with a gold-anodized "spear" on each side. The 327 was not available in any other Rambler models in 1957 other than the special edition Rebel. The Rebel's engine differs from the 327s installed in the 1957 Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models in that it uses mechanical valve lifters and a higher compression ratio. Since both engines were rated at , it is probable that the Rebel's was underrated.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet "Special" models were dropped after 1957, replaced by the 1958 Rambler Rebel with the 250 V8. The Rebel was a Rambler with a V8 (and necessary mods such as stronger front springs and rear axle). The Rebel name was added to differentiate the standard six-cylinder Rambler from the V8 model. The big Nash and Hudson cars were also dropped after 1957, replaced by the 1958 "Ambassador by Rambler" — a stretched Rebel with the 327 V8 instead of the 250. The 327 was exclusive to the Ambassador line and could not be ordered in a Rebel (or later Classic) through 1964. For 1965 and 1966 the 287 and 327 were both available in the Classic and Ambassador.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The 327 was sold to Kaiser-Jeep from 1965 to 1967 for use in the Jeep Wagoneer SUV and Gladiator pick-up truck. Jeep named it the "Vigilante" V8. Two-barrel carburation was standard on these Jeep models, but a four-barrel high-compression version was available in the high optioned Super Wagoneer from 1966 to 1968. Kaiser-Jeep switched to the Buick 350 in 1967 after AMC discontinued the 327. The Buick V8 engine option continued through 1971 after which Jeeps returned to AMC V8 engines, American Motors having purchased Jeep from Kaiser in 1970.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: There were low- and high-compression versions of the 327 starting in 1960. Prior to 1960, all 327s were high compression. All low compression models used a two-barrel carburetor and all high-compression models received a four-barrel carb. Low-compression is 8.7:1, high 9.7:1, effected by a difference in pistons.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC 327 was to be the first commercial electronic fuel injected (EFI) "Electrojector" production engine. Press reports about the Bendix-developed system in December 1956 were followed in March 1957 by an AMC price bulletin offering the EFI option on the Rambler Rebel for US$395, but due to supplier difficulties, fuel-injected Rebels were only available after 15 June. Teething problems with the Electrojector unit meant that only a few engineering and press cars were built, estimated to be no more than six units. At least two pre-production Rebels with EFI, however, are known to have been built. One was sent to Daytona Beach, Florida for "Speed Week" (the forerunner of today's Daytona 500). It was the second fastest car on the beach, bested only by a 1957 Chevrolet Corvette with mechanical fuel injection, and only by a couple tenths of a second.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The EFI 327 was rated at and the regular four-barrel carbureted model at . The EFI system in the Rebel was a far more-advanced setup than the mechanical types then appearing on the market and the engines ran fine in warm weather, but suffered hard starting in cooler temperatures. All the EFI cars were reportedly converted to four-barrel carbs before being sold; none are known to have existed outside the engineering department at AMC.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The main problem was that early electronics were not fast enough for "on the fly" engine controls. This setup was utilised by Chrysler for the 1958 model year on its Dodge, Chrysler, Plymouth, and DeSoto carlines. It too failed, having the same problems.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: Bendix licensed patents based on their 1950s design (patent dated 1960) to Bosch, who perfected it as the basis for their D-Jetronic, et seq. injections system, first used in 1967.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The 250 and 327 were also offered as a marine engine known as the "Fireball" by the Gray Marine Motor Company starting in 1958. Gray started offering the 250 in 1959. The 250 was offered in 135, 160, 170, 175, 178, and 185 horsepower versions. The 327 was made in 188, 215, 220, 225, and 238 horsepower levels. Gray used the 250 through 1966. The 327 was used as a 220 hp model in 1967, the last year an AMC V8 was used.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The new-generation AMC V8 was introduced in 1966 It is sometimes referred to as the "Gen-2" AMC V8. The first version was the completely new Typhoon V8 introduced in a special mid-1966 model year "Rogue" hardtop. Available in two-barrel carburetor version or producing with a four-barrel carburetor and high compression, the new engines utilized "thin-wall" casting technology and weighed only . and produced in three displacements - between , and - until 1969.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: All three engines share the same basic block design and external measurements; the different displacements are achieved through various bore and stroke combinations.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: Bore center measurement was kept the same as the Gen-1 V8 at so that boring equipment could be reused. Other than that, this engine is vastly different from the Gen-1 model. The Gen-1 engine is physically the size of a big-block Ford or GM engine, and is sometimes called a "big-block". The Gen-2 is closer to the physical size of U.S. made small-block V8s except for the bore centers, which are the same as some big-block engines. The only parts shared between the 1966-67 Rambler V8 and 1966-91 AMV8 are the lower cam timing sprocket and the timing chain.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC V8 was not built by Ford or anyone else although it bears an uncanny resemblance to the later Buick V8 engines (400, 430, 455). It shares the same design employing a timing gear case that mounts both distributor and oil pump. It also shares the same oiling scheme employing a single passage to feed both cam and crank from the right lifter bank by tangentially intersecting the cam bore instead of two drilled passages, one from the cam to crank and another from the crank to the right lifter bank. Some electrical parts (starter and distributor) were shared with Fords, and some models used Motorcraft (Ford) carburetors, but the balance of the engine design is unique.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The Gen-2 AMC V8 was first introduced at in 1966. It was used exclusively in the Rambler American model the first year. The came out in 1967 and the AMX arrived in mid-1968. These engine blocks were unchanged through the 1969 model year.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The head used during this time was the so-called "rectangle port", named after its exhaust port shape. The 290 heads use smaller valves, intake and exhaust, corresponding with its small bore. The 343 and the AMX 390 use the same larger valve heads, intake and exhaust.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The base produced with a two-barrel or four-barrel carburetor, respectively. It was built from the mid-1966 model year through the 1969 model year. It has a bore and stroke of . Only 623 cars were built in 1966 with the 290 engine. These engines were available in special Rambler American two-door Rogue models. The newly powered Rogue was available with either a three-speed automatic or a floor mounted four-speed manual transmission, and made the car "suitable for the Stoplight Grand Prix."


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The has a bore and stroke of . The basic 343/2V produced and was built from 1967 through 1969. Output for the optional four-barrel carburetor version is and produces of torque (gross). This version has a 10.2:1 compression ratio.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMX engine had a bore and stroke of . It received heavier main bearing support webbing than the smaller AMC V8s, as well as a forged steel crankshaft and connecting rods. Forged cranks and rods were used for their known strength—there was inadequate time for testing cast parts for durability without delaying AMC's introduction schedule. Once forging dies were made it was not cost-effective to test cast parts due to the relatively low number of engines produced. The use of these stronger components was also continued with the production of 401 engines. This is an advantage of these AMC engines when used in heavy-duty and high-performance applications because they have no problems with their connecting rods breaking; unlike other domestic automakers' large displacement small block engines. The Gen-2 AMX 390 produced and was built in 1968 and 1969.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: In 1970, all three blocks grew in deck height and gained a new head design. Although the engine is an outgrowth of the Gen-2 V8, these changes cause it to be regarded as the third generation of AMC V8, or "Gen-3". The stroke and deck height on the 290 and 343 were increased by on both engines, becoming the and , respectively. The 1970 AMX 390 remained at the same displacement by using a special connecting rod and piston for this year only. It is believed that AMC kept the 390 this last year due to the reputation it had garnered in the two-seater AMX, then still in production. (It was discontinued after 1970). In 1971 the 390 was also stroked by the same as the other two versions of the engine to become the 401.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The other change in 1970 was the switch to the "dog-leg" heads. These heads flow 20% better on the exhaust side than the 1966-1969 rectangular port heads and are thus the best for performance. There are two reasons for the flow increase: (1) the area of the port is larger, due to the dog leg and (2) the shape of the port floor was changed from a concave to a convex curve. The concave floor tended to bend the exhaust flow upwards which caused turbulence when the flow was forced to go down into the exhaust manifolds. By switching to a convex floor the curvature of the flow starts in the head and proceeds much more smoothly into the exhaust manifold resulting in less turbulence and better flow.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The center two intake bolts on each head were relocated to prevent accidental mix-ups of Gen-2 and Gen-3 intakes.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: AMC heads 319 and 291 used between 1970-mid 1971 have the dog-leg exhaust ports and 50-52 cc combustion chambers. They are commonly identified by the first three (319) or last three (291 for the 360-401 heads; 304 used a different casting) digits of the casting number. There was a U.S. auto industry-wide shift to lower compression ratios in mid-1971, so AMC increased combustion chamber size to 58-59 cc. The first three digits of the casting number on the large chamber heads are 321, 322, or 323 depending on year. The only difference between small and large chamber Gen-3 heads is the combustion chamber size.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The advertised power drop from 1971 to 1972 ('71 304/210 hp and '72 304/150 hp, for example) is not due to any engine change, but an industry-wide shift from SAE Gross (also known as "brake horsepower" or "bhp") to SAE Net power ratings. The 1971 and 1972 engines produce the same power. The 1971 and earlier versions were rated using "gross" horsepower, which is with the engines operating with no accessories or drive belts, air filters, nor any exhaust system restrictions. The change to the more realistic "net" horsepower ratings for 1972 and later required the engine to be driving all stock factory accessories and to use the factory air filter system and a simulated factory exhaust. Power is measured at the flywheel for both systems. For example, even with the modifications to more reduce emissions and increase efficiency, AMC's engine was among the strongest factory-spec engines available in an American car in 1971, with more horsepower than Pontiac's standard and Chevrolet's that powered the Corvette.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The 304 has a displacement of , which produced (gross rating) in 1970-71 and was built starting in 1970. Output declined yearly thereafter, initially due a shift from SAE Gross to SAE Net horsepower. 1972-75 models were rated at (net rating from 1972 onwards). It was rated at in 1978, and in 1979, the last year it was installed in passenger cars, and in 1980–81, the last years it was used in Jeep vehicles. The International Harvester Corporation SV "Comanche" V8 engines are sometimes mistaken for the AMC 304, however the IHC V8 engine family has no relation to the AMC V8 and was in fact first produced in 1959,11 years prior to the AMC designed 304. The similarity in displacement is purely a coincidence.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC 360 has a displacement of . The 2-barrel produced to in 1970 to early 1971 while the 4-barrel produced to , to from mid-1971 to 1975, to in 1976, in 1977, and from 1978 to 1991.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: This engine was used in the 1970 AMX as the base engine and also in the 1970 Rebel, 1971-1978 Matador, Jeep J-series trucks 1970–1987, Wagoneer (SJ) models from 1972 to 1984, Cherokee (SJ) from 1974 to 1983, as well as in the full-sized Grand Wagoneer from 1984 to 1991 - becoming the last carbureted engine used in an American-built vehicle. The 360 V8 was also installed in the Bricklin SV-1 sports car for the 1974 model year.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The 360 was the last AMC V8 to be manufactured. It continued to be produced after Chrysler bought American Motors in 1987 as the standard engine in the Jeep Grand Wagoneer through 1991, with the only modification being the "360" casting replaced with "5.9L" on the side of the block.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The AMC V8 produced and of torque in all except the Rebel Machine. This muscle car engine was rated at and of torque due to a different intake. Production only lasted one year (1970) before it was stroked to become the .


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The produced gross in 1971 and net from 1972 to 1975. In 1976 it was rated at . Like the 390, the 401's crankshaft and connecting rods are forged steel. It was last produced in 1978.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The 401 was available in the Javelin, Matador, and Ambassador car lines and in Jeeps from its introduction in 1971 through 1974. In 1975 and 1976, emission controls, insurance rates, and high gasoline prices meant the 401 was available on the large Matador model, and then only for police department orders. Buyers of full-sized Jeeps (Wagoneer, Cherokee, J-10, and J-20) could order a 401 until 1978 (not available in 1979). This engine was also supplied to International Harvester for use as an optional engine in International's Light Line pickup trucks and Travelalls from late 1973 through 1974 where it was designated 'V-400' to differentiate it from IHC's own V/LV series 401.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: There was also a "Service Replacement" block made as a modified GEN-3 design. This is a 401 casting (same casting number) without the displacement cast into the side and with a 360 bore and thicker deck. In theory, this single block could be built as any 343-401 GEN-2 or GEN-3 engine. A dealer could stock one or two blocks to use for warranty replacement.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The main bearing web area was thicker in the 390, 401, and SR blocks, thick enough that two additional bearing cap bolt holes could be drilled and tapped for an aftermarket four-bolt main cap, providing a stronger bottom end. AMC never built a factory four-bolt main block, they sold aftermarket four-bolt main caps through their Group 19 performance parts program.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: The SR block was also sold as a heavy-duty racing block. It appeared in 1970 in time for the 1971 Trans-Am racing season and was used in the factory Trans-Am backed cars prepared by TRACO for Penske Racing, with Mark Donohue the primary driver. Since it was a standard factory part it did not have to be homologated under T/A rules, and "was not" used in the 2501 "Mark Donohue" Javelins built to homologate the "ducktail" spoiler. Those received standard 360 or 390 engines, buyers' choice.


title: AMC V8 engine

text: From 1976 to 1979, Jerry Grant "drove the most powerful car ever to appear in Indy car racing" - a turbocharged two-valve, AMC Gen-2 block V8 engine producing in his Eagle 74 chassis. The car was fast on the straightways, but the engine's weight made corners more difficult to handle. The engine utilized a bore and a flat plane stroke crankshaft.


title: Choker

text: A choker is a close-fitting necklace worn around the neck, typically 14 inch to 16 inch in length. Chokers can be made of a variety of materials, including velvet, plastic, beads, latex, leather, metal, such as silver, gold, or platinum, etc. They can be adorned in a variety of ways, including with sequins, studs, or a pendant.


title: Choker

text: Golden choker necklaces were crafted by Sumerian artisans around 2500 BC and according to curators from the Jewelry Museum of Fine Arts, chokers have been around for thousands of years, first gracing the world's earliest civilizations: Ancient Egypt, in addition to the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. Often made with gold or lapis, the necklaces were thought to be protective and imbued with special powers.


title: Choker

text: Chokers were also later worn in the First Century A.D. They are mentioned in the "Talmud", book Shabbat, chapter 6 as a common women's accessory.


title: Choker

text: Neck accessories 'extremely similar to chokers'/or 'chokers' could be seen commonly throughout the century.


title: Choker

text: Ballerinas and the upper class in the late 19th century commonly wore certain types of chokers. However, at that same time, in the late 19th century, a plain, thin, red or black ribbon choker had ties to prostitution, as seen in Manet's "Olympia" (1861).


title: Choker

text: The 19th century fashion for broad chokers reached its peak around 1900 in part due to Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom wearing one to hide a small scar. Chokers were popular into the 1920s and again in the '40s as "colliers de chien". In particular, the term "dog collars" or "colliers de chien" caught on, and these designs – incorporating luxe diamonds, pearls, lace, and velvet – could be seen as objects of the elite because the best kinds were custom-made to fit one's neck perfectly. In 1944 "Life" magazine stated that "a dowager fashion of 40 years ago" was being revived by young women, illustrating the trend with photos of models wearing the now vaguely rebellious "dog collars".


title: Choker

text: In recent years, chokers have been popular with a number of celebrities, including Gwyneth Paltrow, who wore one to the 1999 Academy Awards. Paris Hilton wore three inches of Swarovski around her neck in 2002. Rihanna has also been featured wearing chokers.


title: Choker

text: In the 2010s, the choker became a popular fashion among transgender women, due not only to its association with femininity, but also because of its potential to hide the Adam's apple without performing a tracheal shave.


title: The Dark Half

text: The Dark Half is a horror novel by American writer Stephen King, published in 1989. "Publishers Weekly" listed "The Dark Half" as the second best-selling book of 1989 behind Tom Clancy's "Clear and Present Danger". The novel was adapted into a feature film of the same name in 1993.


title: The Dark Half

text: Stephen King wrote several books under a pseudonym, Richard Bachman, during the 1970s and 1980s. Most of the Bachman novels were darker and more cynical in nature, featuring a far more visceral sense of horror than the psychological, gothic style common in many of King's most famous works. When King was identified as Bachman, he wrote "The Dark Half" – about an author – in response to his outing.


title: The Dark Half

text: The book's central villain, George Stark, was named in honor of Richard Stark, the pen name of writer Donald E. Westlake under which he wrote some of his darkest, most violent books. King telephoned Westlake personally to ask permission. King's own "Richard Bachman" pseudonym was also partly named for Stark: King had been reading a Richard Stark novel at the time he chose the pen name.


title: The Dark Half

text: Thad Beaumont is an author and recovering alcoholic who lives in the town of Ludlow, Maine. Thad's own books – cerebral literary fiction – are not very successful. However, under the pen name "George Stark", he writes highly successful crime novels about a psychopathic killer named Alexis Machine. When Thad's authorship of Stark's novels becomes public knowledge, Thad and his wife, Elizabeth, decide to stage a mock burial for his alter ego at the local cemetery, which is featured in a "People" magazine article. Stark's epitaph says it all: "Not A Very Nice Guy."


title: The Dark Half

text: Stark, however, emerges from the mock grave as a physical entity, complete with the personality traits that Thad exhibited while writing as Stark, such as drinking heavily and smoking Pall Mall cigarettes. He then goes on a killing spree, gruesomely murdering everyone he perceives as responsible for his "death" – Thad's editor, agent, and the "People" interviewer, among others. Thad, meanwhile, is plagued by surreal nightmares. Stark's murders are investigated by Alan Pangborn, the sheriff of the neighboring town of Castle Rock, who finds Thad's voice and fingerprints at the crime scenes. This evidence, and Thad's unwillingness to answer his questions, causes Pangborn to believe that Thad – despite having alibis – is responsible for the murders. Later, it is discovered that Stark has the same fingerprints as Thad, a clue to the twinship he and Thad share.


title: The Dark Half

text: Thad eventually discovers that he and Stark share a mental bond, and begins to find notes from Stark written in his own handwriting. The notes tell Thad what activity Stark has been engaging in. Observing his son and daughter, Thad notes that twins share a unique bond. They can feel each other's pain and at times appear to read the other's mind. Using this as a key to his own situation, he begins to discover the even deeper meaning behind himself and Stark.


title: The Dark Half

text: Pangborn eventually learns that Thad had an unborn twin brother who was absorbed into Thad "in utero" and later removed from his brain when he was a child. He had suffered from severe headaches and it was originally thought to be a tumor causing them. The neurosurgeon who removed it found the following inside: part of a nostril, some fingernails, some teeth, and a malformed human eye. This leads to questions about the true nature of Stark, whether he is a malevolent spirit with its own existence, or Thad himself, manifesting an alternate personality. Thad eventually destroys Stark in a showdown where he uses a bird call to bring forth a flock of sparrows that tear Stark's body apart, but the book ends on an unhappy note. It is suggested by Alan Pangborn that Thad's wife may be having serious doubts about the future of their relationship: she is appalled that Thad not only created Stark (if unintentionally), but that a part of him liked Stark.


title: The Dark Half

text: In the novel "Needful Things", Sheriff Alan Pangborn thinks about how Thad would get drunk and call him. He also recalls that Thad's wife took the twins and left him.


title: The Dark Half

text: In "Bag of Bones", the main character, author Mike Noonan, recalls how a Maine author named Thad Beaumont took his own life.


title: The Dark Half

text: The novel was adapted as a film, "The Dark Half", by George A. Romero in 1990, and was released in 1993. It was filmed in part at Washington and Jefferson College and other locations in southwestern Pennsylvania. It starred Timothy Hutton as Thad/Stark, Michael Rooker as Alan Pangborn, and featured Julie Harris as an eccentric colleague of Thad's who provides some vital information about the supernatural.


title: The Dark Half

text: An adventure video game adaptation was released for DOS in 1992. It was developed by Symtus and published by Capstone Software.


title: The Dark Half

text: In December 2019, it was announced that MGM would develop a film adaptation of the novel, with Alex Ross Perry set to write and direct.


title: Lauryn Hill discography

text: American singer and rapper Lauryn Hill has released one studio album, one live album, and twenty singles (including nine singles as a featured artist). She has also written for and performed on several other tracks.


title: Lauryn Hill discography

text: Released on August 25, 1998, Hill's debut album, "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill" sold over 423,000 copies in its first week (boosted by advance radio play of two non-label-sanctioned singles, "Lost Ones" and "Can't Take My Eyes Off You") and topped the US "Billboard" 200 for four weeks and the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums for six weeks. It went on to sell 10 million copies in the US, being certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America, and 12 million copies worldwide. The lead single released from the album was "Doo Wop (That Thing)", which debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Other charted singles from the album were "Ex-Factor", "Everything Is Everything" and "To Zion".


title: Lauryn Hill discography

text: During 2000, Hill dropped out of the public eye. In July 2001, while pregnant with her third child, Hill unveiled her new material to a small crowd, for a taping of an "MTV Unplugged" special. An album of the concert, titled "MTV Unplugged No. 2.0", was released in May 2002 and featured only her singing and playing an acoustic guitar. "2.0" debuted at number three on the "Billboard" 200, However, it was certified platinum in the US on June 11, 2002.


title: Case fatality rate

text: In epidemiology, case fatality rate (CFR) – or sometimes more accurately case-fatality risk – is the proportion of people diagnosed with a certain disease, who end up dying of it. Unlike a disease's mortality rate, the CFR does not take into account the time period between disease onset and death. A CFR is generally expressed as a percentage. It represents a measure of disease lethality and may change with different treatments. CFRs are most often used for with discrete, limited-time courses, such as acute infections.


title: Case fatality rate

text: The "mortality rate"  –  often confused with the CFR  –  is a measure of the relative number of deaths (either in general, or due to a specific cause) within the entire population per unit of time. A CFR, in contrast, is the number of deaths among the number of diagnosed cases only, regardless of time or total population.


title: Case fatality rate

text: From a mathematical point of view, by taking values between 0 and 1 or 0% and 100%, CFRs are actually a measure of risk  (case fatality risk) – that is, they are a proportion of incidence, although they don't reflect a disease's incidence. They are neither rates, incidence rates, nor ratios (none of which are limited to the range 0–1). They do not take into account time from disease onset to death.


title: Case fatality rate

text: Sometimes the term case fatality ratio is used interchangeably with "case fatality rate", but they are not the same. A case fatality ratio is a comparison between two different case fatality rates, expressed as a ratio. It is used to compare the severity of different diseases or to assess the impact of interventions.


title: Case fatality rate

text: Because the CFR is not an incidence rate by not measuring frequency, some authors note that a more appropriate term is case fatality proportion.


title: Case fatality rate

text: If 100 people in a community are diagnosed with the same disease, and 9 of them subsequently die from the effects of the disease, the CFR would be 9%. If some of the cases have not yet resolved (neither died nor fully recovered) at the time of analysis, a later analysis might take into account additional deaths and arrive at a higher estimate of the CFR, if the unresolved cases were included as recovered in the earlier analysis. Alternatively, it might later be established that a higher number of people were subclinically infected with the pathogen, resulting in an IFR below the CFR.


title: Case fatality rate

text: A CFR may only be calculated from cases that have been resolved through either death or recovery. The preliminary CFR, for example, of a newly occurring disease with a high daily increase and long resolution time would be substantially lower than the final CFR, if unresolved cases were not excluded from the calculation, but added to the denominator only.


title: Case fatality rate

text: Like the case fatality rate, the term infection fatality rate (IFR) also applies to infectious diseases, but represents the proportion of deaths among all infected individuals, including all asymptomatic and undiagnosed subjects. It is closely related to the CFR, but attempts to additionally account for inapparent infections among healthy people. The IFR differs from the CFR in that it aims to estimate the fatality rate in both sick and healthy infected: the detected disease (cases) and those with an undetected disease (asymptomatic and not tested group). Individuals who are infected, but show no symptoms, are said to have "inapparent", "silent" or "subclinical" infections and may inadvertently infect others. By definition, the IFR cannot exceed the CFR, because the former adds asymptomatic cases to its denominator.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: A zinc–carbon battery (or carbon zinc battery in U.S. English) is a dry cell primary battery that provides direct electric current from the electrochemical reaction between zinc and manganese dioxide (MnO) in the presence of an electrolyte. It produces a voltage of about 1.5 volts between the zinc anode, which is typically constructed as a cylindrical container for the battery cell, and a carbon rod surrounded by a compound with a higher Standard electrode potential (positive polarity), known as the cathode, that collects the current from the manganese dioxide electrode. The name "zinc-carbon" is slightly misleading as it implies that carbon is acting as the oxidizing agent rather than the manganese dioxide.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: General-purpose batteries may use an acidic aqueous paste of ammonium chloride (NHCl) as electrolyte, with some zinc chloride solution on a paper separator to act as what is known as a salt bridge. "Heavy-duty" types use a paste primarily composed of zinc chloride (ZnCl).


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Zinc–carbon batteries were the first commercial dry batteries, developed from the technology of the wet Leclanché cell. They made flashlights and other portable devices possible, because the battery provided a higher energy density at a lower cost than previously available cells. They are still useful in low-drain or intermittent-use devices such as remote controls, flashlights, clocks or transistor radios. Zinc–carbon dry cells are single-use primary cells. Zinc-carbon batteries today have been mostly replaced by the more efficient and safe alkaline batteries.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: By 1876, the wet Leclanché cell was made with a compressed block of manganese dioxide. In 1886, Carl Gassner patented a "dry" version by using a casing made of zinc sheet metal as the anode and a paste of plaster of Paris (and later, graphite powder).


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: In 1898, Conrad Hubert used consumer batteries manufactured by W. H. Lawrence to power what was the first flashlight, and subsequently the two formed the Eveready Battery Company. In 1900, Gassner demonstrated dry cells for portable lighting at the World's Fair in Paris. Continual improvements were made to the stability and capacity of zinc–carbon cells throughout the 20th century; by the end of the century the capacities had increased fourfold over the 1910 equivalent. Improvements include the use of purer grades of manganese dioxide, the addition of graphite powder to the manganese dioxide to lower internal resistance, better sealing, and purer zinc for the negative electrode. Zinc-chloride cells (usually marketed as "heavy duty" batteries) use a higher concentration of anolyte (or anode electrolyte) which is primarily composed of zinc chloride, which can produce a more consistent voltage output in high drain applications.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Side reactions between impurities in the zinc metal/zinc chloride anode, and the ammonium chloride electrolyte can increase the self-discharge rate and promote corrosion of the cell. Formerly, the zinc was coated with mercury (Hg) to form an amalgam, protecting it. Given that this is an environmental hazard, current production batteries no longer use mercury. Manufacturers must now use more highly purified zinc to prevent local action and self-discharge.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: The container of the zinc–carbon dry cell is a zinc can (anode). The bottom and sides of the can contain a paper separator layer which is impregnated with ammonium chloride (NHCl) along with a thickening agent to form an aqueous electrolyte paste. The paper separator prevents a short circuit from forming by protecting the zinc can from making contact with the cathode, which is a mixture of powdered carbon (usually graphite powder) and manganese (IV) oxide (MnO), which is packed around a carbon rod. Carbon is the only practical conductor material because every common metal quickly corrodes in the positive electrode when in the presence of a salt-based electrolyte.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Early types, and low-cost cells, use a separator consisting of a layer of starch or flour. A layer of starch-coated paper is used in modern cells, which is thinner and allows more manganese dioxide to be used. Originally cells were sealed with a layer of asphalt to prevent drying out of the electrolyte; more recently, a thermoplastic washer seal is used to help prevent leakage as well as to contain any internal pressure which may form as a result of hydrogen gas buildup during discharge. The carbon rod is slightly porous, which allows more charged hydrogen atoms to combine forming hydrogen gas. The ratio of manganese dioxide and carbon powder in the cathode paste affects the characteristics of the cell: more carbon powder lowers internal resistance, while more manganese dioxide improves storage capacity.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Flat cells are made for assembly into batteries with higher voltages, up to about 450 volts. Flat cells are stacked and the whole assembly is coated in wax to prevent electrolyte evaporation. Electrons flow from the anode to cathode through the wire of the attached device.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Zinc–carbon batteries are a reliable source of power for appliances that consume little energy, like remote controls for television, clocks, smoke detectors and flashlights. Zinc-carbon batteries were in common use with hand-cranked telephone magneto phones, powering the microphone and speaker.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: The zinc is oxidised by the charge carrier, chloride anion (Cl) into ZnCl, via the following half-reactions:


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Other side reactions are possible, but the overall reaction in a zinc–carbon cell can be represented as


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: If zinc chloride is substituted for ammonium chloride as the electrolyte, the anode reaction remains the same:


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: The battery has an electromotive force (e.m.f.) of about 1.5V. The approximate nature of the e.m.f is related to the complexity of the cathode reaction. The anode (zinc) reaction is comparatively simple with a known potential. Side reactions and depletion of the active chemicals increases the internal resistance of the battery, which causes the terminal voltage to drop under load.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: The zinc-chloride cell, frequently referred to as a "heavy-duty", "extra-heavy-duty", "super-heavy-duty", or "super-extra-heavy-duty" battery, is an improvement on the original zinc–carbon cell, using purer chemicals and giving a longer service life and steadier voltage output as it is used and offering about twice the service life of general-purpose zinc–carbon cells, or up to four times in continuous-use or high-drain applications. This is still a fraction of the output of an alkaline cell, however.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Alkaline batteries offer up to eight times the battery life of zinc–carbon batteries, especially in continuous-use or high-drain applications.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Manufacturers recommend storage of zinc–carbon batteries at room temperature; storage at higher temperatures reduces the expected service life. Zinc–carbon batteries may be frozen without damage; manufacturers recommend that they be returned to normal room temperature before use, and that condensation on the battery jacket must be avoided. By the end of the 20th century, the storage life of zinc–carbon cells had improved fourfold over expected life in 1910.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Zinc–carbon cells have a short shelf life, as the zinc is attacked by ammonium chloride. The zinc container becomes thinner as the cell is used, because zinc metal is oxidized to zinc ions. When the zinc case thins enough, zinc chloride begins to leak out of the battery. The old dry cell is not leak-proof and becomes very sticky as the paste leaks through the holes in the zinc case. The zinc casing in the dry cell gets thinner even when the cell is not being used, because the ammonium chloride inside the battery reacts with the zinc. An "inside-out" form with a carbon cup and zinc vanes on the interior, while more leak-resistant, has not been manufactured since the 1960s.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: This picture shows the zinc container of fresh batteries at (a), and discharged batteries at (b) and (c). The battery shown at (c) had a polyethylene protection film (mostly removed in the photo) to keep the zinc oxide inside the casing.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Thousands of tons of zinc–carbon batteries are discarded every year around the world and are often not recycled.


title: Zinc–carbon battery

text: Disposal varies by jurisdiction. For example, in the U.S, the state of California considers all batteries as hazardous waste when discarded, and has banned the disposal of batteries with other domestic waste. In Europe, battery disposal is controlled by the WEEE Directive and Battery Directive regulations, and as such zinc–carbon batteries must not be thrown out with domestic waste. In the EU, most stores that sell batteries are required by law to accept old batteries for recycling.


title: Günther Quandt

text: Günther Quandt (28 July 1881 – 30 December 1954) was a German industrialist who founded an industrial empire that today includes BMW and Altana, a car and chemical company, respectively. Between, 1921 and 1929 he was married to Magda Ritschel, later the wife of Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels. In the 1930s he joined the Nazi Party, becoming one of his strong financial supporters.


title: Günther Quandt

text: He was born in Pritzwalk in Germany, the son of Emil Quandt (1849–1925). Emil had married in 1883 the daughter of a rich textile manufacturer (Reichswolle AG) and he took charge of the company in 1900. He had three siblings: Gerhard, Werner and a younger sister named Edith. Werner married Eleanor Quandt, who after the Second World War helped to protect her brother-in-law, Günther, from prosecution by the Allies. Günther's sister Edith married the owner of another textile company.


title: Günther Quandt

text: During World War I, with Günther in charge, the Quandts supplied the German army with uniforms, building up a larger fortune that Günther would use after the war to acquire Accumulatorenfabrik AG (AFA), a battery manufacturer in Hagen that would become VARTA, a potash-mining company, metal-working companies (including IWKA) and stakes in BMW and Daimler-Benz.


title: Günther Quandt

text: After Adolf Hitler's appointment as Chancellor in 1933, Quandt joined the Nazi Party, becoming one of his strong financial supporters. In 1937, Hitler gave him the title of a "Wehrwirtschaftsführer," (Leader in the Military Economy), like other industrialists who played a leading role in the war economy. Quandt's businesses supplied ammunition, rifles, artillery and batteries, using slave labourers from concentration camps in at least three factories. Tens of thousands of these labourers died or 80%. An execution area was set up in the grounds of AFA's Hanover factory. Quandt also appropriated factories throughout Europe after German invasions.


title: Günther Quandt

text: At the end of World War II, the US Senate held hearings on the operations of the German economy during the war. They found that Quandt was an important director in German industry, with a number of interlocking companies, syndicates and corporations. He had interest in such areas as insurance, banking, automobiles, ammunition, textiles, electricity, batteries and other areas. They also found out about his "Wehrwirtschaftsführer" title.


title: Günther Quandt

text: The Hanns-Joachim-Friedrichs-Award winning documentary film "The Silence of the Quandts" by the German public broadcaster ARD described in October 2007 the role of the Quandt family businesses during the Second World War. The family's political past was not well known, but the documentary film revealed this to a wide audience and confronted the Quandts about the use of slave labourers in the family's factories during World War II. As a result, five days after the showing, four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian will examine the family's activities during Hitler's dictatorship. The independent 1,200-page study that was released in 2011 concluded: "The Quandts were linked inseparably with the crimes of the Nazis", stated by Joachim Scholtyseck, the Bonn historian who compiled and researched the study. , no compensation, apology or even memorial at the site of one of their factories have been permitted. BMW was not implicated in the report.


title: Günther Quandt

text: In 1946, Quandt was arrested because of the Goebbels connection, and interned. To the surprise of many, he was judged to be a "Mitläufer" (fellow traveller), namely someone who accepted the National Socialist ideology but did not take an active part in crimes. In January 1948, Quandt was released without charge.


title: Günther Quandt

text: One of the prosecutors in the Nuremberg trials, Benjamin Ferencz, now says that if today's evidence against Quandt had been presented to the court at the time, "Quandt would have been charged with the same offences as the directors of IG Farben." The directors served up to eight years in jail. Instead Quandt was able to re-install himself in the supervisory boards of various German firms, e.g. Deutsche Bank. He also became honorary citizen of the University in Frankfurt in 1951. He died on vacation in Cairo on 30 December 1954.


title: Günther Quandt

text: His two surviving sons, Herbert and Harald, administered their inheritance together, though Harald Quandt concentrated on the industrial plants Karlsruhe Augsburg AG (IWKA) which were involved in mechanical engineering and arms manufacture, while Herbert Quandt managed the investments in AFA/VARTA, Daimler-Benz and BMW.


title: Günther Quandt

text: Günther Quandt first married Antonie 'Toni' Ewald. They had two sons Helmut Quandt (1908–1927) and Herbert Quandt. Antonie died of the Spanish flu in 1918 and Helmut died of complications from appendicitis in 1927.


title: Günther Quandt

text: His second marriage on 4 January 1921 in Bad Godesberg to Magda Ritschel produced another son, Harald Quandt. Magda was half Günther's age. The marriage ended in divorce in 1929. Two years later Magda married Joseph Goebbels with Adolf Hitler as best man.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Christopher James Hogan (born October 24, 1987) is a former American football wide receiver who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 10 seasons. He played college football at Monmouth following three years of college lacrosse at Penn State. Joining the NFL as an undrafted free agent, Hogan landed his first roster spot in 2012 with the Buffalo Bills, where he played four seasons. After signing a three-year contract with the New England Patriots in 2016, Hogan made consecutive Super Bowl appearances each season and won two. Hogan spent his final three seasons with the Carolina Panthers, New York Jets, and New Orleans Saints. He was also a lacrosse midfielder for the Cannons and Whipsnakes Lacrosse Club of the Premier Lacrosse League (PLL) in 2021.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Born and raised in Wyckoff, New Jersey, Hogan played both football and lacrosse for the Raiders athletic teams at Ramapo High School. He was a first-team all-state performer as a junior and senior in lacrosse and an all-state first-teamer as a senior in football.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Hogan chose to attend Pennsylvania State University on scholarship with the Nittany Lions men's lacrosse program. He started all 13 games as a freshman in 2007, scoring 11 goals, but appeared in just three games as a sophomore because of a high ankle sprain. In 2009, Hogan had 29 goals on 133 shots and was named first-team All-ECAC as well as voted captain for his senior season. He graduated in 2010 with one year of college sports eligibility remaining.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: In recognition of his collegiate background, Hogan would reference Penn State's lacrosse program during his intro in NFL games broadcast by NBC. Hogan stated that this was because he wanted to acknowledge the school he started at and graduated from, although he would have referenced both Penn State and his college football team at Monmouth if given the opportunity.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Taking advantage of the year of college eligibility remaining after his 2008 ankle injury, Hogan chose to enroll at Monmouth University to play football for its Hawks. He immediately secured a spot as a quarterback/receiver, and also played at cornerback due to injuries in the secondary, and on all special teams units. He finished his one-year college football career with three touchdown passes, 12 receptions for 147 yards and three touchdowns on offense, and 28 tackles and three interceptions on defense.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Outside of his speed, Hogan is also noted for his strength as a wide receiver. At his 2011 Pro Day, Hogan pumped 28 reps of 225 pounds on the bench press. This would have been a record for wide receivers at the NFL Scouting Combine.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: On July 27, 2011, the San Francisco 49ers signed Hogan as an undrafted free agent. On September 3, 2011, he was released by the 49ers. On September 12, 2011, Hogan was signed by the New York Giants and was placed on the practice squad. On September 23, 2011, he was released by the Giants.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: On December 27, 2011, Hogan was signed to the Miami Dolphins' practice squad. On January 3, 2012, he signed a reserve/future contract with the Dolphins. In 2012, he was among the final cuts at the end of training camp, but he was re-signed to the Dolphins' practice squad. On September 11, 2012, his practice squad contract was terminated by the Dolphins.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: On November 6, 2012, the Buffalo Bills signed Hogan to their practice squad. On December 18, 2012, Hogan was promoted to the active roster. On October 3, 2013, he recorded his first career reception against the Cincinnati Bengals. On October 12, 2014, against the New England Patriots, Hogan caught his first NFL touchdown on an eight-yard pass from quarterback Kyle Orton. Hogan had a breakout season for the Bills in 2014, recording 41 receptions for 426 yards and four touchdowns.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: In the 2015 season, Hogan played in all 16 games for the Bills for the third consecutive season. He caught his first touchdown of the season in a win against his former team, the Miami Dolphins, and had his best game on a "Monday Night Football" game against the New England Patriots, catching six passes for 95 yards. In Week 5, against the Tennessee Titans, Hogan threw his first career NFL pass, a four-yard pass to quarterback Tyrod Taylor. The pass came on a drive that fueled the Bills to a 14–13 win. Hogan also had his first career rushing attempt during the season, which went for four yards. Hogan ended the 2015 season with 36 receptions for a career-high 450 yards and two touchdowns.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: On March 10, 2016, Hogan, a restricted free agent, signed a three-year offer sheet with the New England Patriots for $12 million, with $7.5 million guaranteed. The contract was front-loaded ($5.5 million in 2016) to make it difficult for the Bills to match. This occurred as head coach Bill Belichick saw major potential describing Hogan as a "burner" with incredible athleticism. On March 11, the Bills declined to match the offer sheet, receiving no draft compensation because of their original minimum salary one-year tender.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: During a Week 1 matchup against the Arizona Cardinals on "NBC Sunday Night Football", Hogan scored the first touchdown of the season for the Patriots on a 37-yard pass from quarterback Jimmy Garoppolo. In the Patriots' Week 5 matchup against the Cleveland Browns, Hogan had a career-high of 114 receiving yards, this time with Tom Brady as his quarterback. In Week 8, while playing against his former team in Buffalo, he caught four passes for 91 yards, including a then career-long 53-yard touchdown reception. In Week 12, against the New York Jets, Hogan became the third Patriots wide receiver in as many seasons to attempt a pass; while Hogan's left-handed pass was incomplete, it drew a 31-yard defensive pass interference penalty. He also passed his previous career-best for receiving yards in a season with 461 yards on 21 receptions (20.1 yards per catch, then trailing only injured teammate Rob Gronkowski for the NFL lead at 21.6). In Week 14, on "Monday Night Football", he caught a 79-yard touchdown pass against the Baltimore Ravens, the longest of his career (and the seventh longest in the NFL through Week 14), part of another career-best 129 yards on five receptions. He ended the season with 38 receptions for 680 yards and 4 touchdowns; his 17.89 yards per catch was second only to DeSean Jackson's 17.95. In the postseason, Hogan had four receptions for 95 yards in a win over Houston, followed by nine receptions for 180 yards and two touchdowns in the win over Pittsburgh. These were career highs in all three categories, and a Patriots playoff record for receiving yards in a single game. On February 5, 2017, Hogan was part of the Patriots team that won Super Bowl LI. In the game, he had four receptions for 57 yards as the Patriots defeated the Atlanta Falcons by a score of 34–28 in overtime.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: In Week 2, against the New Orleans Saints, Hogan had five receptions for 78 yards and his first touchdown of the 2017 season. In addition, he recovered an onside kick in the fourth quarter. By Week 5, Hogan already had a career-best five touchdowns on the season. On October 29, against the Los Angeles Chargers, Hogan injured his right shoulder and had to miss a few games. On December 11, he made his return and recorded one reception for five yards in a 27–20 loss to the Miami Dolphins on "Monday Night Football". Hogan helped the Patriots reach the Super Bowl for the second straight season after defeating both the Tennessee Titans in the and Jacksonville Jaguars in the . In Super Bowl LII, Hogan recorded six catches for 128 yards and scored a touchdown along with getting one carry for four yards. The Patriots lost to the Philadelphia Eagles by a score of 41–33.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Hogan appeared in all 16 games for the Patriots, but was utilized less than in previous seasons. Despite a promising Week 2 against the Jacksonville Jaguars, where he recorded his second career regular-season game with two receiving touchdowns in the 31–20 loss, he had over five targets in just two games, zero receptions in four games, and failed to break 80 yards in any game. His only other touchdown reception came in Week 15. His 532 receiving yards in the regular season was fifth on the team; he had been fourth in 2017 despite playing just nine games.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: The Patriots reached their third straight Super Bowl after defeating both the Los Angeles Chargers in the and Kansas City Chiefs in the . Against the Chiefs in the AFC title game, Hogan had five catches for 45 yards, including a one-handed reception on third-and-8 in the fourth-quarter to sustain the Patriots' scoring drive to regain the lead at 31–28. In Super Bowl LIII, Hogan had no catches on six targets, but the Patriots won the game by a score of 13–3 against the Los Angeles Rams.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: On April 12, 2019, Hogan signed with the Carolina Panthers. After four games where he recorded just three receptions, he was placed on injured reserve on October 2, 2019, with a left knee injury which required arthroscopic surgery. He was designated for return from injured reserve on December 11, 2019, and began practicing with the team again. He was activated on December 15, 2019.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Hogan signed with the New York Jets on August 19, 2020. Hogan played in five games with 14 receptions for 118 yards. He was placed on injured reserve on October 13, 2020, with a high ankle sprain. He was waived from injured reserve on December 5, 2020.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: On July 26, 2021, Hogan signed a one year contract with the New Orleans Saints. He scored his first touchdown as a Saint on a ten-yard reception from Jameis Winston in Week 1 against the Green Bay Packers. He officially retired from the NFL on October 23, 2021. He played five games with the Saints in his final season.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: In February 2021, Hogan declared for the Premier Lacrosse League entry draft. He went undrafted before being acquired by the Cannons Lacrosse Club. On July 6, 2021, Hogan was traded along with faceoff specialist Drew Simoneau to the Whipsnakes in exchange for faceoff specialist Kevin Reisman.


title: Chris Hogan (American football)

text: Hogan is married to Dr. Ashley Boccio, a podiatrist and Long Island native whom he met at Penn State when they were both lacrosse players. The couple has twins, Chase James Hogan and Parker Kay Hogan, born in March 2017. Ashley was pregnant during the Patriots' Super Bowl LI run and could not attend the game, but she did attend Super Bowl LII. While with the Patriots, Hogan stayed in Foxborough, Massachusetts during the NFL season but drove down to his family home in Huntington, New York on Monday nights, spending Tuesday there before returning to Foxborough. Hogan is of Irish descent.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Lambertus van Marwijk (; born 19 May 1952) is a Dutch football manager who was recently the head coach of the United Arab Emirates national team. As a player, he played for the Go Ahead Eagles, AZ, MVV and Fortuna Sittard amongst other clubs and also represented the Netherlands once.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: In 1982, van Marwijk began his transition into a manager, retiring as a player in 1988 and becoming a full-time manager. In 2002, he won the UEFA Cup with Feyenoord. Van Marwijk managed the Netherlands from 2008 until June 2012 and guided the country to the 2010 FIFA World Cup final, which was lost 1–0 in extra-time to Spain. He left this position after losing all three matches at UEFA Euro 2012. He qualified Saudi Arabia for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, where he coached Australia.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Van Marwijk was born in Deventer, Overijssel. As a forward and a midfielder, he played 393 matches in the Dutch highest division, the Eredivisie. He began his career at Go Ahead Eagles, his hometown club. After six seasons, he left Deventer and started to play in Alkmaar, for AZ. In 1978, he moved to MVV Maastricht, playing there for eight seasons before playing one season for Fortuna Sittard. He ended his playing career in 1988 after playing one season for the Belgium Football Club Assent. Van Marwijk had opportunities to play for bigger clubs like Feyenoord or West Ham United, but because of injuries he never made a big transfer.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: In 1975, van Marwijk was called up by Rinus Michels to play for the Dutch national team in a friendly match against Yugoslavia, which was his only cap.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Van Marwijk began his professional managerial career at his former club Fortuna Sittard. His side finished seventh in the Eredivisie in 1998, and reached the KNVB Cup final in 1999. Fortuna had players like Mark van Bommel, Kevin Hofland and Wilfred Bouma during that period.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: In 2000, van Marwijk became the manager of Rotterdam-based club Feyenoord. In his first season, he led Feyenoord to a second-place finish in the Eredivisie and in his second season, 2001–02, he had one of the biggest successes of his career. After beating SC Freiburg, Rangers, PSV and Internazionale in the knock-out stage, he won the UEFA Cup final after beating Borussia Dortmund in the final, 3–2. In October 2002 he extended his contract until the summer of 2004, with the option of one more year. Feyenoord ended in third place in the league with van Marwijk in the 2001–02, 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: In June 2004, van Marwijk became manager of German Bundesliga club Borussia Dortmund on a two-year deal after Matthias Sammer moved to VfB Stuttgart.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: In both of his first two seasons with Dortmund, 2004–05 and 2005–06, he ended seventh in the Bundesliga table. During his third season, his side was stagnating, situated mid-table in ninth, whereupon van Marwijk and the club announced that they would part ways at the end of the 2006–07 season. On 18 December 2006, however, Dortmund and van Marwijk parted company earlier than announced.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: In June 2007, van Marwijk returned to Feyenoord, also bringing back Feyenoord veteran Giovanni van Bronckhorst from Barcelona. He also brought in Tim de Cler, Kevin Hofland and Roy Makaay, and with this Feyenoord squad, he won the KNVB Cup in 2008 after beating Roda JC 2–0 in the final.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Van Marwijk's return to Feyenoord would be short-lived; before the end of the 2007–08 season, it was announced van Marwijk would succeed Marco van Basten as head coach of the Dutch national team after UEFA Euro 2008. During his two spells as coach of Feyenoord, five seasons in total, they would finish second once, in 2000–01. Van Marwijk was succeeded at Feyenoord by Gertjan Verbeek.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Van Marwijk's management staff as Dutch coach included former internationals Frank de Boer and Phillip Cocu, as well as Dick Voorn. In the 2010 World Cup, van Marwijk led the Dutch to the final against Spain after defeating Slovakia in the round of 16, Brazil in the quarter-finals and Uruguay in the semi-finals. They lost, however, 1–0 in extra time. He opted for a very hard style of play, especially during the final, in strong contrast with the Dutch football tradition.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: On 8 December 2011, van Marwijk extended his contract with the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB) for four more years through to the summer of 2016, including participation in the 2014 World Cup and Euro 2016 tournaments. At the Euro 2012 tournament, however, the Dutch ended up without a single point and being widely criticized, prompting van Marwijk to resign on 27 June.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: On 26 September 2013, van Marwijk became the head coach of German side Hamburger SV after refusing offers from Southampton and Sporting CP. On 8 February, Hamburg lost for their sixth consecutive league match and gave up three goals in their fifth-straight league match. The supervisory board at Hamburg met on 9 February 2014 to discuss the future of van Marwijk, opting to let him continue in his role. He was then, however, sacked on 15 February after Hamburg lost 4–2 to Eintracht Braunschweig. Hamburg had lost seven-straight league matches and a DFB-Pokal loss to Bayern Munich. His assistant coach, Roel Coumans, was sacked as well. Van Marwijk lasted 143 days at the helm of Hamburg.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: On 26 August 2015, van Marwijk became the new manager of the Saudi Arabia national team on a one-year contract. On 3 September 2015, he managed his first game, winning 7–0 against East Timor in the 2018 Asian World Cup qualifiers. On 24 March 2016, he clinched qualification to the third (final) round by winning 2–0 against Malaysia. After criticism from local media for not staying in the country and watching league games, van Marwijk helped Saudi Arabia to directly qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in their last game against Japan – their fifth FIFA World Cup and first since 2006. Days after their last qualifying match, he left his job having been unable to agree on a new contract with the Saudi Arabian Football Federation.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: On 24 January 2018, van Marwijk was appointed as the new head coach of the Australian national team on a short-term deal until the end of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. On his debut on 23 March, the team lost 4–1 to Norway in a friendly in Oslo, followed four days later by a goalless draw with Colombia in England. In warmups ahead of the finals, the Socceroos beat the Czech Republic and Hungary; the 4–0 win over the former was that country's record defeat. Australia were eliminated from the group stage in Russia, with one draw and two losses.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: On 20 March 2019, van Marwijk became the new manager of the United Arab Emirates national team. On 4 December that year, the nation's football association announced his sacking following their 4–2 defeat to rivals Qatar in the 24th Arabian Gulf Cup.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Van Marwijk returned to the same post on 14 December 2020. At the 2021 FIFA Arab Cup in Qatar, the team lost 5–0 in the quarter-finals to their rivals. He was sacked again on 12 February 2022, with the team confirmed out of the automatic places in 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification with two games left.


title: Bert van Marwijk

text: Van Marwijk's daughter, Andra, married the Dutch international footballer Mark van Bommel. Their son Thomas van Bommel made his professional football debut with MVV Maastricht in 2020.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Gig Harbor is the name of both a bay on Puget Sound and a city on its shore in Pierce County, Washington. The population was 12,029 at the 2020 census.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Gig Harbor is one of several cities and towns that claim to be "the gateway to the Olympic Peninsula". Due to its close access to several state and city parks, and historic waterfront that includes boutiques and fine dining, it has become a popular tourist destination. Gig Harbor is located along State Route 16, about 6 mi (10 km) from its origin at Interstate 5, over the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. A $1.2 billion project to add a second span to the bridge was completed in 2007.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: During a heavy storm in 1840, Captain Charles Wilkes brought the captain's gig (small boat) into the harbor for protection. Later, with the publication of Wilkes' 1841 map of the Oregon Territory, he named the sheltered bay Gig Harbor.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: In 1867, fisherman Samuel Jerisich came to the Gig Harbor area, along with many other immigrants from Sweden, Norway, and Croatia. The town was platted in 1888 by Alfred M. Burnham.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Gig Harbor was officially incorporated on July 12, 1946. Commercial fishing, boat building, and logging dominated the economy until the construction of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940. Until then, the primary method of transportation between Gig Harbor and the economic center of nearby Tacoma was by steamship. Starting in 1836, steamships started plying the waters of Puget Sound and quickly developed into what was eventually dubbed the "Mosquito Fleet". Gig Harbor, isolated from Tacoma and Seattle by Puget Sound and the Tacoma Narrows, could not be reached by automobile or horseback except by a very long and arduous trip south around Puget Sound and Hammersly Inlet. The boom was to be short lived, as the Tacoma Narrows Bridge collapsed just months after it was completed. The resource demands of World War II prevented another bridge from being built until 1950. Between the time when the first bridge collapsed and when the second bridge was completed, a state-run ferry service delivered drivers directly into downtown Gig Harbor. Remains of the ferry dock can still be seen just outside the mouth of the harbor at the southeast end of Harborview Drive. The area has been turned into a small park, where the public can see a panoramic view of the Cascade Mountains, Point Defiance, and Mount Rainier.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: After the completion of the replacement bridge in 1950, Gig Harbor and the surrounding area quickly began to develop as a suburb of neighboring Tacoma. First, the area had substantial residential development as families retreated from Tacoma in favor of the tree-lined neighborhoods and waterfront lots available on the Gig Harbor Peninsula. What had once been summer cabins became primary residences for people who commuted daily over the bridge to Tacoma. Medium-sized housing development sprang up across the peninsula. The 1980s and 1990s had substantial retail development near State Route 16 to serve the growing residential population, shifting the economic center of Gig Harbor out of downtown. For some time, city leaders were unsure how to handle the growth while maintaining the character of the city. Ultimately, the city decided to aggressively annex the surrounding rural areas and convert them into high-density commercial and housing districts, forever changing the rural character of the area, but assuring that little new development happens in the historic downtown area, preserving its history and charm. By the 1970s, local merchants had begun actively promoting the downtown area for its historic value, and tourism became prominent on the list of economic engines in Gig Harbor. Today, downtown Gig Harbor is a very active place for tourists with shopping, dining, and recreation on every block. The last large swath of undeveloped waterfront property at the south end of downtown was recently developed into the headquarters of the Russell Foundation, named for George Russell, founder of Russell Financial.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Today, despite a long history of boat building, very little manufacturing exists in Gig Harbor. The only remaining boatbuilder is Gig Harbor Boatworks, which builds rowing and sailing dinghies in classic style using modern materials. Until recently, Tiderunner Boats maintained a manufacturing facility at the north end of the bay. The historic Skansie boatyard is now primarily a maintenance facility for yachts and pleasure craft. The Glein/Eddon/Gig Harbor boatyard was recently purchased by the city after spending many years sitting idle. The city intends to use it as a working waterfront museum.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Commercial fishing is still of great cultural, if somewhat lesser economic, importance to Gig Harbor, and many commercial fishing boats make it their home port. Most, however, do not rely on Puget Sound to gather their catch, instead finding it more profitable to venture north to Alaska to fish in the summer. Gig Harbor's fishing fleet still gathers the first weekend in June (during the Maritime Gig Festival) in the center of the bay for the annual Blessing of the Fleet ceremony. In recent years, due to the dwindling number of remaining fishing boats, pleasure craft have been allowed to participate in the ceremony, somewhat lessening its authenticity, but increasing its visibility and participation.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: A new Tacoma Narrows Bridge has been built alongside the existing bridge and opened July 2007, doubling past capacity.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: In 1905, the Skansie brothers were the first in the area to build a gasoline-powered fishing boat. They did so at first by refitting boats with a gasoline-powered engine. Usually the motors were quite small, between 6 and 8 horsepower; the Skansie brothers originally used a 7-horsepower engine. Although these were powerboats, neither masts nor a turntable to hoist in the nets were used. This work was all done by hand. However, with the introduction of a motor, the boats were not able to go as far as Alaska. Skansie shipyards built fishing vessels from the late 1910s to the early 1950s.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Gig Harbor has a marine west coast climate: Warm and dry summers, transitional springs and autumns, and cool and wet winters, with occasional snow. The annual high and low temperatures of Gig Harbor are and , respectively, making for an average of .


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: As of the census of 2010, 7,126 people, 3,291 households, and 1,937 families resided in the city. The population density was . The 3,560 housing units averaged . The racial makeup of the city was 90.2% White, 1.2% African American, 0.6% Native American, 2.4% Asian, 0.5% Pacific Islander, 1.4% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 5.8% of the population.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Of the 3,291 households, 22.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.7% were married couples living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.1% were not families. About 34.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.69.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: The median age in the city was 48.1 years; 18% of residents were under the age of 18; 7% were 18 to 24; 21% were 25 to 44; 29% were 45 to 64; and 25% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46% male and 54% female.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: As of the census of 2000, 6,465 people, 2,880 households, and 1,765 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,485.2 people per square mile (573.8/km). The 3,085 housing units averaged 708.7 per square mile (273.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 94.2% White, 1.1% African American, 0.6% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 3.0% of the population.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: Of the 2,880 households, 25.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.0% were married couples]living together, 9.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.7% were not families. Around 33.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.75.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 20.3% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 23.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 83.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.9 males.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: The median income for a household in the city was $43,456, and for a family was $57,587. Males had a median income of $46,250 versus $28,487 for females. The per capita income for the city was $28,318. About 3.5% of families and 5.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.8% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% of those ages 65 or older.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: At the state level, Gig Harbor is part of the 26th Legislative District - which runs from the Tacoma Narrows in the south to Bremerton in the north. It is represented in the Washington State Legislature by Senator Emily Randall (D - Bremerton), Representative Jesse Young (R - Gig Harbor) and Representative Michelle Caldier (R - Port Orchard).


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: At the House of Representatives, Gig Harbor is part of Washington's 6th Congressional District and is represented by Congressman Derek Kilmer. Gig Harbor is represented in the United States Senate by Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell.


title: Gig Harbor, Washington

text: The Peninsula School District is the district covering the city of Gig Harbor and the peninsula. Tacoma Community College opened a satellite campus in Gig Harbor in 1992, and also operates a branch serving Washington Corrections Center for Women, also in Gig Harbor.


title: Topoisomerase

text: DNA topoisomerases (or topoisomerases) are enzymes that catalyze changes in the topological state of DNA, interconverting relaxed and supercoiled forms, linked (catenated) and unlinked species, and knotted and unknotted DNA. Topological issues in DNA arise due to the intertwined nature of its double-helical structure, which, for example, can lead to overwinding of the DNA duplex during DNA replication and transcription. If left unchanged, this torsion would eventually stop the DNA or RNA polymerases involved in these processes from continuing along the DNA helix. A second topological challenge results from the linking or tangling of DNA during replication. Left unresolved, links between replicated DNA will impede cell division. The DNA topoisomerases prevent and correct these types of topological problems. They do this by binding to DNA and cutting the sugar-phosphate backbone of either one (type I topoisomerases) or both (type II topoisomerases) of the DNA strands. This transient break allows the DNA to be untangled or unwound, and, at the end of these processes, the DNA backbone is resealed. Since the overall chemical composition and connectivity of the DNA do not change, the DNA substrate and product are chemical isomers, differing only in their topology.


title: Topoisomerase

text: The first DNA topoisomerase was discovered in bacteria by James Wang in 1971 and was initially named ω (omega) protein; it is now called "Escherichia coli" ("E. coli") topoisomerase I (topo I) and is a representative of the type IA family of enzymes. Subsequently, a similar activity was found in eukaryotic cells (rat liver) by James Champoux and Renato Dulbecco; the enzyme responsible, eukaryotic topo I, has a distinct mechanism and is representative of the type IB family. The first type II topoisomerase to be discovered was DNA gyrase from bacteria, by Martin Gellert and coworkers in 1976, and also characterized by Nicholas Cozzarelli and co-workers. DNA gyrase catalyzes the introduction of negative supercoils into DNA and is the only type II enzyme to do this, all the others catalyze DNA relaxation. Type II enzymes are mechanistically distinct from type I in being ATP-dependent and transiently cleaving both DNA strands rather than just one. Type II topoisomerases were subsequently identified from bacterial viruses and eukaryotes. Topo EC-codes are as follows: ATP-independent (type I), EC 5.6.2.1; ATP-dependent (type II): EC 5.6.2.2. The exception among the type I topoisomerases, reverse gyrase, which contains a helicase domain (EC 3.6.4.12) and introduces positive supercoiling in an ATP-dependent manner. Therefore it is the sole type I topoisomerase classified as EC 5.6.2.2 (Table 1).


title: Topoisomerase

text: The double-helical structure of DNA involves the intertwining of the two polynucleotide strands around each other, which potentially gives rise to topological problems. DNA topology refers to the crossing of the two DNA strands that alters the twist of the double helix and gives rise to tertiary conformations of DNA, such as supercoils, knots and catenanes. Potential topological issues associated with the double-helical structure of DNA were recognized soon after its structure was first elucidated in 1953 by James Watson, Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin and developed further by the work of Max Delbruck and John Cairns. Closed-circular double-stranded DNA can be described by 3 parameters: Linking number (Lk), Twist (Tw) and Writhe (Wr) (Fig. 1). Where Lk refers to the number of times the two strands are linked, Tw refers to the number of helical turns in the DNA, measured relative to the helical axis, and Wr quantifies the coiling of the path of the DNA helix in space and is often equated with 'supercoiling'.


title: Topoisomerase

text: The 3 parameters are related as follows: Lk = Tw +Wr. This is a mathematical identity originally obtained by Călugăreanu in 1959 and is referred to as the Călugăreanu, or Călugăreanu–White–Fuller, theorem. Lk cannot be altered without breaking one or both strands of the helix; Tw and Wr are interconvertible and depend upon the solution conditions. Supercoiling is a vernacular term for DNA with a non-zero linking difference, more correctly referred to as specific linking difference (σ = ΔLk/Lk, where Lk is the mean linking number of the relaxed DNA circle). DNA is said to be positively supercoiled if Lk of it is higher than Lk for the relaxed state (Lk-Lk = ΔLk, ΔLk>0); that means that Tw and/or Wr are increased relative to the relaxed molecule. Conversely, DNA is negatively supercoiled if Lk of the molecule is lower than the Lk (ΔLk<0).


title: Topoisomerase

text: The consequences of topological perturbations in DNA are exemplified by DNA replication during which the strands of the duplex are separated; this separation leads to the formation of positive supercoils (DNA overwinding or overtwisting) ahead of the replication fork and intertwining of the daughter strands (precatenanes) behind (Fig. 2). If the positive supercoils are not relaxed, progression of the replication fork is impeded, whereas failure to unlink the daughter strands prevents genome segregation, which is required for cell division. Transcription by RNA polymerase also generates positive supercoiling ahead of, and negative supercoiling behind, the transcriptional complex (Fig. 2). This effect is known as the twin-supercoiled domain model, as described by Leroy Liu and James Wang in 1987. These topological perturbations must be resolved for DNA metabolism to proceed, allowing the cell to efficiently replicate, transcribe and partition the genome to enable cellular division and vitality. Knots in DNA can be found in bacteriophages and as products of recombination reactions. In general, knots in DNA are detrimental and need to be removed (by topoisomerases). DNA catenanes are formed upon the replication of circular molecules and need to be resolved by topoisomerases or recombinases to allow proper separation of daughter molecules during cell division. In addition to the detrimental aspects of DNA topology that require resolution, there are also beneficial aspects. For example, plasmid replication requires negative supercoiling of the origin, which facilitates local melting and exposes single-stranded DNA required to initiate replication. Similarly, initiation of replication from the main bacterial origin "oriC" also requires negative supercoiling. Furthermore, compaction of the "E. coli" genome is achieved in part by negative supercoiling.