title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: On December 24, 2010, Ruff's body was discovered in her car in the Ruffs' driveway, dead from a self-inflicted gunshot. In the car were two suicide notes: One 11‑page note addressed to "my wonderful husband" and another addressed to her daughter, to be opened on her 18th birthday. The Ruffs opened and read the letter, but it contained only "ramblings from a clearly disturbed person" and no details about Lori's past.


title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: After Lori's funeral, some of the Ruffs drove to Leonard to see if they could find out more about her in her house. The house was discovered in disarray, with piles of dirty dishes, laundry, and trash stacked up around the house, as well as shredded documents and papers with incoherent scribblings on them. They then discovered the lock box in a closet, pried it open with a screwdriver, and discovered the documentation of Ruff's past. Also found in the lock box was a paper with several seemingly random scribblings.


title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: The suicide notes were quickly determined to be incoherent ramblings that offered no clues to Ruff's identity. Other papers included the birth certificate of Becky Sue Turner and a judge's ruling granting a name change to Lori Erica Kennedy. A friend of the family verified that Becky Sue Turner had died in a house fire at the age of 2.


title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: The writings on the paper found in the lock box included the scribblings "North Hollywood police," "402 months," and "Ben Perkins." The nature of these scribblings led some followers of the case to believe that Ruff was trying to avoid prison time, due to the references to police, a possible jail-term length, and the name of Ben Perkins, a Los Angeles attorney. When contacted, however, Perkins stated that he had never heard of Becky Sue Turner or Lori Kennedy. (Perkins, who was black and who marketed his legal services to LA's African-American community, had never taken on a white client during his career.) In addition, there were no matches for the woman in any existing fingerprint and facial recognition databases. The fact that Ruff was able to cover up her identity so well in a time before the Internet has led to speculation that she had enlisted the services of a so-called identity broker.


title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: In September 2011 the Ruff family, with the help of a congressional aide, sought the help of Joe Velling, an investigator for the Social Security Administration (SSA). Velling agreed to help identify her as a case of identify theft. After following numerous leads he was stumped, and sought the help of the general public to identify her through an article published June 22, 2013, in "The Seattle Times". The article was subsequently republished in numerous newspapers around the world.


title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: Colleen Fitzpatrick, a former nuclear physicist who created the field of forensic genealogy, learned of Lori Ruff in 2013 and began work on the case. Fitzpatrick had Ruff's husband and daughter tested by a direct-to-consumer testing company, through which she was able to obtain Ruff's DNA results using genetic genealogy phasing techniques, which essentially subtracted Blake Ruff's DNA from Lori's. Ruff had a first cousin named Cassidy on her list of matches; however, the name was very common and the cousin was not responsive. After two years, Fitzpatrick finally identified Ruff when she discovered a third cousin match who was related to the Cassidys. Knowing the identity of the third cousin led her to Ruff's identity.


title: Lori Erica Ruff

text: Fitzpatrick informed Joe Velling, who had in the meantime retired from the SSA. He flew to Pennsylvania to meet the potential family. Velling approached a relative, who immediately identified the deceased Lori Ruff as Kimberly McLean.


title: Je me souviens

text: Étienne-Paschal Taché is credited with having popularized the phrase. In 1883, his son Eugène-Étienne Taché, Assistant Commissioner for Crown lands in Quebec and architect of the provincial Parliament building, had the motto carved in stone below the coat of arms of Quebec which appears above the Parliament Building's main entrance door. The motto then came into official use, even though the coat of arms was not adopted until 1939.


title: Je me souviens

text: Taché appears not to have left an explanation of the motto's intended meaning but, however, wrote a letter to Siméon Lesage that showed what he intended to accomplish with the statues on the building's façade and describing what they were intended to remind people of.


title: Je me souviens

text: All around the Parliament building are 24 statues of historical figures. They originally included founders (Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain and de Maisonneuve), clerics (de Laval, de Brébeuf, Marquette and Olier), military men (de Frontenac, Wolfe, de Montcalm and de Levis), First Nations Peoples, French governors (D'Argenson, de Tracy, de Callières, de Montmagny, d'Ailleboust, de Vaudreuil) and, in the words of Taché, "some English governors the most sympathetic to our nationality" (Murray, Dorchester, Prevost and Bagot) and Lord Elgin, who was given a special place for he was seen as an important player in obtaining "responsible government". Taché purposely left empty spaces to allow future generations to add their own statues.


title: Je me souviens

text: His contemporaries, however, did not have any trouble interpreting its meaning. The first interpretations that can be cited are those of historian Thomas Chapais and civil servant Ernest Gagnon.


title: Je me souviens

text: Chapais, during a speech given for the occasion of the unveiling of a bronze statue honouring de Lévis, on June 24, 1895, said: "the province of Quebec has a motto of which she is proud and which she likes enough to carve it on her monuments and palaces. This motto has only three words: ; but these three words, in their simple economy of expression, are worth more than the most eloquent speeches. Yes, we remember. We remember the past and its lessons, the past and its misfortunes, the past and its glories."In 1896, Gagnon wrote that the motto "admirably sums up the of Champlain and Maisonneuve's Canada as a distinct province in the confederation."


title: Je me souviens

text: In 1919, seven years after Taché's death, the historian Pierre-Georges Roy underlined the symbolic character of the three-word motto: "which says so eloquently in three words, the past as well as the present and the future of the only French province of the confederation." This sentence would be cited or paraphrased several times afterwards.


title: Je me souviens

text: Various scholars have attempted to discover the source of Taché's words. The ethnologist Conrad Laforte has suggested that they might derive from the song , or possibly Victor Hugo's poem . Writer André Duval thought the answer was simpler and closer at hand: In the hall of the Parliament building in which the motto is carved above the door, are the arms of the Marquess of Lorne whose motto was ("do not forget"). Consequently, Duval believed "the motto of Quebec to be at the same time the translation of the Marquess of Lorne's motto and the answer of a French-Canadian subject of Her Majesty to the said motto."


title: Je me souviens

text: Research published in English before 1978 led to the same conclusions regarding the motto's origin, the number of words it has and its interpretation. A 1934 biographical notice about Taché reads:"M. Taché is also the author of the beautiful poetic and patriotic motto which accompanies the official coat of arms of the Province of Quebec — — the full significance of which cannot perhaps be readily expressed in English words but which may be paraphrased as conveying the meaning 'We do not forget, and will never forget, our ancient lineage, traditions and memories of all the past'."Encyclopedias and quotation dictionaries, including those of Wallace, Hamilton, Colombo or Hamilton and Shields, all provide the same information as the French-language sources.


title: Je me souviens

text: In 1955, the historian Mason Wade added his opinion by writing: "When the French Canadian says , he not only remembers the days of New France but also the fact that he belongs to a conquered people."


title: Je me souviens

text: In 1978, replaced the tourism-oriented motto ("the beautiful province") on Quebec's vehicle registration plate. According to the historian Gaston Deschênes, this event marks the start of a new period of attempts to reinterpret the meaning of the motto in the mainstream media of Canada.


title: Je me souviens

text: On February 4, 1978, Robert Goyette signed an article entitled "Car owners argue over motto" in "The Montreal Star". This article attracted the attention of a reader, Hélène Pâquet, a granddaughter of Taché who replied on February 15 in an open letter entitled . It reads in part:


title: Je me souviens

text: The lily refers to France while the rose refers to England, both relating to the floral emblems of the nations. The idea that the motto had a lesser known second part spread widely. This new piece of information had a long life in the media before it was investigated by Deschênes in 1992.


title: Je me souviens

text: When Deschênes contacted Hélène Pâquet in 1992, she was unable to specify the origin of text she quoted in her letter. Her statements were not conformable to those of her father, Lieutenant-Colonel Étienne-Théodore Pâquet Jr., who on March 3, 1939, wrote in a letter to John Samuel Bourque, Tâché's son-in-law, and Minister of Public Works, that "the one who synthesized in three words the history and traditions of our race deserves to be recognized" as much as Routhier and Lavallée who composed the "O Canada".


title: Je me souviens

text: The origin of the second part is today known to be a "second motto", created by the same Eugène-Étienne Taché, many years after the first one, and originally destined to be used on a monument honouring the "Canadian nation", but which was never built. The monument was to be a statue of a young and graceful adolescent girl, an allegoric figure of the Canadian nation, bearing the motto: "Née dans les lis, je grandis dans les roses / Born in the lilies, I grow in the roses". While the project was never realized, the idea was "recycled" in a commemorative medal for the 300th anniversary of the foundation of Quebec City, created by Taché, on which is written ("Born under the lilies, God helping, Champlain's work has grown under the roses").


title: Diagonal

text: In geometry, a diagonal is a line segment joining two vertices of a polygon or polyhedron, when those vertices are not on the same edge. Informally, any sloping line is called diagonal. The word "diagonal" derives from the ancient Greek διαγώνιος "diagonios", "from angle to angle" (from διά- "dia-", "through", "across" and γωνία "gonia", "angle", related to "gony" "knee"); it was used by both Strabo and Euclid to refer to a line connecting two vertices of a rhombus or cuboid, and later adopted into Latin as "diagonus" ("slanting line").


title: Diagonal

text: In matrix algebra, the diagonal of a square matrix consists of the entries on the line from the top left corner to the bottom right corner.


title: Diagonal

text: In engineering, a diagonal brace is a beam used to brace a rectangular structure (such as scaffolding) to withstand strong forces pushing into it; although called a diagonal, due to practical considerations diagonal braces are often not connected to the corners of the rectangle.


title: Diagonal

text: Diagonal pliers are wire-cutting pliers defined by the cutting edges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet at an angle or "on a diagonal", hence the name.


title: Diagonal

text: A diagonal lashing is a type of lashing used to bind spars or poles together applied so that the lashings cross over the poles at an angle.


title: Diagonal

text: In association football, the diagonal system of control is the method referees and assistant referees use to position themselves in one of the four quadrants of the pitch.


title: Diagonal

text: As applied to a polygon, a diagonal is a line segment joining any two non-consecutive vertices. Therefore, a quadrilateral has two diagonals, joining opposite pairs of vertices. For any convex polygon, all the diagonals are inside the polygon, but for re-entrant polygons, some diagonals are outside of the polygon.


title: Diagonal

text: Any "n"-sided polygon ("n" ≥ 3), convex or concave, has formula_1 diagonals, as each vertex has diagonals to all other vertices except itself and the two adjacent vertices, or "n" − 3 diagonals, and each diagonal is shared by two vertices.


title: Diagonal

text: In a convex polygon, if no three diagonals are concurrent at a single point in the interior, the number of regions that the diagonals divide the interior into is given by


title: Diagonal

text: If no three diagonals of a convex polygon are concurrent at a point in the interior, the number of interior intersections of diagonals is given by formula_3. This holds, for example, for any regular polygon with an odd number of sides. The formula follows from the fact that each intersection is uniquely determined by the four endpoints of the two intersecting diagonals: the number of intersections is thus the number of combinations of the "n" vertices four at a time.


title: Diagonal

text: There exist separate formulae for calculating the length of the longest diagonal in regular polygons with an even or odd number of sides.


title: Diagonal

text: In an even-sided regular polygon with "n" sides and side length "a", the length of the longest diagonal is equivalent to the diameter of its circumcircle because the long diagonals all intersect each other at the polygon's center. This is given by the following formula.


title: Diagonal

text: The length of the longest diagonal of any odd-sided regular "n"-sided polygon ("n" ≥ 5) with side length "a" is given by the following formula.


title: Diagonal

text: The length of a polygon's shortest diagonal can also be calculated for all polygons ("n" ≥ 4) with the following formula. As the number of sides approaches infinity, the shortest diagonal approaches "2a".


title: Diagonal

text: A square has two diagonals of equal length, which intersect at the center of the square. The ratio of a diagonal to a side is formula_7


title: Diagonal

text: A regular pentagon has five diagonals all of the same length. The ratio of a diagonal to a side is the golden ratio, formula_8


title: Diagonal

text: A regular hexagon has nine diagonals: the six shorter ones are equal to each other in length; the three longer ones are equal to each other in length and intersect each other at the center of the hexagon. The ratio of a long diagonal to a side is 2, and the ratio of a short diagonal to a side is formula_9.


title: Diagonal

text: A regular heptagon has 14 diagonals. The seven shorter ones equal each other, and the seven longer ones equal each other. The reciprocal of the side equals the sum of the reciprocals of a short and a long diagonal.


title: Diagonal

text: In general a regular n-gon has formula_10 distinct diagonals in length, which follows the pattern 1,1,2,2,3,3... starting from a square.


title: Diagonal

text: A polyhedron (a solid object in three-dimensional space, bounded by two-dimensional faces) may have two different types of diagonals: face diagonals on the various faces, connecting non-adjacent vertices on the same face; and space diagonals, entirely in the interior of the polyhedron (except for the endpoints on the vertices).


title: Diagonal

text: Just as a triangle has no diagonals, so also a tetrahedron (with four triangular faces) has no face diagonals and no space diagonals.


title: Diagonal

text: For a square matrix, the "diagonal" (or "main diagonal" or "principal diagonal") is the diagonal line of entries running from the top-left corner to the bottom-right corner. For a matrix formula_11 with row index specified by formula_12 and column index specified by formula_13, these would be entries formula_14 with formula_15. For example, the identity matrix can be defined as having entries of 1 on the main diagonal and zeroes elsewhere:


title: Diagonal

text: The top-right to bottom-left diagonal is sometimes described as the "minor" diagonal or "antidiagonal".


title: Diagonal

text: The "off-diagonal" entries are those not on the main diagonal. A "diagonal matrix" is one whose off-diagonal entries are all zero.


title: Diagonal

text: A "superdiagonal" entry is one that is directly above and to the right of the main diagonal. Just as diagonal entries are those formula_14 with formula_18, the superdiagonal entries are those with formula_19. For example, the non-zero entries of the following matrix all lie in the superdiagonal:


title: Diagonal

text: Likewise, a "subdiagonal" entry is one that is directly below and to the left of the main diagonal, that is, an entry formula_14 with formula_22. General matrix diagonals can be specified by an index formula_23 measured relative to the main diagonal: the main diagonal has formula_24; the superdiagonal has formula_25; the subdiagonal has formula_26; and in general, the formula_23-diagonal consists of the entries formula_14 with formula_29.


title: Diagonal

text: By analogy, the subset of the Cartesian product "X"×"X" of any set "X" with itself, consisting of all pairs (x,x), is called the diagonal, and is the graph of the equality relation on "X" or equivalently the graph of the identity function from "X" to "X". This plays an important part in geometry; for example, the fixed points of a mapping "F" from "X" to itself may be obtained by intersecting the graph of "F" with the diagonal.


title: Diagonal

text: In geometric studies, the idea of intersecting the diagonal "with itself" is common, not directly, but by perturbing it within an equivalence class. This is related at a deep level with the Euler characteristic and the zeros of vector fields. For example, the circle "S" has Betti numbers 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, and therefore Euler characteristic 0. A geometric way of expressing this is to look at the diagonal on the two-torus "S"xS and observe that it can move "off itself" by the small motion (θ, θ) to (θ, θ + ε). In general, the intersection number of the graph of a function with the diagonal may be computed using homology via the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem; the self-intersection of the diagonal is the special case of the identity function.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The United States Coast Guard Academy (USCGA) is a service academy of the United States Coast Guard in New London, Connecticut. Founded in 1876, it is the smallest of the five U.S. service academies and provides education to future Coast Guard officers in one of nine major fields of study.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets, and upon graduation receive a Bachelor of Science degree and are commissioned as Coast Guard ensigns with a five-year active-duty service obligation, with additional years if the graduate attends flight school or subsequent government-funded graduate school. Out of approximately 250 cadets entering the academy each summer, around 200 graduate. Cadets can choose from among nine majors, with a curriculum that is graded according to their performance in a holistic program of academics, physical fitness, character, and leadership.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Cadets are required to adhere to the academy's "Honor Concept," ""Who lives here reveres honor, honors duty"," which is emblazoned in the walls of the academy's entrance. The academy's motto is "Scientiæ cedit mare", which is Latin for "the sea yields to knowledge". Its academic programs are accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The roots of the academy lie in the School of Instruction of the Revenue Cutter Service, the school of the Revenue Cutter Service. The School of Instruction was established near New Bedford, Massachusetts in 1876 and used USRC "Dobbin" for its exercises. Captain John Henriques served as superintendent from founding until 1883. The one civilian instructor was Professor Edwin Emery, who taught mathematics, astronomy, English composition, French, physics, theoretical steam engineering, history, international law, and revenue law, among other subjects. The school was a two-year apprenticeship, in essence, supplemented by minimal classroom work. The student body averaged five to ten cadets per class. With changes to new training vessels, the school moved to Curtis Bay, Maryland in 1900 and to Fort Trumbull in 1910, a Revolutionary War–era Army installation in New London, Connecticut. In 1914, the school became the Revenue Cutter Academy, and then the Coast Guard Academy in 1915 with the merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the Life Saving Service to form the U.S. Coast Guard.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Land was purchased in New London on 31 July 1930 for the construction of the Coast Guard Academy. The 40-acre site was made up of two parcels from the Allyn and Payne estates and was purchased for $100,000. The $100,000 was not raised through a bond issue, as originally planned, but with a bank loan based on uncollected back taxes. The contract was awarded to Murch Brothers Construction Company of St. Louis and ground was broken in January 1931 by Jean Hamlet, daughter of Rear Admiral Harry G. Hamlet, Academy Superintendent from 1928 to 1932. On 15 May 1931, Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon visited New London to lay the cornerstone of Hamilton Hall. Construction proceeded relatively on schedule and cadets moved in to the new buildings on 20 September 1932.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: In 1946, the academy received the barque "Horst Wessel" as a war reparation from Germany, a 295-foot tall ship which was renamed . It remains the main training vessel for cadets at the academy as well as for officer candidates at the Coast Guard's Officer Candidate School, which is located on the grounds of the academy.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The academy was racially integrated in 1962 at the request of President Kennedy. The academy began admitting women in 1976 at the request of Congress.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Superintendent of the academy Vice Admiral Harry G. Hamlet composed the academy's mission statement in 1929. All entering cadets must memorize the statement during their first few days of Swab Summer, the indoctrination period for new cadets.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: "The mission of the United States Coast Guard Academy is to graduate young men and women with sound bodies, stout hearts and alert minds, with a liking for the sea and its lore, and with that high sense of Honor, Loyalty and Obedience which goes with trained initiative and leadership; well-grounded in seamanship, the sciences and the amenities, and strong in the resolve to be worthy of the traditions of commissioned officers in the United States Coast Guard, in the service of their country and humanity."


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Unlike the other service academies, admission to the USCGA does not require a congressional nomination. This is due to the fervent objections of Captain John A. Henriques, the first Superintendent of the Revenue Cutter School of Instruction (later the Revenue Cutter Academy). His objection stemmed from years of poor political appointments in the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service's bureaucracy.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Each year more than 2,000 students apply and appointments are offered until the number accepting appointments to the incoming class numbers reaches approximately 400; the average entering class size is 300 cadets. Those who have received appointments as cadets report to the USCGA in late June or early July for "Swab Summer", a basic military training program designed to prepare them for the rigors of their Fourth Class year. After four years of study and training, approximately 200 of those cadets will graduate. About 35 percent of cadets are women.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: All graduating cadets earn commissions as ensigns in the United States Coast Guard, as well as Bachelor of Science degrees. For that reason the academy maintains a core curriculum of science and professional development courses in addition to major-specific courses. Each cadet takes two semesters of classes during the school year and then spends the majority of the summer in military training to produce officers of character with the requisite professional skills. Among these are courses in leadership, ethics, organizational behavior, and nautical science. The majority of cadets report to their first units after graduating, which are either afloat units, shore units, or basic flight training as student naval aviators, with the training conducted under the auspices of the U.S. Navy. Those that are assigned afloat serve as either deck watch officers or student engineers. Professional maritime studies courses help prepare cadets in piloting, voyage planning, deck seamanship, and all aspects of shiphandling, as well as Coast Guard leadership and administrative duties.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Academics at the USCGA stress the sciences and engineering, but different courses of study are available. In addition, several of the majors offer tracks of specialization (for example, Marine and Environmental Science majors can choose to focus on biology, chemistry, or geophysics). Cadets sometimes opt to take elective courses with Connecticut College (adjacent the academy's campus) as part of an open exchange agreement.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Each summer, cadets participate in training programs according to their class. The summers are organized as follows:


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Each week during the school year cadets participate in Regimental Review, a formal military drill. In addition, cadets perform a variety of military duties at the academy. Like all cadets and midshipmen at the United States service academies, Coast Guard cadets are on active duty in the military and wear uniforms at all times. Cadets receive a monthly stipend to pay for books, uniforms, and other necessities. Cadets receive monthly pay of $1,017.00, as of 2015. From this amount, pay is automatically deducted for the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, services, and other miscellaneous expenses.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The Corps is organized as one regiment divided into eight companies, each of which is composed of about 120 cadets of all classes. Although the Corps of Cadets is supervised directly by the Commandant of Cadets (a Coast Guard officer with the rank of captain), the academy operates on the concept of "the Corps leading the Corps."


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The Corps of Cadets is largely a self-directed organization that follows a standard military chain of command:


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The highest-ranking cadet in each company is the Company Commander, a first-class cadet ("firstie"), equivalent to a senior. Although each company has some leeway in their standards and practices, every company commander reports to the Regimental Staff which plans and oversees all aspects of cadet life. At the top of the cadet chain of command is the Regimental Commander, the highest ranking cadet. Command positions, both in companies and on Regimental Staff, are highly competitive, and a cadet's overall class rank is often a deciding factor in who is awarded the position.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The eight companies are named for the first eight letters of the NATO phonetic alphabet. Each has a special focus in administering day-to-day affairs: Alpha Company manages health and wellness. Bravo Company runs training. Charlie Company administers the honor system, Delta Company coordinates drill and ceremonies. Echo Company manages transportation and logistics. Foxtrot Company operates the cadet conduct system, organizes the watch rotations, and updates the cadet regulations. Golf Company is in charge of supplies for cleaning and repairing damaged rooms within Chase Hall. Hotel Company is in charge of morale events.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: To accomplish their missions, each company is divided, along shipboard lines, into three departments, each of which is divided into divisions with specific responsibilities. Divisions are the most basic unit at the Coast Guard Academy, and each has a very specific purpose. Each division is led by a firstie and contains several members of each other class.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: This organizational structure is designed to give every cadet a position of leadership and to emulate the structure of a Coast Guard cutter, in which the division officer and department head positions are filled by junior officers. Third-class cadets directly mentor the fourth-class in their division, just as junior petty officers would be responsible for the most junior enlisted personnel (non-rates). Second-class cadets act as non-commissioned officers, and ensure that the regulations and accountability are upheld. Firsties (like junior officers) are in supervisory roles, and are responsible for carrying out the mission of their divisions and ensuring the well-being of those under their command. Exchange cadets from the other federal service academies are also a part of the Corps, and take part in many activities alongside their USCGA counterparts.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The USCGA Athletic Department offers 24 intercollegiate sports for cadets. The academy's athletics teams generally compete in Division III of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Cadets devote two hours per academic day to athletic activities, either on varsity teams, club teams, or other sports pursuits. The academy nickname is the Bears, after the USRC "Bear", which made a dramatic rescue in Alaska in 1897, shortly after the opening of the academy.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Principal non-athletic activities are musical centered on Leamy Hall. Regimental Band, Windjammers Drum & Bugle Corps, various pep bands, and the NiteCaps Jazz Band are instrumental programs. Chapel Choirs, Glee Club, the Fairwinds all-female a cappella group, and The Idlers all-male sea shanty group are vocal programs.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The academy's Model UN team was started in 2004, and has since been successfully competing around North America, and at the World Model UN Conference.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: For years it has been a United States Coast Guard Academy tradition for fourth-class cadets (freshman) to hide the chain links that sit outside the cadet library, also known as Waesche Hall. The chain links are historic: they were used during the Revolutionary War to prevent ships from transiting up the Hudson River and attacking West Point. When Benedict Arnold betrayed the United States, the chain links were one of the secrets that he revealed to the British. The family that originally forged the chain donated the links to the United States Coast Guard Academy. Since the donation, the fourth-classmen (freshmen) are challenged each year at the annual homecoming football game to outwit the second-classmen (juniors) and keep the chain hidden until half-time. If the fourth-classmen are successful in hiding the links until the end of the second quarter, they are granted a week of modified carry-on (this allows the fourth-classmen to have some of the privileges of the upperclassmen).


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: As part of their indoctrination into military culture, and to condition them for the frenetic flow of information during a shipboard watch, 4/c cadets are forced to sharpen their attention to detail and to develop an ability to accurately recall seemingly trivial facts from short- and medium-term memory. The incoming class of cadets every year is required to memorize various quotes, Coast Guard facts, and bits of information that change during the year. They are responsible for knowing reams of information like the menu for the next three meals in the Wardroom (dining hall), the mission of the Academy, the entire chain of command, each athletic team's next scheduled opponent, the lengths of different types of Coast Guard Cutters, the meanings of all the different nautical flags, and the finer points of various military ceremonies.


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: Indoc during the Swab Summer training program also includes humorous questions that cement the identity of a class, such as ""How's the cow?"" A swab from the Class of 2022 would be required to reply, ""Sir/Ma'am, she walks, she talks, she's full of chalk; the lacteal fluid extracted from the female of the bovine species is highly prolific to the 22nd degree, sir/ma'am!"".


title: United States Coast Guard Academy

text: The U.S. Coast Guard Museum is located in Waesche Hall on the grounds of the United States Coast Guard Academy. The museum's artifacts reflect the history of the U.S. Coast Guard and include ship models, carved figureheads, cannons, uniforms, medals, weapons, memorabilia and paintings. Visitors must bring a government-issued photo identification to enter the campus, and foreign visitors must make an appointment with the Curator before visiting the museum.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Partners, LLC is a joint venture between The Walt Disney Company (which owns 73% of shares) and the namesake non-profit scientific organization National Geographic Society (which owns 27%). The company oversees all commercial activities related to the Society, including magazine publications and television channels. The company's board of managers is evenly divided between the Society and Disney.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: The enterprise was originally established by 21st Century Fox and the National Geographic Society. Following the completion of Disney's acquisition of 21st Century Fox on March 20, 2019, Disney assumed 21CF's 73% share in the joint venture.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Society's relationship with 21st Century Fox goes as far back as 1997, when the original News Corporation (to which 21st Century Fox is one of the successors) launched National Geographic Channel (now simply branded as National Geographic) in Asia and Europe, in partnership with the Society. The original American version of the channel was launched in 2001. Additional National Geographic channels in other parts of the world were also launched under the original joint venture.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: On September 9, 2015, the Society announced that it would reorganize its media properties and publications into a new company known as National Geographic Partners, which would be 73% owned by 21st Century Fox. This new, for-profit, corporation would own "National Geographic" and other magazines, as well as its affiliated television networks—most of which were already owned in joint ventures with Fox. At the time of the deal's announcement, James Murdoch, the CEO of 21st Century Fox, was quoted in remarks to National Geographic that the pact created "an expanded canvas for the National Geographic brand to grow and reach customers in new ways, and to reach new customers." On November 2, 2015, roughly two weeks before the closing of the expanded joint venture deal, National Geographic and 21st Century Fox announced that 9 percent of National Geographic's 2,000 employees, approximately 180 people, would be laid off, constituting the biggest staff reduction in the Society's history. In November 2015, National Geographic Channels International CEO Ward Platt was promoted to National Geographic Partners, while the channel international and US were united under National Geographic Channels U.S. CEO Courteney Monroe as National Geographic Global Networks.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Networks announced the production of four feature documentaries and reentry of NatGeo back into documentaries. Soon there after in January 2017, the network announced National Geographic Documentary Films banner for the four features.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: In May 2017, the company acquired Global Adrenaline tour operator, a provider of National Geographic Expeditions for some its land-based itineraries and was founded in 2001 by CEO Nancy Schumacher.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: In New York City in October 2017, the National Geographic Encounter: Ocean Odyssey attraction opened by SPE Partners under license. SPE brought on Falcon's Creative Group, Pixomondo, Mirada Studios, and composer David Kahne for the attraction's creative aspects. Ocean Odyssey is a 90 minutes timed ticketed walk-through attraction with retail space plus private event space managed by The Shubert Organization.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: Declan Moore was succeeded by Gary E. Knell as CEO of Nat Geo Partners in February 2018. In July, Moore reorganized the company including eliminating three top executive posts. Global network CEO would over see a combine long and short form production company, National Geographic Studios. NG Media, as a one newsroom for content on all platforms, was formed bring digital, magazines and other short form content together. CFO Marcela Martin added the chief administrative officer (CAO) post leading the new Operating Council coordinating support functions.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Kids Books launched its fiction imprint, Under the Stars, in September 2018. A partnership with Ultimate Explorer, a Chinese company, was made for interactive entertainment spaces based on the series in China and the U.S. With its second series published in October 2019, the kids book unit launched a companion podcast.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: As a part of the acquisition of most 21st Century Fox assets, The Walt Disney Company took over 21CF's controlling stake in the joint venture. Following the acquisition, National Geographic Partners' television channels became part of the Walt Disney Television unit; with the president of the National Geographic Partners reporting directly to the Walt Disney Television chairman. Disney officially closed the deal on March 20, 2019. By August 2019, National Geographic Partners' non-TV operations were transferred into its Disney counterpart.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: NG Media is the publishing arm of the partnership and operates within Disney Publishing Worldwide handling National Geographic's magazines, digital, social channels, Nat Geo Kids, book publishing and live events.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: "National Geographic Adventure" was launched in March 1999. The society's magazine group discontinued its "Adventure" magazine in December 2009 while attempting to continue the brand in other media like books and online.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: While under development since 2014, National Geographic Kids Books launched its fiction imprint, Under the Stars, in September 2018 with the publication of "Explorer Academy: The Nebula Secret", first of a seven part series. The imprint refers to large domed lobby painted with the night sky at the society's headquarters. A partnership with Ultimate Explorer, a Chinese company, was made for interactive entertainment spaces based on the series in China and the U.S. With its second series, Zeus the Mighty, published in October 2019, the kids book unit launched a companion podcast, "Greeking Out", with Kids Place Live.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: NG Media was formed in February 2018 reorganization bring together as a one newsroom for content on all platform. "National Geographic" Editor-in-chief was name editor director of NG Media with David Miller, general manager of ditigal, became general manager of NG Media overseeing subscriptions and membership plus NG Creative, Maps and Photography units.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: Disney transferred NG Media into Disney Publishing Worldwide by August 2019. NG Media also discontinued "Traveler" magazine's US edition.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: The National Geographic-branded television channels and TV production company are operated as a part of this venture, but Disney's companies (Walt Disney Television in the United States, Fox Networks Group outside the United States) handle distribution and advertisement sales of the channels. In most cases internationally, the National Geographic and Disney channels cross-promote each other. In some territories, the versions of National Geographic channels are directly operated by Disney.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Travel is the travel and tour division of National Geographic Partners offering National Geographic tours through various third-party partners and its internal tour operator.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Expeditions was founded in 1999 by the National Geographic Society to fulfill one of its mission and for the proceeds to go towards its mission. In 2004, the division made a partnership with Lindblad Expeditions cruise line and white label tour operator, Global Adrenaline.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: In September 2013, National Geographic Society formed the National Geographic Travel group by bringing its travel assets together including "National Geographic Traveler" magazine, National Geographic Expeditions, its travel books, digital travel content, maps, apps and travel community. Keith Bellows, editor-in-chief of "National Geographic Traveler", was named senior vice president of the group. Bellows was the editor-in-chief until October 2014. With the appointment of his permanent replacement.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: A hotel marketing collection, National Geographic Unique Lodges of the World, and a new independent travel planning division, Private Expeditions, were launched in January 2015. Private Expeditions incorporate in most cases one of these lodges. The initial 24 boutique hotels met collection standards for sustainability, guest experience, and property quality. Nat Geo Travel was moved in September 2015 into a joint venture, National Geographic Partners, with 21st Century Fox.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: In May 2017, National Geographic Partners purchased Global Adrenaline. With Lindblad, their agreement was expanded to include new destinations in Latin America and Canada, while bringing in additional luxury expedition line partners Compagnie du Ponant and Scenic Luxury Cruises & Tours. Disney migrated National Geographic Travel operations into Disney Signature Experiences by August 2019.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: National Geographic Maps is the commercial map publishing division of National Geographic Partners, within Disney Publishing Worldwide.


title: National Geographic Partners

text: In 2019, National Geographic's documentary "Free Solo" won Best Documentary Feature at the 91st Academy Awards, and won the BAFTA Award for Best Documentary at the 72nd British Academy Film Awards. The film was the second-highest grossing documentary of 2018.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Harry Dexter White (October 29, 1892 – August 16, 1948) was a senior U.S. Treasury department official. Working closely with the Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr., he helped set American financial policy toward the Allies of World War II. He was later accused of espionage by passing information to the Soviet Union.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: He was a senior American official at the 1944 Bretton Woods conference that established the postwar economic order. He dominated the conference, and his vision of post-war financial institutions mostly prevailed over those of John Maynard Keynes, the British representative who was the other main founder. Through Bretton Woods, White was a major architect of the International Monetary Fund and World Bank.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: White was accused in 1948 of spying for the Soviet Union, which he adamantly denied. He was never a Communist party member, but he had frequent contacts with Soviet officials as part of his duties at the Treasury. Revelations about those contacts and about dubious activities of a few of his friends and colleagues, including through decoded and now declassified Soviet cables intercepted in the Venona Project, added to the suspicions surrounding him.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Harry Dexter White was born on October 29, 1892, in Boston, Massachusetts, the seventh and youngest child of Jewish Lithuanian immigrants, Jacob Weissnovitz (or Weit) and Sarah Magilewski, who had settled in the US in the 1880s. In 1917, he enlisted in the U.S. Army, and was commissioned as a First Lieutenant and served in France as head of Company H of the 302nd Infantry until the end of World War I. Aside from one term at Massachusetts Agricultural College (1911-12), he did not begin his university studies until age 29, first at Columbia University; then at Stanford University, where he earned Bachelors and Masters degrees in economics; and finally at Harvard University, where he taught for four years while studying for his Ph.D., which he competed in 1932 at 40 years of age. White then taught for two years at Lawrence College in Appleton, Wisconsin. His PhD dissertation won the David A. Wells Prize granted annually by the Harvard University Department of Economics. Harvard University Press published his Ph.D. thesis in 1933, as "The French International Accounts, 1880–1913".


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 1934, Jacob Viner, an economist working at the Treasury Department, offered White a position at the Treasury, which he accepted. Viner would receive an honorary degree from Lawrence University, where White taught before joining the Treasury, in 1941. White became increasingly important in monetary matters, and was a top advisor to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr., especially on international financial affairs dealing with China, France, Great Britain, Japan, Latin America, and the Soviet Union. In 1938, Morgenthau created a new division--the Division of Monetary Research--and promoted White to be its director. When the United States entered World War II in 1941, Morgenthau promoted White again, naming him Assistant to the Secretary. The post of Assistant Secretary, the most senior economist position in the Treasury, finally opened up in 1945, and Morgenthau promptly nominated White to Fill it. White left the Treasury in 1946 to become the U.S. Executive Director at the newly established International Monetary Fund.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In November 1941, White sent a memorandum to Morgenthau that was widely circulated and influenced State Department planning. White called for a comprehensive peaceful solution of rapidly escalating tensions between the United States and Japan, calling for major concessions on both sides. Langer and Gleason report that White's proposals were totally rewritten by the State Department and that the American key demand had been formulated long before White. It was an insistence on Japanese withdrawal from China, which Japan totally refused to consider. The complex negotiations at the top ranks of the US government, and its key allies of Britain and China, took place in late November 1941 with no further input from White or Morgenthau. White's proposals were never presented to Japan. Some historians have argued, however, that White manipulated Morgenthau and Roosevelt to provoke war with Japan in order to protect Stalin's Far Eastern front.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: After the U.S. entered the war in December 1941, Secretary Morgenthau appointed White to act as liaison between the Treasury and the State Department on all matters bearing on foreign relations. He was also made responsible for the Exchange Stabilization Fund. White eventually came to be in charge of wartime international matters for the Treasury, with access to extensive confidential information about the economic situation of the US and its wartime allies. He passed numerous secret documents to men he knew were Soviet spies.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: White was a dedicated internationalist, and his energies were directed at continuing the Grand Alliance with the USSR and maintaining peace through trade. He believed that powerful, multilateral institutions could avoid the mistakes of the Treaty of Versailles and prevent another worldwide depression. As head of the independently-funded Office of Monetary Research, White was able to hire staff without the normal civil service regulations or background enquiries. He probably was unaware that several of his hires were spies for the USSR.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: According to Henry Morgenthau's son, White was the principal architect behind the Morgenthau Plan, designed to permanently weaken Germany's military capabilities. The Morgenthau postwar plan, as authored by White, was to take all industry out of Germany, eliminate its armed forces, and convert the country into an agricultural community, in the process eliminating most of Germany's economy and its ability to start another war.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: A version of the plan, limited to turning Germany into "a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character", was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944. However, someone in White's department with access to details of the plan leaked it to the press, and White himself provided an advance copy to Soviet intelligence. Public protests forced Roosevelt to publicly and partially pull back. The Nazis and Joseph Goebbels used the Morgenthau Plan as a propaganda coup to encourage their troops and citizens to fight on. General Omar Bradley, among others, noticed "a near-miraculous revitalization of the German army." In the end Morgenthau still did manage to influence the resulting occupation policy.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: White was the senior American official at the 1944 Bretton Woods conference, and reportedly dominated the conference and imposed his vision over the objections of John Maynard Keynes, the British representative. Numerous economic historians have concluded that White and the powerful U.S. delegation were wrong in dismissing Keynes's innovative proposal for a new international unit of currency (the "Bancor") made up of foreign exchange reserves held by central banks. Benn Steil, in 2013, argued that since 1971, experts have been disillusioned with the 1944 framework. Eric Helleiner, in 2014, argued that the main goal of the United States was to promote international development as an investment in peace, to open the world for cheap imports, and to create new markets for American exports. He argues that policy-makers and analysts from the Southern hemisphere increasingly denounced the Bretton Woods system as "a Northern-dominated arrangement that was ill-suited to their state-led development strategies." After the war, White was closely involved with setting up what were called the Bretton Woods institutions—the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. These institutions were intended to prevent some of the economic problems that had occurred after World War I. As late as November 1945, White continued to argue for improved relations with the Soviet Union. White later became a director and U.S. representative of the IMF. On June 19, 1947, White abruptly resigned from the International Monetary Fund, vacating his office the same day.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: On September 2, 1939, Assistant Secretary of State and Roosevelt's adviser on internal security Adolf Berle had a meeting, arranged by journalist Isaac Don Levine, with defecting Soviet agent Whittaker Chambers. In his notes of that meeting, written later that night, Levine listed a series of names, including a "Mr. White". Berle's notes of the meeting contain no mention of White. Berle drafted a 4-page memorandum on the information which he then passed to the President, who dismissed the idea of espionage rings in his administration as 'absurd'. The director of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, as late as 1942, also dismissed Chambers' revelations as 'history, hypothesis, or deduction.'


title: Harry Dexter White

text: On March 20, 1945, State Department security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. His notes record that Chambers identified White as "a member at large but rather timid", who had brought various members of the American communist underground into the Treasury.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In Spring 1948, Truman aide Stephen J. Spingarn questioned Whittaker Chambers, an admitted former Soviet espionage agent, about Harry Dexter White: "Chambers ... told me that he didn't believe Harry White was a Communist; he believed that he was a man who thought he was smarter than the Communists, and he could use them, but really they used him." Chambers subsequently testified on August 3, 1948, to his association with White in the Communist underground secret apparatus up to 1938. Chambers produced documents he had saved from his days as a courier for the Soviets' American spy-ring. Among these was a handwritten memorandum that he testified White had given him. The Treasury Department identified this document as containing highly confidential material from the State Department, while the FBI Laboratory established that it was written in White's handwriting. Chambers stated, however, that White was the least productive of his contacts. Chambers said of White, "His motives always baffled me" (a point later underscored by grandson David Chambers).


title: Harry Dexter White

text: On November 7, 1945, defecting Soviet espionage courier Elizabeth Bentley told investigators of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) that in late 1942 or early 1943 she learned from Soviet spies Nathan Gregory Silvermaster and Ludwig Ullmann that one source of the government documents they were photographing and passing on to her and NKVD spymaster Jacob Golos was Harry Dexter White.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: The next day, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover sent a hand-delivered letter to Truman's Military Aide, Gen. Harry Vaughan, at the White House, reporting information that "a number of persons employed by the government of the United States have been furnishing data and information to persons outside the Federal Government, who are in turn transmitting this information to espionage agents of the Soviet government." The letter listed a dozen Bentley suspects, the second of whom was Harry Dexter White.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: The FBI summarized the Bentley information and in its follow-up investigation on the suspects she named, again including White, in a report entitled 'Soviet Espionage in the United States', which was sent to the White House, the Attorney General and the State Department on December 4, 1945. Six weeks later, on January 23, 1946, Truman nominated White as U.S. Director of the International Monetary Fund. The FBI responded with a 28-page memo specifically on White and his contacts, received by the White House on February 4, 1946. White's nomination was approved by the Senate, acting in ignorance of the allegations against White, on February 6, 1946.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: On July 31, 1948, Bentley told the House Committee on Un-American Activities that White had been involved in espionage activities on behalf of Soviet Union during World War II, and had passed sensitive Treasury documents to Soviet agents. Bentley said White's colleagues passed information to her from him. In her 1953 testimony Bentley said that White was responsible for passing Treasury plates for printing Allied military marks in occupied Germany to the Soviets, who thereupon printed currency with abandon, sparking a black market and serious inflation throughout the occupied country, costing the U.S. a quarter of a billion dollars. However the alternative explanation is that Treasury officials feared that denying Soviet use of the plates in their occupation sector would endanger postwar cooperation.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Bentley wrote in her 1951 autobiography that she had been "able through Harry Dexter White to arrange that the United States Treasury Department turn the actual printing plates over to the Russians". Bentley had not previously mentioned this to the FBI or to any of the committees, grand juries or prosecutors before whom she had testified earlier, and there was no evidence at the time that Bentley had any role in this transfer. Some questioned Harry Dexter White's role in it. In her 1953 testimony before Joseph McCarthy's Senate subcommittee, she elaborated, testifying that she was following instructions from NKVD New York "rezident" Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov (who operated under the cover name "Bill") to pass word through Ludwig Ullmann and Nathan Gregory Silvermaster for White to "put the pressure on for the delivery of the plates to Russia". This is the only case in which Bentley biographer Kathryn Olmstead concluded that Bentley was lying about her role, citing historian Bruce Craig's conclusion that "the whole 'scheme' was a complete fabrication". However, Bentley's testimony would later be corroborated in dramatic fashion by a memorandum found in Soviet archives after half a century. In it, Gaik Ovakimian, head of the American desk of the NKVD (for which Bentley worked), cites a report from New York (where Bentley was based) from April 14, 1944 (when Bentley was running the Silvermaster group) reporting that, "following our instructions" via Silvermaster, White had obtained "the positive decision of the Treasury Department to provide the Soviet side with the plates for engraving German occupation marks".


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 1918, White married Anne Terry White. They had two daughters, Ruth (May 11, 1926 - December 28, 2009) and Joan (March 12, 1929 - September 9, 2012).


title: Harry Dexter White

text: On August 13, 1948, White testified before HUAC and denied being a communist. After he finished testifying, he had a heart attack. He left Washington for a rest on his Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire farm. He had just arrived when he had another heart attack. Two days later, on August 16, 1948, he died, age 55. Spurious allegations later made it look as if an overdose of digoxin was the cause of death.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Senator William Jenner's Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments Investigation by the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee (SISS) looked extensively into the problem of unauthorized and uncontrolled powers exercised by non-elected officials, specifically White. Part of its report looked into the implementation of Roosevelt administration policy in China and was published as the "Morgenthau Diary (China)." The report stated: The committee also heard testimony by Henry Morgenthau's speechwriter, Jonathan Mitchell, that White had tried to persuade him that the Soviets had developed a system that would supplant capitalism and Christianity.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 1953, Senator Joseph McCarthy and Eisenhower administration Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr. revealed that the FBI had warned the Truman administration about White before the President appointed him to the IMF. Brownell made public the FBI's November 8, 1945, letter to the White House warning about White and others, and revealed that the White House had received the FBI report on "Soviet Espionage in the United States," including the White case, six weeks before Truman nominated White to the IMF.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Although he does not dispute that the FBI sent these and other warnings to Truman, Sen. Daniel Patrick Moynihan wrote in his introduction to the 1997 Moynihan Commission report on government secrecy that Truman was never informed of Venona. In support of this, he cited a statement from the official NSA/CIA history of Venona that "no definitive evidence has emerged to show" that Truman was informed of Venona.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: NSA cryptographers identified Harry Dexter White as the source denoted in the Venona decrypts at various times under the code names "Lawyer", "Richard", and "Jurist". Two years after his death, in a memorandum dated October 15, 1950, White was positively identified by the FBI, through evidence gathered by the Venona project, as a Soviet source, code named "Jurist".


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Years later, the Justice Department publicly disclosed the existence of the Venona project which deciphered Soviet cable traffic naming White as "Jurist", a Soviet intelligence source. As reported in the FBI Memorandum on White: You have previously been advised of information obtained from [Venona] regarding Jurist, who was active during 1944. According to the previous information received from [Venona] regarding Jurist, during April, 1944, he had reported on conversations between the then Secretary of State Hull and Vice President Wallace. He also reported on Wallace's proposed trip to China. On August 5, 1944, he reported to the Soviets that he was confident of President Roosevelt's victory in the coming elections unless there was a huge military failure. He also reported that Truman's nomination as Vice President was calculated to secure the vote of the conservative wing of the Democratic Party. It was also reported that Jurist was willing for any self-sacrifice in behalf of the KGB but was afraid that his activities, if exposed, might lead to a political scandal and have an effect on the elections. This codename was confirmed by the notes of KGB archivist Vasili Nikitich Mitrokhin, in which six key Soviet agents are named. Harry Dexter White is listed as being first "KASSIR" and later "JURIST".


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Another example of White acting as an agent of influence for the Soviet Union was his obstruction of a proposed $200 million loan to Nationalist China in 1943, which he had been officially instructed to execute, at a time when inflation was spiraling out of control.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Other Venona decrypts revealed further damaging evidence against White, including White's suggestions on how to meet and pass information on to his Soviet handler. Venona Document #71 contains decryptions of White's discussions on being paid for his work for the Soviet Union.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 1997, the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy, chaired by Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, stated in its findings, "The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department seems settled. As does that of Harry Dexter White of the Treasury Department."


title: Harry Dexter White

text: Further evidence of White's complicity as a Soviet agent was gleaned from Soviet archives and KGB operative Alexander Vassiliev. In a book by Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, "The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America — the Stalin Era", Vassiliev, a former Soviet journalist and KGB operative, reviewed Soviet archives dealing with White's actions on behalf of the Soviet Union. White assisted Harold Glasser, a Treasury executive and NKVD spy, "in obtaining posts and promotions at Treasury while aware of his Communist ties". Because of White's backing, Glasser survived an FBI background check. In December 1941 the Secret Service forwarded a report to Harry White indicating that it had evidence Glasser was involved in Communist activities. White never acted on the report. Glasser continued to serve in the Treasury Department, and soon began recruiting other agents and preparing briefing reports on Treasury personnel and other potential espionage agents for the NKVD. After America became involved in World War II, Glasser received appointments to several higher-level positions in the government on White's approval.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: According to Soviet archives, White's other KGB code names were "Richard", and "Reed". In order to protect their source, Soviet intelligence repeatedly changed White's code name.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 2000, Robert Skidelsky, in reviewing the evidence, concludes: A combination of naivety, superficiality and supreme confidence in his own judgment — together with his background — explains the course of action White took. There is no question of treachery, in the accepted sense of betraying one's country's secrets to an enemy. But there can be no doubt that, in passing classified information to the Soviets, White knew he was betraying his trust, even if he did not thereby think he was betraying his country. In 2004, Stephen Schlesinger wrote, "Among historians, the verdict about White is still unresolved, but many incline toward the view that he wanted to help the Russians but did not regard the actions he took as constituting espionage."


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 2012, Bruce Craig wrote: Taken individually, one could argue that some of the documents indicate that White may have not always have been aware that his information was being passed on to Moscow, but taken collectively, [Andrew] Vassiliev's documentation leaves little wiggle room for White's defenders to continue to assert that he was not involved in an activity that, at least by present day legal standards, constitute espionage.


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 2012, David Chambers wrote, "Perhaps White had ends of his own, too... Perhaps he used his position to foster the Soviet Union — then a new, budding American ally, recognized only in 1933 — beyond New Deal policy."


title: Harry Dexter White

text: In 2013, Benn Steil wrote: White almost certainly, and over many years, gave confidential and classified U.S. government information–in original, transcribed, and oral form–to individuals whom he knew would ultimately transmit it to the Soviet government ... Yet the economics White advocated were hardly Marxist. They were by this time what would be described as thoroughly Keynesian ... As for White's domestic politics, these were mainstream New Deal progressive, and there is no evidence that he admired communism as a political ideology. It is this chasm between what is known publicly of White's economic and political views, on the one hand, and his clandestine behavior on behalf of the Soviets, on the other, that accounts for the plethora of unpersuasive profiles of the man that have emerged. White's daughters steadfastly maintained his innocence. In 1990, they stated, "Despite years of close surveillance by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which included shadowing and wiretaps, the evidence produced against White never consisted of anything more than the unsubstantiated allegations of two F.B.I. informers unknown to the accused (including Time magazine's own Whittaker Chambers)." In 1998, daughter Joan White Pinkham wrote on behalf of her sister Ruth White Levitan and herself, "Nevertheless, as the daughters of a brilliant economist who served his country loyally and with distinction, my sister and I remain confident that, in the words of Coventry Patmore, 'The truth is great, and shall prevail, / When none cares whether it prevail or not'." In 2012, Joan White Pinkam wrote, "I write to protest that in Benn Steil’s April 9 Op-Ed article, "Banker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy," old allegations of espionage against my father, Harry Dexter White, are once again repeated as fact. In response to the 2012 statement, Whittaker Chambers' grandson, David Chambers, wrote: Ms. Pinkham does well to stand by her father. Full proof of White's doings may never surface. Even if they should, one cannot deny that he helped better the financial system, towards a better world. His achievements remain standing at the U.S. Treasury, Bretton Woods, and the IMF. So does his American creed before HUAC. In contrast, Whittaker Chambers tried at best to neutralize dupes of Stalin-ized communism—long after Stalin had started liquidating every conceivable enemy. (But that does not cancel out Chambers's insight into White.)


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers is a 2004 television film about the life of English comedian Peter Sellers, based on Roger Lewis's book of the same name. It was directed by Stephen Hopkins and stars Geoffrey Rush as Sellers, Miriam Margolyes as his mother Peg Sellers, Emily Watson as his first wife Anne Howe, Charlize Theron as his second wife Britt Ekland, John Lithgow as Blake Edwards, Stephen Fry as Maurice Woodruff and Stanley Tucci as Stanley Kubrick.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The film won the Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film and Rush won Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film. It also won nine Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie for Rush.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The film opens with Peter Sellers walking up to a director's chair. An unseen live audience applauds as Peter directs their gaze toward the movie of his life.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: In 1950s London, Peter Sellers is a household name as a performer on "The Goon Show" but is failing to branch out into film. He returns home to his family after a failed audition but is urged by his controlling mother Peg (Miriam Margolyes) to "bite the hand that feeds you". A now inspired Peter utilizes his talent for impersonation to disguise himself as the elderly war veteran character he was auditioning for. Once the casting agent (Alison Steadman) has divulged that he is perfect for the role, Peter reveals himself and is reluctantly given the part.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Peter wins a British Academy Award for "I'm All Right Jack". Peg and Peter's father, Bill (Peter Vaughan), watch their son's acceptance speech but dismissed by Peg, a dejected Bill walks away leading to the first transformation of the film; Peter is now playing his father, and with a heavy Yorkshire accent breaks the fourth wall to tell us about Peter's childhood.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Before the shooting of "The Millionairess" has begun, Peter is already besotted with his co-star Sophia Loren (Sonia Aquino), while his marriage to wife Anne (Emily Watson) is becoming strained and his children are subjected to their father's rages and subsequent extravagant gifts as compensation. When Sophia mentions that Peter is too far away in the countryside to take her home, he takes this as a cue to buy a house in the heart of London. To subdue some of the guilt Peter feels about his feelings for Sophia, he hires a decorator, Ted Levy, and insists that his wife and Ted should have drinks together. Peter leaves them and goes to have dinner alone with Sophia, who is surprised that Peter's wife is not joining them and slowly realises that this is a date. She rejects Peter's advances and tells him to go home to his family. Peter does so and announces his love for Sophia Loren to Anne and their two children.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Seeing Carlo Ponti (Joseph Long) has come to visit his wife Sophia on set, Sellers distracts himself with Sophia's stand-in and the two have sex in Peter's Rolls-Royce. Meanwhile, a weary Anne surrenders to quietly spending the night with Ted. Once Peter returns home and realises his wife has left, he wreaks havoc in the house. Anne comes home the morning after to find Peter on the balcony threatening to jump if she leaves. The two argue and Anne walks out. We then see Peter's second transformation, this time in drag as Anne, who is dubbing the breakup to make it look as though they had reconciled.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Peter returns home to Peg's care to recuperate after the divorce and begins to see Maurice Woodruff (Stephen Fry), a clairvoyant to the stars, hoping to gain some direction; Woodruff's influence leads him to the Pink Panther series.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: On a flight to Italy, he sees a pack of Captain Webb matches, which inspires the physical appearance of Inspector Clouseau. Filming of "The Pink Panther" begins and his portrayal is a huge success, but Peter is disappointed with the final product and blames Blake Edwards (John Lithgow).


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Peter returns to England to find his father on life support, which Peg had been keeping from him. After Bill has stated how proud he is of his son, he dies. Peter is heartbroken and cannot forgive Peg for not calling him; their close bond is irreversibly severed and Peter leaves.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: At The Dorchester Hotel, Peter is taking a woman back to his room but is interrupted by Stanley Kubrick (Stanley Tucci), who has come to persuade Peter to be in his new film, "Dr. Strangelove." Peg comes to visit Peter on-set, but Peter decides to stay in character as the titular scientist to avoid confronting reality. Peg is unsettled and eventually leaves, feeling as though she had not truly seen her son.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: While Stanley and Peter are discussing the fourth character he is due to play, Peter grows aggravated about his workload, insisting he will not play the American bomber pilot. After he storms off, we watch the third change; Peter becomes Stanley, who turns to look at us with the Kubrick stare and tells us that Peter Sellers was not a person, simply a vessel, “but even an empty vessel can become too full”. Peter's way out of playing Major Kong is by showing up to set with crutches and pretending he had injured himself getting out of a taxi.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Meanwhile, Maurice Woodruff is taking a bribe to convince Peter into doing another Pink Panther film. He informs Peter that a very special partnership involves the initials B.E., meaning Blake Edwards. Peter instead pursues his new neighbour Britt Ekland (Charlize Theron). He asks her to be his date to the cinema where they see Dr Strangelove. They wed just 10 days after meeting.While on their honeymoon in Hollywood, Peter inhales amyl nitrites during sex, causing him to have a series of eight heart attacks. He is rushed to the hospital and Peg watches the breaking news of Peter's critical condition from her home in England being broadcast on “both channels”. During the resuscitation, a dream sequence takes place in Peter's consciousness with his many characters surrounding him, before he notices that he has a ticking bomb attached to his chest. When he wakes, he believes himself to now be invincible.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Peter's next film is "Casino Royale", but with his new lease of life he wants to play it straight, much to the dismay of everyone involved. He abandons the film after no one takes him seriously.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Britt informs Peter that she has fallen pregnant, but is met with an unimpressed Peter, who doesn't want more children. However, Britt insists on keeping the baby. Once the baby is born, Peter and Britt's relationship becomes strained and they fight as the newborn interrupts scenes of "After The Fox."


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: In costume as the blue matador for "The Bobo," Peter receives a call from Peg, where she tells Peter that she is in hospital and that she needs to see him. However, Peter pretends to be called away and hangs up. The fourth narrative change is Peter becoming Peg, who defends Peter's behaviour, just as the real Peg always did. As Peg, he climbs into a coffin before reverting to himself. Peter is distraught at Peg's funeral and Britt tries to comfort him, but he instead cries on his first wife Anne's shoulder.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: When they get home, Peter antagonizes Britt while she is trying to comfort him. A physical fight ensues and Britt smashes a picture of Peg over Peter's head. She leaves for good, taking their daughter with her, and Peter is alone with his thoughts, triggering a psychedelic sequence which swiftly takes Peter through the 70's.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: During one of their sessions, Maurice Woodruff listens to Peter talk about his obsession with "Being There," a book Peter loves so much that he wants it to be his next film, but Maurice uses the spirit of Peg to persuade Peter to instead do "The Pink Panther Strikes Again" and a superstitious Peter relents.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: At the screening for the film, a drunken Peter gives a speech which becomes more and more uninhibited until he abruptly leaves. Watching his home movies alone, Peter gets a voicemail from his now adult son Michael, who wishes him well with his new pacemaker. Once the recording ends, Peter looks to the table beside him and opens the script for "Revenge of the Pink Panther." In costume as the "old salty Swedish sea dog", Peter collapses in his trailer while an unaware Blake bangs at his door. The fifth and final transformation is Peter into Blake Edwards, who tells us what it is like to work with the "difficult" but "mesmerizing" Peter Sellers.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The only project Peter never gave up on was "Being There". Scenes of Peter carefully constructing the main character in his home are interspersed with him destroying his own memorabilia, including some of his own home movies. Peter is exasperated that he can not find the look of Chance, but meditates on the memory of his lowly father. This allows Peter to not rely on a comical accent or costume, but to instead channel his still and simple father.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Peter quietly rewatches scenes from "Being There", proud of something he made. A tired and visibly prematurely ageing Peter walks through the Swiss snow to meet with Blake Edwards, who has the script for "The Romance of the Pink Panther". Instead of entering, Peter hesitates and watches through the window, eventually turning to stand motionless under a streetlight. Blake comes out, confused to find Peter standing perfectly still. They do not share a word and Blake kisses Peter on the cheek, eventually leaving him alone. Facts about the final years of Sellers' life are shown over the motionless Peter in the snow.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The film finishes with the same version of Peter that we saw at the start. The movie about his life has now ended. He sits in the director's chair and shrugs, stands up and walks through the film's set pieces, surrounded by bustling crew, to his trailer and smiles to the camera, "You can't come in here."


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The role of Sellers was portrayed by Geoffrey Rush, "who approached the role with the enthusiasm of a hungry child in a candy store", notes a reviewer. Rush impersonates most of the important characters that Sellers played in his film career. Director Blake Edwards is played by John Lithgow, and the film exposes some of the behind-the-scenes personality conflicts between Sellers and Edwards, which contributed to their unhappy and tumultuous working relationship, despite the success of their films. In the interview for the film, included on the DVD, Edwards credited Rush with portraying Sellers' characters with uncanny similarity to the real Peter Sellers, and in 2004 claimed that it was the best acting he had ever seen Rush perform.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Rush stated in interviews that the film was itself structured to be reminiscent of a Peter Sellers film. However, it was darker than Sellers' actual films since it depicted Sellers' troubled experiences in his life (including his tantrums and mental instability). This included at various times Rush (as Sellers) dressing up to play other characters in his life (several were ultimately edited out, but are included within the special features on the DVD). In these instances he broke the fourth wall to give a monologue to the audience.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Roger Lewis: "It was the melancholia of Sellers I was drawn to; all those shuffling little ghostly figures he used to play in Boulting brothers films, or Clouseau, with those soulful, mournful brown eyes. For all the success and the women, he is rather a lonely and melancholic figure. And that is what redeems him." Hollywood was immediately interested in adapting Lewis's biography. In the mid-1990s Madonna's company Maverick bought the rights, but the Sellers project did not get off the ground. Many different writers worked on the screenplay, among them Lee Hall; eventually the writers Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely came up with a script to tell the story. Director Stephen Hopkins ultimately distanced himself from Lewis's book, and said he was inspired by Sellers's 16mm home movies, which were featured in a 1995 BBC "Arena" documentary, "The Peter Sellers Story", directed by Peter Lydon.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Although intended as a television production, the film was given a limited theatrical release in the United Kingdom and was also theatrically released in a number of other countries including Spain, Italy, Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand and Australia. The film achieved its highest theatrical success in Australia, earning over US$1 million at the box office.


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 69% based on reviews from 26 critics. The site's critics consensus states: "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers struggles to truly capture its subject's singular genius, but remains a diverting tribute -- and a showcase for the talents of Geoffrey Rush."


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: The "Belfast Telegraph" notes how the film captured Sellers's "life of drugs, drink, fast cars and lots and lots of beautiful women".


title: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers

text: Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote: "Sustains interest most of the way, but combination of an unsympathetic central figure and patchy recreation of events involving numerous famous people makes for an ambitiously told life story that finally doesn't cut it."


title: Adhesion

text: Adhesion is the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another).


title: Adhesion

text: The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent mechanical effects.


title: Adhesion

text: Surface energy is conventionally defined as the work that is required to build an area of a particular surface. Another way to view the surface energy is to relate it to the work required to cleave a bulk sample, creating two surfaces. If the new surfaces are identical, the surface energy γ of each surface is equal to half the work of cleavage, W: γ = (1/2)W.


title: Adhesion

text: W = γ + γ – γ, where γ and γ are the surface energies of the two new surfaces, and γ is the interfacial energy.


title: Adhesion

text: This methodology can also be used to discuss cleavage that happens in another medium: γ = (1/2)W = (1/2)W. These two energy quantities refer to the energy that is needed to cleave one species into two pieces while it is contained in a medium of the other species. Likewise for a three species system: γ + γ – γ = W + W – W – W = W, where W is the energy of cleaving species 1 from species 2 in a medium of species 3.


title: Adhesion

text: A basic understanding of the terminology of cleavage energy, surface energy, and surface tension is very helpful for understanding the physical state and the events that happen at a given surface, but as discussed below, the theory of these variables also yields some interesting effects that concern the practicality of adhesive surfaces in relation to their surroundings.


title: Adhesion

text: There is no single theory covering adhesion, and particular mechanisms are specific to particular material scenarios.


title: Adhesion

text: Adhesive materials fill the voids or pores of the surfaces and hold surfaces together by interlocking. Other interlocking phenomena are observed on different length scales. Sewing is an example of two materials forming a large scale mechanical bond, velcro forms one on a medium scale, and some textile adhesives (glue) form one at a small scale.


title: Adhesion

text: Two materials may form a compound at the joint. The strongest joints are where atoms of the two materials share or swap electrons (known respectively as covalent bonding or ionic bonding). A weaker bond is formed if a hydrogen atom in one molecule is attracted to an atom of nitrogen, oxygen, or fluorine in another molecule, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding.


title: Adhesion

text: Chemical adhesion occurs when the surface atoms of two separate surfaces form ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds. The engineering principle behind chemical adhesion in this sense is fairly straightforward: if surface molecules can bond, then the surfaces will be bonded together by a network of these bonds. It bears mentioning that these attractive ionic and covalent forces are effective over only very small distances – less than a nanometer. This means in general not only that surfaces with the potential for chemical bonding need to be brought very close together, but also that these bonds are fairly brittle, since the surfaces then need to be kept close together.


title: Adhesion

text: In dispersive adhesion, also known as physisorption, two materials are held together by van der Waals forces: the attraction between two molecules, each of which has a region of slight positive and negative charge. In the simple case, such molecules are therefore polar with respect to average charge density, although in larger or more complex molecules, there may be multiple "poles" or regions of greater positive or negative charge. These positive and negative poles may be a permanent property of a molecule (Keesom forces) or a transient effect which can occur in any molecule, as the random movement of electrons within the molecules may result in a temporary concentration of electrons in one region (London forces).


title: Adhesion

text: In surface science, the term "adhesion" almost always refers to dispersive adhesion. In a typical solid-liquid-gas system (such as a drop of liquid on a solid surrounded by air) the contact angle is used to evaluate adhesiveness indirectly, while a Centrifugal Adhesion Balance allows for direct quantitative adhesion measurements. Generally, cases where the contact angle is low are considered of higher adhesion per unit area. This approach assumes that the lower contact angle corresponds to a higher surface energy. Theoretically, the more exact relation between contact angle and work of adhesion is more involved and is given by the Young-Dupre equation. The contact angle of the three-phase system is a function not only of dispersive adhesion (interaction between the molecules in the liquid and the molecules in the solid) but also cohesion (interaction between the liquid molecules themselves). Strong adhesion and weak cohesion results in a high degree of wetting, a lyophilic condition with low measured contact angles. Conversely, weak adhesion and strong cohesion results in lyophobic conditions with high measured contact angles and poor wetting.


title: Adhesion

text: London dispersion forces are particularly useful for the function of adhesive devices, because they don't require either surface to have any permanent polarity. They were described in the 1930s by Fritz London, and have been observed by many researchers. Dispersive forces are a consequence of statistical quantum mechanics. London theorized that attractive forces between molecules that cannot be explained by ionic or covalent interaction can be caused by polar moments within molecules. Multipoles could account for attraction between molecules having permanent multipole moments that participate in electrostatic interaction. However, experimental data showed that many of the compounds observed to experience van der Waals forces had no multipoles at all. London suggested that momentary dipoles are induced purely by virtue of molecules being in proximity to one another. By solving the quantum mechanical system of two electrons as harmonic oscillators at some finite distance from one another, being displaced about their respective rest positions and interacting with each other's fields, London showed that the energy of this system is given by:


title: Adhesion

text: While the first term is simply the zero-point energy, the negative second term describes an attractive force between neighboring oscillators. The same argument can also be extended to a large number of coupled oscillators, and thus skirts issues that would negate the large scale attractive effects of permanent dipoles cancelling through symmetry, in particular.


title: Adhesion

text: The additive nature of the dispersion effect has another useful consequence. Consider a single such dispersive dipole, referred to as the origin dipole. Since any origin dipole is inherently oriented so as to be attracted to the adjacent dipoles it induces, while the other, more distant dipoles are not correlated with the original dipole by any phase relation (thus on average contributing nothing), there is a net attractive force in a bulk of such particles. When considering identical particles, this is called cohesive force.


title: Adhesion

text: When discussing adhesion, this theory needs to be converted into terms relating to surfaces. If there is a net attractive energy of cohesion in a bulk of similar molecules, then cleaving this bulk to produce two surfaces will yield surfaces with a dispersive surface energy, since the form of the energy remain the same. This theory provides a basis for the existence of van der Waals forces at the surface, which exist between any molecules having electrons. These forces are easily observed through the spontaneous jumping of smooth surfaces into contact. Smooth surfaces of mica, gold, various polymers and solid gelatin solutions do not stay apart when their separating becomes small enough – on the order of 1–10 nm. The equation describing these attractions was predicted in the 1930s by De Boer and Hamaker:


title: Adhesion

text: where P is the force (negative for attraction), z is the separation distance, and A is a material-specific constant called the Hamaker constant.


title: Adhesion

text: The effect is also apparent in experiments where a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamp is made with small periodic post structures. The surface with the posts is placed face down on a smooth surface, such that the surface area in between each post is elevated above the smooth surface, like a roof supported by columns. Because of these attractive dispersive forces between the PDMS and the smooth substrate, the elevated surface – or “roof” – collapses down onto the substrate without any external force aside from the van der Waals attraction. Simple smooth polymer surfaces – without any microstructures – are commonly used for these dispersive adhesive properties. Decals and stickers that adhere to glass without using any chemical adhesives are fairly common as toys and decorations and useful as removable labels because they do not rapidly lose their adhesive properties, as do sticky tapes that use adhesive chemical compounds.


title: Adhesion

text: It is important to note that these forces also act over very small distances – 99% of the work necessary to break van der Waals bonds is done once surfaces are pulled more than a nanometer apart. As a result of this limited motion in both the van der Waals and ionic/covalent bonding situations, practical effectiveness of adhesion due to either or both of these interactions leaves much to be desired. Once a crack is initiated, it propagates easily along the interface because of the brittle nature of the interfacial bonds.


title: Adhesion

text: As an additional consequence, increasing surface area often does little to enhance the strength of the adhesion in this situation. This follows from the aforementioned crack failure – the stress at the interface is not uniformly distributed, but rather concentrated at the area of failure.


title: Adhesion

text: Some conducting materials may pass electrons to form a difference in electrical charge at the joint. This results in a structure similar to a capacitor and creates an attractive electrostatic force between the materials.


title: Adhesion

text: Some materials may merge at the joint by diffusion. This may occur when the molecules of both materials are mobile and soluble in each other. This would be particularly effective with polymer chains where one end of the molecule diffuses into the other material. It is also the mechanism involved in sintering. When metal or ceramic powders are pressed together and heated, atoms diffuse from one particle to the next. This joins the particles into one.


title: Adhesion

text: Diffusive forces are somewhat like mechanical tethering at the molecular level. Diffusive bonding occurs when species from one surface penetrate into an adjacent surface while still being bound to the phase of their surface of origin. One instructive example is that of polymer-on-polymer surfaces. Diffusive bonding in polymer-on-polymer surfaces is the result of sections of polymer chains from one surface interdigitating with those of an adjacent surface. The freedom of movement of the polymers has a strong effect on their ability to interdigitate, and hence, on diffusive bonding. For example, cross-linked polymers are less capable of diffusion and interdigitation because they are bonded together at many points of contact, and are not free to twist into the adjacent surface. Uncrosslinked polymers (thermoplastics), on the other hand are freer to wander into the adjacent phase by extending tails and loops across the interface.


title: Adhesion

text: Another circumstance under which diffusive bonding occurs is “scission”. Chain scission is the cutting up of polymer chains, resulting in a higher concentration of distal tails. The heightened concentration of these chain ends gives rise to a heightened concentration of polymer tails extending across the interface. Scission is easily achieved by ultraviolet irradiation in the presence of oxygen gas, which suggests that adhesive devices employing diffusive bonding actually benefit from prolonged exposure to heat/light and air. The longer such a device is exposed to these conditions, the more tails are scissed and branch out across the interface.


title: Adhesion

text: Once across the interface, the tails and loops form whatever bonds are favorable. In the case of polymer-on-polymer surfaces, this means more van der Waals forces. While these may be brittle, they are quite strong when a large network of these bonds is formed. The outermost layer of each surface plays a crucial role in the adhesive properties of such interfaces, as even a tiny amount of interdigitation – as little as one or two tails of 1.25 angstrom length – can increase the van der Waals bonds by an order of magnitude.


title: Adhesion

text: The strength of the adhesion between two materials depends on which of the above mechanisms occur between the two materials, and the surface area over which the two materials contact. Materials that wet against each other tend to have a larger contact area than those that do not. Wetting depends on the surface energy of the materials.


title: Adhesion

text: Low surface energy materials such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene and polyoxymethylene are difficult to bond without special surface preparation.


title: Adhesion

text: Another factor determining the strength of an adhesive contact is its shape. Adhesive contacts of complex shape begin to detach at the "edges" of the contact area. The process of destruction of adhesive contacts can be seen in the film.


title: Adhesion

text: In concert with the primary surface forces described above, there are several circumstantial effects in play. While the forces themselves each contribute to the magnitude of the adhesion between the surfaces, the following play a crucial role in the overall strength and reliability of an adhesive device.


title: Adhesion

text: Stringing is perhaps the most crucial of these effects, and is often seen on adhesive tapes. Stringing occurs when a separation of two surfaces is beginning and molecules at the interface bridge out across the gap, rather than cracking like the interface itself. The most significant consequence of this effect is the restraint of the crack. By providing the otherwise brittle interfacial bonds with some flexibility, the molecules that are stringing across the gap can stop the crack from propagating. Another way to understand this phenomenon is by comparing it to the stress concentration at the point of failure mentioned earlier. Since the stress is now spread out over some area, the stress at any given point has less of a chance of overwhelming the total adhesive force between the surfaces. If failure does occur at an interface containing a viscoelastic adhesive agent, and a crack does propagate, it happens by a gradual process called “fingering”, rather than a rapid, brittle fracture.


title: Adhesion

text: Stringing can apply to both the diffusive bonding regime and the chemical bonding regime. The strings of molecules bridging across the gap would either be the molecules that had earlier diffused across the interface or the viscoelastic adhesive, provided that there was a significant volume of it at the interface.