title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: Between 2011 and 2020 Hobson also appeared with multiple independent promotions, principally in the San Francisco Bay Area. These included Championship Wrestling from Hollywood (where he held the UWN Tag Team Championship with Damien Grundy as "Cold Cold War"), Gold Rush Pro Wrestling (where he held the GRPW Dynamite Division Championship), and Pro Championship Wrestling (where he held the PCW Tag Team Championship with Mitch Valentine as "The Dream Team"). In 2016, Hobson made a one-off appearance for WWE, losing to Baron Corbin in a dark match in the SAP Center in San Jose, California.


title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: In July 2020, Hobson began to work for All Elite Wrestling (AEW) as "Will Hobbs", wrestling on its YouTube show "AEW Dark". On September 5, 2020, Hobbs competed in a 21-man Casino Battle Royale at the All Out pay-per-view, which was won by Lance Archer. His performance in the match impressed AEW president Tony Khan, and he was signed to a contract with AEW. On the September 16, 2020 episode of "Dynamite", Hobbs saved AEW World Champion Jon Moxley from an attack by Brian Cage and Ricky Starks. On the October 7 episode of "Dynamite", Hobbs unsuccessfully challenged Cage for the FTW Championship. On the November 18 episode of "Dynamite", Hobbs turned heel by aligning himself with Team Taz (Taz, Brian Cage, and Ricky Starks), joining them in an attack on Cody Rhodes and Darby Allin. Later that month, his ring name was tweaked to "Powerhouse Hobbs". At the December 2, 2020 television special "Winter Is Coming", Hobbs and Starks lost to Rhodes and Allin.


title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: Throughout early 2021, Hobbs scored a series of singles and tag team victories on episodes of "AEW Dark" and "". At the Double or Nothing pay-per-view in May 2021, Hobbs competed in a Casino Battle Royale that was won by Jungle Boy. On July 14, 2021 on the "Fyter Fest" television special, Hobbs aided stablemate Ricky Starks in an FTW Championship victory over Brian Cage, thus expelling Cage from Team Taz; Hobbs went on to defeat Cage on the September 1 episode of "Dynamite". On the September 15, 2021 episode of "Dynamite", Team Taz attacked CM Punk while he was on commentary, resulting in a match between Hobbs and Punk at the "AEW Grand Slam" television special (Punk's first televised match in over seven years), which was won by Punk. For the remainder of the year, Hobbs wrestled primarily on "AEW Dark".


title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: In March 2022 at Revolution, Hobbs competed in a "Face of the Revolution" ladder match that was won by Wardlow. Throughout mid-2022, he largely competed in tag team matches alongside Starks; at Double or Nothing in May 2022 they unsuccessfully challenged Jurassic Express for the AEW World Tag Team Championship in a triple threat match that also featured Keith Lee and Swerve Strickland. At "Dynamite: Fight for the Fallen" on July 27, 2022, Hobbs turned on Starks after Starks lost the FTW Championship, delivering a clothesline to the back of Starks' neck followed by a spinebuster. The following week, Taz formally disbanded Team Taz. At All Out in September 2022, Hobbs defeated Starks; later that month, on "Grand Slam", Starks defeated Hobbs in a lights out match.


title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: At Full Gear in November 2022, Hobbs faced Samoa Joe and Wardlow in a three-way dance for the AEW TNT Championship that was won by Samoa Joe.


title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: Hobbs wrestles in a "powerhouse" style. His finishing moves have included a falling powerslam, a spinebuster, an Oklahoma Stampede, a frog splash, a torture rack, and an emerald flowsion named the "Town Business".


title: Powerhouse Hobbs

text: Hobson was raised by his grandparents, and he states that his love of professional wrestling came through his grandparents who regularly watched and attended wrestling shows at the Cow Palace. When Hobson was 21, his older brother was killed by gunfire; they had previously had aspirations of being a manager-wrestler duo in professional wrestling. Hobson has two sons and one daughter.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: The Junkers Jumo 004 was the world's first production turbojet engine in operational use, and the first successful axial compressor turbojet engine. Some 8,000 units were manufactured by Junkers in Germany late in World War II, powering the Messerschmitt Me 262 fighter and the Arado Ar 234 reconnaissance/bomber, along with prototypes, including the Horten Ho 229. Variants and copies of the engine were produced in Eastern Europe and the USSR for several years following the end of WWII.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: The feasibility of jet propulsion had been demonstrated in Germany in early 1937 by Hans von Ohain working with the Heinkel company. Most of the Reich Air Ministry (RLM) remained uninterested, but Helmut Schelp and Hans Mauch saw the potential of the concept and encouraged Germany's aero engine manufacturers to begin their own programmes of jet engine development. The companies remained skeptical and little new development was carried out.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: In 1939 Schelp and Mauch visited the companies to check up on progress. Otto Mader, head of the "Junkers Motorenwerke" (Jumo) division of the large Junkers aviation firm, stated that even if the concept was useful, he had no one to work on it. Schelp responded by stating that Dr Anselm Franz, then in charge of Junkers' turbo- and supercharger development, would be perfect for the job. Franz started his development team later that year, and the project was given the RLM designation 109-004 (the 109- prefix, assigned by the RLM was common to all reaction engine projects in WW II Germany, including German WW II rocket engine designs for manned aircraft).


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Franz opted for a design that was at once conservative and revolutionary. His design differed from von Ohain's in that he utilised a new type of compressor which allowed a continuous, straight flow of air through the engine (an "axial compressor"), recently developed by the "Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt" (AVA – Aerodynamic Research Institute) at Göttingen. The axial-flow compressor not only had excellent performance, about 78% efficient in "real world" conditions, but it also had a smaller cross-section, important for high-speed aircraft. Dr. Bruno Bruckman's old assistant on the jet engine program, Dr. Österich, took over for him in Berlin, and selected the axial flow design, due to its smaller diameter; it was less than the competing axial-flow BMW 003.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: On the other hand, he aimed to produce an engine that was far below its theoretical potential, in the interests of expediting development and simplifying production. One major decision was to opt for a simple combustion area using six "flame cans", instead of the more efficient single annular can. For the same reasons, he collaborated heavily on the development of the engine's turbine with "Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft" (General Electric Company, AEG) in Berlin, and instead of building development engines, opted to begin work immediately on the prototype of an engine that could be put straight into production. Franz's conservative approach came under question from the RLM, but was vindicated when even given the developmental problems that it was to face, the 004 entered production and service well ahead of the BMW 003, its more technologically advanced but slightly lower thrust competitor (7.83 kN/1,760 lbf).


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: At Kolbermoor, location of the Heinkel-Hirth engine works, the post-war Fedden Mission, led by Sir Roy Fedden, found jet engine manufacturing was simpler and required lower-skill labor and less sophisticated tooling than piston engine production; in fact, most of the making of hollow turbine blades and sheet metal work on jets could be done by tooling used in making automobile body panels. Fedden himself criticized the attachment of the 004's compressor casing, which was in two halves, bolted to the half-sections of the stator assemblies.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: The first prototype 004A, which used diesel fuel, was first tested in October 1940, though without an exhaust nozzle. It was bench-tested at the end of January 1941 to a maximum thrust of , and work continued to increase the thrust, the RLM contract having set a minimum of thrust.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Vibration problems with the compressor stators, originally cantilevered from the outside, delayed the program at this point. Max Bentele, as an Air Ministry consulting engineer with a background in turbocharger vibrations, assisted in solving the problem. The original aluminium stators were replaced with steel ones in which configuration the engine developed in August, and passed a 10-hour endurance run at in December. The first flight test took place on March 15, 1942, when a 004A was carried aloft by a Messerschmitt Bf 110 to run up the engine in flight. The 004 used an eight-stage axial-flow compressor, with six straight-through combustion chambers (made from sheet steel), and a one-stage turbine with hollow blades.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: On July 18, one of the prototype Messerschmitt Me 262s flew for the first time under jet power from its 004 engines, and the 004 went into production with an order from the RLM for 80 engines.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: The initial 004A engines built to power the Me 262 prototypes had been built without restrictions on materials, and they used scarce raw materials such as nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum in quantities which were unacceptable in production. Franz realized that the Jumo 004 would have to be redesigned to incorporate a minimum of these strategic materials, and this was accomplished. All the hot metal parts, including the combustion chamber, were changed to mild steel protected by an aluminum coating, and the hollow turbine blades were produced from folded and welded Cromadur alloy (12% chromium, 18% manganese, and 70% iron) developed by Krupp, and cooled by compressed air "bled" from the compressor. The engine's operational lifespan was shortened, but on the plus side it became easier to construct. Production engines had a cast magnesium casing in two halves, one with half-sections of stator assemblies bolted to it. The four front stators were constructed from steel alloy blades welded to the mount; the rear five were pressed steel sheet bent over the mount and welded on. Steel alloy compressor blades dovetailled into slots in the compressor disk and were fixed by small screws. The compressor itself was mounted to a steel shaft with twelve set screws. Jumo tried a variety of compressor blades, beginning with solid steel, later hollow sheet metal ones, welded on the taper, with their roots fitted over rhomboidal studs on the turbine wheel, to which they were pinned and brazed.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: One interesting feature of the 004 was the starter, designed by the German engineer Norbert Riedel, which consisted of a 2-stroke flat engine behind the intake nose-cone. A hole in the front of the cone gave access to a manual pull-start if the electric starter motor failed. Two small gasoline/oil mix tanks were fitted within the upper perimeter of the annular intake's sheet metal housing for fuelling the starter. The Riedel was also used for starting the competing BMW 003 engine, and for Heinkel's more advanced HeS 011 "mixed-flow" compressor design.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: The first production model of the 004B weighed less than the 004A, and in 1943 had passed several 100-hour tests, with a time between overhauls of 50 hours being achieved.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Later in 1943 the 004B version suffered turbine blade failures which were not understood by the Junkers team. They focused on areas such as material defects, grain size and surface roughness. Eventually, in December, blade-vibration specialist Max Bentele was once again brought in during a meeting at the RLM headquarters. He identified that the failures were caused by one of the blades' natural frequencies being in the engine running range. His solution was to raise the frequency, by increasing the blade taper and shortening them by 1 millimetre, and to reduce the operating speed of the engine from 9,000 to 8,700 rpm.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: It was not until early 1944 that full production could finally begin. These sorts of engineering detail challenges for the 109-004-series of jet engine designs, formed the setbacks that were the principal factor delaying the Luftwaffe's introduction of the Me 262 into squadron service.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Given the lower-quality steels used in the 004B, these engines only had a service life of 10–25 hours, perhaps twice this in the hands of a careful pilot. Another shortcoming of the engine, common to all early turbojets, was its sluggish throttle response. Worse, too much fuel could be injected into the combustion chambers by moving the throttle too quickly, causing the temperature to rise too far before the airflow increased to match the increased fuel. This overheated the turbine blades, and was a major cause for engine failures. Nevertheless, it made jet power for combat aircraft a reality for the first time.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: The exhaust area of the engine used a a variable geometry nozzle known as a plug nozzle. The plug was nicknamed the "Zwiebel" (German for onion, due to its shape when seen from the side). The plug moved about 40 cm (16 inch) fore-and-aft, using an electric motor-powered rack-and-pinion, to change the exhaust cross-sectional area for thrust control.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Costing "RM"10,000 for materials, the Jumo 004 also proved somewhat cheaper than the competing BMW 003, which was "RM"12,000, and cheaper than the Junkers 213 piston engine, which was "RM"35,000. Moreover, the jets used lower-skill labor and needed only 375 hours to complete (including manufacture, assembly, and shipping), compared to 1,400 for the BMW 801.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Production and maintenance of the 004 was done at the Junkers works at Magdeburg, under the supervision of Otto Hartkopf. Completed engines earned a reputation for unreliability; the time between major overhauls (not technically a time between overhaul) was thirty to fifty hours, and may have been as low as ten, though a skilled flyer could double the interval. (The competing BMW 003's was about fifty.) The process involved replacing compressor blades, (which suffered the most damage, usually from ingesting stones and such, later known as fodding) and turbine blades damaged by the high thermodynamic loads. The Germans were known to use both specially-designed wire framed hemispherical cages and/or flat circular covers over the intakes to prevent ingestion of foreign matter into their aircraft jet engines' intakes while on the ground. The compressor and turbine blades' life could be extended by re-balancing the rotors during routine maintenance; the Riedel two-stroke starter engine and the turbojet's governor would also be examined and replaced as needed. Combustors required maintenance every twenty hours, and replacement at 200.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Between 5,000 and 8,000 004s were built; at the end of the Second World War, production stood at 1,500 per month. The Fedden Mission, led by Sir Roy Fedden, postwar estimated total jet engine production by mid-1946 could have reached 100,000 units a year, or more.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: Following World War II, Jumo 004s were built in small numbers in Malešice in Czechoslovakia, designated Avia Avia M-04, to power the Avia S-92 which was itself a copy of the Me 262. Upgraded Jumo 004 copies were also built in the Soviet Union as the Klimov RD-10, where they powered the Yakovlev Yak-15 as well as many prototype jet fighters.


title: Junkers Jumo 004

text: A number of examples of the Jumo 004 turbojet exist in aviation museums and historical collections in North America, Europe and Australia, including;


title: Austin Brown

text: Nathaniel Austin Brown (born November 22, 1985) is an American singer-songwriter and record producer. He is Michael Jackson's nephew and Paris Jackson’s older cousin.


title: Austin Brown

text: Brown was born in Tarzana, California, on November 22, 1985, to Nathaniel Brown and Rebbie Jackson. He is a member of the Jackson family and only son of singer Rebbie Jackson and her late husband Nathaniel Brown. He has two older sisters, Stacee and Yashi.


title: Austin Brown

text: Austin Brown was signed to Interscope Records after a showcase for Jimmy Iovine and later signed with South Five Records. He started his career working as a Producer/Songwriter, collaborating with Tim & Bob, The Underdogs, Cory Rooney, Q-Tip, Pharrell Williams, and Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins. In 2011, Brown released his first single, "All I Need," on KIIS-FM and debuted his "Highway 85" mixtape trailer at Wango Tango.


title: Austin Brown

text: On February 14, 2012, Brown released the music video for "Menage A Trois" on Vevo, Music Choice, Centric, 106 & Park, and MTVU. Outside of the U.S., "Menage A Trois" had plays in Italy, Japan, Netherlands, and UK Radio. In the UK, "Menage A Trois" reached Number 1 for 3 weeks on UK's Bang Radio 103.6 FM.


title: Austin Brown

text: In mid-2012 Brown started a residency at The Central performing with his band in LA, with additional shows in Las Vegas, Boston, and New York City. During this time Austin Brown performed at CSU East Bay's 'Springfest' with Miguel and Lupe Fiasco. He also had televised appearances on FOX's "Good Day New York," CNN, and the Pandora stage at SXSW. This is also when Brown joined the BET "Music Matters" program, performing on their stages in both Los Angeles and NYC.


title: Austin Brown

text: On December 21, 2012, Idolator premiered "Highway to the Sky." "Highway 85" was then picked up by Global 14, Idolator, Centric, Rap-Up, Singers Room, Ryan Seacrest's AXS Live, Huffington Post, and USA Today. Soon after, "Menage A Trois," "City of Angels," and "Highway to the Sky" were added to the KCRW Los Angeles radio rotation. Brown later performed at KCRW's School Night Concert Series at Bardot in Hollywood and a Pop-Up Shop KIISS 102.7 event with his band, followed up by additional performances throughout the year.


title: Austin Brown

text: In 2013, "Highway 85" was officially released through iTunes. During this time Austin Brown was featured in Vogue Italia and Vman fashion magazines. In June 2013, Brown continued performing live and in July he performed at the L.A. Live BET "Music Matters Experience" with Marsha Ambrosius, as well as live at the BET Awards 2013. His Pepsi "Music Matters" commercial aired the same day.


title: Austin Brown

text: In January 2014, Austin performed at the Sundance Film Festival in Salt Lake City, Utah, for Hollywood TV. Soon after, a demo-version of "Smile" was put into rotation on KCRW by DJ Chris Douridas.


title: Austin Brown

text: Austin Brown debuted his Guitar & Microphone series to sold-out audiences in Paris, France at the in the summer of 2016. While traveling in Boston, he gave seminars at Berklee College of Music and Boston Arts Academy on Songwriting. During this time, Austin paired up with DJ Tony Touch to form CaliYork releasing "Show Up At My Place" in September 2016. He continued his live performances through 2017 with residencies at The Sayers Club (with his band The Blvck Castles) and Hotel Café (Guitar & Microphone series). He also performed at the "Live @ Sunset Marquis Concert Series" in Hollywood and acoustically at Rockwood Music Hall in NYC.


title: Austin Brown

text: On June 2, 2017 "Smile" was officially released on iTunes through Ebro on Apple Music, Beats Radio 1.


title: Austin Brown

text: In August, Austin was featured on Revolt TV's Revolt Sessions performing an acoustic set and then performed at the SELECT Pre-Emmy Party at the Peppermint Club in September.


title: Austin Brown

text: Austin is credited as a Writer and Producer on Ashlee + Evan, the debut EP from the married, musical duo Ashlee Simpson and Evan Ross (aka Ashlee + Evan). He co-wrote and co-produced "I Do," "Paris," "Tonic," and "I Want You." Austin Brown makes cameos in E!'s reality television series, Ashlee + Evan, which documents the making of the EP.


title: Austin Brown

text: Writer, Producer, and Musician on Macy Gray's album Ruby. Austin Brown is credited as a Writer of "Witness," Drums and Guitar for "When it Ends," and Musician, Vocals (Background) on "Cold World." Other musical credits on Ruby include Composer, Keyboards, Synthesizer, and Xylophone.


title: Austin Brown

text: In September 2017, Austin Brown performed "Smile," as well as Eric Clapton's "Change the World" alongside Evan Ross at the Operation Smile Gala.


title: Austin Brown

text: Other charitable causes Austin has worked with include Red Eye, A Place Called Home, Children's Hospital of Los Angeles, Friend Movement Campaign, and After-School All-Stars.


title: LTE Advanced

text: LTE Advanced (LTE+) is a mobile communication standard and a major enhancement of the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard. It was formally submitted as a candidate 4G to ITU-T in late 2009 as meeting the requirements of the IMT-Advanced standard, and was standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) in March 2011 as 3GPP Release 10.


title: LTE Advanced

text: The LTE+ format was first proposed by NTT DoCoMo of Japan and has been adopted as the international standard. LTE standardization has matured to a state where changes in the specification are limited to corrections and bug fixes. The first commercial services were launched in Sweden and Norway in December 2009 followed by the United States and Japan in 2010. More LTE networks were deployed globally during 2010 as a natural evolution of several 2G and 3G systems, including Global system for mobile communications (GSM) and Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) in the 3GPP family as well as CDMA2000 in the 3GPP2 family.


title: LTE Advanced

text: The work by 3GPP to define a 4G candidate radio interface technology started in Release 9 with the study phase for LTE-Advanced. Being described as a 3.9G (beyond 3G but pre-4G), the first release of LTE did not meet the requirements for 4G (also called IMT Advanced as defined by the International Telecommunication Union) such as peak data rates up to 1 Gb/s. The ITU has invited the submission of candidate Radio Interface Technologies (RITs) following their requirements in a circular letter, 3GPP Technical Report (TR) 36.913, "Requirements for Further Advancements for E-UTRA (LTE-Advanced)." These are based on ITU's requirements for 4G and on operators’ own requirements for advanced LTE.


title: LTE Advanced

text: Likewise, 'WiMAX 2', 802.16m, has been approved by ITU as the IMT Advanced family. WiMAX 2 is designed to be backward compatible with WiMAX 1 devices. Most vendors now support conversion of 'pre-4G', pre-advanced versions and some support software upgrades of base station equipment from 3G.


title: LTE Advanced

text: The mobile communication industry and standards organizations have therefore started work on 4G access technologies, such as LTE Advanced. At a workshop in April 2008 in China, 3GPP agreed the plans for work on Long Term Evolution (LTE). A first set of specifications were approved in June 2008. Besides the peak data rate 1 Gb/s as defined by the ITU-R, it also targets faster switching between power states and improved performance at the cell edge. Detailed proposals are being studied within the working groups.


title: LTE Advanced

text: Three technologies from the LTE-Advanced tool-kit carrier aggregation, 4x4 MIMO and 256QAM modulation in the downlink if used together and with sufficient aggregated bandwidth, can deliver maximum peak downlink speeds approaching, or even exceeding, 1 Gbit/s. Such networks are often described as ‘Gigabit LTE networks’ mirroring a term that is also used in the fixed broadband industry.


title: LTE Advanced

text: The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced should be compatible with first release LTE equipment, and should share frequency bands with first release LTE. In the feasibility study for LTE Advanced, 3GPP determined that LTE Advanced would meet the ITU-R requirements for 4G. The results of the study are published in 3GPP Technical Report (TR) 36.912.


title: LTE Advanced

text: One of the important LTE Advanced benefits is the ability to take advantage of advanced topology networks; optimized heterogeneous networks with a mix of macrocells with low power nodes such as picocells, femtocells and new relay nodes. The next significant performance leap in wireless networks will come from making the most of topology, and brings the network closer to the user by adding many of these low power nodes LTE Advanced further improves the capacity and coverage, and ensures user fairness. LTE Advanced also introduces multicarrier to be able to use ultra wide bandwidth, up to 100 MHz of spectrum supporting very high data rates.


title: LTE Advanced

text: In the research phase many proposals have been studied as candidates for LTE Advanced (LTE-A) technologies. The proposals could roughly be categorized into:


title: LTE Advanced

text: Within the range of system development, LTE-Advanced and WiMAX 2 can use up to 8x8 MIMO and 128-QAM in downlink direction. Example performance: 100 MHz aggregated bandwidth, LTE-Advanced provides almost 3.3 Gbit peak download rates per sector of the base station under ideal conditions. Advanced network architectures combined with distributed and collaborative smart antenna technologies provide several years road map of commercial enhancements.


title: LTE Advanced

text: Original standardization work for LTE-Advanced was done as part of 3GPP Release 10, which was frozen in April 2011. Trials were based on pre-release equipment. Major vendors support software upgrades to later versions and ongoing improvements.


title: LTE Advanced

text: In order to improve the quality of service for users in hotspots and on cell edges, heterogenous networks (HetNet) are formed of a mixture of macro-, pico- and femto base stations serving corresponding-size areas. Frozen in December 2012, 3GPP Release 11 concentrates on better support of HetNet. Coordinated Multi-Point operation (CoMP) is a key feature of Release 11 in order to support such network structures. Whereas users located at a cell edge in homogenous networks suffer from decreasing signal strength compounded by neighbor cell interference, CoMP is designed to enable use of a neighboring cell to also transmit the same signal as the serving cell, enhancing quality of service on the perimeter of a serving cell. In-device Co-existence (IDC) is another topic addressed in Release 11. IDC features are designed to ameliorate disturbances within the user equipment caused between LTE/LTE-A and the various other radio subsystems such as WiFi, Bluetooth, and the GPS receiver. Further enhancements for MIMO such as 4x4 configuration for the uplink were standardized.


title: LTE Advanced

text: The higher number of cells in HetNet results in user equipment changing the serving cell more frequently when in motion.


title: LTE Advanced

text: The ongoing work on LTE-Advanced in Release 12, amongst other areas, concentrates on addressing issues that come about when users move through HetNet, such as frequent hand-overs between cells. It also included use of 256-QAM.


title: LTE Advanced

text: This list covers technology demonstrations and field trials up to the year 2014, paving the way for a wider commercial deployment of the VoLTE technology worldwide. From 2014 onwards various further operators trialled and demonstrated the technology for future deployment on their respective networks. These are not covered here. Instead a coverage of commercial deployments can be found in the section below.


title: LTE Advanced

text: In August 2019, the Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) reported that there were 304 commercially launched LTE-Advanced networks in 134 countries. Overall, 335 operators are investing in LTE-Advanced (in the form of tests, trials, deployments or commercial service provision) in 141 countries.


title: LTE Advanced

text: LTE Advanced Pro (LTE-A Pro, also known as 4.5G, 4.5G Pro, 4.9G, Pre-5G, 5G Project) is a name for 3GPP release 13 and 14. It is an evolution of LTE Advanced (LTE-A) cellular standard supporting data rates in excess of 3 Gbit/s using 32-carrier aggregation. It also introduces the concept of License Assisted Access, which allows sharing of licensed and unlicensed spectrum.


title: LTE Advanced

text: Additionally, it incorporates several new technologies associated with 5G, such as 256-QAM, Massive MIMO, LTE-Unlicensed and LTE IoT, that facilitated early migration of existing networks to enhancements promised with the full 5G standard.


title: LTE Advanced

text: "LTE for UMTS - OFDMA and SC-FDMA Based Radio Access", Chapter 2.6: LTE Advanced for IMT-advanced, pp. 19–21.


title: Tranquility Base

text: Tranquility Base () is the site on the Moon where, in July 1969, humans landed and walked on a celestial body other than Earth for the first time. On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 crewmembers Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Module "Eagle" at approximately 20:17:40 UTC. Armstrong exited the spacecraft six hours and 39 minutes after touchdown, followed 19 minutes later by Aldrin. The astronauts spent two hours and 31 minutes examining and photographing the lunar surface, setting up several scientific experiment packages, and collecting of dirt and rock samples for return to Earth. They lifted off the surface on July 21 at 17:54 UTC.


title: Tranquility Base

text: Tranquility Base was named by Aldrin and Armstrong, and first announced by Armstrong when the Lunar Module "Eagle" landed. It is located in the south-western corner of the dark lunar plain Mare Tranquillitatis ("Sea of Tranquility"). The U.S. states of California and New Mexico have registered Tranquility Base as a heritage site associated with them, but Texas, the U.S. National Park Service, and UNESCO have declined to do so, due to the technicality that it is not located on Earth or within their borders.


title: Tranquility Base

text: For more than two years, NASA planners considered a collection of 30 potential sites for the first crewed landing. Based on high-resolution photographs taken by the Lunar Orbiter spacecraft, and photos and data taken by the uncrewed Surveyor landers, this list was narrowed down to five sites located near the lunar equator. They ranged between 45 degrees east and west, and 5 degrees north and south of the center of the Moon's facing side. They were numbered 1 to 5, going from east to west. Site number 2, centered at , was the Sea of Tranquility site ultimately chosen. Since a precision landing was not expected on the first mission, the target area was an ellipse measuring east and west by north and south.


title: Tranquility Base

text: On the landing, a combination of thrust from residual pressure in the docking tunnel that connected the Lunar Module with the command module "Columbia" in orbit, and an imperfect understanding of the Moon's uneven gravitational field, resulted in navigation errors which pushed the powered descent initiation point about , and thus the computer-targeted landing spot about , downrange (west) of the planned target. The automated targeting system was taking "Eagle" toward what Armstrong described as a "football-field sized crater, with a large number of big boulders and rocks for about one or two crater diameters around it", which he avoided by assuming manual control and flying a bit farther downrange. The landing was still within the target ellipse.


title: Tranquility Base

text: Armstrong named the site at 20:17:58 UTC, approximately 18 seconds after his and Aldrin's successful landing, as he announced:


title: Tranquility Base

text: During training, Armstrong and Aldrin had exclusively used the callsign "Eagle" in simulated ground conversations, both before and after landing. Armstrong and Aldrin decided on using "Tranquility Base" just before the flight, telling only Capsule Communicator Charles Duke before the mission, so Duke would not be taken by surprise.


title: Tranquility Base

text: The name has become a permanent designation for the site. Although the name was designated by the Apollo astronauts, the International Astronomical Union officially recognizes the designation "Tranquility Base". It is listed on lunar maps as "Statio Tranquillitatis", conforming to the standard use of Latin for lunar place names.


title: Tranquility Base

text: About 100 artificial objects, as well as footprints left by Armstrong and Aldrin, remain at Tranquility Base, and Armstrong commented that during the launch of "Eagle"'s ascent stage he could see "Kapton and other parts on the LM staging scattering all around the area for great distances." The descent stage of the Lunar Module remains at the original point of landing. According to Aldrin (with apparent confirmation from later Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photos), the US flag planted at the site during their moonwalk was blown over by the ascent rocket exhaust, but remains on the surface of the Moon. A laser reflector was placed at the site to allow precise ongoing measurements of the distance to the Moon from Earth. A solar-powered seismometer was also left to measure moonquakes, but this stopped functioning after 21 days. A disc containing the Apollo 11 goodwill messages was left at the site, and various gear that was no longer needed for the return phase of the mission—including Aldrin's boots—was left behind to lighten the craft for return to lunar orbit.


title: Tranquility Base

text: As the site of the first human landing on an extraterrestrial body, Tranquility Base has cultural and historic significance. The U.S. states of California and New Mexico have listed it on their heritage registers, since their laws require only that listed sites have some association with the state. Texas has not granted similar status to the site, despite the location of Mission Control in Houston, as its historic preservation laws limit such designations to properties located within the state. The U.S. National Park Service has declined to grant it National Historic Landmark status to avoid violating the Outer Space Treaty's prohibition on any nation claiming sovereignty over any extraterrestrial body. It has not been proposed as a World Heritage Site since the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which oversees that program, limits nations to submitting sites within their own borders.


title: Tranquility Base

text: Interest in according the site some formal protection grew in the early 21st century with the announcement of the Google Lunar X Prize for private corporations to successfully build spacecraft and reach the Moon; a $1 million bonus was offered for any competitor that visited a historic site on the Moon. One team, led by Astrobotic Technology, announced it would attempt to land a craft at Tranquility Base. Although it canceled those plans, the ensuing controversy led NASA to request that any other missions to the Moon, private or governmental, human or robotic, keep a distance of at least from the site.


title: Tranquility Base

text: In 2020, the "One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act" was enacted, protecting Tranquility Base and other Apollo landing sites from damage from US-licensed space activity.


title: Tranquility Base

text: Tranquility Base has been depicted in many films and television shows, such as in the 1998 mini-series "From the Earth to the Moon", the 2015 series "The Astronaut Wives Club", and the 2018 film "First Man".


title: Tranquility Base

text: Tranquility Base is referenced in "Boat on the River" (". . . all roads lead to Tranquility Base...") by the American Rock band Styx, from their 1979 album "Cornerstone."


title: Tranquility Base

text: Tranquility Base is referenced in indie rock band Arctic Monkeys' 2018 album, "Tranquility Base Hotel & Casino", as the location of a hotel and casino.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Samskara (IAST: , sometimes spelled "samskara") are sacraments in Hinduism and other Indian religions, described in ancient Sanskrit texts, as well as a concept in the karma theory of Indian philosophies. The word literally means "putting together, making perfect, getting ready, to prepare", or "a sacred or sanctifying ceremony" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts of India.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: In the context of karma theory, samskaras are dispositions, character or behavioural traits, that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one's lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influences that person's nature, response and states of mind.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: In another context, Samskara refers to the diverse sacraments in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. In Hinduism, the "samskaras" vary in number and details according to regional traditions. They range from the list of 40 samskaras in the "Gautama Dharmasutra" from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, to 16 samskaras in the Grhyasutra texts from centuries later. The list of samskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive attitude.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: "Saṃskāra" (Sanskrit: संस्कार) has various context-driven meanings, that broadly refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn recognition and getting ready, engaging in works and acknowledging the purification of body by cleansing or mind by education or an object by a process (such as polishing a gem or refining a metal)". The term appears in the Śrutis, and in the Smritis of diverse schools of Hinduism as well as the texts of Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The etymological roots of the word "samskara" when it refers to rites of passage, is also "preparation, purifying, perfecting" from one's past state to one's future state.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The word "samskara" is rare in the oldest layer of Vedic literature, but its roots "sam" and "kr" occur often enough. The word appears in Rig Veda hymns 6.28.4 and 8.33.9, as well as other Vedic texts, where the context suggests it simply means "purify, prepare". It appears in Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra (500-200 BCE) many times, where it again means "prepare, perfect, polish" something, either through action, speech or mind. In sections 3.8.3, 9.3.25 and 10.2.49 of the Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra, the word "samskara" is used to describe actions of "washing the teeth, shaving the head, cutting nails, sprinkling water" as part of a ceremony. Samskara is defined by ancient Indian scholar Shabara as, "that which prepares a certain thing or person fit for a certain purpose". Another ancient text Viramitrodaya defines "samskara", notes Kane, as "a peculiar excellence due to performance of certain actions which resides in the soul or the body of the actor".


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: "samskara" in Hindu traditions, states Kane, have been ceremonies, with the expression of outward symbols or signs of inner change, marking life events of significance. They served a spiritual, cultural and psychological purpose, welcoming an individual into a stage of life, conferring privileges to the individual(s), expecting duties from the individual, and impressing on the individual as well individual's social circle of his or her new role.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: In the context of karma theory, Samskara are dispositions, character or behavioral traits either as default from birth (previous lives in some schools of Hinduism), or Samskara are behavioral traits perfected over time through Yoga, through conscious shaping of inner self, one's desire, sense of moral responsibility and through practice. In some schools of Hinduism, the psychological concept of samskara is also known as vāsanā.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: These are viewed as traces or temperament that evolves through the refinement of an individual inner consciousness and expressed personality, and is a form of "being-preparedness" in Vedantic psychology. In Samkhya and Yoga schools, samskara – also spelled as Samksara – are impressions or residues that affect an individual's Gunas (behavior attributes). In Nyaya school of Hinduism, not all Samskara are psychological. Rites of passage, other actions, studies, diligent preparation and inner resolutions trigger impressions or dispositions in the psyche of an individual, in these schools of Hinduism, and these influence how the individual acts, perceives self and the manner in which the individual responds to or accepts the karmic circumstances and the future.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: "Samskaras" in Hinduism are sacraments that begin with one's birth, celebrate certain early steps in a baby's growth and his or her welcome into the world in the presence of friends and family, then various stages of life such as first learning day, graduation from school, wedding and honeymoon, pregnancy, raising a family, as well as those related to final rites associated with cremation. These rites of passage are not uniform, and vary within the diverse traditions of Hinduism. Some may involve formal ceremonies, yajna (fire) ceremonies with the chanting of Vedic hymns. Others are simple, private affairs involving a couple, with or without friends, other families or a religious person such as a priest or a "pandit".


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Samskaras are not considered as an end in themselves, but are means of social recognition as well as the passage of a person from one significant stage of life to another. Various elements of "samskaras" and rituals of passage are mentioned in Vedas of Hinduism, one of the oldest known scriptures in the world. The most extensive, but divergent discussions of these rites of passage are found in the numerous Dharmasutras and Grhyasutras from the 1st millennium BCE. Many of these rites of passage include formal ceremonies, with ritual readings of hymns, chants and ethical promises, aiming to orient the individual(s) to that which is considered part of dharma (right, good, just, moral, true, spiritual, responsible, duties to family members or society in general), and essential actions such as those associated with last rites and cremation, charitable works, or out of "sraddha" or items of faith.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Gautama Dharmasutra enumerates a large list of "forty outer karma samskaras" and "eight inner karma samskara (good qualities)", all of whom have the purpose of empowering a human being to discover, recognize and reach union with the Brahma-Atman (his or her Soul, Self, Highest Being). The ultimate purpose is to inculcate virtues, and samskaras are viewed in the Hindu tradition as means – not as ends – towards ripening and perfecting the human journey of life. The eight good qualities listed by Gautama Dharmasutra are emphasized as more important than the forty samskara rituals, in verses 8.21-8.25, as follows,


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: To obtain union with Brahman, one must also possess the eight virtues (compassion, patience, non-envy, purity of thought speech and body, inner calm and peace, positive attitude, generosity, and lack of possessiveness).


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: There are diverse number of samskaras in Hinduism, varying by texts between 12 and 18 in the Grhyasutras (Kalpa sastras). Of these, 16 are referred to as "Shodasha Samskaras" ().


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Garbhadhana (IAST: Garbhādhāna, Sanskrit: गर्भाधान), also called "Garbhalambhanam", literally means attaining the wealth of the womb. It is a private rite of passage, marking the intent of a couple to have a child. It is a ceremony performed before conception and impregnation. In some ancient texts, the word simply refers to the rite of passage where the couple have sex to have a child, and no ceremonies are mentioned. Scholars trace this rite to Vedic hymns, such as those in sections 8.35.10 through 8.35.12 of the Rigveda, where repeated prayers for progeny and prosperity are solemnized,


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The Vedic texts have many passages, where the hymn solemnizes the desire for having a child, without specifying the gender of the child. For example, the Rigveda in section 10.184 states,


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The desire for progeny, without mentioning gender, is in many other books of the Rigveda, such as the hymn 10.85.37. The Atharva Veda, similarly in verse 14.2.2, states a ritual invitation to the wife, by her husband to mount the bed for conception, "being happy in mind, here mount the bed; give birth to children for me, your husband". Later texts, such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in the last chapter detailing the education of a student, include lessons for his Grihastha stage of life. There, the student is taught, that as a husband, he should cook rice for the wife, and they together eat the food in certain way depending on whether they wish for the birth of a daughter or a son, as follows,


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The different Grhyasutras differ in their point of view, whether the garbhadhana is to be performed only once, before the first conception, or every time before the couple plan to have additional children. To answer this question, the medieval era texts of various schools discussed and offered diverse views on whether the ritual is a rite of passage for the baby's anticipation in the womb ("garbha"), or for the wife ("kshetra"). A rite of passage of the baby would imply that "Garbhadhana" samskara is necessary for each baby and therefore every time the couple intend to have a new baby, while a rite of passage of the wife would imply a one time ritual suffices.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Pumsavana (IAST: puṃsavana, Sanskrit: पुंसवन) is a composite word of "Pums" + "savana". "Pums" as a noun means "a man, a human being, a soul or spirit", while "savana" means "ceremony, rite, oblation, festival". Pumsavana literally means "rite for a strong or male baby", usually translated as "nurturing a male fetus, bringing forth a male baby". It is a ritual conducted when the pregnancy begins to show, typically in or after the third month of pregnancy and usually before the fetus starts moving in the womb. The ceremony celebrates the rite of passage of the developing fetus, marking the stage where the baby begins to kick as a milestone in a baby's development.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The roots of the "pumsavana" ritual are found in section 4.3.23 and 4.6.2 of the Atharva Veda, wherein charms are recited for a baby boy. The Atharva Veda also contains charms to be recited for the birth of a child of either gender and the prevention of miscarriages, such as in section 4.6.17.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The ritual is performed in diverse ways, but all involve the husband serving something to the expectant wife. In one version, she is fed a paste mixture of yoghurt, milk and "ghee" (clarified butter) by him. In another version, the "pumsavana" ritual is more elaborate, done in the presence of yajna fire and vedic chants, where the husband places a drop of Banyan leaf extract in the wife's right nostril for a son, and her left nostril for a daughter, followed by a feast for all present.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The time prescribed for the "pumsavana" differs in different Grhyasutras, and can be extended up to the eighth month of pregnancy, according to some.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Simantonnayana (IAST: Sīmantonnayana, Sanskrit: सीमन्तोन्नयन), also called "Simanta" or "Simantakarana", literally means "parting the hair upwards". The significance of the ritual is to wish a healthy development of the baby and safe delivery to the mother.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: "Simantonnayana" ritual is described in many Gryhasutra texts, but Kane states that there is great divergence in details, which may be because the rite of passage emerged in more a recent era, before it receded into the background. The texts do not agree on whether this rite of passage was to be celebrated before or after "pumsavana", early or late stage of pregnancy, or the nature of ritual celebrations. The texts also disagree whether "Simantonnayana" was a rite of passage of the baby or of the pregnant woman, the former implying it must be repeated for every baby while the latter implying it was to be observed once for the woman with her first pregnancy.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The common element was the husband and wife getting together, with friends and family, then he parts her hair upwards at least three times. In modern times, the "parting hair" rite of passage is rarely observed, and when observed it is called "Atha-gulem" and done in the 8th month, with flowers and fruits, to cheer the woman in the late stages of her pregnancy. The ritual has more commonly evolved into a ritual that shares characteristics of a baby shower, where the friends and relatives of the woman meet, acknowledge and satisfy the food cravings of the expectant woman, and give gifts to the mother and the baby in the seventh or eighth month of pregnancy. Yåjñavalkya Smriti verse 3.79 asserts that the desires of the pregnant woman should be satisfied for healthy development of the baby, to prevent miscarriage and her health. After the "Simantonnayana" ritual or in the last months of the pregnancy, the woman is expected to not overexert herself, her husband is expected to be by her and not to travel to distant lands. This rite of passage is regionally called by various names, such as "Seemant", "Godh bharai", "Seemantham" or "Valaikaapu".


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Jātakarman literally means "rite of a new-born infant". It is a rite of passage that celebrates the birth of the baby. It is the first post-natal rite of passage of the new born baby. It signifies the baby's birth, as well as the bonding of the father with the baby. In Hindu traditions, a human being is born at least twice – one at physical birth through mother's womb, and second at intellectual birth through teacher's care, the first is marked through "Jatakarman" samskara ritual, the second is marked through "Vidyarambha" or "Upanayana" samskara ritual. During a traditional "Jātakarman" ritual, the father welcomes the baby by touching the baby's lips with honey and ghee (clarified butter), as Vedic hymns are recited. The first significance of the hymns is "medhajanana" (Sanskrit: मेधाजनन), or to initiate the baby's mind and intellect in the womb of the world, after the baby's body formation has completed in the womb of the mother. The second part of the hymns wish the baby a long life.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in the last chapter detailing lessons for Grihastha stage of life for a student, describes this rite of passage, in verses 6.4.24 to 6.4.27, as follows,


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The Upanishad includes prayer to deity Saraswati during this rite of passage, the goddess of knowledge and wisdom in Hindu tradition. It also includes the threefold repetition of "Speech Speech" with the assertion to the baby, "You are the Vedas! so, live a hundred autumns", into the baby's ear by the father. At the end of the ritual pronouncements by the father, he gives the baby to the mother's breast for feeding.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: While the earliest Dharmasutras list Jatakarma and Namakarama as two different samskara, they evolve into one in many Gryhasutra texts. By Pantanjali's time, these two rites of passage had merged into one, and completed within the first two weeks of the baby's birth, usually about the tenth day.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Namakarana (IAST: Nāmakaraṇa, Sanskrit: नामकरण) literally means "ceremony of naming a child". This rite of passage is usually done on the eleventh or twelfth day after birth, and sometimes the first new moon or full moon day after the tenth day of birth. On the day of this samskara, the infant is bathed and dressed in new garments. His or her formal name, selected by the parents, is announced. The naming ritual solemnizes the child as an individual, marking the process by which a child is accepted and socialized by people around him or her. The Satapatha Brahmana verse 6.1.3.9 asserts that the naming ceremony is a cleansing ceremony for the baby. The rite of passage also includes a gathering of friends and relatives of the new parents, where gifts are presented, and a feast follows.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The ancient Sanskrit texts provide numerous and divergent guidelines to the parents for choosing names. Most recommend that the boy's name be two or four syllables, starting with a sonant, a semivowel in the middle, and ending in a visarga. A girl's name is recommended to be an odd number of syllables, ending in a long "ā" or "ī", resonant and easy to pronounce. Unpleasant, inauspicious, or words that easily transform into bad or evil words must be avoided, state the Gryhasutras, while the preferred names are those affiliated with a deity, virtues, good qualities, lucky stars, constellation, derivatives of the name of the father, or mother, or the place of birth, or beautiful elements of nature (trees, flowers, birds).


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Nishkramana (IAST: Niṣkrāmaṇa, Sanskrit: निष्क्रम) literally means "going out, coming forth", is the rite of passage where the parents take the baby outside the home and the baby formally meets the world for the first time. It is usually observed during the fourth month after birth. On this ritual occasion the newborn is taken out and shown the sun at sunrise or sunset, or the moon, or both. Alternatively, some families take the baby to a temple for the first time. The rite of passage involves bathing the baby and dressing him or her in new clothes. The baby's outing is accompanied by both the mother and the father, siblings if any, as well some nearby loved ones, such as grandparents and friends.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The significance of "Niskramana" and showing the baby heavenly bodies is derived from their significance of Sun, Moon and nature in the Vedic literature. At the time the baby is present before the sunrise or moon, it is the father who holds the baby and recites a hymn that means, "the brilliant sun has risen in the east, he is like the "hamsa" (swan) of the pure worlds, let us salute him, because he dispels darkness". When the baby is in presence of the moon, the father says, "O Moon, thou whose hair is well parted, let this child come to no harm, nor torn from the mother".


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Annaprashana (IAST: Annaprāśana, Sanskrit: अन्नप्राशन) literally means "feeding of food", and the rite of passage marks the first time a baby eats solid food, typically containing cooked rice. Most Gryhasutras recommend this ritual in the sixth month, or when the child shows the first teeth, with slow weaning of the baby from breast feeding to other sources food. Some texts recommend continued breast feeding of the child, as the child adapts to the various foods. The ritual is usually celebrated with cooked rice, in a paste of honey, ghee and curd. Sankhyayana Gryhasutra recommends that fish, goat or partridge meat gravy be added to the solid food that baby tastes for the first time, while Manava Gryhasutra is silent about the use of meat. The mother eats with the baby, the same food. The father sits with them and participates in the rite of passage. The rite of passage, in some texts, include charity and feeding of the poor, and ceremonial prayers by both parents.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Chudakarana (IAST: Cūḍākaraṇa, Sanskrit: चूडाकरण) (literally, rite of tonsure), also known as "choulam", "caula", "chudakarma", "mundana" or "mundan sanskar" is the rite of passage that marks the child's first haircut, typically the shaving of the head. The mother dresses up, sometimes in her wedding sari, and with the father present, the baby's hair is cut and the nails are trimmed. Sometimes, a tuft of hair is left to cover the soft spot near the top of baby's head.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The significance of this rite of passage is the baby's cyclical step to hygiene and cleanliness. The ritual is seen as a passage of purity. It is typically done about the first birthday, but some texts recommend that it be completed before the third or the seventh year. Sometimes, this ritual is combined with the rite of passage of Upanayana, initiation to formal schooling. The ritual may include recitation of prayers for the child's long life and happiness.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Karnavedha (IAST: Karṇavedha, Sanskrit: कर्णवेध) literally means "ear-piercing". This is a minor rite of passage that is not mentioned in most Gryha-sutras. Those that mention it state different schedules, with some suggesting the ritual within the first four weeks after birth, others suggesting within the first year. The purpose of this optional ritual is primarily an ornamentation of the body, and it is part of the baby's socialization process and culture emersion. The piercing is usually done with a clean gold thread, or silver needle.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: For a baby boy, the right earlobe is pierced first. For a baby girl, the left earlobe is. In case of girls, the left nostril may also be pierced during this ritual. The piercing of the earlobes symbolically reminds the child, as he or she grows up, of beauty and social presence, of the importance of hearing and speech in the wisdom of the Vedas.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Vidyarambha (IAST: Vidyāraṃba, Sanskrit: विद्यारम्भ) literally means "beginning of study". It is also known as "Akshararambha", "Aksharaabhyaasa", or "Aksharasvikara". It is a ritual that celebrates as a milestone, the child's formal attempt to learn means of knowledge. This includes steps where the child, helped by the parents and other family members, does one or more of the following: writes letters of the mother-tongue, draws mathematical numbers or shapes, and plays a musical instrument.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The oldest texts that describe rites of passage, such as the Dharmasutras, make no mention of "Vidyarambha" and go direct to "Upanayana" ritual at the eighth year. The later texts, such as the "Samsakara Prakasha", from the first centuries of 1st millennium CE, mention "Vidyarambha" as a rite of passage in the fifth year of a child's life, suggesting that the process of learning started shifting to an earlier age of a child with time. The ceremony is observed on the same day for all children in their fifth year, on the day of Vijayadasami which is on the tenth of the Hindu month Ashvin (September–October). It includes a prayer to goddess Saraswati and deity Ganesh, a teacher is invited or the parents themselves work with the child to write "Lipi" (letters of the alphabet), draw "Samkhya" (numbers) or pictures, and sometimes play with an instrument. In modern times, parents mark this rite of passage in the third year of the child.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Upanayana (IAST:Upanayana, Sanskrit: उपनयन) literally means "the act of leading to or near". It is an important and widely discussed samskara in ancient Sanskrit text. The rite of passage symbolizes the leading or drawing towards the self of a child, in a school, by a teacher. It is a ceremony in which a Guru (teacher) accepts and draws a child towards knowledge and initiates the second birth that is of the young mind and spirit.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Upanayana was an elaborate ceremony, that included rituals involving the family, the child and the teacher. During this ceremony, a boy receives a sacred thread called "Yajñopaveetam", that he wears. "Yajñopavita" ceremony announced that the child had entered into formal education. In the modern era, the Upanayana rite of passage is open to anyone at any age.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Rajbali Pandey compares the Upanayana rite of passage to Baptism in Christianity where the person is born again unto spiritual knowledge, in addition to it being the ancient Indian rite of passage for the start of formal education of writing, numbers, reading, Vedangas, arts and other skills. The "Upanayana" rite of passage was also important to the teacher, as the student would therefrom begin to live in the "Gurukul" (school). Many medieval era texts discuss Upanayana in the context of three "Varnas" (caste, class) – Brahmins, Kshtreyas and Vaishyas. Several texts such as "Sushruta Sutrasthana", however, also include Sudras entering schools and the formal education process, stating that the Upanayana samskara was open to everyone. The upanayana ceremony extended to women, in ancient Sanskrit texts, and the girls who underwent this rite of passage then pursued studies were called "Brahmavadini". Those who did not performed upanayana ceremony at the time of their wedding. Instead of sacred thread, girls would wear their robe (now called sari or saree) in the manner of the sacred thread, that is over her left shoulder during this rite of passage.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The education of a student was not limited to ritual and philosophical speculations found in the Vedas and the Upanishads. They extended to many arts and crafts, which had their own but similar rites of passages. Aitareya Brahmana, Agamas and Puranas literature of Hinduism describe these as "Shilpa Sastras", and they extend to all practical aspects of culture, such as the sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, and the musician. Ancient Indian texts assert that the number of the arts is unlimited, but each deploy elements of 64 "kala" (कला, techniques) and 32 "vidyas" (विद्या, fields of knowledge). The training of these began from childhood, and included studies about dharma, culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colors, tools, as well as traditions (trade secrets). The rites of passage during apprentice education varied in the respective guilds.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Praishartha (or Vedarambha) is the rite of passage that marked the start of learning the Vedas and Upanishads in "Gurukulam" or "Pathashala" (school). It was a fire ritual ("yajna"), where the teacher and the student sat together, with the teacher reciting initiation hymns and the student following. This ritual is missing in older texts, and Pandey suggests that the later tradition recognized the difference between getting accepted in a school, and the actual start of Veda studies when the student is ready to learn those texts. In ancient India, the student's preparation involved helping with school chores, living a simple life, going to villages and towns to seek donations of food ("Bhiksha"), collect and bring water, collect fuel sticks for cooking, general maintenance of the school and share the food he and others collect with his teacher and the student community. These were on-going rituals of living at living, and not considered as a distinct rite of passage. Prior to the initiation of the Veda study, the student learnt the vocabulary, grammar and other basic studies. The emphasis of the stage where the student started Veda study was both the memorization and know the meaning of each hymn, verse or mantra. Vedarambha marked the actual start of the Veda study.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Some texts describes two rituals each academic period (school year), one marking the start of Vedic studies each year, called Upakarma or "Upakarana". The other ceremony was held at the end of each academic period, called "Utasarjanam" or "Utsarga" or "Samapana", and marked the suspension of the Veda studies for a certain period of the year. The start of school ceremony, the Upakarma was observed in the month of Sravana (August) every year. It was held in the morning, and attended by the students, the teacher, people in the Grihastha stage (householders, parents) and Vanaprastha stage of life (retired, grandparents). The "Utsarga", closing the study year, was held in the month of Magha (about February).


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Keshanta (IAST: Keśānta) (literally, getting rid of hairs) is the first shave of a youth's facial hair. This was typically observed about age sixteen, and the emerging beard and moustache were shaved. The ceremony included gift giving such as to the barber and the teacher at his school. The coming of age ceremony ended with the student reciting his vow of chastity and the code of Brahmacharya.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Ritusuddhi, also called as "Ritu Kala Samskara", is the corresponding coming of age ceremony for girls, after menarche or first menstruation. This milestone in a girl's life is observed by her family and friends, with gifts and her wearing a sari for the ritual. The rite of passage is celebrated, in modern times, as a "half-saree party" where the female relatives and friends of the girl gather, and she receives and wears a half-saree and other gifts. Thereafter, at ceremonious events, she wears the half-sarees, until her marriage when she puts on a full "Sari".


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Samavartana (IAST: Samāvartana), or "Snana", is the ceremony associated with the end of formal education and the Brahmacharya asrama of life. This rite of passage includes a ceremonial bath. This ceremony marked the end of school, but did not imply immediate start of married life. Typically, significant time elapsed between exiting the Brahmacharya stage of life and the entering of Grihastha stage of life.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Anyone who had complete this rite of passage was considered a "Vidyasnataka" (literally, bathed in knowledge, or showered with learning), and symbolized as one who had crossed the ocean of learning. This ceremony was a gathering of students and teacher. The student asked the teacher for any gift ("guru-dakshina") he desired, which if specified was the student's responsibility to deliver over his lifetime. Then, after a recitation of a graduate's dharma (snataka-dharma) and a fire ritual, the graduate took a bath. The ceremony occurred after completion of at least 12 years of school, that is either about age 21 or later.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Taittiriya Upanishad describes, in the eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli, the "snataka-dharma" recitation emphasized by the teacher to a graduate at this rite of passage. The verses ask the graduate to take care of themselves and pursue Dharma, Artha and Kama to the best of their abilities. Parts of the verses in section 1.11.1, for example, state


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The eleventh anuvaka of "Shiksha Valli" list behavioral guidelines for the graduating students from a "gurukul",


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The third section of the eleventh anuvaka lists charity and giving, with faith, sympathy, modesty and cheerfulness, as ethical precept for the graduating students at the "Samavartana" rite of passage.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Vivaha (IAST: Vivāha, Sanskrit: विवाह) is the rite of passage and rituals associated with marriage. While there are many rituals in Hinduism, "vivaha" (wedding) is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The wedding rites and ceremonies begin with the engagement of a couple, and extend to rites of passage after the completion of wedding. They are typically very colorful, and celebrations may extend for several days. The detailed rituals and process in a Hindu wedding vary. Nevertheless, there are a few key rituals common in Hindu weddings - "Kanyadaan", "Panigrahana", and "Saptapadi", which are respectively, giving away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify union, and taking seven steps with each step includes a vow/promise to each other before fire. The Vivaha samskara is essentially a Vedic yajna ritual, with recitation of Vedic hymns. The primary witness of a Hindu marriage is the Vedic fire-deity (or the Sacred Fire) "Agni", in the presence of family and friends.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Post-wedding rites of passage include "Grihapravesa" – the welcoming of the bride to her new home by groom's mother, father, brother(s), or sister(s), and other relatives. "Chaturthikarma" – literally, "the rite performed on the fourth day after wedding", is the rite where the first domestic fire is lit marking the food-related householder life of the new couple.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Honeymoon, or the act of first sexual intercourse after the wedding, is known as "Nishekam" (Sanskrit: निषेक).


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Vrata literally means a vow or practice, any pious observance, act of devotion or austerity such as fasting. These were cyclical rites of passage of those in Grihastha (householder) stage of life, typically as reminder of some pious action, reflective, spiritual side of life. Most Gryhasutras and several Smritis include four Veda-vratas as samskara after graduation, as means of continuing self-education. The four "Vratas" includes Sukriya (study Rigveda), Sakvara, Vratika and Upanishad Vrata. The rite of passage ceremony for each of these marked the start of the self study by the householder, which lasted between 1, 3, 6 or 9 years each.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Antyesti (IAST: Antayeṣṭi, Sanskrit: अन्त्येष्टि) (literally, last rites or last sacrifice), sometimes referred to as "Antima Samskaram", "Antya-kriya", "Anvarohanyya", or "Vahni samskara", are the rituals associated with funeral. This samskara is not mentioned in the lists of samskaras in most of the grhyasutras and other texts that discuss samskaras. The details and procedures of this rite are given in separate texts, dealing only with this topic.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: A dead adult Hindu is mourned with a cremation, while a dead child is typically buried. The rite of passage is performed in harmony with the sacred premise that the microcosm of all living beings is a reflection of a macrocosm of the universe. The soul (Atman, Brahman) is the essence and immortal that is released at the "Antyeshti" ritual, but both the body and the universe are vehicles and transitory in various schools of Hinduism. They consist of five elements: air, water, fire, earth and space. The last rite of passage returns the body to the five elements and origins. The roots of this belief are found in the Vedas, for example in the hymns of Rigveda in section 10.16, as follows,


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The final rites of a burial, in case of untimely death of a child, is rooted in Rig Veda's section 10.18, where the hymns mourn the death of the child, praying to deity Mrityu to "neither harm our girls nor our boys", and pleads the earth to cover, protect the deceased child as a soft wool.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: The last rites are usually completed within a day of death. His or her body is washed, wrapped in white cloth if the dead is a man or a widow (red if her husband is still alive), the two toes tied together with a string, a "Tilak" (red mark) placed on the forehead. The dead adult's body is carried to the cremation ground near a river or water, by family and friends, and placed on a pyre with feet facing south. The eldest son, or a male mourner, or a priest then bathes before leading the cremation ceremonial function. He circumambulates the dry wood pyre with the body, says a eulogy or recites a hymn in some cases, places sesame seed in the dead person's mouth, sprinkles the body and the pyre with ghee (clarified butter), then draws three lines signifying "Yama" (deity of the dead), "Kala" (time, deity of cremation) and the dead. The pyre is then set ablaze, while the mourners mourn. The ash from the cremation is consecrated to the nearest river or sea. After the cremation, in some regions, the immediate male relatives of the deceased shave their head and invite all friends and relatives, on the tenth or twelfth day, to eat a simple meal together in remembrance of the deceased. This day, in some communities, also marks a day when the poor and needy are offered food in memory of the dead.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Similar to Hinduism, samskara serve as a rite of passage into a new phase of life in different sects of Jainism.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: In the Digambara school, all 16 Hindu samskaras (see above) were incorporated by Jinasena in the "Adipurana" as part of 53 "kriyas", of which 23 rites of passage are described for the Jain householder, with the last culminating in renunciation of household life. For those who skip the householder stage of life, the equivalent rite of passage was the 11th "pratima", and called "diksha" (initiation into mendicancy).


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: In the Śvētāmbara school, 16 samskaras similar to the Hindu rites of passage are described, for example, in the "Acara-Dinakara" of Vardhamana. It includes rituals described above, such as those associated with conception, birth, name giving, ear piercing, baby's first haircut, studentship, wedding and death.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: There are some differences between symbolism associated with samskara rites in Hinduism and Jainism. The fire ceremony has Vedic significance in the former, while it symbolizes the "Tirthankaras", "Ganadharas" and "Kevalins" in Jainism. The mantras are often derived from Vedic texts in Hinduism, while they are derived from Jain texts such as Ratnatraya in Jainism. The oaths in some rites of passage include the vow of ahimsa (non-violence, non injury to all human beings and living beings) in both, but is of exclusive significance in Jainism.


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Although seeks may individually recognise many rites of passage, four are universally important in Sikh religious life. They are the four main "sanskars":


title: Samskara (rite of passage)

text: Other rites of passage such as Dastar Bandhi, the first tying of the Dastar (the traditional Sikh turban), may also be celebrated.


title: Subdomain

text: In the Domain Name System (DNS) hierarchy, a subdomain is a domain that is a part of another (main) domain. For example, if a domain offered an online store as part of their website codice_1, it might use the subdomain codice_2 .


title: Subdomain

text: The Domain Name System (DNS) has a tree structure or hierarchy, which includes nodes on the tree being a domain name. A subdomain is a domain that is part of a larger domain. Each label may contain from 1 to 63 octets. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 ASCII characters in its textual representation.


title: Subdomain

text: Subdomains are defined by editing the DNS zone file pertaining to the parent domain. However, there is an ongoing debate over the use of the term "subdomain" when referring to names which map to the Address record A (host) and various other types of zone records which may map to any public IP address destination and any type of server. Network Operations teams insist that it is inappropriate to use the term "subdomain" to refer to any mapping other than that provided by zone NS (name server) records and any server-destination other than that.


title: Subdomain

text: According to RFC 1034, ""a domain is a subdomain of another domain if it is contained within that domain"". Based on that definition, a host cannot be a subdomain, only a domain can be a subdomain. A subdomain will also have a separate zone file with a SOA record (Start of Authority).


title: Subdomain

text: Most domain registries only allocate a two-level domain name. Hosting services typically provide DNS Servers to resolve subdomains within that master domain.


title: Subdomain

text: A fully qualified domain name consists of multiple parts. For example, take the English Wikipedia domain codice_3.


title: Subdomain

text: Although codice_5 is usually considered to be the domain name, codice_7 is actually a sub-domain of the codice_8 TLD (top level domain). Any fully qualified domain name can be a host or a subdomain.


title: Subdomain

text: A domain name that does not include any subdomains is known as an "apex domain", "root domain", or "bare domain". For example, codice_5 is the apex domain of Wikipedia, which redirects to the subdomain codice_10.


title: Subdomain

text: Subdomains are often used by internet service providers supplying web services. They allocate one (or more) subdomains to their clients who do not have their own domain name. This allows independent administration by the clients over their subdomain.


title: Subdomain

text: Subdomains are also used by organizations that wish to assign a unique name to a particular department, function, or service related to the organization. For example, a university might assign "cs" to the computer science department, such that a number of hosts could be used inside that subdomain, such as codice_11.


title: Subdomain

text: There are some widely recognized subdomains such as WWW and FTP. This allows for a structure where the domain contains administrative directories and files including the FTP directories and webpages. The FTP subdomain could contain logs and the web page directories, while the WWW subdomain contains the directories for the webpages. Independent authentication for each domain provides access control over the various levels of the domain.


title: Subdomain

text: In the United Kingdom, the second-level domain names are standard and branch off from the top-level domain. For example:


title: Subdomain

text: A vanity domain is a subdomain of an ISP's domain that is aliased to an individual user account, or a subdomain that expresses the individuality of the person on whose behalf it is registered.


title: Subdomain

text: Depending on application, a record inside a domain, or subdomain might refer to a hostname, or a service provided by a number of machines in a cluster. Some websites use different subdomains to point to different server clusters. For example, codice_12 points to Server Cluster 1 or Datacentre 1, and codice_13 points to Server Cluster 2 or Datacentre 2 etc.


title: Subdomain

text: Subdomains are different from directories. Directories are physical folders on an actual computer, while subdomains are a part of the URL that can be routed to any file or folder on the server machine.


title: Tasha Cobbs Leonard

text: Natasha Tameika Cobbs Leonard (born July 7, 1981) is an American gospel musician and songwriter. She recorded the extended play "Grace" in 2012 with EMI Gospel (now Motown Gospel) which was later released in 2013 with Break Every Chain being the lead single. The EP reached No. 61 on the "Billboard" charts. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards, Cobbs won the Grammy for Best Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music Performance. She has also won 15 Stellar Awards, 3 Billboard Music Awards, and 9 Dove Awards.


title: Tasha Cobbs Leonard

text: Natasha Tameika Cobbs was born on July 7, 1981, in Jesup, Georgia, to Bishop Fritz Cobbs (1954–2014) and Pastor Bertha Cobbs. She started leading worship at Jesup New Life Ministries, founded by her father.


title: Tasha Cobbs Leonard

text: On March 3, 2017, in a private ceremony attended by family and friends, she married Kenneth Leonard, a music producer and her longtime love. In July 2021 she adopted a son, Asher.


title: Tasha Cobbs Leonard

text: Starting in 2006, Cobbs Leonard toured America with Pastor William H. Murphy III (of the dReam Center Church in Atlanta, Georgia) for three years. Since then, she has been leading worship at the dReam Center and managing the Worship and Arts department. In 2018, she appeared as herself in the film "Sinners Wanted".


title: Tasha Cobbs Leonard

text: In 2019, Cobbs and her husband, Kenneth, founded The Purpose Place Church in Spartanburg, South Carolina, where they serve as pastors.


title: Tasha Cobbs Leonard

text: She started her solo music career in 2010, with the independently self-released album "Smile". The album got the attention of EMI Gospel (now Motown Gospel), and they released her EP, "Grace", on February 5, 2013. This was listed on two "Billboard" charts: the "Billboard" 200 at No. 61, and at No. 2 on the Top Gospel Albums chart. The EP later reached No. 1 on the Top Gospel Albums chart. The singles "Break Every Chain" and "For Your Glory" also reached No. 1 on the Hot Gospel Songs charts. At the 56th Annual Grammy Awards in 2014, Tasha Cobbs took home Best Gospel/Contemporary Christian Music Performance, winning her first Grammy. Cobbs also won Gospel Performance of the Year, Contemporary Gospel/Urban Song (and Album) Of The Year at the 44th GMA Dove Awards. In 2015, Cobbs was awarded the Gospel Artist of the Year, at the 46th GMA Dove Awards.


title: Hydrophobe

text: In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water (known as a hydrophobe). In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, thus, prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar solvents. Because water molecules are polar, hydrophobes do not dissolve well among them. Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together, forming micelles. Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar substances from polar compounds.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with lipophilic, "fat-loving". However, the two terms are not synonymous. While hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions, such as the silicones and fluorocarbons.


title: Hydrophobe

text: The term "hydrophobe" comes from the Ancient Greek ὑδρόφόβος (hýdrophóbos), "having a fear of water", constructed .


title: Hydrophobe

text: The hydrophobic interaction is mostly an entropic effect originating from the disruption of the highly dynamic hydrogen bonds between molecules of liquid water by the nonpolar solute forming a clathrate-like structure around the non-polar molecules. This structure formed is more highly ordered than free water molecules due to the water molecules arranging themselves to interact as much as possible with themselves, and thus results in a higher entropic state which causes non-polar molecules to clump together to reduce the surface area exposed to water and decrease the entropy of the system. Thus, the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called phase separation.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Superhydrophobic surfaces, such as the leaves of the lotus plant, are those that are extremely difficult to wet. The contact angles of a water droplet exceeds 150°. This is referred to as the lotus effect, and is primarily a physical property related to interfacial tension, rather than a chemical property.


title: Hydrophobe

text: In 1805, Thomas Young defined the contact angle "θ" by analyzing the forces acting on a fluid droplet resting on a solid surface surrounded by a gas.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Wenzel determined that when the liquid is in intimate contact with a microstructured surface, "θ" will change to "θ"


title: Hydrophobe

text: where "r" is the ratio of the actual area to the projected area. Wenzel's equation shows that microstructuring a surface amplifies the natural tendency of the surface. A hydrophobic surface (one that has an original contact angle greater than 90°) becomes more hydrophobic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes greater than the original. However, a hydrophilic surface (one that has an original contact angle less than 90°) becomes more hydrophilic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes less than the original.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Cassie and Baxter found that if the liquid is suspended on the tops of microstructures, "θ" will change to "θ":


title: Hydrophobe

text: where "φ" is the area fraction of the solid that touches the liquid. Liquid in the Cassie–Baxter state is more mobile than in the Wenzel state.


title: Hydrophobe

text: We can predict whether the Wenzel or Cassie–Baxter state should exist by calculating the new contact angle with both equations. By a minimization of free energy argument, the relation that predicted the smaller new contact angle is the state most likely to exist. Stated in mathematical terms, for the Cassie–Baxter state to exist, the following inequality must be true.


title: Hydrophobe

text: A recent alternative criterion for the Cassie–Baxter state asserts that the Cassie–Baxter state exists when the following 2 criteria are met:1) Contact line forces overcome body forces of unsupported droplet weight and 2) The microstructures are tall enough to prevent the liquid that bridges microstructures from touching the base of the microstructures.


title: Hydrophobe

text: A new criterion for the switch between Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter states has been developed recently based on surface roughness and surface energy. The criterion focuses on the air-trapping capability under liquid droplets on rough surfaces, which could tell whether Wenzel's model or Cassie-Baxter's model should be used for certain combination of surface roughness and energy.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Contact angle is a measure of static hydrophobicity, and contact angle hysteresis and slide angle are dynamic measures. Contact angle hysteresis is a phenomenon that characterizes surface heterogeneity. When a pipette injects a liquid onto a solid, the liquid will form some contact angle. As the pipette injects more liquid, the droplet will increase in volume, the contact angle will increase, but its three-phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly advances outward. The contact angle the droplet had immediately before advancing outward is termed the advancing contact angle. The receding contact angle is now measured by pumping the liquid back out of the droplet. The droplet will decrease in volume, the contact angle will decrease, but its three-phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly recedes inward. The contact angle the droplet had immediately before receding inward is termed the receding contact angle. The difference between advancing and receding contact angles is termed contact angle hysteresis and can be used to characterize surface heterogeneity, roughness, and mobility. Surfaces that are not homogeneous will have domains that impede motion of the contact line. The slide angle is another dynamic measure of hydrophobicity and is measured by depositing a droplet on a surface and tilting the surface until the droplet begins to slide. In general, liquids in the Cassie–Baxter state exhibit lower slide angles and contact angle hysteresis than those in the Wenzel state.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Dettre and Johnson discovered in 1964 that the superhydrophobic lotus effect phenomenon was related to rough hydrophobic surfaces, and they developed a theoretical model based on experiments with glass beads coated with paraffin or TFE telomer. The self-cleaning property of superhydrophobic micro-nanostructured surfaces was reported in 1977. Perfluoroalkyl, perfluoropolyether, and RF plasma -formed superhydrophobic materials were developed, used for electrowetting and commercialized for bio-medical applications between 1986 and 1995. Other technology and applications have emerged since the mid 1990s. A durable superhydrophobic hierarchical composition, applied in one or two steps, was disclosed in 2002 comprising nano-sized particles ≤ 100 nanometers overlaying a surface having micrometer-sized features or particles ≤ 100 micrometers. The larger particles were observed to protect the smaller particles from mechanical abrasion.


title: Hydrophobe

text: In recent research, superhydrophobicity has been reported by allowing alkylketene dimer (AKD) to solidify into a nanostructured fractal surface. Many papers have since presented fabrication methods for producing superhydrophobic surfaces including particle deposition, sol-gel techniques, plasma treatments, vapor deposition, and casting techniques. Current opportunity for research impact lies mainly in fundamental research and practical manufacturing. Debates have recently emerged concerning the applicability of the Wenzel and Cassie–Baxter models. In an experiment designed to challenge the surface energy perspective of the Wenzel and Cassie–Baxter model and promote a contact line perspective, water drops were placed on a smooth hydrophobic spot in a rough hydrophobic field, a rough hydrophobic spot in a smooth hydrophobic field, and a hydrophilic spot in a hydrophobic field. Experiments showed that the surface chemistry and geometry at the contact line affected the contact angle and contact angle hysteresis, but the surface area inside the contact line had no effect. An argument that increased jaggedness in the contact line enhances droplet mobility has also been proposed.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Many hydrophobic materials found in nature rely on Cassie's law and are biphasic on the submicrometer level with one component air. The lotus effect is based on this principle. Inspired by it, many functional superhydrophobic surfaces have been prepared.


title: Hydrophobe

text: One study presents a vanadium pentoxide surface that switches reversibly between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity under the influence of UV radiation. According to the study, any surface can be modified to this effect by application of a suspension of rose-like VO particles, for instance with an inkjet printer. Once again hydrophobicity is induced by interlaminar air pockets (separated by 2.1 nm distances). The UV effect is also explained. UV light creates electron-hole pairs, with the holes reacting with lattice oxygen, creating surface oxygen vacancies, while the electrons reduce V to V. The oxygen vacancies are met by water, and it is this water absorbency by the vanadium surface that makes it hydrophilic. By extended storage in the dark, water is replaced by oxygen and hydrophilicity is once again lost.


title: Hydrophobe

text: A significant majority of hydrophobic surfaces have their hydrophobic properties imparted by structural or chemical modification of a surface of a bulk material, through either coatings or surface treatments. That is to say, the presence of molecular species (usually organic) or structural features results in high contact angles of water. In recent years, rare earth oxides have been shown to possess intrinsic hydrophobicity. The intrinsic hydrophobicity of rare earth oxides depends on surface orientation and oxygen vacancy levels, and is naturally more robust than coatings or surface treatments, having potential applications in condensers and catalysts that can operate at high temperatures or corrosive environments.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Active recent research on superhydrophobic materials might eventually lead to more industrial applications.


title: Hydrophobe

text: A simple routine of coating cotton fabric with silica or titania particles by sol-gel technique has been reported, which protects the fabric from UV light and makes it superhydrophobic.


title: Hydrophobe

text: An efficient routine has been reported for making polyethylene superhydrophobic and thus self-cleaning. 99% of dirt on such a surface is easily washed away.


title: Hydrophobe

text: Patterned superhydrophobic surfaces also have promise for lab-on-a-chip microfluidic devices and can drastically improve surface-based bioanalysis.


title: Hydrophobe

text: In pharmaceuticals, hydrophobicity of pharmaceutical blends affects important quality attributes of final products, such as drug dissolution and hardness. Methods have been developed to measure the hydrophobicity of pharmaceutical materials.


title: Hydrophobe

text: The development of hydrophobic passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces, whose effectiveness at solar reflectance and thermal emittance is predicated on their cleanliness, has improved the "self-cleaning" of these surfaces. Scalable and sustainable hydrophobic PDRCs that avoid VOCs have further been developed.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: "Love You Like a Love Song" is a song by American band Selena Gomez & the Scene recorded for their third studio album "When the Sun Goes Down" (2011). It was released as the second single from the album internationally. The song was released for digital download on June 17, 2011, and serviced to mainstream radios on August 16, 2011, in the United States, through Hollywood Records.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: It was written by Antonina Armato and Tim James while both receive production credits under the stage-name Rock Mafia. Additional songwriting comes from Adam Schmalholz, also known as "IN-Q", while Devrim Karaoglu co-produced the track. The song, according to Gomez, was meant to sound different from her previous material, achieving a "high fashion" sound. "Love You Like a Love Song" is a midtempo electropop and dance-pop song with a Euro disco rhythm. The lyrics deal with a love relationship in its primary stage.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: "Love You Like a Love Song" was a success in North America, peaking at number twenty-two on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number ten on the Canadian Hot 100. It stands as the band's most successful single in the United States, lasting the longest on the chart, selling more than two million copies and earning a penta-platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The song peaked at number one in Russia, inside the top ten in Hungary, Mexico and Slovakia, and earned gold certifications in Australia and Sweden, and a platinum one in Norway. In 2022, "Billboard" ranked the song as the biggest hit that peaked at number 22.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: The music video for "Love You Like a Love Song" was directed by Geremy Jasper and Georgie Greville. It features Gomez performing the song at a Japanese karaoke bar while scenes of the band performing in different settings are intercut through the video. The video received controversy for the use of paint, later proven to be non-toxic, on a horse. Despite the use of non-toxic paint and supervision by the Humane Society, the scenes with the horses were removed in the final edit.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: "Love You Like a Love Song" was written and produced by Antonina Armato and Tim James, while they are credited under the stage-name Rock Mafia for the production. Armato and James have collaborated on The Scene's previous songs including "Naturally" and "Tell Me Something I Don't Know" ("Kiss & Tell", 2009). A month after the release of "Who Says", there was already talk of a release of a new single, to be called "Love You Like a Song", a rumor that arose when the provisional name of the third studio album was still "Otherside". On April 30, 2011, the production/songwriting duo, through Twitter, 'confirmed' "Love You Like a Song" was not correct and the correct name of the song is "Love You Like a Love Song" or "Lovesong". In May, the official name of the song, "Love You Like a Love Song", was confirmed. Armato and James collaborated with Paul Palmer on the song's mix, which was orchestrated at Rock Mafia Studios in Santa Monica, California, while Steve Hammons serves as the mix engineer. Hammons and Ross Hogarth were signed as the song's engineers, while Adam Comstock serves as the second engineer. Brooke Adams performed background vocals with Armato and James. Tim Pierce contributed guitars. The song was then digitally edited by James and Nigel Lundemo.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: In an interview with "Billboard", Gomez described as a "one of those tracks that's addictive because it's kind of repetitive in the best way. It's one of those songs that you can't get out of your head." In an interview with another publication, Gomez explained what she expected from the record: "This song is fun and I wanted it to be really high fashion and different and I think we have accomplished that. It's basically talking about how crazy you are about someone whenever it's the beginning. It's the honeymoon stage if you will." "Love You Like a Love Song" was released as the second single from "When the Sun Goes Down" (2011), after the international success of "Who Says", on June 17, 2011, through digital distribution. The song was serviced to contemporary hit radio airplay on August 16, 2011, in the United States.


title: Love You like a Love Song

text: "Love You Like a Love Song" is a mid tempo electropop and dance-pop song incorporating a Euro disco rhythm and pulsing beats, According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, the song is written in the key of C minor. The song is set in common time and moves through a moderate tempo, having a tempo of 117 beats per minute. Gomez's vocals range from a low register of E to a high register of C. It has a basic descending fifths sequence of C#m-F#m-B-E-A-D#dim-G#7 with the eighth chord being G# in the verses and C#m in the chorus as its chord progression. It changes to A-E-B-C#m-A-E-G#7-G#7 in the bridge. Lyrically, "Love You like a Love Song" is about a relationship in its honeymoon phase. Kitty Empire of "The Guardian" commented the song "combines a lyrical weariness beyond her years with some acrylic pump action".