title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: Surveying for the dry dock began in 1826, though funding was not provided until 1836. Construction on the dry dock started in 1841, but was halted a year later because of a lack of funding. During this time, there were debates over whether to abandon work on this dry dock and construct another in Manhattan, where the new Croton Aqueduct had just opened. When construction resumed in 1844, the project was led by two civil engineers in quick succession until William J. McAlpine was appointed to the position in 1846. At the time, the project was beset by several problems, including the presence of quicksand and underground springs, as well as a faulty cofferdam design that twice flooded the excavation site with water from Wallabout Bay. The cofferdam was fixed by installing deep foundations made of gravel at the outermost cofferdam. The springs were covered with a mixture of piles, planks and dry cement under a layer of brick and Roman mortar. The quicksand was deep, so workers sunk more than 6,500 wooden piles into the bay (the first use of a steam pile driver in the United States' history), and filled the spaces around the piles with concrete. In 1847 after the wooden piles were completed, the stonecutter Thorton MacNess Niven oversaw the installation of the dry dock's masonry superstructure.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: McAlpine was fired for unknown reasons in 1849, and Charles B. Stuart took over for the rest of the project. Dry Dock 1 serviced its first ship, "Dale", in 1850. The dry dock was completed the following year. Because of its design, Dry Dock 1 never required any extensive maintenance, though part of the masonry at the front of the dry dock was refurbished in 1887–1888. Dry Dock 1 was labeled a NYC Landmark in 1975.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The Brooklyn Navy Yard's timber shed (Building 16), constructed between 1833 and 1853, is one of the Brooklyn Navy Yard's oldest buildings, behind the 1806 commandant's house and the 1838 Naval Hospital building. It is a brick building with a gable roof located on the west side of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, adjoining Navy Street. The timber shed had a twin, Building 15, which was located directly to the north and is now demolished. Building 16 originally measured while Building 15 measured . Both buildings were used to store wood for shipbuilding after it had been cured in the nearby mill pond. Documents from 1837 suggest that the United States Navy allocated almost $90,000 () on the construction of up to four brick timber sheds at Brooklyn Navy Yard.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: After the Civil War, the timber sheds were used for timber storage, though the number of wooden ships built at the Navy Yard steadily decreased. During the late 19th century, Admiral's Row, a grouping of residences that formerly housed Navy Yard officers, was built around the timber sheds. As part of a Works Progress Administration renovation, part of Building 15 was demolished in 1937. In the 1940s, Building 16 was used as a police station as well as a lumber storage building, and in the 1950s and 1960s, it was also used as a garage. A 1963 renovation to Building 16 demolished part of the building, and the remainder was converted into a private ice rink for police officers. The rest of Building 15 was demolished probably after 1979, and Building 16 was abandoned around this time.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: By 2010, Building 16 had been proposed for redevelopment, although it had badly deteriorated. In early 2011, engineers for the National Guard Bureau recommended demolishing the structure, since refurbishing it would cost $40 million. The refurbishment of the timber shed was underway by 2018. Douglas C. Steiner, who was redeveloping the Admiral's Row site, stated in January 2018 that Building 16 would likely be developed for food-related uses, such as for a restaurant.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The gate at Sands Street, on the Brooklyn Navy Yard's western border, was the main entrance to the yard in the early 20th century. It consists of a one-story medieval-style gatehouse shaped like a castle, with plinths, turrets, and posts with eagles on the tops. This entrance is located at the intersection of Sands Street and Navy Street, close to Admiral's Row, and was surrounded by the two timber sheds there. A wooden footbridge above the gate, built after World War II, formerly connected the two sheds. The gatehouse has undergone modifications throughout the years, including the addition of second and third floors (since removed), and the removal of the turrets. At one point, the Sands Street gate featured a failed hand-cranked submarine design called the "Intelligent Whale", as well as Trophy Park, which contained a memorial shaft to twelve American sailors killed during the Battle of Canton in 1856.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The Sands Street gate replaced another gate on nearby York Street, and it cost $20,000 or $24,000 to build. As originally proposed in 1893, the gatehouse was supposed to be a 4-story structure containing a peaked roof, crenelations, and an ornate facade. However, the gatehouse was downsized to its current design because the other proposal was too expensive. Fearing a loss of business, saloon keepers on York Street protested against the Sands Street gate's construction, to no avail.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The gate started construction in 1895, and it opened a year later. The new Sands Street gate was not only closer to the trolley lines on Flushing Avenue, but also avoided a dirty and "malodorous" vicinity around the York Street gate. A year after the gate's opening, the "Brooklyn Daily Eagle" noted that the vicinity of the Sands Street gate was "much appreciated by the young women of Brooklyn who are enthusiastic Navy Yard visitors." Saloons soon opened up around this gate, and by 1924, sailors were banned from using the entrance. Starting with the Spanish–American War and continuing through both major world wars, potential Navy applicants lined up outside the Sands Street gate to enlist in the Navy. Sometime after the Navy Yard was decommissioned, the Sands Street gate became the entrance to the NYPD's Brooklyn tow pound, and by 2004, there were plans to refurbish the gate. The gatehouse was restored to its original condition in 2012, and it has housed the Kings County Distillery's tasting room since 2015.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The Brooklyn Navy Yard's eleven-story supply storehouse (Building 3), located east of Building 92, was the first reinforced-concrete building constructed at the yard. Built by Turner Construction in the Neo-Classical style, it contains a one-story base and one-story attic with nine stories in between. A loading platform, covered by a flat metal canopy, encircles the building's base, and contains loading dock entries at various points. There were also formerly rail sidings on the west and north sides of the building. The nine stories above the base contain columns of wide rectangular windows, organized into "bays". Each bay is separated by concrete piers, and each window contains a concrete still below it. There are cornices at the top of the tenth and eleventh floors. On the eleventh floor, each bay contains triple-windows, and there are stair and elevator bulkhead structures, as well as skylights. The structure contained of floor space when first built.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The federal government had commissioned Turner Construction by chance, when government officials raided Turner's factory based on a report of German guns being manufactured, and found Turner manufacturing engine foundations instead. A contract for Building 3's construction was made in April 1917. Work began four days after the contract was signed. The modification to 11 stories was made partway through the construction progress. Construction progressed at a pace of one story per week, aided by the proximity of the Navy Yard's railroad system, via which materials could be delivered. The structure was finished by September at a cost of $1.2 million, and the Navy moved into the structure on October 1, 1917. The attic contained the commandant's, yard captain's, and manager's offices. Building 3 was outfitted with radio and radar laboratories during World War II, and footbridges were constructed to Buildings 5 and 77, although both footbridges have since been demolished. The roof of Building 3 now contains a rooftop farm run by Brooklyn Grange, and the rest of the building is occupied by various industrial and commercial tenants.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: Building 77 is a sixteen-story structure constructed during World War II based on a design by George T. Basset. The structure contains of floor space. The foundation of the building is supported by caissons of concrete and steel, which descend underground. The lowest eleven stories were constructed with walls and no windows, encompassing of storage space. These floors were likely used to store ammunition. Windows were installed on these floors in a 2017 renovation of the building.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: In mid-1940, Turner Construction was hired to erect the building under a cost-plus-fixed-fee contract, which would expedite construction. The foundation of the building was constructed in June 1941, and construction progressed quickly, with one story completed roughly every three working days. The structure was completed by September 1941 at a cost of $4 million. The structure originally contained the yard headquarters as well as other spaces such as offices, storage spaces, laboratories, and a library. Building 77 was renovated in 2017 by Beyer Blinder Belle and now houses light manufacturing as well as commercial tenants.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: Admiral's Row featured ten homes in various architectural styles (namely the Greek Revival, Italianate, and French Empire styles). Built between 1864 and 1901, they served as residences to high-ranking Navy Yard officers. The property also contained a timber shed, parade ground, tennis courts, and garages attached to each house. The row was abandoned when the Navy Yard was decommissioned in 1966, and most of the houses were demolished in 2016.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The Brooklyn Navy Yard also contained an artificial island called the Cob Dock. It was originally a mud flat in Wallabout Bay and was reportedly expanded with ballast released by departing ships. Cob Dock became a convenient place for ships to moor, and was once also used by the first flocks of messenger pigeons used by the Navy. Cob Dock was separated from the mainland Navy Yard by Wallabout Channel, a channel around the southern half of the island that connected to Wallabout Bay on the west and east ends. A structural cribwork was built around the island during the Civil War, and a ship basin was built in the center of the island, while Wallabout Channel was dredged to a lower depth to allow capacity for more boats to moor. After the Civil War, the north end of the island was used to store ordnance, while the south end became a park and training ground. A ferry initially provided service between Cob Dock and the rest of the Navy Yard, but by 1900, it was replaced by a causeway across Wallabout Channel. The southern section of Cob Dock was demolished in the early 1910s to make room for larger ships. The remainder of the island was demolished during World War II to make room for Dry Docks 5 and 6, which were built in 1942.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: The Wallabout Market, a city-operated food market formerly located at the eastern end of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, was developed in the late 19th century. The United States Navy Department started leasing of waterfront land to the city of Brooklyn in 1877 so that the city could start operating a market, and the Navy received a permit to start operating the market in 1884. The Brooklyn city government gained ownership of Wallabout Market in 1890, and the market later came under the operation of New York City. The market was very close to New York Harbor, so it was easy to import and export goods, but the ground was muddy and the area was frequented by a violent gang that evaded police enforcement. Roads, frame buildings, and a sewage system were installed at Wallabout Market. By the late 1890s, the market contained piers, as well as floating landings for the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad. The Wallabout Market site was re-acquired by the Navy and demolished during World War II to make room for Dry Docks 5 and 6.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: In 2014, the entire yard was listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) as a historic district. Certain buildings have also been given landmark status. Quarters A, the commander's quarters building, is a National Historic Landmark. Dry Dock 1, the Navy Yard Hospital Building (R95), and the Surgeon's Residence (R1) inside the Brooklyn Naval Hospital are all New York City designated landmarks.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: A report commissioned by the National Guard in 2008 suggested that the entirety of the Admiral's Row property met the eligibility criteria for inclusion on the NRHP. However, in 2010, Admiral's Row sparked a landmarks debate because it had deteriorated to the point of collapse. Ultimately, the city approved a plan to redevelop Admiral's Row. In 2016, nine of the ten historic houses on Admiral's Row were torn down to accommodate 399 Sands Street, the Wegmans supermarket, and the parking lot.


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: A bronze marker on the Brooklyn Bridge contains a section commemorating the history of the shipyard. The plaque mentions several of the notable ships that were built at Brooklyn Navy Yard, including the "Maine"; the "Missouri"; and the last ship constructed there, "Duluth".


title: Brooklyn Navy Yard

text: Excluding the films shot at Steiner Studios, the following films, TV shows, video games, books, and cultural events are set or have been recorded at the Brooklyn Navy Yard:


title: Impeller

text: An impeller or impellor is a rotor used to increase the pressure and flow of a fluid. It is the opposite of a turbine, which extracts energy from, and reduces the pressure of, a flowing fluid.


title: Impeller

text: An impeller is a rotating component of a centrifugal pump that accelerates fluid outward from the center of rotation, thus transferring energy from the motor that drives the pump to the fluid being pumped. The velocity achieved by the impeller transfers into pressure when the outward movement of the fluid is confined by the pump casing. An impeller is usually a short cylinder with an open inlet (called an eye) to accept incoming fluid, vanes to push the fluid radially, and a splined, keyed, or threaded bore to accept a drive shaft.


title: Impeller

text: It can be cheaper to cast an impeller and its spindle as one piece, rather than separately. This combination is sometimes referred to simply as the "rotor."


title: Impeller

text: An open impeller has a hub with attached vanes and is mounted on a shaft. The vanes do not have a wall, making open impellers slightly weaker than closed or semi-closed impellers. However, as the side plate is not fixed to the inlet side of the vane, the blade stresses are significantly lower. In pumps, the fluid enters the impeller's eye, where vanes add energy and direct it to the nozzle discharge. A close clearance between vanes and pump volute or back plate prevent most of fluid from flowing back. Wear on the bowl and edge of vane can be compensated by adjusting the clearance to maintain efficiency over time. Because the internal parts are visible, open impellers are easier to inspect for damage and maintain than closed impellers. They can also be more easily modified to change flow properties. Open impellers operate on a narrow range of specific speed. Open impellers are usually faster and easier to maintain.  For small pumps and those dealing with suspended solids, open impellers are generally used. Sand locking does not occur as easily as with closed type.


title: Impeller

text: A semi-closed impeller has an additional back wall, giving it more strength. These impellers can pass mixed solid-liquid mixtures at the cost of reduced efficiency.


title: Impeller

text: The construction of closed impellers includes additional back and front walls on both sides of vanes that enhances its strength. This also reduces the thrust load on the shaft, increasing bearing life and reliability and reducing shafting cost. However, this more complicated design, including the use of additional wear rings, makes closed impellers more difficult to manufacture and more expensive than open impellers. A closed impeller's efficiency decreases as wear ring clearance increases with use. However, adjustment of impeller bowl clearance does not affect the wear on vanes as critically as open impeller. Closed impellers can be used on a wider range specific speed than open impellers. They are generally used in large pumps and clear water applications. These impellers can't perform effectively with solids and become difficult to clean if clogged.


title: Impeller

text: The screw impeller design aligns more with an axial progressive channel that allows for solids to be openly handled when rotating.


title: Impeller

text: The main part of a centrifugal compressor is the impeller. An open impeller has no cover, therefore it can work at higher speeds. A compressor with a covered impeller can have more stages than one that has an open impeller.


title: Impeller

text: Some impellers are similar to small propellers but without the large blades. Among other uses, they are used in water jets to power high speed boats.


title: Impeller

text: Because impellers do not have large blades to turn, they can spin at much higher speeds than propellers. The water forced through the impeller is channeled by the housing, creating a water jet that propels the vessel forward. The housing is normally tapered into a nozzle to increase the speed of the water, which also creates a Venturi effect in which low pressure behind the impeller pulls more water towards the blades, tending to increase the speed.


title: Impeller

text: To work efficiently, there must be a close fit between the impeller and the housing. The housing is normally fitted with a replaceable "wear ring" which tends to wear as sand or other particles are thrown against the housing side by the impeller.


title: Impeller

text: Impellers in agitated tanks are used to mix fluids or slurry in the tank. This can be used to combine materials in the form of solids, liquids and gas. Mixing the fluids in a tank is very important if there are gradients in conditions such as temperature or concentration.


title: Impeller

text: Radial flow impellers impose essentially shear stress to the fluid, and are used, for example, to mix immiscible liquids or in general when there is a deformable interface to break. Another application of radial flow impellers is the mixing of very viscous fluids.


title: Impeller

text: Axial flow impellers impose essentially bulk motion and are used on homogenization processes, in which increased fluid volumetric flow rate is important.


title: Impeller

text: Propellers are axial thrust-giving elements. These elements give a very high degree of swirling in the vessel. The flow pattern generated in the fluid resembles a helix.


title: Impeller

text: Some constructions of top loading washing machines use impellers to agitate the laundry during washing.


title: Impeller

text: Fire services in the United Kingdom and many countries of the Commonwealth use a stylized depiction of an impeller as a rank badge. Officers wear one or more on their epaulettes or the collar of their firefighting uniform as an equivalent to the "pips" worn by the army and police.


title: Impeller

text: Air pumps, such as the roots blower, use meshing impellers to move air through a system. Applications include blast furnaces, ventilation systems, and superchargers for internal combustion engines.


title: Impeller

text: Impellers are an integral part of axial-flow pumps, used in ventricular assist devices to augment or fully replace cardiac function.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The IBM Selectric typewriter was a highly successful line of electric typewriters introduced by IBM on 31 July 1961.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Instead of the "basket" of individual typebars that swung up to strike the ribbon and page in a typical typewriter of the period, the Selectric had an "element" (frequently called a "typeball", or less formally, a "golf ball") that rotated and pivoted to the correct position before striking the paper. The element could be easily interchanged to use different fonts within the same document typed on the same typewriter, resurrecting a capability which had been pioneered by typewriters such as the Hammond and Blickensderfer in the late 19th century.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Selectric also replaced the traditional typewriter's horizontally-moving carriage with a roller (platen) that turned to advance the paper vertically, while the typeball and ribbon mechanism moved horizontally across the paper. The Selectric mechanism was notable for using internal mechanical binary coding and two mechanical digital-to-analog converters, called whiffletree linkages, to select the character to be typed.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Selectrics and their descendants eventually captured 75 percent of the United States market for electric typewriters used in business. By the Selectric's 25th anniversary, in 1986, a total of more than 13 million machines had been made and sold. IBM replaced the Selectric line with the IBM Wheelwriter in 1984, and transferred its typewriter business to the newly formed Lexmark in 1991.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Selectric typewriter was introduced on 31 July 1961. Its industrial design is credited to influential American designer Eliot Noyes. Noyes had worked on a number of design projects for IBM; prior to his work on the Selectric, he had been commissioned in 1956 by Thomas J. Watson Jr. to create IBM's first house style: these influential efforts, in which Noyes collaborated with Paul Rand, Marcel Breuer, and Charles Eames, have been referred to as the first "house style" program in American business.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In 1973 the Correcting Selectric II was announced. It added an internal correction feature to the SelectricII, intended to eliminate the need for typists to use cover-up tape, "white-out" correction fluid, or typewriter erasers. The carriage on this machine held both the main typing ribbon cartridge and two small spools for a correction ribbon. A new ribbon type, the Correctable Film ribbon, was introduced at the same time. This produced typing quality equal to the carbon film ribbon, but with a pigment designed to be easily removed from paper.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: There were two types of correction tapes: the transparent and slightly adhesive "Lift-Off" tape (for use with the correctable film ribbon), or the white "Cover-Up" tape (for cloth, Tech-3, and carbon film ribbons). The correction tape was changed independently from the typing ribbon.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The correction key (an extra key at the bottom right of the keyboard) backspaced the carriage by one space and also put the machine in a mode wherein the next character typed would use the correction tape instead of the normal ribbon, and furthermore would not advance the carriage. The typist would press (and release) the correction key and then re-type the erroneous character, either lifting it off the page or (if using other than the correctable ribbon) covering it with white-out powder, then type the correct character. Any number of mistakes could be corrected this way, but the process was entirely manual, as the machine had no memory of the typed characters.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In 1964 IBM introduced the "Magnetic Tape Selectric Typewriter" and in 1969, a "Magnetic Card Selectric Typewriter". These were sometimes referred to as the "MT/ST" and "MC/ST", respectively. The MC/ST was also available in a "communicating" version which could emulate an IBM 2741 terminal or run its native Correspondence Code. These featured electronically interfaced typing mechanisms and keyboards and a magnetic storage device (either tape in a cartridge, or a magnetic-coated card the same size as an 80-column punched card) for recording, editing, and replaying typed material at ca. 12–15 characters per second.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: These machines were among the first to provide word processing capability in any form. They used the same elements as ordinary office Selectrics.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In 1972, the "Mag Card Executive" was offered. Like IBM's earlier typebar-based "Executive" models this offered proportional spacing, but unlike them, based on multiples of a 1/60" unit size with up to seven units per character, instead of a unit size of 1/32", 1/36", or 1/45", depending on the size of the typestyle, with up to five units per character as was used on the original "Executive" typewriters. Unlike the various "Selectric Composer" models, there was no provision for setting the machine to vary the letter and word spacing to create justified copy. Some of the fonts originally offered with the Mag Card Executive would later be made available for the Model 50 electronic typewriter, which supported proportional spacing with 96-character elements.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In April 1973 the IBM Mag Card II Typewriter was announced, providing space for up to 8,000 characters in electronic memory.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: IBM also sold a tape reader (IBM 2495) that could be connected to 360 series mainframes, and would read the MT/ST tapes. Thus a document typed on an MT/ST Selectric could also be entered into a mainframe data file.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In 1966, IBM released the Selectric Composer. This highly-modified (and much more-expensive) Selectric produced camera-ready justified copy using proportional fonts in a variety of font styles ranging from eight points to fourteen points. Material prepared on a properly-adjusted machine by a skillful operator and printed onto baryta (barium sulfate-coated) paper "would take an expert to tell... [that it] was not the product of a Linotype or Monotype machine".


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Characters were proportionally spaced, three to nine units wide, the size of a unit being selectable as either 1/72", 1/84" or 1/96" to allow for the three sizes of type. (A monospaced "Typewriter Font", in which all characters occupied four units, was available for brief imitations of conventional typed text.) Tab stops could be positioned only at intervals of one-sixth of an inch, or one pica. To support backspacing over previously typed characters, the spacing code for the last forty or so characters typed was mechanically stored by small sliding plates in a carrier wheel.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Like the Varityper with which it competed, the original machine required that material be typed twice if the output was to be justified. The first time was to measure the length of the line and count the spaces, recording measurements read from a special dial on the right margin. The second time it was typed, the operator set the measurements into the dial to set justification for each line. The process was tedious and slow, but did provide a way to get camera-ready, proportionally spaced, justified copy from a desk-sized, affordable machine.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The elements for the Selectric Composer would physically fit on a Selectric and vice versa, but were not interchangeable because the characters were arranged and positioned differently around the element. Selectric Composer elements can be distinguished by their colored index arrow (the color indicated which of the three type sizes) and a series of letters and numbers identifying the font, size, and variation, for example "UN-11-B" for Univers 11-point bold (Adrian Frutiger had adapted his Univers font specifically for the Selectric Composer).


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In addition to Univers, a Century, Times Roman-like font, and later an "Aldine" font (Bembo) were available, as was a Symbols font. However, the Composer, with its relatively small market, never had anything like the variety of typefaces available as there were for the Selectric (see below). Each font required separate elements for italic and bold versions, and a separate set of roman/italic/bold balls was required for each font size. Not all typefaces were available in bold and italic in every size for every font. Bold italic, condensed, and light fonts were not available. The need to change elements frequently, sometimes multiple times in the same sentence, slowed work down and was a source of owner dissatisfaction. (In typical use, Selectric elements were changed infrequently.) The small plastic balls were themselves somewhat fragile and not designed to withstand frequent handling. Nevertheless, the Composer allowed much more flexible use of different typefonts, allowing small businesses and organizations to approach the capabilities of professional typesetters, at a reduced cost.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Italic and bold were available for some but not all font "families". Up to three point sizes existed for each style and variety. In contrast with the Selectric, a change of type style usually required purchase of a family of type balls, rather than just a single one. Just as in the days of metal type, no single printing shop had every typeface, it was also rare for a user to possess a complete set, but no user needed to; a publication that could use the somewhat bookish, academic Aldine Roman would probably not have much use for the Classified News or Copperplate Gothic (used most often for formal invitations and business cards). The following font families were available for the Composer:


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In contrast to the Selectric typewriter, only IBM made elements for the standard typefaces usually used with the Composer. GP, which made elements for the Selectric typewriter, did make one Composer element in an Old English typeface.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In 1967, a "Magnetic Tape Selectric Composer" appeared, and in 1978, a "Magnetic Card Selectric Composer". The "Electronic Composer" (with approximately 5000 characters of internal memory, similar to the later Magnetic Card model but without external storage) was marketed from 1975. All these models used the same Selectric Composer output (printing) mechanism. However, the magnetic or internal storage allowed these improved models to avoid the need to type in justified text twice, or to manually set the mechanism for justification of each line. Furthermore, tapes or cards originally recorded on the much less-expensive and easier-to-operate Selectric typewriter versions, the MT/ST or MC/ST, could be read by the "Composer" equivalents. This allowed much of the time-consuming manual transcription work and proofreading to be performed on less-expensive equipment, while a final high-quality output could be printed on the Composer.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: For a number of years after its introduction, the Selectric Composer was considered a highly desirable, powerful desk-sized cold type setting system, affordable by small businesses and organizations. It was usually leased, including a service contract for the skilled labor required to fix and adjust it. The Selectric Composer was accorded respect and affection among small publishers, unrivaled until the appearance of the Apple Macintosh, laser printer, and desktop publishing software. Ultimately the system proved a transitional product, as it was displaced by cheaper and faster phototypesetting, and then in the 1980s by word processors and general-purpose computers.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Electronic Selectric Composer was released in January 1975 by the office division of IBM. It had a memory capable of storing approximately 5000 characters.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In 1980, IBM introduced the Selectric III, followed by several other Selectric models, some of them word processors or typesetters instead of typewriters, but by then the rest of the industry had caught up, and IBM's new models did not dominate the market the way the first Selectric had. This was to be expected, as by the late 1970s the Selectric typewriter's dominance was under assault from both 35-45 character per second proportional-spacing electronic typewriters with inbuilt memory (e.g. the 800 from Xerox based on Diablo's "daisywheels" and from OEMs of Qume who had a similar printwheel technology) and CRT-based systems from AES, Lexitron, Vydek, Wang and Xerox (see the Word Processor article for further details of these brands). In addition, IBM had already (c. 1977) brought to market the CRT-based Office System/6 (from Office Products Division) and 5520 (from IBM General Systems Division (GSD)) both of which used the new 6640 inkjet printer capable of 96 characters per second with two paper trays and sophisticated envelope handling, and was about to introduce Qume-based printers for the existing System/6 range and the new Displaywriter launched in June 1980 and described by IBM as "not your father's Selectric". Nevertheless, IBM had a large installed base of Selectric typewriters and to retain customer loyalty it made sense to introduce updated models.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Selectric III featured a 96-character element vs. the previous 88-character element. IBM's series of "Electronic Typewriters" used this same 96-character element. The 96-character elements can be identified by yellow printing on the top plastic surface and the legend "96", which always appears along with the font name and pitch. The 96- and 88-character elements are mechanically incompatible with each other (they won't fit on each other's machines) and 96-character elements were not available in as many fonts as the older 88-character types.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Most Selectric IIIs and Electronic Typewriters had keys only for 92 printable characters; the 96-character keyboard was an optional feature. Fitting the additional keys onto the keyboard required shrinking the Return and Backspace keys. This was annoying to many typists, so it was not the default configuration. The keytops on SelectricIII and Electronic Typewriters were larger and more square than those on earlier Selectrics.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Some versions of the Electronic Typewriter, the original Model 50, and the later Model 65 and 85, could use 96-character elements with proportionally-spaced typestyles in addition to 10-pitch and 12-pitch typestyles. This proportional spacing was based on a unit of 1/60 of an inch, since 10-pitch characters took six such units, and 12-pitch characters took five such units. (Many daisywheel typewriters, offering similar capabilities, also had daisywheel elements for 15-pitch typing, using four units per character.) The proportional typestyles offered for these typewriters had previously been offered, along with some others, on 88-character elements for a little-known variant of the MC/ST called the Mag Card Executive.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Shortly after the introduction of the Selectric III, IBM introduced the IBM Personal Typewriter, a hybrid model that used the widely available 88-character “golfball” type elements and correction tape of the Selectric II, but used the newer Selectric III’s ribbon cartridges. Limited to a single fixed pitch (either 10-cpi Pica or 12-cpi Elite, though either pica or elite type elements could be used), the typewriter was significantly less expensive than either the Selectric II or Selectric III and targeted the home and consumer markets.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: There is at least one known case of the Selectric exploited as a covert listening device of the type known as a "keyboard logger". In 1984, bugs were discovered in at least 16 Selectric typewriters in the U.S. Embassy in Moscow and the U.S. Consulate in Leningrad. The highly sophisticated devices were planted by the Soviets between 1976 and 1984, and were hidden inside a metal support bar. Information was intercepted by detecting the movements of metal bars inside the typewriter (the "latch interposers") by means of magnetometers. The data were then compressed and transmitted in bursts.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: IBM introduced the IBM Wheelwriter in 1984 as a successor to the Selectric. The Wheelwriter featured a replaceable daisy wheel cartridge, had electronic memory, and offered many word processing features.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Selectric's keyboard layout put the underscore, hyphen, and single and double quote characters as pairs on their own keysan arrangement which had already been used on many earlier electric typewriters, including IBM's own Model A onwards. The traditional layout of mechanical typewriters had offered these characters as shifts from digit keys. Electric typewriter designers had made this change because smaller characters need to hit the paper with less force than most, and pairing these characters in this way avoided the need to adjust the force based on shift state.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: About a decade later, this character pairing was formalized in the American Standards Association X4.14-1971 standard as "typewriter pairing" (colloquially a typewriter-paired keyboard), along with bit-paired keyboards. Typewriter pairing became the only supported arrangement in the successor X4.23-1982 standard.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Selectric also added a dedicated key for 1 / !. The typist no longer had to use a lowercase L, nor overstrike the single quote and period characters, as had been the practice on most earlier typewriters.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: These changes were later copied by the IBM Model D electric typewriter (1967), and later still by DEC's VT52 terminal (1975) and the original IBM PC (1981). Typewriter pairing was seen on many other computer keyboards, particularly the influential Model M (1985).


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The new layout was not universal, however. Internationally, many layouts kept the bit-paired arrangement. This is easily visible in yielding ", as on the standard UK layout. The bit-paired symbols are also retained in the Japanese keyboard layout.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Mechanically, the Selectric borrowed some design elements from a toy typewriter produced earlier by Marx Toys. IBM bought the rights to the design. The element and carriage mechanism was similar to the design of the Teletype Model 26 and later, which used a rotating cylinder that moved along a fixed platen.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The mechanism that positions the typing element ("ball") takes a binary input, and converts this to character offsets using two mechanical digital-to-analog converters, which are "whiffletree" linkages of the type used for adding and subtracting in linkage-type mechanical analog computers. (The nomenclature used by IBM Office Product Customer Engineers and in IBM maintenance publications for the machine's "whiffletrees" is "Rotate and Tilt Differentials".) Every character position on the element has a two-part binary code, one for tilt and one for rotate.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The motor at the back of the machine drives a belt connected to a two-part shaft located roughly halfway through the machine. The cycle shaft on the left side powers the tilt and rotate mechanism. The operational shaft on the right side powers functions such as spacing, backspacing, and case shifting, as well as serving as a governor, limiting the left-to-right speed with which the carrier moves. A series of spring clutches power the cams which provide the motion needed to perform functions such as backspacing.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: When the typist presses a key, a pawl on the key lever depresses a matching metal bar (interposer) for that key. The interposer, which is oriented front to back in the machine, has one or more short projections (lugs) protruding from its bottom edge. Each interposer has a unique combination of lugs, corresponding to the binary code for the desired character. Each interposer also has a tab that slots in between loose steel balls in a race, the size of balls and race selected precisely to leave a total gap barely larger than the width of the interposer tab, such that only one interposer tab can fit in the free space and thus only one letter can be selected at a time.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: When the interposer is depressed, it engages a metal bar (cycle clutch latch link) that connects the clutch on the cycle shaft for one cycle, providing power to the filter shaft, whose lobes thrust the interposer towards the front (operator end) of the machine. When the interposer moves, each of its lugs engages one of a set of bars (selector bails) that run from left to right across the keyboard mechanism. In a machine with a North American keyboard, there are five "negative logic" selector bails (two for tilt and three for rotation), and one "positive logic" bail (called "minus five") for accessing characters in the opposite direction of rotation.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Each negative logic selector bail that is displaced by the interposer in turn pulls a latch interposer and link which causes a selector latch near the cycle shaft to be pulled away from the latch bail. The latches pulled away in this manner are disengaged for the rest of the cycle, while the remaining latches take part in character selection, hence the term "negative logic". The minus five selector bail pulls an interposer and link which causes a latch to disengage from a cam, allowing it to move an additional input into the whiffletree that subtracts five units of rotation from any negative logic inputs. An additional "low velocity" selector latch is also engaged by certain keys (e.g. period and underscore) which require a reduced striking force so as not to cut the paper; this selector latch engages the low velocity control cam follower, which pulls the low velocity cable connected to the cam in the carrier, causing the low velocity lobe to be used instead of the usual high velocity lobe. Additionally, punctuation marks are deliberately placed about the ball so the maximum amount of energy is used to position the element prior to striking, further reducing the impact.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The selector latches that remain engaged with the latch bail cause cams on the drive shaft (which is rotating) to move the ends of the links in the whiffletree linkage, which sums (adds together) the amounts ("weights") of movement corresponding to the selected bits. The sum of the weighted inputs is the required movement of the typing element. There are two sets of similar mechanisms, one for tilt, one for rotate. The typing element has four rows of 22 characters. By tilting and rotating the element to the location of a character, the element can be thrust against the ribbon and platen, leaving an imprint of the chosen character.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Tilt and rotate movements are transferred to the carrier (the mechanism that supports the element), which moves across the page, by two taut metal tapes, one for tilt and one for rotate. The tilt and rotate tapes are both anchored to the right side of the carrier. They both wrap around separate pulleys at the right side of the frame; the tilt pulley is fixed, while the rotate pulley is attached to the shift arm, actuated by the Shift and Caps Lock keys. The tapes extend across the machine behind the carrier, and then wrap around two separate pulleys at the left side of the frame. The tilt tape is then anchored to a small, quarter-circle pulley which, through a link, tips the tilt ring (the device to which the element is connected) to one of four possible locations. The rotate tape is wrapped around a spring-loaded pulley located in the middle of the carrier. The rotate pulley under the tilt ring is connected through a universal joint (called a "dog bone", which it resembles) to the center of the tilt ring. The element is spring-latched onto that central post. The element rotates counter-clockwise when the rotate tape is tightened. The spiral "clock" spring underneath the rotate pulley rotates the element in the clockwise direction. As the carrier moves across the page (such as when it returns), the tapes travel over their pulleys, but the spring-loaded pulleys on the ball carrier do not pivot or rotate.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: To position the ball, both of the pulleys on the left side of the frame are moved by their whiffletree linkages, actuated by the selected drive shaft cams. When the rotate pulley is moved to the right or left, the rotate tape spins the element to the appropriate location. When the tilt pulley is moved, it tips the tilt ring to the appropriate location. When it moves, the tape rotates the spring-loaded pulley on the ball carrier independent of the carrier's location on the page.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Case is shifted from lowercase to uppercase (and associated shifted punctuation symbols) by rotating the element by exactly half a turn. This is accomplished by moving the right-hand rotate pulley via the shift arm, using a cam mounted on the end of the operation shaft; the additional cable tension adds 180° to any rotation from the whiffletree.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: After a character is struck onto the paper, the mechanism is reset, including replacing all latches on their bails and moving the interposer back into position. If the key that was pressed is still down at this time, the interposer rotates the keylever pawl out of the way to prevent key repeat until the key is released and depressed again, starting the next cycle.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The complex Selectric system was highly dependent upon periodic lubrication and adjustment, and much of IBM's revenue stream came from the sale of service contracts on the machines. Repair was fairly expensive, requiring specialized skills and parts, so maintenance contracts were an easy sell. Infrequently-used Selectric mechanisms must be operated ("exercised") and properly lubricated to keep them from binding up.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Both Selectric and the later Selectric II were available in standard-, medium-, and wide-carriage models and in various colors, including red and blue, as well as traditional neutral colors.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In addition to the "typeball" technology, Selectrics were associated with several innovations in ink ribbon design.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The original Selectric had to be ordered to use either cloth reusable ribbon or one-time carbon film ribbon; the same machine could not use both. This was also true of the original, non-correcting SelectricII. IBM had used a similar carbon film ribbon on their earlier Executive series of typewriters. As with these older machines, the carbon film ribbon presented a security issue in some environments: It was possible to read the text that had been typed from the ribbon, seen as light characters against the darker ribbon background.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Correcting Selectric II used a new ribbon cartridge mechanism. The cartridge contained both supply and take-up spools, permitting both easy ribbon changes and the use of several types of ribbon on one machine. The ribbons were wider than had been used previously, giving more typed characters per inch of ribbon. Successive characters were staggered vertically on the ribbon, which incremented less than a full character position each time. Different types of ribbons had different-depth holes in the bottom of the cartridge, which set the mechanism to advance the ribbon by the amount appropriate for the type of ribbon.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Three types of ribbons were initially available for the Correcting Selectric II: Reusable cloth ribbon (essentially the same as had been used on typewriters for decades); carbon film ribbon, like that used on earlier Selectrics; and the new Correctable (carbon) Film ribbon. The latter used a carbon pigment similar to that on the regular carbon film ribbon, but its binder did not permanently adhere to the paper. This permitted the use of the adhesive Lift-Off correction tape in the new machine, producing a very "clean" correction. The other types of ribbons required Cover-Up tape, which deposited a white ink on top of the characters being corrected. This complicated corrections on paper colors other than white.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Shortly after the machine was introduced, a "Tech-3" ribbon appeared. It essentially replaced the cloth ribbon, as it offered typing quality close to the film ribbon but at a use cost comparable to the reusable cloth. Like the cloth ribbon, Tech-3 ribbons incremented only a fraction of the character width after being struck. Unlike the cloth ribbon, the Tech-3 ribbon provided high-quality impressions for several characters from each spot on the one-time-use ribbon. Because characters overstrike each other on a Tech-3 ribbon several times, it could not be easily read to discover what had been typed. The Tech-3 ribbon offered equivalent document security to the carbon film ribbon, as its impressions were permanent as soon as they had been struck. The Tech-3 ribbon was used with the same cover-up tape that worked with the other non-correctable ribbons.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The thumb wheel on the ribbon cartridge and the correction tape spools were color-coded so they could be easily identified and matched with the appropriate correction tapes: Yellow for the correctable film ribbon and Lift-Off tape; gray, pink, and blue for cloth, carbon film, and Tech-3, respectively. Later another type of correctable film ribbon and lift-off tape appeared, both color-coded orange. The yellow meant the ribbon was a higher quality and would produce a better-quality type image. Orange was a lower-cost ribbon for everyday typing. The yellow and orange coded lift-off tapes would work with either ribbon type.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The slightly adhesive Lift-Off tape would sometimes damage more delicate paper surfaces. A less "sticky" version of these tapes was eventually offered, but some people believed it did not remove the ink as well. Some typists found that a piece of adhesive tape such as Scotch Tape could be used in place of lift-off tape.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Some colored ribbons (such as brown) were also available. The ribbon cartridge mechanism did not allow for two-color ribbons, such as black and red, which had been common on earlier typewriters.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The Selectric I, Selectric II, and all the "Magnetic Card" and "Magnetic Tape" variations except for the Composers, use the same typing elements. These are available in many fonts, including: symbols for science and mathematics, OCR faces for scanning by computers, cursive script, "Old English" (fraktur), and more than a dozen ordinary alphabets. The Israeli typographer Henri Friedlaender designed the Hebrew fonts "Hadar", "Shalom" & "Aviv" for the Selectric. The SelectricIII and "Electronic Typewriters" used a new 96-character element.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: IBM also produced computer terminals based on the Selectric mechanism, some of which (all models of the IBM 1050 series, and IBM 2741 models using "PTTC/BCD" code) used a different encoding. Though the elements were physically interchangeable, the characters were differently arranged, so standard Selectric elements could not be used in them and their elements could not be used in standard Selectrics. On the other hand, IBM 2741s using "correspondence coding" used standard office Selectric elements. The IBM 1130 computer used a Selectric mechanism as the console printer.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: There were two visibly different styles of mechanical design for the elements. The original models had a metal spring clip with two wire wings that were squeezed together to release the element from the typewriter. Later models had a plastic lever molded around a metal axle which pried apart the now-internal spring clip. This had a tendency to break where the lever joined the axle. The Selectric element was later redesigned to have an all-plastic lever.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The font size was measured not in points but in "pitch"; that is, the number of letters per one inch of the typed line. As a result, 12-pitch fonts (12 letters per inch) were actually smaller than 10-pitch fonts (10 letters per inch), and roughly corresponded to the 10pt and 12pt traditional typographic font sizes.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The ability to change fonts, combined with the neat regular appearance of the typed page, was revolutionary, and marked the beginning of desktop publishing. Later models with dual pitch (10/12) and built-in correcting tape carried the trend even further. Any typist could produce a polished manuscript.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The possibility to intersperse text in Latin letters with Greek letters and mathematical symbols made the machine especially useful for scientists writing manuscripts that included mathematical formulas. Proper mathematical typesetting was very laborious before the advent of TeX and done only for much-sold textbooks and very prestigious scientific journals. Special elements also were released for the Athabaskan languages, allowing Navajo and Apache bilingual programs in education to be typed for the first time.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The machine had a feature called "Stroke Storage" that prevented two keys from being depressed simultaneously. When a key was depressed, an interposer, beneath the keylever, was pushed down into a slotted tube full of small metal balls (called the "compensator tube") and spring latched. These balls were adjusted to have enough horizontal space for only one interposer to enter at a time. (Mechanisms much like this were used in keyboards for teleprinters before World War II.) If a typist pressed two keys simultaneously both interposers were blocked from entering the tube. Pressing two keys several milliseconds apart allows the first interposer to enter the tube, tripping a clutch which rotated a fluted shaft driving the interposer horizontally and out of the tube. The powered horizontal motion of the interposer selected the appropriate rotate and tilt of the printhead for character selection, but also made way for the second interposer to enter the tube some milliseconds later, well before the first character had been printed. While a full print cycle was 65 milliseconds this filtering and storage feature allowed the typist to depress keys in a more random fashion and still print the characters in the sequence entered.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The space bar, dash/underscore, index, backspace and line feed repeated when continually held down. This feature was referred to as "Typamatic".


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Due to their speed (14.8 characters per second), immunity to clashing typebars, trouble-free paper path, high quality printed output, and reliability, Selectric-based mechanisms were also widely used as terminals for computers, replacing both Teletypes and older typebar-based output devices. One popular example was the IBM 2741 terminal. Among other applications, the 2741 (with a special typing element) figured prominently in the early years of the APL programming language.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Despite appearances, these machines were not simply Selectric typewriters with an RS-232 connector added. As with other electric typewriters and electric adding machines of the era, Selectrics are "electromechanical", not "electronic", devices: the only electrical components are the cord, an on-off switch, and the motor. The keys are not electrical pushbuttons such as those found on a computer keyboard. Pressing a key does not produce an electrical signal as output, but rather engages a series of clutches which couple the motor power to the mechanism to turn and tilt the element. A Selectric would work equally well if hand-cranked (or foot-powered, like treadle powered sewing machines) at sufficient speed.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The original Selectric mechanism was designed and manufactured by the office equipment division of IBM and was not engineered for use as a computer terminal. Adapting this mechanism to the needs of computer input/output was not simple. Microswitches were added to the keyboard, solenoids were added to allow the computer to trigger the typing mechanism, and interface electronics were also needed. Several mechanical components, in particular the motor and the main clutch, had to be upgraded from the typewriter versions to reliably support continuous operation. Additional microswitches had to be added to sense the state of various parts of the mechanism, such as case (upper vs. lower).


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Even after adding all those solenoids and switches, getting a Selectric to talk to a computer was a complicated project. The Selectric mechanism had many peculiar requirements. If commanded to shift to upper case when it was already in upper-case, the mechanism locked up and never signaled "done". The same applied to shifting the ribbon direction or initiating a carriage-return. These commands could be issued only at particular times, with the Selectric in a particular state, and then not again until the terminal signaled the operation was complete.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In addition the Selectric mechanism natively used a unique 7-bit code, the Selectric correspondence code, based on the "tilt/rotate" commands to the golf ball.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: That and the bit-parallel interface and peculiar timing requirements meant the Selectric could not be directly hooked up to a modem. Indeed, it needed a relatively large amount of logic to reconcile the two devices, and the interface logic often outweighed the printing mechanism in the early years.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Nevertheless, home-brew and commercial Selectric conversions from Wang and Tycom converted the Selectric office typewriter into a computer printer.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Such Selectric conversions produce hard-copy computer output that was once described as better than any other hard-copy computer output system, regardless of cost.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The optimum data rate used to drive the Selectric mechanism turned out to be equivalent to 134.5 baud, which was a highly unusual data rate before the appearance of the mechanism. Driving the Selectric mechanism at the more-standard rate of 110 baud appeared to work well, although at a slightly slower speed. However, driving the mechanism at a non-optimal rate would soon result in its failure, by forcing an internal start-stop clutch to actuate for each character typed, thus wearing it out very rapidly. Continuous typing at the proper 134.5 baud rate would engage the clutch only at the beginning and end of a long sequence of characters, as designed.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The popularity of the Selectric mechanism caused other computer manufacturers, such as Digital Equipment Corporation, to support the 134.5 baud data rate on their serial computer interfaces, enabling connection of IBM 2741 terminals. The 2741 was available with two different seven-bit codes (Correspondence and PTT/BCD). Code choice affected the font elements which could be used. The host computer had to translate the 2741 code into the host's internal code (usually ASCII or EBCDIC). Dedicated hardware was also built to drive Selectric printers at 134.5 baud.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Particularly vexing was the Selectric's lack of a full ASCII character set. The late Bob Bemer wrote that while working for IBM he lobbied unsuccessfully to expand the typing element to 64 characters from 44. The Selectric actually provided 44 characters per case, but the point remains that with 88 printable characters it could not quite produce the full printable ASCII character set.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Since the keyboard was mechanically connected directly with the printer mechanism, keyboard character inputs were immediately typed by the printer mechanism, behavior called half-duplex by most of the computer industry. However, IBM insisted on calling this behavior full duplex, causing much confusion. If the computer system in turn echoed the typed input, having been configured to expect a full-duplex terminal, each character would be doubled. A further discussion of this terminology can be seen in the article on terminal emulation and elsewhere.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Another odd feature of the Selectric terminals was the "keyboard lock" mechanism. If the computer system a user was communicating with was too busy to accept input, it could send a code to "mechanically interlock" the keyboard so the user could not press any keys. The keyboard was also locked when the computer was typing, to avoid damaging the mechanism or interleaving user input and computer output in a confusing manner. Though done to protect the print mechanism from damage, an unexpected keyboard lock activation could cause minor injury to a typist with a heavy touch. There was little obvious warning that the keyboard had locked or unlocked, other than a faint click from the interlock solenoid, easily drowned out by the printer and fan noise in many computer facilities. There was a small indicator light, but this was of little help to fast touch typists whose gaze was fixed on copy they were transcribing.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The 2741 Selectric also had a special "print inhibit" feature. When the terminal received such a command from a host computer, the type element still operated, but did not print on the paper. This feature was used to avoid printing computer login passwords, and for other special purposes.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: In spite of all these idiosyncrasies, between 1968 and about 1980, a Selectric-based printer was a relatively inexpensive and fairly popular way to get high-quality printed output from a computer. A minor industry developed to support small businesses and leading-edge hobbyists who would obtain a Selectric mechanism (which cost much less than a full-fledged 2741 terminal) and modify it to interface with industry-standard serial data communications.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: The 96-character element introduced with the Selectric III and Electronic Typewriter series could (with some customizations) handle the full ASCII character set, but by that time the computer industry had moved on to the much faster and mechanically simpler daisy wheel mechanisms such as the Diablo 630. The typewriter industry followed this trend shortly afterward, and even IBM replaced their Selectric lineup with its daisy wheel-based "Wheelwriter" series.


title: IBM Selectric typewriter

text: Similar machines referred to as the IBM 1050 series were used as the console printers for many computers, such as the IBM 1130 and the IBM System/360 series. The IBM 1050 was also offered in a remote terminal configuration, similar in use to the 2741. These were designed and manufactured for this purpose, including the necessary electrical interfaces, and incorporated more rugged components than the office Selectric or even the 2741.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: Felix Cavaliere (born November 29, 1942) is an American musician and singer-songwriter. He is best known for being the lead vocalist and keyboard player for the Young Rascals.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: Although he was a member of Joey Dee and the Starliters, known for their hit "Peppermint Twist", he is best known for his association with the Young Rascals during the 1960s. The other members of the Rascals were Eddie Brigati, Dino Danelli and Gene Cornish. Cavaliere sang vocals on six of their successful singles and played the Hammond B-3 organ.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: Cavaliere was born to an Italian American family in Pelham, New York on November 29, 1942. At an early age, he studied piano at the Allaire School of Music at his mother's behest from age 6 until her death when he was 14. He enrolled at Syracuse University in the early 1960s as a pre-med major and performed at fraternity and sorority parties with his band "The Escorts". At the beginning of his junior year, he left Syracuse to pursue an opportunity to be a musician at a Borscht Belt resort in the Catskills. He was friends with poet and songwriter Stephen Kalinich, and they both were in the Sigma Phi Epsilon fraternity.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: He joined The Stereos, and moved on to form The Escorts, while attending Syracuse. He later produced albums by other artists such as Laura Nyro and Jimmie Spheeris.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: Following a pair of solo efforts, Cavaliere recorded under the band name Treasure and released a self-titled AOR-styled album in 1977 which featured future Kiss member Vinnie Vincent on guitar. Cavaliere had a solo hit with "Only a Lonely Heart Sees" (1980), which reached No. 36 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and No. 2 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Cavaliere and former Rascals bandmate Dino Danelli joined Steve Van Zandt to record Little Steven and the Disciples of Soul's album, "Men Without Women" (1982). However, Cavaliere strongly disputes this and claims that he was never a member of Little Steven's band.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: He recorded "Dreams in Motion" in 1994, produced by Don Was. During 1995, Cavaliere was a touring member of Ringo Starr's third All-Starr Band. Cavaliere can be seen playing keyboard in the official video for "Hey Girl" by Billy Joel, a cover version of the Carole King song, recorded by Billy Joel in 1997 to add to his "Greatest Hits Volume III" compilation. The track was released as a single, but Cavaliere was not playing on the recording.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: On October 15, 2006, he inducted Vanilla Fudge into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame. In 2008, he recorded an album with Steve Cropper, "Nudge it Up a Notch", which was released July 29, 2008. He continues to tour as Felix Cavaliere's Rascals. On April 24, 2010, all four members of the Rascals reunited for the Kristen Ann Carr benefit, which was held at New York's Tribeca Grill.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: Cavaliere reunited with his bandmates when the Rascals appeared at the Capitol Theater in Port Chester, New York for six shows in December 2012 and for fifteen dates at the Richard Rodgers Theatre on Broadway (April 15 – May 5, 2013). Their current production, entitled "Once Upon A Dream", is currently touring North America (Toronto, Los Angeles, Phoenix, Chicago, Detroit, Rochester, and New York City). It is produced by long-time Rascals' fans Steven Van Zandt and his wife Maureen.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: In 2017 and 2018, Cavaliere was a spokesperson in a television infomercial for the Time Life "The 60s Music" CD collection.


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: On June 18, 2009, Cavaliere, along with former writing partner Eddie Brigati, was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame for having ""changed the direction of pop music in 1965"".


title: Felix Cavaliere

text: Cavaliere was married to Mary Theresa (Thompson) Cavaliere for around 30 years and had three daughters with her. Cavaliere's daughter, Aria Cavaliere, is a singer based in Nashville, Tennessee. He also has four grandchildren. He lives in Nashville, with his current wife Donna Lewis.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Agricultural economics is an applied field of economics concerned with the application of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food and fiber products.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Agricultural economics began as a branch of economics that specifically dealt with land usage. It focused on maximizing the crop yield while maintaining a good soil ecosystem. Throughout the 20th century the discipline expanded and the current scope of the discipline is much broader. Agricultural economics today includes a variety of applied areas, having considerable overlap with conventional economics. Agricultural economists have made substantial contributions to research in economics, econometrics, development economics, and environmental economics. Agricultural economics influences food policy, agricultural policy, and environmental policy.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Economics has been defined as the study of resource allocation under scarcity. Agricultural economics, or the application of economic methods to optimize the decisions made by agricultural producers, grew to prominence around the turn of the 20th century. The field of agricultural economics can be traced back to works on land economics. Henry Charles Taylor was the greatest contributor in this period, with the establishment of the Department of Agricultural Economics at the University of Wisconsin in 1909.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Another contributor, 1979 Nobel Economics Prize winner Theodore Schultz, was among the first to examine development economics as a problem related directly to agriculture. Schultz was also instrumental in establishing econometrics as a tool for use in analyzing agricultural economics empirically; he noted in his landmark 1956 article that agricultural supply analysis is rooted in "shifting sand", implying that it was and is simply not being done correctly.


title: Agricultural economics

text: One scholar in the field, Ford Runge, summarizes the development of agricultural economics as follows:


title: Agricultural economics

text: Agricultural economics arose in the late 19th century, combined the theory of the firm with marketing and organization theory, and developed throughout the 20th century largely as an empirical branch of general economics. The discipline was closely linked to empirical applications of mathematical statistics and made early and significant contributions to econometric methods. In the 1960s and afterwards, as agricultural sectors in the OECD countries contracted, agricultural economists were drawn to the development problems of poor countries, to the trade and macroeconomic policy implications of agriculture in rich countries, and to a variety of production, consumption, and environmental and resource problems.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Agricultural economists have made many well-known contributions to the economics field with such models as the cobweb model, hedonic regression pricing models, new technology and diffusion models (Zvi Griliches), multifactor productivity and efficiency theory and measurement, and the random coefficients regression. The farm sector is frequently cited as a prime example of the perfect competition economic paradigm.


title: Agricultural economics

text: In Asia, the Faculty of Agricultural Economics was established in September 1919 in Hokkaido Imperial University, Japan, as Tokyo Imperial University's School of Agriculture started a faculty on agricultural economics in its second department of agricultural science.


title: Agricultural economics

text: In the Philippines, agricultural economics was offered first by the University of the Philippines Los Baños Department of Agricultural Economics in 1919. Today, the field of agricultural economics has transformed into a more integrative discipline which covers farm management and production economics, rural finance and institutions, agricultural marketing and prices, agricultural policy and development, food and nutrition economics, and environmental and natural resource economics.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Since the 1970s, agricultural economics has primarily focused on seven main topics, according to Ford Runge: agricultural environment and resources; risk and uncertainty; food and consumer economics; prices and incomes; market structures; trade and development; and technical change and human capital.


title: Agricultural economics

text: In the field of environmental economics, agricultural economists have contributed in three main areas: designing incentives to control environmental externalities (such as water pollution due to agricultural production), estimating the value of non-market benefits from natural resources and environmental amenities (such as an appealing rural landscape), and the complex interrelationship between economic activities and environmental consequences. With regard to natural resources, agricultural economists have developed quantitative tools for improving land management, preventing erosion, managing pests, protecting biodiversity, and preventing livestock diseases.


title: Agricultural economics

text: While at one time, the field of agricultural economics was focused primarily on farm-level issues, in recent years agricultural economists have studied diverse topics related to the economics of food consumption. In addition to economists' long-standing emphasis on the effects of prices and incomes, researchers in this field have studied how information and quality attributes influence consumer behavior. Agricultural economists have contributed to understanding how households make choices between purchasing food or preparing it at home, how food prices are determined, definitions of poverty thresholds, how consumers respond to price and income changes in a consistent way, and survey and experimental tools for understanding consumer preferences.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Agricultural economics research has addressed diminishing returns in agricultural production, as well as farmers' costs and supply responses. Much research has applied economic theory to farm-level decisions. Studies of risk and decision-making under uncertainty have real-world applications to crop insurance policies and to understanding how farmers in developing countries make choices about technology adoption. These topics are important for understanding prospects for producing sufficient food for a growing world population, subject to new resource and environmental challenges such as water scarcity and global climate change.


title: Agricultural economics

text: Development economics is broadly concerned with the improvement of living conditions in low-income countries, and the improvement of economic performance in low-income settings. Because agriculture is a large part of most developing economies, both in terms of employment and share of GDP, agricultural economists have been at the forefront of empirical research on development economics, contributing to our understanding of agriculture's role in economic development, economic growth and structural transformation. Many agricultural economists are interested in the food systems of developing economies, the linkages between agriculture and nutrition, and the ways in which agriculture interact with other domains, such as the natural environment.


title: Agricultural economics

text: The International Association of Agricultural Economists (IAAE) is a worldwide professional association, which holds its major conference every three years. The association publishes the journal "Agricultural Economics". There also is a European Association of Agricultural Economists (EAAE), an African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and an Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society. Substantial work in agricultural economics internationally is conducted by the International Food Policy Research Institute.


title: Agricultural economics

text: In the United States, the primary professional association is the Agricultural & Applied Economics Association (AAEA), which holds its own annual conference and also co-sponsors the annual meetings of the Allied Social Sciences Association (ASSA). The AAEA publishes the "American Journal of Agricultural Economics" and "Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy".


title: Agricultural economics

text: Graduates from agricultural and applied economics departments find jobs in many sectors of the economy: agricultural management, agribusiness, commodities markets, education, financial sector, government, natural resource and environmental management, real estate, and public relations. Careers in agricultural economics require at least a bachelor's degree, and research careers in the field require graduate-level training;


title: Agricultural economics

text: A 2011 study by the Georgetown Center on Education and the Workforce rated agricultural economics tied for 8th out of 171 fields in terms of employability.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Nightow created Vash as a strong gunner who would stand out because of his pacifist ways, traits that are different from those of the stereotypical protagonist of action films. The manga was adapted for television as an anime series in which Vash was voiced by Masaya Onosaka as an adult and Kōki Miyata as a child. For the English dub, Johnny Yong Bosch voices him as an adult and Bryce Papenbrook as a child. The character also appears in the 2010 film "", among other one-shots. Nightow was surprised at Vash's popularity with Western audiences.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Critics praised the mixture of seriousness and goofiness of Vash's character. However, his pacifism received a more mixed response. While some reviewers praised it as a part of Vash's heroic traits, others disliked the negative consequences when his pacifist choices failed. He remains popular in the anime adaptation and has appeared in multiple "best character" lists and articles. Onosaka and Bosch were praised for their performances, though critics favored Onosaka.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: "Trigun" manga author Yasuhiro Nightow has stated that Vash's name was his own creation rather than references to bands he gave to other members from the cast. He developed Vash as having a serious personality with a childish side, and found him to be the most relatable of all his creations. To contrast Vash from the typical heroes in action films, Nightow portrayed him as a pacifist since he did not want his lead character to be a murderer. Throughout the story, Vash avoids killing enemies by disarming them and avoids inflicting mortal wounds during combat. His cheerful personality was used to highlight this trait with his catchphrase being: "Hey, sorry. Love and peace?" To emphasize that Vash is an experienced gunman, Nightow depicted him as having a strong eyesight that gives him a more precise aim. While making the series, he was surprised by Vash's popularity with Western readers. Comparing Vash's manga characterization with his anime persona, Nightow said his version does not have as many crushes on the women he meets.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: To make Vash's appearance distinctive, Nightow often changed the character's hair color throughout the serialization. Although fans questioned if this was relevant to the story, Nightow chose not to reveal his reason for it. In the series' climax, it is revealed that Vash's blond hair turning black is a secondary effect of overusing his supernatural powers. Despite his efforts in his design, Nightow regrets giving Vash and antagonist Legato Bluesummers detailed eyes because he drew them inconsistently in the manga. Nightow had trouble designing Vash's gun as he aimed it to look visually attractive and effective to use. Although he originally wanted to create a gun with unlimited bullets, he replaced it with a traditional one after consulting a picture of an upside-down barrel for inspiration. Besides Vash's guns, Nightow portrayed him as having a supernatural power known as the "Angel Arms," in which his arms mutate to form a weapon. The Angel Arms adopt a feminine form and can create or give birth to matter.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: While Vash is the manga's protagonist, anime director Satoshi Nishimura used Meryl Stryfe as the main character. In the anime, she searches for the Humanoid Typhoon and initially does not believe it is Vash due to his childish behavior. To create suspense, writer Yōsuke Kuroda suggested that Vash would not shoot a bullet until the fifth episode, which causes Meryl to realize he is the famous gunman.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Masaya Onosaka started voicing Vash in the anime, which premiered in Japan in 1998. Onosaka said he was unaware when the 2010 film, "", would be made and that most of the cast and crew felt left in the dark for a long time before production began. After the film's announcement, Onosaka was happy to see his character featured in theaters for the first time and to work with the "Trigun" cast for the first time since the anime ended twelve years earlier. New voice actor Maaya Sakamoto said she liked being involved in the film because she interpreted Vash through her character, a bounty hunter named Amelia Ann McFly, who starred in the movie as a lead. Kōki Miyata voiced the young Vash. For "Trigun Stampede", Vash will be voiced by Yoshitsugu Matsuoka in his adult persona and Tomoyo Kurosawa as a child.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Johnny Yong Bosch started his voice acting career by providing Vash's voice in "Trigun"'s English-dubbed version. He had never heard of the series until he was hired for the role. According to Bosch, most of the fan responses to his performance were positive, and Nightow found his performance to be appealing. Bosch attributed his positive reception to the story and casting director. He enjoyed Vash's traits, specifically his pacifist philosophies alongside the catchphrase: "This world is made of love and peace!" Vash's younger self from the flashbacks is voiced by Bryce Papenbrook.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: The origins of Vash and his twin brother Millions Knives are explored in flashbacks from the "Trigun" manga when the children live in a spaceship containing the last few surviving humans who have fled Earth due to its lack of resources. The two are identified as "Plants" since they age at a slower rate. They are raised by a researcher named Rem Saverem in a space ship colony. Through Rem's education, Vash gains a newfound respect for life, but his brother seeks the mayhem in mankind. Knives disrupts the navigation system, triggering an alarm and waking the dormant passengers. When Knives sabotages the fleet, putting it on a crash course with the planet No-man's Land, Rem puts him and Vash in an escape pod to save them. Rem chooses to stay behind and attempts to prevent the crash rather than escaping. As the two children become young adults, they separate, with Knives amputating Vash's left arm in a fight. Vash is found by a group of humans who construct his cybernetic arm. Knives also attempts to activate Vash's dormant supernatural powers, the Angel Arm, but the plan backfires and a blast obliterates the city of July, leaving 200,000 people without food or shelter. The incident earns Vash's reputation as "The Humanoid Typhoon".


title: Vash the Stampede

text: When the "Trigun" manga begins, Vash travels around the planet searching for Knives. He befriends Meryl Stryfe and Milly Thompson, two agents of the Bernardelli Insurance Society, sent to evaluate claims regarding the dangers he has caused and whether or not his bounty should be canceled. He also meets a priest named Nicholas D. Wolfwood, who fights alongside him. Vash is targeted by Legato Bluesummers from the Gung-ho Guns assassins who are followers of Knives. After Legato confronts Vash, Knives reappears. A shocked Vash requests evacuation for Meryl and Milly because of the danger his brother presents. Knives then tries to use Vash's Angel Arm to destroy another city, but Vash resists and redirects the blast upward, where it hits one of No-man's moons.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: In the "Trigun Maximum" manga, which occurs two years after the moon's destruction, Wolfwood discovers Vash relating Knives' exploits in regards to mankind's extinction. In facing Legato's group, Vash fears that they have discovered the location of his home, resulting in the deaths of his friends. Vash learns a ship has made contact with Earth and will be arriving to save them from No-man's Land. Knives uses his powers as a Plant to shut down the satellites used to communicate with Earth. Vash learns of the severed connection and guesses its cause. Gung-ho Guns Hoppered the Gauntlet, a survivor of July, seeks revenge on Vash, but is killed by his partners as Knives ordered them not to kill their target but tormenting him. Vash and Wolfwood continue traveling to Knives' base. However, Vash is defeated and restrained by Legato. Wolfwood, revealed as a member of the Gung-ho Guns, rescues Vash.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Vash rejoins Wolfwood, who fights with Gung-ho Gun Livio to the death. When Wolfwood dies, Livio, Wolfwood's childhood friend, joins Vash' cause while grieving for his friend's death. As Knives approaches the city with the "Ark", a floating ship designed to leave humans without any resources and end life on the planet. Knives begins dueling with Vash. Throughout his past battles that required him to use the Angel's Arm, Vash has transformed into a regular human signified by his blond hair now turned black. Vash breaks his pacifist vow by killing Legato to protect Livio from the last Gung-ho Guns. Knives also starts losing the powers he stored with the Ark through Vash's actions. Vash then saves his brother from the vengeful ships from Earth. Following his defeat, Knives uses his last powers to help his weakened brother by creating a small fruit tree to feed him. After his brother's death, Vash continues his travels on the planet with Meryl and Milly.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: In the anime, No-Man's Land is called Gunsmoke. While wandering Gunsmoke with Knives, Vash shoots his brother for trying to kill more people. Vash is rescued by a group of humans from the only remaining functioning ships on the planet and leaves after a few months. He goes to July in the hopes of meeting Rem's friends but finds Knives has killed them. In the ensuing firefight, Knives shoots off Vash's left arm which activates his White Angel Arm, resulting in July's destruction. Throughout the series, Vash feels pressure to avoid killing his enemies. As the two interact, Wolfwood decides to be a pacifist like Vash, but is killed by one of Knives' men. Bringing Vash further grief is Legato who controls the civilians targeting Meryl and Milly. This forces Vash to kill Legato in order to save his friends. Despite being initially shocked by the idea of committing a sin, Vash find peace when Meryl says any person can find redemption regardless of action. Vash faces and defeats Knives whose fate is ambiguous. Vash then decides to adopt a new way of life, discarding the red coat that marked Rem's influences over him. The anime ends as Vash returns with his brother's body to Meryl and Milly.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Besides the anime, Vash appears in the 2010 "Trigun" film, "", in which he travels to Macca City where he meets a bounty hunter named Amelia Ann McFly. Seeking revenge against a thief named Gasback, Amelia joins Vash and Wolfwood in a quest to capture him. Amelia decides to follow Vash's example and does not kill Gasback, but allows him to be taken into custody. Vash also appears in a manga anthology of alternative stories; Vash being the protagonist who, along with Wolfwood, protects a village from thieves. In the sequel to the manga by Boichi, Vash meets another Plant who seeks her own death.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Vash was ranked second in the 1998 Annual Anime Grand Prix in the Male Character Category behind Spike Spiegel from "Cowboy Bebop". In 2000, the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation awarded Vash the Best Male Character, U.S. Release award. "Anime News Network" listed him and Wolfwood as one of the biggest "fiercest frenemies" because of their constant struggles and consistent friendship. "AnimeNation" considered Vash one of the most popular 1990s characters along with Spike Spiegel and Sakura Kinomoto from "Cardcaptor Sakura" manga.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: In 2009, Vash the Stampede was ranked 17th in "IGN"s Top Anime Characters of All Time, and Nightow was praised for how well "Trigun"s lead is designed. "IGN" ranked him as the 20th greatest anime character of all time in 2014 because of the balance displayed between his goofiness and grief in the narrative. "HobbyConsolas" listed Vash as one of the coolest characters in anime based on his skills and personality. In another poll, Vash was voted the second-best Masaya Onosaka character after France from "". Vash has been the used in merchandise, including action figures, plush dolls, keychains, clothes, and cosplay sunglasses.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: The lead singer of Mushroomhead wore a Vash the Stampede coat in many concerts before it was stolen from his dressing room. Vash also made a cameo appearance in Boichi's gangster manga "Sun-Ken Rock", when the cast goes to watch the "Trigun" film.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Critical reception to the character has been positive. "Anime News Network" stated Vash seems to have been influenced by Western films and compared him with Himura Kenshin from the "Rurouni Kenshin" manga because of their pacifism. "Manga Life" compared Vash's way of life with that of the American Midwest in the 1800s. They called his characterization "fantastic" based on the personality he displays when facing enemies as he refuses to murder anybody. When more of the character's past is revealed because of his conflict with his enemies, "Manga Life" said Vash's true self makes him more engaging, something which is expanded by the artwork. Vash's reintroduction in "Maximum" drew positive comments with a reviewer from "Mania Entertainment" saying both new and existing readers would be attracted by the restart of Vash's journey after moments of peace. In a later review, however, "Mania Entertainment" said some events that happened to Vash might come across as repetitive because his pacifism keeps backfiring and no proper solution has yet been given. As Vash's philosophy was tested in the finale, "Fandom Post" praised the consequences of his actions. "BlerdsOnline" noted Vash got so much grief the reader would also feel it when reading the manga.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Journalists have also commented on Vash's role in Madhouse's adaptation of the manga. "Escapist Magazine" regarded Vash's characterization as one of the most intriguing aspects of "Trigun" because while being a pacifist, he fights to protect others and despite his victories, he is never seen as overpowered. "AnimeOnDVD" enjoyed him for "running a gamut of emotions and attitudes" while displaying multiple skills that made him the most powerful fighter on the planet. The reviewer also said the change in Vash's character makes him more interesting to watch in the darker scenarios. Vash's backstory and its effect on him were described as "really interesting" because it would prompt questions from the audience. "T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews" called Vash "the poster-child for the misunderstood hero". Similarly, "Anime News Network" praised Vash's characterization for avoiding cliches often seen in Western stories. "AnimeNation" compared Vash with Abel Nightroad from the "Trinity Blood" anime based on their similar traits, saying they might be interpreted as identical characters. In the book "Anime Impact: The Movies and Shows that Changed the World of Japanese Animation", Chris Stuckmann compares Vash with John McClane from the "Die Hard" action films because of the similar misunderstandings the two go through while facing enemies.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Some critics commented on Vash's relationship with Knives. His final fight against Knives was seen as another well-developed scenario by "ANN". "Escapist" compared Vash and Knives to yin and yang because of their contrasting natures, which made their antagonism more appealing. "Comic Book Bin" also made this comparison, suggesting they subtly parallel Cain and Abel from the Book of Genesis because of how much Knives wants to torment his brother. By the manga's climax, "Mania" claimed the fight between these two characters was "the stuff of legend."


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Critics also commented on the "Badlands Rumble" portrayal of Vash. "DVD Talk" enjoyed it, stating his characterization would appeal to the audience. UK Anime Network said the character delivers the series' original pacifist message despite the attention given to comedy. "Otaku USA" said that Vash's portrayal in the movie is true to his character in the television series. "ANN" had mixed thoughts about Vash's movie persona. While finding this portrayal faithful to the original one, "ANN" said Vash's act as a lazy character takes too much time until his true self is revealed. Bosch's performance was praised nevertheless. "BlerdsOnline" noted it was one of Nightow's strongest points when writing "Trigun Maximum", along with the antagonism Vash has with Knives.


title: Vash the Stampede

text: Reviewers also commented on Vash's voice actors with "Escapist" praising Bosch's work. On the other hand, "DVDTalk" found Onosaka's work better than Bosch's. Similarly, despite being praised for his childish take on Vash, Bosch's acting was criticized as unfitting when Vash sounds serious by "Japanator". As a result, the reviewer recommended Onosaka instead. "UK Anime Network" enjoyed Vash's role in Nightow's first one-shot from "Multiple Bullets", but criticized Boichi's portrayal of him as childish and almost like a Mary Sue.


title: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light

text: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light, later released in Japan as , or simply Yu-Gi-Oh!: The Movie, is a 2004 animated adventure fantasy film produced by 4Kids Entertainment based on the Japanese manga and anime "Yu-Gi-Oh!" It stars the cast of the "Yu-Gi-Oh!" television series in a new adventure that takes place between the third and fourth seasons of the show.


title: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light

text: The film was first released in United States theaters by Warner Bros. Pictures under their Warner Bros. Family Entertainment label on 13 August 2004, and was released on DVD and VHS on 16 November 2004. The film was released in theaters in Japanese by Toho on 3 November 2004 and aired on TV Tokyo on 2 January 2005. A remastered version of the film was released in theaters by 4K Media Inc. in 2018 on 11 and 12 March in the US, 25, 28 April, and 29 in Canada and 13 June in the United Kingdom, and was released on Blu-ray by Konami Cross Media NY and Cinedigm 8 October 2019. The film was a critical and commercial failure.


title: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light

text: Five thousand years ago, an heroic Pharaoh Atem imprisoned Anubis, the Egyptian lord of the dead, after he tried to destroy the world by persuading the kings to play the mysterious Shadow Games. In the present day, Anubis' tomb is uncovered by archaeologists, amazed with his strongest and most valuable treasure: the Pyramid of Light. At the same time, Yugi Muto completed the Millennium Puzzle which contains Atem's soul releasing dozens of monsters and the spirit of Atem possessed Yugi under the alias of Yami Yugi and banishes the monsters back to the shadow realm and a devastating spiritual force unleashes from the relic and liberates the Egyptian sorcerer. Anubis, now free, intends to conclude his plan.


title: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light

text: Three years later, the Battle City Finals have recently concluded, and Yugi has achieved international fame by defeating his arch-rival Seto Kaiba and obtaining the three Egyptian God Cards: "Slifer the Sky Dragon", "Obelisk the Tormentor", and "the Winged Dragon of Ra". Kaiba, determined to defeat Yugi once and for all, turns to Maximillion Pegasus, the creator of the Duel Monsters card game, in order to obtain any new cards designed to defeat the almighty God Cards. Pegasus tells Kaiba that he has a card he is looking for, but will only give it to Kaiba if he can beat him in a duel. Kaiba defeats Pegasus and claims two cards, one of which was secretly planted by Anubis.


title: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light

text: Meanwhile, Yugi and Téa Gardner after escaping the pro duelists and school principal that about to confiscate Yugi's three Egyptian God Cards go to the local museum where Anubis' corpse and the Pyramid of Light are on display. They meet up with Yugi's grandfather, Solomon, who reads a foreboding prophecy:


title: Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie: Pyramid of Light

text: It is then that the vengefully dark spirit of Anubis attacks the group, with Yugi having a vision of Anubis himself manipulating Kaiba and Yami Yugi being hurt in a Shadow Game. He awakens to find Anubis and the Pyramid of Light missing. Kaiba's younger brother Mokuba arrives, and Yugi is taken to Kaiba's duel dome with his friends Joey Wheeler and Tristan Taylor in pursuit. Kaiba arrogantly and ignorantly forces Yami Yugi into a duel, unaware that Anubis is manipulating him into using one of the two new cards, "Pyramid of Light", which covers the field in a huge replica of the actual pyramid and destroys the God Cards. Yugi, Joey and Tristan are sucked into the pyramid while Mokuba flees the crumbling building.