title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin belongs to the basic proteins, its isoelectric point is 8.7. It exists in two forms: iron-rich hololactoferrin and iron-free apolactoferrin. Their tertiary structures are different; apolactoferrin is characterized by "open" conformation of the N-lobe and the "closed" conformation of the C-lobe, and both lobes are closed in the hololactoferrin.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Each lactoferrin molecule can reversibly bind two ions of iron, zinc, copper or other metals. The binding sites are localized in each of the two protein globules. There, each ion is bonded with six ligands: four from the polypeptide chain (two tyrosine residues, one histidine residue and one aspartic acid residue) and two from carbonate or bicarbonate ions.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin forms reddish complex with iron; its affinity for iron is 300 times higher than that of transferrin. The affinity increases in weakly acidic medium. This facilitates the transfer of iron from transferrin to lactoferrin during inflammations, when the pH of tissues decreases due to accumulation of lactic and other acids. The saturated iron concentration in lactoferrin in human milk is estimated as 10 to 30% (100% corresponds to all lactoferrin molecules containing 2 iron atoms). It is demonstrated that lactoferrin is involved not only in the transport of iron, zinc and copper, but also in the regulation of their intake. Presence of loose ions of zinc and copper does not affect the iron binding ability of lactoferrin, and might even increase it.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Both in blood plasma and in secretory fluids lactoferrin can exist in different polymeric forms ranging from monomers to tetramers. Lactoferrin tends to polymerize both "in vitro" and "in vivo", especially at high concentrations. Several authors found that the dominant form of lactoferrin in physiological conditions is a tetramer, with the monomer:tetramer ratio of 1:4 at the protein concentrations of 10 M.


title: Lactoferrin

text: It is suggested that the oligomer state of lactoferrin is determined by its concentration and that polymerization of lactoferrin is strongly affected by the presence of Ca ions. In particular, monomers were dominant at concentrations below 10−10 M in the presence of Ca, but they converted into tetramers at lactoferrin concentrations above 10−10 M. Titer of lactoferrin in the blood corresponds to this particular "transition concentration" and thus lactoferrin in the blood should be presented both as a monomer and tetramer. Many functional properties of lactoferrin depend on its oligomeric state. In particular, monomeric, but not tetrameric lactoferrin can strongly bind to DNA.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin belongs to the innate immune system. Apart from its main biological function, namely binding and transport of iron ions, lactoferrin also has antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic, catalytic, anti-cancer, and anti-allergic functions and properties.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin hydrolyzes RNA and exhibits the properties of pyrimidine-specific secretory ribonucleases. In particular, by destroying the RNA genome, milk RNase inhibits reverse transcription of retroviruses that cause breast cancer in mice. Parsi women in West India have the milk RNase level markedly lower than in other groups, and their breast cancer rate is three times higher than average. Thus, ribonucleases of milk, and lactoferrin in particular, might play an important role in pathogenesis.


title: Lactoferrin

text: The lactoferrin receptor plays an important role in the internalization of lactoferrin; it also facilitates absorption of iron ions by lactoferrin. It was shown that gene expression increases with age in the duodenum and decreases in the jejunum.


title: Lactoferrin

text: The moonlighting glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) has been demonstrated to function as a receptor for lactoferrin.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Ribonuclease-enriched lactoferrin has been used to examine how lactoferrin affects bone. Lactoferrin has shown to have positive effects on bone turnover. It has aided in decreasing bone resorption and increasing bone formation. This was indicated by a decrease in the levels of two bone resorption markers (deoxypyridinoline and N-telopeptide) and an increase in the levels two bone formation markers (osteocalcin and alkaline phosphatase). It has reduced osteoclast formation, which signifies a decrease in pro-inflammatory responses and an increase in anti-inflammatory responses which indicates a reduction in bone resorption as well.


title: Lactoferrin

text: One of the important properties of lactoferrin is its ability to bind with nucleic acids. The fraction of protein extracted from milk, contains 3.3% RNA,


title: Lactoferrin

text: but, the protein preferably binds to double-stranded DNA rather than single-stranded DNA. The ability of lactoferrin to bind DNA is used for its isolation and purification using affinity chromatography with columns containing immobilized DNA-containing sorbents, such as agarose with the immobilized single-stranded DNA.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin's primary role is to sequester free iron, and in doing so remove essential substrate required for bacterial growth. Antibacterial action of lactoferrin is also explained by the presence of specific receptors on the cell surface of microorganisms. Lactoferrin binds to lipopolysaccharide of bacterial walls, and the oxidized iron part of the lactoferrin oxidizes bacteria via formation of peroxides. This affects the membrane permeability and results in the cell breakdown (lysis).


title: Lactoferrin

text: Although lactoferrin also has other antibacterial mechanisms not related to iron, such as stimulation of phagocytosis, the interaction with the outer bacterial membrane described above is the most dominant and most studied. Lactoferrin not only disrupts the membrane, but even penetrates into the cell. Its binding to the bacteria wall is associated with the specific peptide lactoferricin, which is located at the N-lobe of lactoferrin and is produced by "in vitro" cleavage of lactoferrin with another protein, trypsin. A mechanism of the antimicrobial action of lactoferrin has been reported as lactoferrin targets H-ATPase and interferes with proton translocation in the cell membrane, resulting in a lethal effect "in vitro".


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin prevents the attachment of "H. pylori" in the stomach, which in turn, aids in reducing digestive system disorders. Bovine lactoferrin has more activity against "H. pylori" than human lactoferrin.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin in sufficient strength acts on a wide range of human and animal viruses based on DNA and RNA genomes, including the herpes simplex virus 1 and 2, cytomegalovirus, HIV, hepatitis C virus, hantaviruses, rotaviruses, poliovirus type 1, human respiratory syncytial virus, murine leukemia viruses and Mayaro virus. Activity against COVID-19 has been speculated but not proven.


title: Lactoferrin

text: The most studied mechanism of antiviral activity of lactoferrin is its diversion of virus particles from the target cells. Many viruses tend to bind to the lipoproteins of the cell membranes and then penetrate into the cell. Lactoferrin binds to the same lipoproteins thereby repelling the virus particles. Iron-free apolactoferrin is more efficient in this function than hololactoferrin; and lactoferricin, which is responsible for antimicrobial properties of lactoferrin, shows almost no antiviral activity.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Beside interacting with the cell membrane, lactoferrin also directly binds to viral particles, such as the hepatitis viruses. This mechanism is also confirmed by the antiviral activity of lactoferrin against rotaviruses, which act on different cell types.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin also suppresses virus replication after the virus penetrated into the cell. Such an indirect antiviral effect is achieved by affecting natural killer cells, granulocytes and macrophages – cells, which play a crucial role in the early stages of viral infections, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin and lactoferricin inhibit "in vitro" growth of "Trichophyton mentagrophytes", which are responsible for several skin diseases such as ringworm. Lactoferrin also acts against the "Candida albicans" – a diploid fungus (a form of yeast) that causes opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans. Fluconazole has long been used against "Candida albicans", which resulted in emergence of strains resistant to this drug. However, a combination of lactoferrin with fluconazole can act against fluconazole-resistant strains of "Candida albicans" as well as other types of Candida: "C. glabrata, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis" and "C. tropicalis". Antifungal activity is observed for sequential incubation of "Candida" with lactoferrin and then with fluconazole, but not vice versa. The antifungal activity of lactoferricin exceeds that of lactoferrin. In particular, synthetic peptide 1–11 lactoferricin shows much greater activity against "Candida albicans" than native lactoferricin.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Administration of lactoferrin through drinking water to mice with weakened immune systems and symptoms of aphthous ulcer reduced the number of "Candida albicans" strains in the mouth and the size of the damaged areas in the tongue. Oral administration of lactoferrin to animals also reduced the number of pathogenic organisms in the tissues close to the gastrointestinal tract. "Candida albicans" could also be completely eradicated with a mixture containing lactoferrin, lysozyme and itraconazole in HIV-positive patients who were resistant to other antifungal drugs. Such antifungal action when other drugs deem inefficient is characteristic of lactoferrin and is especially valuable for HIV-infected patients. Contrary to the antiviral and antibacterial actions of lactoferrin, very little is known about the mechanism of its antifungal action. Lactoferrin seems to bind the plasma membrane of "C. albicans" inducing an apoptotic-like process.


title: Lactoferrin

text: The anticancer activity of bovine lactoferrin (bLF) has been demonstrated in experimental lung, bladder, tongue, colon, and liver carcinogeneses on rats, possibly by suppression of phase I enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2). Also, in another experiment done on hamsters, bovine lactoferrin decreased the incidence of oral cancer by 50%. Currently, bLF is used as an ingredient in yogurt, chewing gums, infant formulas, and cosmetics.


title: Lactoferrin

text: The human lung and saliva contain a wide range of antimicrobial compound including lactoperoxidase system, producing hypothiocyanite and lactoferrin, with hypothiocyanite missing in cystic fibrosis patients. Lactoferrin, a component of innate immunity, prevents bacterial biofilm development. The loss of microbicidal activity and increased formation of biofilm due to decreased lactoferrin activity is observed in patients with cystic fibrosis. In cystic fibrosis, antibiotic susceptibility may be modified by lactoferrin. These findings demonstrate the important role of lactoferrin in human host defense and especially in lung. Lactoferrin with hypothiocyanite has been granted orphan drug status by the EMEA and the FDA.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Low quality evidence suggests that oral lactoferrin supplementation with or without the addition of a probiotic may decrease late onset of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis (stage II or III) in preterm infants with no adverse effects.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactoferrin levels in tear fluid have been shown to decrease in dry eye diseases such as Sjögren's syndrome. A rapid, portable test utilizing microfluidic technology has been developed to enable measurement of lactoferrin levels in human tear fluid at the point-of-care with the aim of improving diagnosis of Sjögren's syndrome and other forms of dry eye disease.


title: Lactoferrin

text: Lactotransferrin has been used in the synthesis of fluorescent gold quantum clusters, which has potential applications in nanotechnology.


title: Wola massacre

text: The Wola massacre () was the systematic killing of between 40,000 and 50,000 Poles in the Wola neighbourhood of the Polish capital city, Warsaw, by the German Wehrmacht and fellow Axis collaborators in the Azerbaijani Legion, as well as the mostly-Russian RONA forces, which took place from 5 to 12 August 1944. The massacre was ordered by Adolf Hitler, who directed to kill "anything that moves" to stop the Warsaw Uprising soon after it began.


title: Wola massacre

text: Tens of thousands of Polish civilians along with captured Home Army resistance fighters were brutally murdered by the Germans in organised mass executions throughout Wola. Whole families, including babies, children and the elderly, were often shot on the spot, but some were killed after torture and sexual assault. Soldiers murdered patients in hospitals, killing them in their beds, as well as the doctors and nurses caring for them. Dead bodies were piled up to be burned by the "Verbrennungskommando" ("burning detachment") to destroy the evidence of the massacre; though first, dogs were let loose to find survivors to be killed. The operation was led by Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, though its main perpetrators were the Dirlewanger Brigade and the "RONA" Kaminski Brigade, whose forces committed the cruelest atrocities, drawing criticism from Bach-Zelewski himself.


title: Wola massacre

text: The Germans anticipated that these atrocities would crush the insurrectionists' will to fight and put the uprising to a swift end. However, the ruthless pacification of Wola only stiffened Polish resistance, and it took another two months of heavy fighting for the Germans to regain control of the city.


title: Wola massacre

text: The Warsaw Uprising broke out on 1 August 1944. During the first few days the Polish resistance managed to liberate most of Warsaw on the left bank of the river Vistula (an uprising also broke out in the district of Praga on the right bank of the river but was quickly suppressed by the Germans). Two days after the start of the fighting, "SS" General Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski was placed in command of all German forces in Warsaw. Following direct orders from "SS-Reichsfűhrer" Heinrich Himmler to suppress the uprising without mercy, his strategy was to include the use of terror tactics against the inhabitants of Warsaw. No distinction would be made between insurrectionists and civilians as Himmler's orders explicitly stated that Warsaw was to be completely destroyed and that the civilian population was to be exterminated.


title: Wola massacre

text: Professor Timothy Snyder, of Yale University, wrote that "the massacres in Wola had nothing in common with combat ... the ratio of civilian to military dead was more than a thousand to one, even if military casualties on both sides are counted."


title: Wola massacre

text: On 5 August, three German battle groups started their advance toward the city centre from the western outskirts of the Wola district, along Wolska and Górczewska streets. The German forces consisted of units from the "Wehrmacht" and the SS Police Battalions, as well as the mostly Russian "SS-Sturmbrigade RONA" and the "SS-Sturmbrigade Dirlewanger", an infamous "Waffen SS" penal unit led by "SS-Oberführer" Oskar Dirlewanger, which included the Azerbaijani Legion (part of the "Ostlegionen"). British historian Martin Windrow described Dirlewanger's unit as a "terrifying rabble" of "cut-throats, [foreign] renegades, sadistic morons, and cashiered rejects from other units".


title: Wola massacre

text: Shortly after their advance toward the centre of Warsaw began, the two lead battle groups — "Kampfgruppe" "Rohr" (led by Generalmajor Günter Rohr) and "Kampfgruppe" "Reinefarth" (led by Heinz Reinefarth) — were halted by heavy fire from Polish resistance fighters. Unable to proceed forward, some of the German troops began to go from house to house carrying out their orders to shoot all inhabitants. Many civilians were shot on the spot but some were killed after torture and sexual assault. Estimates vary, but Reinefarth himself has estimated that up to 10,000 civilians were killed in the Wola district on 5 August alone, the first day of the operation. Most of the victims were the elderly, women and children.


title: Wola massacre

text: The majority of these atrocities were committed by troops under the command of Oskar Dirlewanger and "SS-Brigadeführer" Bronislav Kaminski. Research historian Martin Gilbert, from the University of Oxford, wrote:


title: Wola massacre

text: "More than fifteen thousand Polish civilians had been murdered by German troops in Warsaw. At 5:30 that evening [August 5], General Erich von dem Bach gave the order for the execution of women and children to stop. But the killing continued of all Polish men who were captured, without anyone bothering to find out whether they were insurrectionists or not. Nor did either the Cossacks or the criminals in the Kaminsky and Dirlewanger brigades pay any attention to von dem Bach Zelewski's order: by rape, murder, torture and fire, they made their way through the suburbs of Wola and Ochota, killing in three days of slaughter a further thirty thousand civilians, including hundreds of patients in each of the hospitals in their path."


title: Wola massacre

text: Two hours before midnight on 5 August the Azerbaijani soldiers and Bergmann Battalion attacked St Lazarus hospital, executed hundreds of patients, doctors, and nurses, before burning it down.


title: Wola massacre

text: On 5 August, the Zośka battalion of the Home Army had managed to liberate the Gęsiówka concentration camp and to take control of the strategically important surrounding area of the former Warsaw Ghetto with the aid of two captured Panther tanks belonging to a unit commanded by Wacław Micuta. Over the next few days of fighting this area became one of the main communication links between Wola and Warsaw's Old Town district, allowing insurrectionists and civilians to gradually withdraw from Wola ahead of the superior German forces that had been deployed against them.


title: Wola massacre

text: On 7 August, the German ground forces were strengthened further. To enhance their effectiveness, the Germans began to use civilians as human shields when approaching positions held by the Polish resistance. These tactics combined with their superior numbers and firepower helped them to fight their way to Bankowy Square in the northern part of Warsaw's city centre and cut the Wola district in half.


title: Wola massacre

text: German units burned down two local hospitals with some of the patients still inside. Hundreds of other patients and personnel were killed by indiscriminate gunfire and grenade attacks or selected and led away for executions. The greatest number of killings took place at the railway embankment on Górczewska Street and two large factories on Wolska Street – the Ursus Factory at Wolska 55 and the Franaszka Factory at Wolska 41/45 – as well as the Pfeiffer Factory at 57/59 Okopowa Street. At each of these four locations, thousands of people were systematically executed in mass shootings, having been previously rounded up in other places and taken there in groups.


title: Wola massacre

text: Between 8 and 23 August the "SS" formed groups of men from the Wola district into the so-called "Verbrennungskommando" ("burning detachment"), who were forced to hide evidence of the massacre by burning the victims' bodies and homes. Most of the men put to work in such groups were later executed.


title: Wola massacre

text: On 12 August, the order was given to stop the indiscriminate killing of Polish civilians in Wola. Erich von dem Bach issued a new directive stating that captured civilians were to be evacuated from the city and deported to concentration camps or to "Arbeitslager" labour camps.


title: Wola massacre

text: No one belonging to the German forces who took part in the atrocities committed during the Warsaw Uprising was ever prosecuted for them after the end of the Second World War. The main perpetrators of the Wola massacre and similar massacres in the nearby Ochota district were Heinz Reinefarth and Oskar Dirlewanger. Dirlewanger, who presided over and personally participated in many of the worst acts of violence, was arrested on 1 June 1945 by French occupation troops while hiding under a false name near the town of Altshausen in Upper Swabia. He died on 7 June 1945 in a French prison camp at Altshausen, probably as a result of ill-treatment by his Polish guards. In 1945, Reinefarth was taken into custody by the Allied authorities but was never prosecuted for his actions in Warsaw, despite Polish requests for his extradition. After a West German court released him citing a lack of evidence, Reinefarth enjoyed a successful post-war career as a lawyer, becoming the mayor of Westerland, and a member of the "Landtag" parliament of Schleswig-Holstein. The West German government also gave the former SS-"Obergruppenführer" a general's pension before he died in 1979.


title: Wola massacre

text: In May 2008, a list of several former "SS Dirlewanger" members who were still alive was compiled and published by the Warsaw Uprising Museum.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is the county seat and largest city of Putnam County, Tennessee, United States. As of the 2020 United States census, its population was reported to be 34,842. It is recognized as one of the country's micropolitan areas, or smaller cities which function as significant regional economic hubs. Of the twenty micropolitan areas in Tennessee, Cookeville is the largest. The Cookeville micropolitan area's 2010 Census population was 106,042. The U.S. Census Bureau ranked the Cookeville micropolitan area as the 7th largest-gaining micropolitan area in the country between 2018 and 2019, with a one-year gain of 1,796 and a 2019 population of 114,272. The city is a college town, home to Tennessee Tech.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Previous to its settlement era, the area of Cookeville was dominated by the Cherokee Native American tribe through the Paleo-Indian to the early European colonization periods of history. The Cherokee would use the region as communal hunting grounds. Claims to the land by the Cherokee in the Cumberland Plateau would cease following the signing of the third rendition of the Treaty of Tellico in October 1805. The area surrounding Cookeville and Putnam County was first reported to be settled by Virginia and North Carolina longhunters around the late 1700s to early 1800s, most of whom were of English and Scotch-Irish descent. Settlers arrived by Avery's Trace, which was known as the Walton Road in the area of what is present-day Cookeville. Putnam County was not established until 1842, when it was formed from portions of White, Overton, Jackson, Smith, and DeKalb counties after the population increased sufficiently, straining those counties' abilities to support services to the isolated residents. Entering the 19th century, the area was dominated economically with the rise of agriculture, logging, and timber production. Putnam County re-established itself in 1854, with the establishment of a county seat required by new Tennessee state law. In the same year, land purchased by Charles Crook would become the area where the new county seat would be established since it has access to a natural springs able to support a town. The city was named Cookeville for Richard Fielding Cooke, an early pioneer who came to Tennessee in 1810 and settled in the area. Cooke was twice elected to the state senate, and was influential in establishing Putnam County in 1854.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: The largely rugged landscape of the Cookeville area made it unsuitable for large-scale farming operations compared to most of the larger Middle Tennessee region. Despite this, several farming institutions operated in the region, some using African slave laborers. Following Tennessee's secession from the United States in 1861, residents of the Cookeville area were conflicted on siding in the American Civil War. Most residents opposed secession and supported to remain with the Union. Cookeville residents enrolled to assist in both the armies of the Confederacy and the Union. Several aggressions occurred during the Civil War, including the burning of the Putnam County Courthouse in Cookeville's city square, the slaying of 20 and capture of 40 Confederate soldiers by Union Army Colonel Henry McConnell, and the Battle of Dug Hill.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Economic and cultural growth in Cookeville stagnated as a result of political divide amongst residents's viewpoints on the Civil War, causing animosities amongst neighbors and families. The tides would turn by the late 1800s, following the completion of the city's first hotel, the Isbell in 1886, and the Nashville and Knoxville Railroad four years later.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: The investment made by railroad companies would place Cookeville on a path of massive economic and industrial development with the Nashville and Knoxville railroad, which became the Tennessee Central Railroad. With this new growth, Cookeville would officially incorporate into a chartered city in 1903. Two years later, the city would establish the Cookeville Light and Water Department, when electricity was first distributed in the city. In 1909, the Tennessee Central Railroad would construct the Cookeville Depot in the city's West Side District, providing passenger rail service until 1955.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: In 1909, local religious leaders with the aid of the Tennessee state government would establish the University of Dixie, a private university deeded to the community. However, the institution would be seized by the state government in 1915 following decline in enrollment and financial support. The state government would re-establish it into Tennessee Polytechnic Institute, a public institute of technology focused on education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The university would establish Cookeville as a regional education hub and a college town, increasing its population and post-secondary education enrollment. In 1965, it would be renamed Tennessee Technological University.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: With the advancement rail access, Cookeville began to industrialize with the rise of textile manufacturing, coal mining, and the rapid expansion of the established timber production industry. The dominance of the railroad declined by the beginnings of the Great Depression. By 1930, U.S. Route 70, the first modern highway in Cookeville, would be completed by the Tennessee Department of Highways, prompting further expansion of Cookeville's industrial and commercial markets. The large-scale Center Hill Dam project by the United States Army Corps of Engineers would provide employment opportunities to Cookeville residents, and after its completion, provided advanced electricity production for industrial development, flood control of the nearby Caney Fork River, and recreational sites with the design of Edgar Evins and Burgess Falls state parks.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Other infrastructure additions to the city would be beneficial to the city's growth, including a water treatment plant in 1946, the Cookeville General Hospital in 1950, and a wastewater treatment plant in 1952.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: During the Jim Crow era of the 1950s, John's Place was one business where white and black locals often socialized despite their differences. John's Place was originally opened as Ed's Place in 1949, and later known as McClellan's Cafe, and finally as John's Place starting since 1957, the establishment at 11 Gibson Ave. off of West Spring Street was a grocery store and restaurant. John's Place is known for its southern cuisine – fried chicken, catfish, meatloaf, and corn bread, as well as beer. Throughout the segregation of the 1960s, the only place you could interact interracially was at John's Place, and many locals encountered their first African American at the restaurant. John's Place was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2011.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: By 1966, the Interstate 40 corridor was completed south of the city center, prompting annexation of several of the freeway's interchanges for commercial development. After its end of passenger rail use in 1955, the Cookeville Depot fell into disrepair. A group of local residents and preservationists would work for the saving of the depot from demolition. After the lengthy demanding from residents, the Cookeville city government would purchase the Cookeville Depot. The citizens group responsible for its preservation restored the facility and reopened it into a museum in 1985, the year it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: By the 1970 census, the population of Cookeville would increase by more than 80% compared to the 1960 census, showcasing its rise from a predominately rural town into a larger hub city with increased enrollment at Tennessee Technological University and Interstate 40 positioning the city for increased employment opportunities.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: The city's establishment as the economic hub of the Upper Cumberland region strengthened with the construction and completion of Tennessee State Route 111, also known as Appalachian Development Highway System Corridor J. Corridor J, which went through the engineering phase in 1978, and completed in the late 1980s, provides expressway-grade access to Cookeville for neighboring communities in Overton and White counties.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Throughout the 1990s, the Cookeville Public Works and Engineering Department constructed several collector streets that aided with commercial development along the northern side of the I-40 corridor in the city.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: With the dawn of the 21st century, Cookeville embarked on one of its recorded largest expansions of its city limits, when it would annex over 10 square miles of previously unincorporated Putnam County between 2000 and 2009. In 2007, city officials approved the purchase of over 400 acres for a regional industrial park known as the Highlands Business Park. Cookeville General Hospital, then recently renamed the Cookeville Regional Medical Center, completed a major renovation and expansion project as a result of the city and surrounding region's extensive population growth one year later.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: During the March 2020 tornado outbreak, an EF-4 tornado touched down west of Cookeville damaging several of the city's western outskirt neighborhoods, killing 19 people, injuring 87, and causing more than $100 million in damages. As a result of the tornado, Tennessee Tech closed for two days, encouraging students volunteers to assist first responders in rescue and clean-up. The tornado's estimated maximum wind speed of 175 mph along its nearly nine-mile path was recorded as the strongest storm of the outbreak.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (0.77%) is water.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Located on the Highland Rim, Cookeville's elevation (1100 ft AMSL) is a few hundred feet higher than either Nashville or Knoxville. As a result, temperatures and humidity levels are generally slightly lower in Cookeville than in either the Nashville Basin or in the Tennessee Valley.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is situated in the Upper Cumberland region of Tennessee near the crossroads of I-40, SR 136, and US 70N-SR 24. The city is located 79 miles east of Nashville and 101 miles west of Knoxville.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Three man-made lakes maintained by the Corps of Engineers are located near Cookeville, created to help flood control in the narrow valleys of the Cumberland Plateau: Center Hill Lake, Cordell Hull Lake, and Dale Hollow Lake. Two smaller man-made lakes, City Lake and Burgess Falls Lake, lie along the Falling Water River, which flows through the southeastern part of the county. Cane Creek Lake, created by an earthen dam built by the Civilian Conservation Corps, lies in the western part of the city.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfa") with relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation through the year. Summers are typically hot and humid and winters are mild and cool. The highest temperature recorded in Cookeville since 1896 is on June 29, 2012, and the lowest temperature recorded is on January 21, 1985. Average annual precipitation is , with the highest recorded precipitation at on September 29, 1964. Average annual snowfall is with the highest recorded snowfall at on November 3, 1966.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 34,842 people, 13,743 households, and 7,341 families residing in the city.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 30,435 people, 12,471 households, and 6,669 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,094.5 people per square mile (422.5/km). There were 13,706 housing units at an average density of 491.6 per square mile (189.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 87.9% White, 3.4% African American, 0.6% Native American, 2.0% Asian, 0.21% Pacific Islander, 4.0% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.0% of the population.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: There were 12,471 households, out of which 25.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37% were married couples living together, 12% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.5% were non-families. Of all households 33.9% were made up of individuals, and 10.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.83.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 18.6% under the age of 18, 25.2% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 18.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.8 males.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: The median income for a household in the city was $29,789, and the median income for a family was $39,623. Males had a median income of $28,013 versus $21,710 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,297. About 13.1% of families and 23.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.1% of those under age 18 and 18.7% of those age 65 or over.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is the largest city in the Upper Cumberland region of Tennessee, and as such, is known as the "Hub of the Upper Cumberlands." Cookeville is located at the center of the labor market area consisting of Putnam, Cumberland, DeKalb, Jackson, Overton, Smith and White counties, with a civilian labor force in 2013 of 103,500 jobs (roughly one-third of which are in Putnam County itself). , there were 16 commercial banks and four credit unions operating in the city, with combined deposits totaling over $2.5 billion. Total retail sales in Cookeville for 2016 were $1.6 billion. The unemployment rate in Putnam County was 3.0%, down from April 2017's rate of 3.7%. The cost of living in Cookeville is low, and the city ranked 8th in the United States on the Center for Regional Economic Competitivess Cost of Living Index in 2016.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: According to the city's 2030 Comprehensive Annual Plan published in 2010, the top employers in the city in 2009 were:


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Manufacturing is the largest sector in Cookeville's economy with over 100 plants and 8,000 employees. With 13% of the workforce, retail trade employs about 4,200 people and is the second largest sector in the Cookeville economy. Health care workers comprise about 12% of the work force with 3,840 employees. Education is another major sector with nearly 2,000 employees at Tennessee Tech and the public school system.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: There are a number of companies based in Cookeville. In 2006 Oreck manufacturing moved their Long Beach, Mississippi plant to Cookeville after Hurricane Katrina. Oreck employs about 500 people and is a prominent business in the region. The trucking company Averitt Express is based in Cookeville, as is J&S Construction. The manufacturing company ATC Automation is also based in Cookeville, and in 2016 announced a $10.4 million investment plan intended to add 110 engineering jobs to the city. Later in 2016, Academy Sports + Outdoors opened a 1.6 million square foot distribution center in Cookeville, the largest distribution center in the state under one roof and employing 700. Also in 2016, Spanish automotive supplier Ficosa relocated a factory and 450 jobs from nearby Crossville to a new, $58 million facility in Cookeville where it added an additional 550 jobs. The Ficosa plant produces high-tech rear-view mirrors.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: In 2017, Science Applications International Corp. (NYSE:SAIC) announced that it is establishing its first center of excellence to deliver information technology services in downtown Cookeville. It will be named the Technology Integration Gateway and will employ 300 information technology (IT) professionals when fully developed. Also in 2017, Scottsdale, AZ, based Digital Dream Forge opened a software testing facility in Cookeville, employing 80. In 2018, Italian tile and glass maker Colorrobia announced it would open a $5 million laboratory in Cookeville to service ceramic tile factories in the area.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Interstate Drive, located parallel to Interstate 40 at the south end of town, is the site of many popular restaurant and hotel chains. A new 228,000 square foot retail park is now operational using the name of the "Shoppes at Eagle Point" just off of Interstate Drive at the intersection of South Walnut Ave. and E. Veterans Dr. Historic Downtown's West Side is the site of several locally owned retail stores and restaurants, including the Cream City ice cream and coffee shop, Ralph's Donut Shop, Crawdaddy's West Side Grill, The Backroom Bistro, World Foods, The Blue Pig, Father Tom's Pub, Seven Senses Food & Cheer, and others. Cookeville is also home to three of the region's microbreweries, the Red Silo Brewing Company, Hix Farm Brewery, and Jig Head Brewing Company.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is considered to be Crossfit's "global mecca," with many of the world's top Crossfit Games athletes living and training together at four-time individual champion Rich Froning's CrossFit Mayhem location.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: The city of Cookeville operates under the council-manager form of municipal government. There is an elected five-member city council, including a mayor, vice mayor, and three city council members. The city council establishes policy that is administered by a full-time city manager. All city council members serve four year terms, and the city manager and city clerk are appointed by the city council. The current mayor is Ricky Shelton, and the four other city council members are Vice Mayor Laurin Wheaton, Dr. Charles Womack, Mark Miller, and Eric Walker. The current city manager is James Mills and the current city clerk is Darian Coons.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is also the county seat of Putnam County. The current county mayor is Randy Porter. , the total population of Putnam County is 74,165.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is predominantly a college town, home to Tennessee Tech since 1915. Tennessee Tech is a public university with programs concentrating in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) studies and is ranked by "U.S. News & World Report" as #35 on the list of the Top Regional Universities in the South, as well as the most under-rated university in the state of Tennessee. The university is rated under, ""Doctoral Universities - High Research Activity (R2)"" by the Carnegie classification system among schools with at least twenty (20) doctoral graduates per year. In addition to its outstanding science and engineering programs, the university is also home to the Mastersingers and the Tennessee Tech Tuba Ensemble, led by renowned professor, R. Winston Morris.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: In addition to Tennessee Tech, Cookeville is also home to a satellite campus of Volunteer State Community College as well as the Tennessee Bible College, a Christian college affiliated with the Churches of Christ.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Public schools in the city of Cookeville are run by Putnam County Schools, which consists of a total of eighteen (18) elementary, middle and high schools located throughout Putnam County. The schools located in the city of Cookeville include Cookeville High School, Jere Whitson Elementary, Prescott Middle School, Northeast Elementary, Capshaw Elementary, Dry Valley School, Parkview Elementary, Sycamore Elementary, Cane Creek Elementary, Avery Trace Middle, and the Adult High School. Cookeville High School is one of the six largest public high schools in the state of Tennessee. Cookeville High School and Avery Trace Middle School are among the twenty (20) schools in the state of Tennessee to offer the International Baccalaureate program.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: The major daily newspaper in Cookeville is the "Herald-Citizen", which publishes in print and online formats six days per week (except Saturdays). Cookeville is also the headquarters of the "Upper Cumberland Business Journal", a quarterly business newspaper serving the 14-county Upper Cumberland region. Cookeville is also home to one broadcast television station, WCTE TV 22 (PBS). Charter Communications provides cable television service, and Dish Network provides satellite television. Using cable or satellite, television stations and network affiliates from the Nashville media market can be received. Local Internet service providers include Charter Communications, Frontier Communications, and Twin Lakes Telephone Cooperative which has introduced gigabit broadband internet service in Cookeville. Cookeville's Social Media Website & App Cookeville.com.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is also served by thirteen FM and three AM radio stations. Tennessee Tech University's campus radio indie station operates at WTTU 88.5 FM, and National Public Radio (NPR) broadcasts at WHRS 91.7 FM (simulcast with WPLN, Nashville). Rock and roll and Top 40 stations include WKSW 98.5 Kiss FM & WBXE Rock 93.7 FM, and country music can be found at WGSQ 94.7 FM Country Giant & WKXD-FM 106.9 Kicks FM. There is also one light rock station at WLQK 95.9 FM & two Christian music stations: WAYM 90.5 FM Christian Hit Radio and WWOG 90.9 FM King of Kings Radio as well as Catholic Radio station WRIM 89.9 Risen Radio. There are three talk radio stations broadcasting on both the FM and the AM dials: WPTN The Eagle 106.1 FM and AM 780 (sports), WHUB The Hub 107.7 FM and AM 1400 (news) and WUCT News Talk 94.1 FM and 1600 AM (news).


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Cookeville is located approximately east of Nashville and west of Knoxville along Interstate 40 (I-40). Chattanooga is approximately to the south via Tennessee State Route 111 (SR 111). U.S. Route 70N (US 70N, Spring Street in central and eastern Cookeville, W. Broad Street on the western side) runs east–west through the central business district of the city, which is approximately northwest of the interchange of I-40 with SR 111. The major city streets running through the city are North Washington Ave. and South Jefferson Ave., which run north–south through the central business district, and Willow Ave., running north–south and immediately adjacent to Tennessee Tech University. In addition to Spring Street (US 70N), 10th Street runs east–west and connects North Washington Ave. with the neighboring town of Algood, and 12th Street runs east–west and connects North Washington with Willow, and leads out of town to the west, connecting with Tennessee State Route 56 (SR 56, Gainesboro Highway), via Tennessee State Route 290 (SR 290). Running east–west adjacent to I-40 in the southern section of the city is Interstate Drive, which is populated by several national restaurant chains, hotels, and other businesses.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: There are no commercial passenger airports in the area, but commercial service has been studied by the Cookeville City Council as of 2022. Located in White County approximately 8.5 nautical miles (15.7 km) south of the central business district of the city is the Upper Cumberland Regional Airport , which is a small, general aviation airport serving primarily single-engine aircraft. Commercial flights are available to residents at Nashville International Airport , which is located along I-40 to the west. Airport shuttles are available for transportation to Nashville International, and the Upper Cumberland Human Resource Agency (UCHRA). UCHRA's Connect Upper Cumberland service route provides each community with daily intercity bus service on I-40 and I-24 routes into Nashville and Murfreesboro with stops along the route including the Greyhound Bus Station, airport, and other requested destinations.


title: Cookeville, Tennessee

text: Since Cookeville's founding, rail transport was a major part of the economy, and the Tennessee Central Railway connecting Nashville and Knoxville had a major rail depot in the central business district. This railway was used primarily to transport the coal and minerals of East Tennessee to the markets of the midstate region. The coal industry declined during the 1960s, and the Tennessee Central Railway was discontinued in 1968. Construction of a bicycle trail adjacent to the railway's path began in August 2013, with the reconstruction of the rail depot in Monterey. Plans are to connect this depot and the rail depot in Cookeville's central business district (now a museum) with a bicycle trail.


title: Gastropub

text: A gastropub or gastro pub is a pub that serves gourmet comfort food. The term was coined in the 1990s, though similar brewpubs existed during the 1980s.


title: Gastropub

text: The term "gastropub" (derived from gastronomy) was coined in 1991, when David Eyre and Mike Belben took over The Eagle pub in Clerkenwell, London. Traditionally, British pubs were drinking establishments and little emphasis was placed on the serving of food. If pubs served meals they were usually basic cold dishes such as a ploughman's lunch.


title: Gastropub

text: The concept of gastropubs largely redefined both pub culture and British dining, and has occasionally attracted criticism for potentially removing the character of traditional pubs. "Pub grub" expanded to include British food items such as steak and ale pie, shepherd's pie, fish and chips, bangers and mash, Sunday roast, ploughman's lunch, and pasties. In addition, dishes such as hamburgers, chips, lasagne and chili con carne are now often served.


title: Gastropub

text: In 1984 Spinnakers Brew Pub opened in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. The first ever custom-built brewpub in Canada, it heralded a new wave of brewpubs and craft breweries in British Columbia that followed a major deregulation of the brewing industry in that province. Spinnakers served inventive cuisine, and Joseph Blake of "Eat" magazine claims it as the world's oldest gastropub. "Difford's Guide" credited David Eyre and Mike Belben with introducing the first gastropub to the UK, when they took over the Eagle in Clerkenwell in 1991 and upgraded the standard food options to "restaurant quality."


title: Troglodytae

text: The Troglodytae (, "Trōglodytai"), or Troglodyti (literally "cave goers"), were people mentioned in various locations by many ancient Greek and Roman geographers and historians, including Herodotus (5th century BCE), Agatharchides (2nd century BCE), Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE), Strabo (64/63 BCE – c.  24 CE), Pliny (1st century CE), Josephus (37 – c. 100 CE), Tacitus (c. 56 – after 117 CE), Claudius Aelianus (c. 175 CE – c. 235 CE), Porphyry (c. 234 CE – c. 305 CE).


title: Troglodytae

text: The earlier references allude to Trogodytes (without the l), evidently derived from Greek "trōglē", cave and "dytes", divers.


title: Troglodytae

text: Herodotus referred to the Troglodytae in his "Histories" as being a people hunted by the Garamantes in Libya. He said that the Troglodytae were the swiftest runners of all humans known and that they ate snakes, lizards, and other reptiles. He also stated that their language was unlike any known to him, and sounded like the screeching of bats. Alice Werner (1913) believed (in passing) that this was a clear allusion to the early Khoisan, indigenous inhabitants of Southern Africa, because their languages contain distinctive click sounds.


title: Troglodytae

text: According to Aristotle ("Hist. An." viii. 12) a dwarfish race of Troglodytes dwelt on the upper course of the Nile, who possessed horses and were in his opinion the Pygmies of fable.


title: Troglodytae

text: In ancient writing, apparently the best known of the African cave-dwellers were the inhabitants of the "Troglodyte country" () on the coast of the Red Sea, as far north as the Greek port of Berenice, of whom an account was preserved by Diodorus Siculus from Agatharchides of Cnidus, and by Artemidorus Ephesius in Strabo. They were a pastoral people, living entirely on the flesh of their herds, or, in the season of fresh pasture, on mingled milk and blood.


title: Troglodytae

text: In his work "Geographica", Strabo mentions a tribe of Troglodytae living along with the Crobyzi in Scythia Minor, near the Ister (Danube) and the Greek colonies of Callatis and Tomis. He also mentions tribes living in various parts of Africa from Libya to the Red Sea.


title: Troglodytae

text: In his work "Chorographia", Pomponius Mela mentions that they own no resources, and rather than speak, they make a high-pitched sound. They creep around deep in caves and are nurtured by serpents.


title: Troglodytae

text: In his work "Deipnosophists", Athenaeus wrote that Pythagoras who wrote about the Red Sea mentioned that they make their pandura out of the white mangrove which grows in the sea and that Euphorion in his book on the Isthmian Games mentioned that they played sambucas with four strings like the Parthians.


title: Troglodytae

text: In his work "On the Characteristics of Animals", Claudius Aelianus mentions that the tribe of Troglodytae are famous and derive their name from their manner of living. He also adds that they eat snakes.


title: Troglodytae

text: Furthermore, he wrote that Troglodytes believe that the king of the beasts is the Ethiopian Bull, because it possesses the courage of a lion, the speed of a horse, the strength of a bull, and is stronger than iron.


title: Troglodytae

text: Flavius Josephus alludes to a place he calls "Troglodytis" while discussing the account in "Genesis", that after the death of Sarah, Abraham married Keturah and fathered six sons who in turn fathered many more. "Now, for all these sons and grandsons, Abraham contrived to settle them in colonies; and they took possession of Troglodytis, and the country of Arabia Felix..."


title: Troglodytae

text: The "Troglodytis" Josephus refers to here is generally taken to mean both coasts of the Red Sea. However, Josephus goes on to state that the descendants of one of these grandsons, Epher, invaded Libya, and that the name of Africa was thus derived from that of Epher. The dominant modern hypothesis is that "Africa" stems from the Berber word "ifri" (plural "ifran"), meaning "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Going Places is a 1974 French comedy-drama film co-written and directed by Bertrand Blier, and based on his own novel. Its original title is Les Valseuses, which translates into English as "the waltzers" , a vulgar French slang term for "the testicles". It stars Miou-Miou, Gérard Depardieu and Patrick Dewaere.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: It is one of the most controversial films in French cinema due to its vulgarity, depiction of sexual acts, nudity and amorality. However, Blier's later acclaim for the rest of his filmography made it a cult film for modern critics.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Jean-Claude and Pierrot harass and sexually assault an older woman in a banlieue, steal her purse and run away. After they evade their pursuers, they loot the purse but are disappointed to find almost no money. They steal a Citroën DS for a joyride. When they bring it back at night, the owner awaits them with his gun drawn. Pierrot runs away but is shot in the groin. Jean-Claude overpowers the owner, stealing the gun and the car and also kidnapping Marie-Ange, the woman the owner was with. After picking up Pierrot, they drive to a car mechanic they know to exchange the stolen DS for another car, offering the mechanic the chance to rape Marie-Ange, who seems apathetic. Leaving with the other car, Jean-Claude and Pierrot force a doctor at gunpoint to treat Pierrot's wounds, which are only superficial. They steal the doctor's money and flee.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: When they come back to the mechanic, he is angry that Marie-Ange was totally passive and apathetic during the rape. Pierrot fears that he has become impotent because of his wounds and suggests sabotaging the steering of the DS before giving it back to the owner, imagining him having an accident on a winding road. They go through with the plan and let Marie-Ange go, but not before getting her address.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Jean-Claude and Pierrot go to the country, stealing bicycles and a car from locals. When they have to stop at a train crossing and see police arriving, they flee their car and enter the almost empty train. They encounter a young woman who is breastfeeding her child and force her to let Pierrot suckle on her breasts. This arouses all three and they begin to have sex, before the woman notices that she has to leave the train at the station, where her husband is waiting.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: After encountering police on the train station, Jean-Claude and Pierrot decide to lay low and go to a deserted coastal resort, where they break into a vacation home to stay there. They notice that the home belongs to a family of three, with a daughter named Jacqueline. After finding Jacqueline's bathing suit, they smell it gleefully and estimate that she must be around 16 years old.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: They return to Marie-Ange and force her to have sex with both of them, Pierrot again being able to get an erection. She again is totally passive, frustrating both. She also tells them that the car owner has sold his sabotaged DS.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: With the help of Marie-Ange, they break into the hair salon she works at. When she requests to be kissed and begins screaming and throwing things, they shoot her in the leg and leave her bound in the salon.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: When their plan of seducing young women fails, Jean-Claude suggests that an inmate in a women's prison would be sexually starving. They wait at the entrance of a prison and see Jeanne be released. They follow her and suggest helping her, which confuses Jeanne. While they are arguing at a roadside, Jean-Claude scares away a driver with his gun, which amuses Jeanne. Jean-Claude hands her his gun, saying that she can trust them. They give her money to buy some clothes, bring her to the beach and have a lavish oyster dinner with her. On the car ride, Jeanne passionately kisses both. All three check into a hotel and have passionate sex. When Jean-Claude and Pierrot are sleeping, Jeanne, seemingly content, commits suicide by shooting herself in the groin. Jean-Claude and Pierrot take the gun and Jeanne's belongings and flee the hotel.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: When going through her belongings, they notice through her correspondence that she has a son named Jacques, who is also in jail. When he is released several weeks later, Jean-Claude and Pierrot tell him that Jeanne asked them to help him. They bring him to a cottage where Marie-Ange is waiting and suggest that he should have sex with her. They are upset when they hear Marie-Ange seemingly reaching orgasm. Afterwards, she explains that it was the timidity and awkwardness of the virgin Jacques which aroused her.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Later, Jacques suggests robbing an elderly person and asks for their gun to do it. Jean-Claude and Pierrot accompany him. They are shocked when the person is one of Jacques' prison wardens. Jacques berates and shoots the warden and Jean-Claude and Pierrot flee with Marie-Ange. After stealing another car, Marie-Ange has sex with each of them while driving, now seemingly enjoying it very much.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: After Jean-Claude and Pierrot learn that they are wanted for the murder, they want to leave Marie-Ange so that she is not connected to this crime, but she refuses. So the three continue on the road, stealing cars and trying to hitch-hike. When they encounter a family in the countryside, they force them to exchange cars, their old stolen Citroën Traction Avant against a new DS, identical to the sabotaged one. The daughter of the family is amused by the situation and suggests their parents accept the deal. When she is hit by her father she breaks down and requests the three to take her with them, which they do. When they find out that she is still a virgin, they deflower her with her consent. They note that her name is Jacqueline and when they smell her vagina they are sure that this is the Jacqueline whose bathing suit they found in the vacation home.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Later they drop her off on the roadside and continue on. The film ends with the three driving at high speed with the DS along a winding road climaxing with the sounds of an automobile crash.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Bertrand Blier based the screenplay on his own novel "Les Valseuses", which had been published by éditions Robert Laffont in 1972. The film was produced by CAPAC, UPF and Prodis. Principal photography took place from 16 August to 24 October 1973. Locations were used in Valence, Drôme.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: For the scene where the character played by Brigitte Fossey gets her breasts sucked by Patrick Dewaere's, the actress, who slipped into this role, "was not frightened", but Bertrand Blier still remembers a moment when the actress got a little scared, because she "had a little dizziness when she was caught between the two guys, one who sucked her and the other titillating her from behind."


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: The film premiered in France on 20 March 1974. It was released in the United States on 13 May the same year and the United Kingdom on 23 October 1975. The film had a total of 5,726,031 admissions in France where it was the third highest-grossing film of the year.


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: In 1974, Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" wrote: "Despite its occasional charm, its several amusing moments and the touching scenes played by Jeanne Moreau, "Going Places" is a film of truly cynical decadence. It's also, not incidentally, the most misogynistic movie I can remember; its hatred of women is palpable and embarrassing. [...] I came away from "Going Places" feeling that I'd spent two hours in the company of a filmmaker I would never want to meet."


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: Pauline Kael, on the other hand, writing in "The New Yorker", said that ""Going Places" was perhaps the first film from Europe since "Breathless" and "Weekend" and "Last Tango in Paris" to speak to us in a new, first hand way about sex and sex fantasies; it did it in a terse, cool, assured style...with a dreamy sort of displacement."


title: Going Places (1974 film)

text: In 1990, when the film was re-released in Los Angeles cinemas, Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "Blier has gone on to a notable and distinctive career, but as worthy (and quirky) as his subsequent films have been, none have packed the punch of his debut film, which he based on his own novel. [...] The road/buddy movie was scarcely new 16 years ago, but Blier's strategies in the telling of his sexual odyssey remain fresh, outrageous and inspired." Thomas continued: "Jean-Claude is the precursor of all the earthy, passionate men Depardieu has brought to life on the screen. What's more, Blier is interested more in Jean-Claude and Pierrot as sexual chauvinists than as petty criminals, and as they learn to be more considerate lovers they become more likable. Above all, they embody the sure-fire appeal of all movie anti-heroes, free spirits who live entirely for the moment and at all times follow their impulse."


title: Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)

text: The earliest government of Macedonia was established by the Argead dynasty of Macedonian kings some time during the period of Archaic Greece (8th–5th centuries BC). Due to shortcomings in the historical record, very little is known about the origins of Macedonian governmental institutions before the reign of Philip II of Macedon (r. 359–336 BC), during the final phase of Classical Greece (480–336 BC). These institutions continued to evolve under his successor Alexander the Great and the subsequent Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties of Hellenistic Greece (336–146 BC). Following the Roman victory in the Third Macedonian War and house arrest of Perseus of Macedon in 168 BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by four client state republics. However, the monarchy was briefly revived by the pretender to the throne Andriscus in 150–148 BC, followed by the Roman victory in the Fourth Macedonian War and establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia.


text: It is unclear if there was a formally established constitution dictating the laws, organization, and divisions of power in ancient Macedonia's government, although some tangential evidence suggests this. The king ("basileus") served as the head of state and was assisted by his noble companions and royal pages. Kings served as the chief judges of the kingdom, although little is known about Macedonia's judiciary. The kings were also expected to serve as high priests of the nation, using their wealth to sponsor various religious cults. The Macedonian kings had command over certain natural resources such as gold from mining and timber from logging. The right to mint gold, silver, and bronze coins was shared by the central and local governments.


text: The Macedonian kings served as the commanders-in-chief of Macedonia's armed forces, while it was common for them to personally lead troops into battle. Surviving textual evidence suggests that the ancient Macedonian army exercised its authority in matters such as the royal succession when there was no clear heir apparent to rule the kingdom. The army upheld some of the functions of a popular assembly, a democratic institution which otherwise existed in only a handful of municipal governments within the Macedonian commonwealth: the Koinon of Macedonians. With their mining and tax revenues, the kings were responsible for funding the military, which included a navy that was established by Philip II and expanded during the Antigonid period.


text: The earliest known government in ancient Macedonia was their monarchy, which lasted until 167 BC when it was abolished by the Romans. Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before Philip II of Macedon's reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus Siculus, and Justin. Contemporary accounts given by those such as Demosthenes were often hostile and unreliable; even Aristotle, who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. Polybius was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia, while later historians include Livy, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Plutarch, and Arrian. The works of these historians affirm the hereditary monarchy of Macedonia and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established constitution for Macedonian government. The main textual primary sources for the organization of Macedonia's military as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Quintus Curtius, Diodorus, and Plutarch, while modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and Livy for understanding detailed aspects of the Antigonid-period military.


text: At the head of Macedonia's government was the king ("basileus"). From at least the reign of Philip II the king was assisted by the royal pages ("basilikoi paides"), bodyguards ("somatophylakes"), companions ("hetairoi"), friends ("philoi"), an assembly that included members of the military, and magistrates during the Hellenistic period. Evidence is lacking for the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework. Before the reign of Philip II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy. In 1931, Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and customary privileges to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to appoint a new king and judge cases of treason stems from the reign of Alexander III of Macedon. Pietro De Francisci was the first to refute these ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an autocracy ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia.


text: The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of Archaic Greece, perhaps evolving from a tribal system, and with roots in Mycenaean Greece in view of its seemingly Homeric aristocratic attributes. Thucydides wrote that in previous ages Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions each having their own petty king, the tribes of Lower Macedonia eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an overlord over the lesser kings of Upper Macedonia. The Argead dynasty lasted from the reign of Perdiccas I of Macedon until that of Alexander IV of Macedon, supplanted by the Antigonid dynasty during the Hellenistic period. The direct line of father-to-son succession was broken after the assassination of Orestes of Macedon in 396 BC (allegedly by his regent and successor Aeropus II of Macedon), clouding the issue of whether primogeniture was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or of the people to choose another king. It is also unclear whether certain male offspring were considered more legitimate than others, since Archelaus I of Macedon was the son of Perdiccas II of Macedon and a slave woman, although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated heir apparent and son from another mother.


text: Historical sources confirm that the Macedonian kings before Philip II at least upheld the privileges and responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, initiating the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating deals such as alliances with foreign powers. After the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, the Persian commander Mardonius had Alexander I of Macedon sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and Athens. The decision to send Alexander was based on his marriage alliance with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens. With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and royal land, the early Macedonian kings were also capable of bribing foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.


text: Little is known about the judicial system of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the chief judge of the kingdom. The Macedonian kings were also supreme commanders of the military, with early evidence including not only Alexander I's role in the Greco-Persian Wars but also with the city-state of Potidaea accepting Perdiccas II of Macedon as their commander during their rebellion against the Delian League of Athens in 432 BC. In addition to the esteem won by serving as Macedonia's supreme commander, Philip II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the high priest of the nation. He performed daily ritual sacrifices and led religious festivals. Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers. However, he lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions. Yet it was his father Philip II who had already shown signs of being influenced by the Persian Empire when he adopted similar institutions, such as having a Royal Secretary, royal archive, royal pages, and a throne, although there is some scholarly debate as to the level of Persian influence in Philip's court.


text: The royal pages were adolescent boys and young men conscripted from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip II onward, although more solid evidence for their presence in the royal court dates to the reign of Alexander the Great. Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life. After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue. During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during "symposia" (i.e. formal drinking parties). While conscripted pages would have looked forward to a lifelong career at court or even a prestigious post as a governor, they can also be regarded as hostages held by the royal court in order to ensure the loyalty and obedience of their aristocratic fathers. The abusive punishment of pages, such as flogging, carried out by the king at times, led to intrigue and conspiracy against the Crown, as did the frequent homosexual relations between the pages and the elite, sometimes with the king. Although there is little evidence for royal pages throughout the Antigonid period, it is known that a group of them fled with Perseus of Macedon to Samothrace following his defeat by the Romans in 168 BC.


text: Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield. They were split into two categories: the "agema" of the "hypaspistai", a type of ancient special forces usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged. Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.


text: The companions, including the elite companion cavalry and "pezhetairoi" infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards. The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip II when he expanded this institution to include Upper Macedonian aristocrats as well as Greeks. The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king. A small amount of evidence also suggests that an assembly of the army during times of war and a people's assembly during times of peace existed in ancient Macedonia. The first recorded instance dates to 359 BC, when Philip II called together a number of assemblies to address them with speech and raise their morale following the death of Perdiccas III of Macedon in battle against the Illyrians.


text: Members of the council had the right to speak their minds freely, and although there is no evidence that they voted on affairs of state or that the king was even obligated to implement their ideas, it is clear that he was at least occasionally pressured to do so. The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of high treason and assign punishments for them, such as when Alexander III acted as prosecutor in the trial and ultimate conviction of three alleged conspirators in the plot to assassinate Philip II (while many others were acquitted). However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld, constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king. At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions immediately formed a council to assume control of his empire; however, it was soon destabilized by open rivalry and conflict between its members. The army also used mutiny as a tool to achieve political ends. For instance, when Perdiccas had Philip II's daughter Cynane murdered to prevent her own daughter Eurydice II of Macedon from marrying Philip III of Macedon, the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place.


text: There is epigraphic evidence from the Hellenistic period and Antigonid dynasty that the Macedonian kingdom relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state. This included a number of high-ranking municipal officials, including the military-rooted "strategos" and politarch, i.e. the elected governor ("archon") of a large city ("polis"), but also the politico-religious office of the "epistates". Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule. Robert Malcolm Errington affirms that no evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been picked from the available aristocratic pools of "philoi" and "hetairoi" that were used to fill vacancies of officers in the army.


text: In ancient Athens, the Athenian democracy was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322 BC. However, when it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed oligarchy composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state, their membership determined by the value of their property. Yet other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of autonomy. After Philip II conquered Amphipolis in 357 BC, the city was allowed to retain its democracy, including its constitution, popular assembly, city council ("boule"), and yearly elections for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner ("epistates") to monitor the city's political affairs. However, Philippi, the city founded by Philip II, was the only other city in the Macedonian commonwealth that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly ("ecclesia") of Thessaloniki seems to have had only a passive function in practice. Some cities also maintained their own municipal revenues, although evidence is lacking as to whether this was derived from local taxation or grants from the royal court. The Macedonian king and central government otherwise sustained strict control over the finances administered by other cities, especially in regards to the revenues generated by temples and cultic priesthoods.


text: Within the Macedonian commonwealth, or the Koinon of Macedonians, there is some epigraphic evidence from the 3rd century BC that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although Macedonian cities nominally participated in panhellenic events on their own accord, in reality the granting of "asylia" (inviolability, diplomatic immunity, and the right of asylum at sanctuaries) to certain cities (e.g. Kyzikos in Anatolia) was handled directly by the king or a preexisting regulation. Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek "koina" (i.e., federations of city-states, the "sympoliteia") obeyed the federal decrees voted on collectively by the members of their league. In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of "proxenia" (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities. While there is plenty of surviving evidence that the granting of "proxenia" was the sole prerogative of central authorities in the neighboring Epirote League, a small amount of evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth. However, city-states that were allied with the Kingdom of Macedonia and existed outside of Macedonia proper issued their own decrees regarding "proxenia". Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the Cretan League signed treaties with Demetrius II Aetolicus and Antigonus III Doson ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected Philip V of Macedon as honorary protector ("prostates") of the league.


text: The basic structure of the army was the division of the companion cavalry ("hetairoi") with the foot companions ("pezhetairoi"), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries. The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon, while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the history of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian Empire fighting the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), at times siding with either Athens or Sparta and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian infantry. Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory. An early 4th-century BC stone-carved relief from Pella shows a Macedonian infantryman wearing a "pilos" helmet and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II. Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC. However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity (and could have been possibly lower or even higher than the amount stated).


text: Imitating the Greek example of martial exercises and issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, Philip II transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained fighting force. Philip II's infantry wielded "peltai" shields that already disembarked from the "aspis" style shield featured in sculpted artwork of a Katerini tomb dated perhaps to the reign of Amyntas III of Macedon. His early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets and greaves, as well as "sarissa" pikes, yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the "Third Philippic" of Demosthenes in 341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts. As evidenced by the Alexander Sarcophagus, troops serving Alexander the Great were also armored in the hoplite fashion. However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were only worn by military officers, while pikemen wore the "kotthybos" stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a dagger as a secondary weapon along with their shields.


text: The elite "hypaspistai" infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the "pezhetairoi" and perhaps synonymous with earlier "doryphoroi", were formed during the reign of Philip II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great. Philip II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards ("somatophylakes") and royal pages ("basilikoi paides"). Philip II was also able to field archers, including mercenary Cretan archers and perhaps some native Macedonians. It is unclear if the Thracians, Paionians, and Illyrians fighting as javelin throwers, slingers, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the reign of Philip II onward were conscripted as allies via a treaty or were simply hired mercenaries. Philip II hired engineers such as Polyidus of Thessaly and Diades of Pella, who were capable of building state of the art siege engines and artillery firing large bolts. Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at Krinides (renamed Philippi), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional standing army. The increase in state revenues allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included triremes. Although it did not succeed in every battle, the army of Philip II was able to successfully adopt the military tactics of its enemies, such as the "embolon" (i.e. 'flying wedge') formation of the Scythians. This offered cavalry far greater maneuverability and an edge in battle that previously did not exist in the Classical Greek world.


text: During the reign of Alexander the Great, the only Macedonian cavalry units attested in battle were the companion cavalry. However, during his campaign in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed a "hipparchia" (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic Persians. When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 cavalrymen from Thessaly, 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 "prodromoi" cavalry from Thrace. Antipater was able to quickly levy 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the Lamian War when it began in 323 BC. For his infantry, the most elite members of his "hypaspistai" were designated as the "agema", yet a new term for "hypaspistai" emerged after the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC: the "argyraspides" ('silver shields'). The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin. Overall, his pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite "hypaspistai" and 9,000 of which were "pezhetairoi". Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native Macedonian archers was made. After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into "chiliarchs".


text: The Macedonian army continued to evolve under the Antigonid dynasty. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as "somatophylakes", which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the "hypaspistai" seem to have morphed into assistants of the "somatophylakes" rather than a separate unit in their own right. At the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen. Alexander the Great's 'royal squadron' of companion cavalry were similarly numbered to the 800 cavalrymen of the 'sacred squadron' (Latin: "sacra ala"; Greek: "hiera ile") commanded by Philip V of Macedon during the Social War of 219 BC. Due to the Roman historian Livy's accounts of the battles of Callinicus in 171 BC and Pydna in 168 BC, it is known that the Macedonian cavalry were also divided into groups with similarly named officers as had existed in Alexander's day. The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the 'sacred squadron' and 'royal cavalry'. While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the Celtic invaders of the 270s BC who settled in Galatia, central Anatolia.


text: Thanks to contemporary inscriptions from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181 respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip V, such as its command by "tetrarchai" officers assisted by "grammateis" (i.e. secretaries or clerks). The most elite, veteran Antigonid-period Macedonian infantry from at least the time of Antigonus III Doson were the peltasts, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding "peltai" javelins, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than Macedonian phalanx pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity. Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite "agema" vanguard, with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000. The amount of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men (the largest figure mentioned by ancient historians, an amount that existed in the Social War of 219 BC). The peltasts fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into "chalkaspides" 'bronze shield' and "leukaspides" 'white shield' regiments, up until the very end of the kingdom in 168 BC.


text: Following the initiative of Philip II, Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip the navy. Cassander maintained a small fleet at Pydna, Demetrius I of Macedon had one at Pella, and Antigonus II Gonatas, while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in Demetrias, Chalkis, Piraeus, and Corinth. The navy was considerably expanded during the Chremonidean War (267–261 BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255 BC Battle of Cos and 245 BC Battle of Andros, and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the Cyclades. Antigonus III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade Caria, while Philip V allegedly sent two-hundred ships, some of them captured from the Ptolemies, to fight in the (unsuccessful) Battle of Chios in 201 BC. The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197 BC peace treaty that concluded the Second Macedonian War with the Roman Republic, although Perseus of Macedon quickly assembled some "lemboi" at the outbreak of the Third Macedonian War in 171 BC.


text: The minting of silver coinage began during the reign of Alexander I as a means to pay for royal expenditures. Archelaus I increased the silver content of his coins in addition to minting copper coins in order to promote foreign and domestic commerce. Macedonians were the first who issued different coins for internal and external circulation, a sophisticated approach which shows an elaborate monetary system at an early date. In order to properly pay the soldiers of the Macedonian army with something other than general spoils of war, the minting of coinage significantly increased during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great, especially after the increase in state revenues following the seizure of the Pangaion Hills. During the Hellenistic period the royal houses of Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt, and the Kingdom of Pergamon exercised full monopolistic control over mining activities, largely to ensure the funding of their armies. By the end of the conquests of Alexander the Great, nearly thirty mints stretching from Macedonia to Babylon were producing nearly identical standard coins. Yet the right to mint coins was shared by the central and some local governments, i.e. the autonomous municipal governments of Thessaloniki, Pella, and Amphipolis within the Macedonian commonwealth.


text: In addition to mining, the crown and central authorities also raised revenues by collecting produce from arable lands, timber from forests, and taxes on imports and exports at harbors. The king was capable of exploiting the mines, groves, agricultural lands, and forests belonging to the Macedonian state, although these were often leased as assets or given as grants to members of the nobility such as the "hetairoi" and "philoi". Tariffs exacted on goods flowing in and out of Macedonian seaports began since at least the reign of Amyntas III of Macedon, while the "Oikonomika" by Pseudo-Aristotle explains how Callistratus of Aphidnae (d. c. 350 BC) aided Perdiccas III in doubling the kingdom's annual profits on customs duties from 20 to 40 talents.


text: After the defeat of Perseus at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, the Roman Senate allowed the reopening of iron and copper mines, but forbade the mining of gold and silver by the four newly established autonomous client states replacing the monarchy in Macedonia (i.e., before the resumption of the monarchy in 148 BC and creation of the Roman province of Macedonia in 146 BC). The Roman-era historians Livy and Diodorus Siculus asserted that the law was originally conceived by the Senate due to the fear that material wealth gained from gold and silver mining operations would allow the Macedonians to fund an armed rebellion. It is also possible that the Romans were concerned with stemming inflation caused by an increased money supply from Macedonian silver mining. The Macedonians continued minting silver coins between 167 and 148 BC, and when the Romans lifted the ban on Macedonian silver mining in 158 BC it may have only reflected the local reality of this illicit practice continuing regardless of the Senate's decree.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The Basque Nationalist Party (, EAJ ; , PNV; , PNB; EAJ-PNV), officially Basque National Party in English, is a Basque nationalist and regionalist political party. The party is Christian-democratic, with social-democratic and conservative-liberal factions. It operates in all the territories comprising the Basque Country: the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre in Spain, and in the French Basque Country. It also has delegations in dozens of foreign nations, specifically those with a major presence of Basque immigrants.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The EAJ-PNV was founded by Sabino Arana in 1895, which makes it the second oldest extant political party in Spain, after the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party. The EAJ-PNV is the largest Basque nationalist party, having led the Basque Government uninterruptedly since 1979, except for a brief period between 2009 and 2012. In Navarre, it is part of the coalition Geroa Bai, which is currently the party in the Navarrese regional government. Currently a member of the European Democratic Party, EAJ-PNV was previously a member of the European Free Alliance from 1999 to 2004. Earlier it had been affiliated with the European People's Party and the Christian Democrat International (from which it was expelled in 2000).


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The current chairman of the EAJ-PNV is Andoni Ortuzar. The party's youth wing is Euzko Gaztedi. The EAJ-PNV's social offices are called batzokis, of which there are over 200 throughout the world. Since 1932, the party celebrates "Aberri Eguna" (Homeland Day) on Easter. Also, since 1977, it celebrates "Alderdi Eguna" (Party Day).


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ-PNV) was founded in 1895 by Sabino de Arana Goiri as a Catholic and conservative political party agitating for political independence for the province of Biscay and the defence of Basque traditional culture, language, and racial purity. In fact, in its early years, party membership was restricted to those who could prove pure Basque ancestry by having eight Basque surnames.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: By 1897, the party sought independence not only for Biscay but for all seven provinces comprising the Basque Country in both Spain and France.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: In 1916, the Basque Nationalist Party renamed itself the Basque Nationalist Communion ("Comunión Nacionalista Vasca"). This name change marked a departure, in many aspects, from the original doctrine of the late Sabino Arana and casting itself as a broader social movement rather than simply a political party. The Basque Nationalist Communion at this point advocated for Basque autonomy within Spain, rather than outright independence. However, a small faction known as the "Aberrianos" ("Fatherlanders") within the party remained committed to the cause of independence. In 1921, the leading members of the Aberrianos were kicked from the moderate Basque Nationalist Communion. Later that year, the Aberrianos officially formed their own political party, reclaiming the name "Basque Nationalist Party".


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: During the single party dictatorship of Captain General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1930), the Basque Nationalist Party was outlawed, and its members went underground. Many of its activities continued through mountaineering and folklore associations. However, the Basque Nationalist Communion was tolerated by the Spanish dictatorship as it was considered a moderate regionalist party.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: At the end of 1930, the two nationalist organisations united under the original name Basque Nationalist Party. However, a small faction split from the Basque Nationalist Communion shortly before the reunification, calling itself "Eusko Abertzale Ekintza-Acción Nacionalista Vasca" ("Basque Nationalist Action"). It was on the moderate nationalist left, non-confessional and open to alliances with Spanish republican and socialist parties.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The division between autonomism and independentism appeared again during the Second Spanish Republic. Headed by "Aberriano" veteran Eli Gallastegi, a small group of independentists coalesced around the Mountaineering Federation of Biscay and its affiliated weekly publication "Jagi-Jagi" ("Arise Arise"), and abandoned the now-moderate and autonomist Basque Nationalist Party.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: After the Spanish Civil War of 18 July 1936, the party felt torn. Certain branches of the party supported the rebellion against the Republic, feeling sympathy for its Catholic and anti-Communist agenda. However, the right-wing rebels insisted on a unified Spain, making them hostile to nationalist movements in regions such as the Basque Country. Furthermore, the Basque Nationalist Party was also anti-Fascist, while Fascists constituted a large part of the rebellion. Ultimately, the republican government was able to secure the allegiance of the Basque Nationalist Party with the promise to pass a Basque Autonomy Statute.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The Biscayan and Gipuzkoan branches declared support for the republic, democracy, and anti-fascism in the ensuing Spanish Civil War and were key in balancing those provinces to the Republican side. In the territory seized by the rebels, PNV members faced tough times. During the military uprising in Navarre, the Basque nationalist mayor of Estella-Lizarra, Fortunato Aguirre, was arrested by the Spanish nationalist rebels (18 July 1936), and killed in September. Some Basque nationalists could flee north to Basque areas loyal to the Republic, or France. However, some members of the Alavese and Navarrese committees, ahead of an official decision, published notes . Notwithstanding their initial ambiguous position in certain areas, the party premises and press in Álava and Navarre were closed in that month of July.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: Some PNV sympathizers and members joined the Carlist battalions, either out of conviction or to avoid persecution. By October 1936, a war front had been established at the northern tip of Álava and to the west of Donostia-San Sebastián. Initially, the Defence Committees in Biscay and Gipuzkoa were dominated by the Popular Front. After hard negotiations, eventually Basque autonomy was granted within the Second Spanish Republic in late 1936, and the new autonomous government immediately organized the Basque Army, consisting of militias recruited separately by the various political organizations, including the EAJ-PNV, EAE-ANV, and "Jagi-Jagi".


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: The autonomous government maintained remarkable order behind the lines in Biscay and western Gipuzkoa, and managed the coordination and provision of military resistance. Upon occupation of territories loyal to the Republic, the rebel forces focused repression on leftists, but Basque nationalists were also targeted, facing prison, humiliation, and death in some cases. As the rebel troops approached Biscay, the Carlist press in Pamplona even called for the extermination of Basque nationalists.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: José Antonio Aguirre, the party leader, became in October 1936 the first "lehendakari" (Basque president) of the wartime multipartite Basque Government, ruling the unconquered parts of Biscay and Gipuzkoa. In April 1937, the city of Gernika was bombed by German airplanes covertly aiding the rebel forces. Jose Antonio Aguirre stated that "the German planes bombed us with a brutality that had never been seen before for two and a half hours." Pablo Picasso made a painting in remembrance of the massacre named after the city that year.


title: Basque Nationalist Party

text: When Bilbao, the most populated city in the Basque Country, was taken by Franco's troops, the Basque nationalists decided to not destroy or sabotage the powerful manufacturing industry of Bilbao, thinking that they had the responsibility to secure the prosperity of their people in the future. This decision allowed the occupying rebel forces to use the industrial power of Bilbao in their war effort against the rest of Republic-aligned Spain.