title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Microsoft recommends to distinguish between the two 8-inch formats for FAT ID by trying to read of a single-density address mark. If this results in an error, the medium must be double-density.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The table does not list a number of incompatible 8-inch and 5.25-inch FAT12 floppy formats supported by 86-DOS, which differ either in the size of the directory entries (16 bytes vs. 32 bytes) or in the extent of the reserved sectors area (several whole tracks vs. one logical sector only).


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The implementation of a single-sided 315 KB FAT12 format used in MS-DOS for the Apricot PC and F1e had a different boot sector layout, to accommodate that computer's non-IBM compatible BIOS. The jump instruction and OEM name were omitted, and the MS-DOS BPB parameters (offsets - in the standard boot sector) were located at offset . The Portable, F1, PC duo and Xi FD supported a non-standard double-sided 720 KB FAT12 format instead. The differences in the boot sector layout and media IDs made these formats incompatible with many other operating systems. The geometry parameters for these formats are:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Later versions of Apricot MS-DOS gained the ability to read and write disks with the standard boot sector in addition to those with the Apricot one. These formats were also supported by DOS Plus 2.1e/g for the Apricot ACT series.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The DOS Plus adaptation for the BBC Master 512 supported two FAT12 formats on 80-track, double-sided, double-density 5.25" drives, which did not use conventional boot sectors at all. 800 KB data disks omitted a boot sector and began with a single copy of the FAT. The first byte of the relocated FAT in logical sector 0 was used to determine the disk's capacity. 640 KB boot disks began with a miniature ADFS file system containing the boot loader, followed by a single FAT. Also, the 640 KB format differed by using physical CHS sector numbers starting with 0 (not 1, as common) and incrementing sectors in the order sector-track-head (not sector-head-track, as common). The FAT started at the beginning of the next track. These differences make these formats unrecognizable by other operating systems. The geometry parameters for these formats are:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: DOS Plus for the Master 512 could also access standard PC disks formatted to or , using the first byte of the FAT in logical sector 1 to determine the capacity.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The DEC Rainbow 100 (all variations) supported one FAT12 format on 80-track, single-sided, quad-density 5.25" drives. The first two tracks were reserved for the boot loader, but didn't contain an MBR nor a BPB (MS-DOS used a static in-memory BPB instead). The boot sector (track 0, side 0, sector 1) was Z80 code beginning with DI . The 8088 bootstrap was loaded by the Z80. Track 1, side 0, sector 2 starts with the Media/FAT ID byte . Unformatted disks use instead. The file system starts on track 2, side 0, sector 1. There are 2 copies of the FAT and 96 entries in the root directory. In addition, there is a physical to logical track mapping to effect a 2:1 sector interleaving. The disks were formatted with the physical sectors in order numbered 1 to 10 on each track after the reserved tracks, but the logical sectors from 1 to 10 were stored in physical sectors 1, 6, 2, 7, 3, 8, 4, 9, 5, 10.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The "FS Information Sector" was introduced in FAT32 for speeding up access times of certain operations (in particular, getting the amount of free space). It is located at a logical sector number specified in the FAT32 EBPB boot record at position (usually logical sector 1, immediately after the boot record itself).


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The sector's data may be outdated and not reflect the current media contents, because not all operating systems update or use this sector, and even if they do, the contents is not valid when the medium has been ejected without properly unmounting the volume or after a power-failure. Therefore, operating systems should first inspect a volume's optional shutdown status bitflags residing in the FAT entry of cluster 1 or the FAT32 EBPB at offset and ignore the data stored in the FS information sector, if these bitflags indicate that the volume was not properly unmounted before. This does not cause any problems other than a possible speed penalty for the first free space query or data cluster allocation; see fragmentation.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: If this sector is present on a FAT32 volume, the minimum allowed logical sector size is 512 bytes, whereas otherwise it would be 128 bytes. Some FAT32 implementations support a slight variation of Microsoft's specification by making the FS information sector optional by specifying a value of (or ) in the entry at offset .


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: A volume's data area is divided into identically sized "clusters"—small blocks of contiguous space. Cluster sizes vary depending on the type of FAT file system being used and the size of the drive; typical cluster sizes range from 2 to .


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Each file may occupy one or more clusters depending on its size. Thus, a file is represented by a chain of clusters (referred to as a singly linked list). These clusters are not necessarily stored adjacent to one another on the disk's surface but are often instead "fragmented" throughout the Data Region.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Each version of the FAT file system uses a different size for FAT entries. Smaller numbers result in a smaller FAT, but waste space in large partitions by needing to allocate in large clusters.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FAT12 file system uses 12 bits per FAT entry, thus two entries span 3 bytes. It is consistently little-endian: if those three bytes are considered as one little-endian 24-bit number, the 12 least significant bits represent the first entry (e.g. cluster 0) and the 12 most significant bits the second (e.g. cluster 1). In other words, while the low eight bits of the first cluster in the row are stored in the first byte, the top four bits are stored in the low nibble of the second byte, whereas the low four bits of the subsequent cluster in the row are stored in the high nibble of the second byte and its higher eight bits in the third byte.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FAT16 file system uses 16 bits per FAT entry, thus one entry spans two bytes in little-endian byte order:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FAT32 file system uses 32 bits per FAT entry, thus one entry spans four bytes in little-endian byte order. The four top bits of each entry are reserved for other purposes; they are cleared during formatting and should not be changed otherwise. They must be masked off before interpreting the entry as 28-bit cluster address.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The "File Allocation Table" ("FAT") is a contiguous number of sectors immediately following the area of reserved sectors. It represents a list of entries that map to each cluster on the volume. Each entry records one of five things:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: For very early versions of DOS to recognize the file system, the system must have been booted from the volume or the volume's FAT must start with the volume's second sector (logical sector 1 with physical CHS address 0/0/2 or LBA address 1), that is, immediately following the boot sector. Operating systems assume this hard-wired location of the FAT in order to find the FAT ID in the FAT's cluster 0 entry on DOS 1.0-1.1 FAT diskettes, where no valid BPB is found.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The first entry (cluster 0 in the FAT) holds the FAT ID since MS-DOS 1.20 and PC DOS 1.1 (allowed values - with - reserved) in bits 7-0, which is also copied into the BPB of the boot sector, offset since DOS 2.0. The remaining 4 bits (if FAT12), 8 bits (if FAT16) or 20 bits (if FAT32) of this entry are always 1. These values were arranged so that the entry would also function as an "trap-all" end-of-chain marker for all data clusters holding a value of zero. Additionally, for FAT IDs other than (and ) it is possible to determine the correct nibble and byte order (to be) used by the file system driver, however, the FAT file system officially uses a little-endian representation only and there are no known implementations of variants using big-endian values instead. 86-DOS 0.42 up to MS-DOS 1.14 used hard-wired drive profiles instead of a FAT ID, but used this byte to distinguish between media formatted with 32-byte or 16-byte directory entries, as they were used prior to 86-DOS 0.42.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The second entry (cluster 1 in the FAT) nominally stores the end-of-cluster-chain marker as used by the formater, but typically always holds / / , that is, with the exception of bits 31-28 on FAT32 volumes these bits are normally always set. Some Microsoft operating systems, however, set these bits if the volume is not the volume holding the running operating system (that is, use instead of here). (In conjunction with alternative end-of-chain markers the lowest bits 2-0 can become zero for the lowest allowed end-of-chain marker / / ; bit 3 should be reserved as well given that clusters / / and higher are officially reserved. Some operating systems may not be able to mount some volumes if any of these bits are not set, therefore the default end-of-chain marker should not be changed.) For DOS 1 and 2, the entry was documented as reserved for future use.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Since DOS 7.1 the two most-significant bits of this cluster entry may hold two optional bitflags representing the current volume status on FAT16 and FAT32, but not on FAT12 volumes. These bitflags are not supported by all operating systems, but operating systems supporting this feature would set these bits on shutdown and clear the most significant bit on startup:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: If bit 15 (on FAT16) or bit 27 (on FAT32) is not set when mounting the volume, the volume was not properly unmounted before shutdown or ejection and thus is in an unknown and possibly "dirty" state. On FAT32 volumes, the FS Information Sector may hold outdated data and thus should not be used. The operating system would then typically run SCANDISK or CHKDSK on the next startup (but not on insertion of removable media) to ensure and possibly reestablish the volume's integrity.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: If bit 14 (on FAT16) or bit 26 (on FAT32) is cleared, the operating system has encountered disk I/O errors on startup, a possible indication for bad sectors. Operating systems aware of this extension will interpret this as a recommendation to carry out a surface scan (SCANDISK) on the next boot. (A similar set of bitflags exists in the FAT12/FAT16 EBPB at offset or the FAT32 EBPB at offset . While the cluster 1 entry can be accessed by file system drivers once they have mounted the volume, the EBPB entry is available even when the volume is not mounted and thus easier to use by disk block device drivers or partitioning tools.)


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: If the number of FATs in the BPB is not set to 2, the second cluster entry in the first FAT (cluster 1) may also reflect the status of a TFAT volume for TFAT-aware operating systems. If the cluster 1 entry in that FAT holds the value 0, this may indicate that the second FAT represents the last known valid transaction state and should be copied over the first FAT, whereas the first FAT should be copied over the second FAT if all bits are set.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Some non-standard FAT12/FAT16 implementations utilize the cluster 1 entry to store the starting cluster of a variable-sized root directory (typically 2). This may occur when the number of root directory entries in the BPB holds a value of 0 and no FAT32 EBPB is found (no signature or at offset ). This extension, however, is not supported by mainstream operating systems, as it conflicts with other possible uses of the cluster 1 entry. Most conflicts can be ruled out if this extension is only allowed for FAT12 with less than and FAT16 volumes with less than clusters and 2 FATs.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Because these first two FAT entries store special values, there are no data clusters 0 or 1. The first data cluster (after the root directory if FAT12/FAT16) is cluster 2, marking the beginning of the data area.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: FAT32 uses 28 bits for cluster numbers. The remaining 4 bits in the 32-bit FAT entry are usually zero, but are reserved and should be left untouched. A standard conformant FAT32 file system driver or maintenance tool must not rely on the upper 4 bits to be zero and it must strip them off before evaluating the cluster number in order to cope with possible future expansions where these bits may be used for other purposes. They must not be cleared by the file system driver when allocating new clusters, but should be cleared during a reformat.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FAT12, FAT16, FAT16B, and FAT32 variants of the FAT file systems have clear limits based on the number of clusters and the number of sectors per cluster (1, 2, 4, ..., 128). For the typical value of 512 bytes per sector:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: [FAT32 maximum : 32 sectors per cluster × 134,152,181 clusters = 2,197,949,333,504 bytes (≈2,047 GB)]


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: [FAT32 maximum : 128 sectors per cluster × 33,550,325 clusters = 2,198,754,099,200 bytes (≈2,047 GB)]


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Because each FAT32 entry occupies 32 bits (4 bytes) the maximal number of clusters (268435444) requires 2097152 FAT sectors for a sector size of 512 bytes. 2097152 is , and storing this value needs more than two bytes. Therefore, FAT32 introduced a new 32-bit value in the FAT32 boot sector immediately following the 32-bit value for the total number of sectors introduced in the FAT16B variant.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The boot record extensions introduced with DOS 4.0 start with a magic 40 () or 41 (). Typically FAT drivers look only at the number of clusters to distinguish FAT12, FAT16, and FAT32: the human readable strings identifying the FAT variant in the boot record are ignored, because they exist only for media formatted with DOS 4.0 or later.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Determining the number of directory entries per cluster is straightforward. Each entry occupies 32 bytes; this results in 16 entries per sector for a sector size of 512 bytes. The DOS 5 codice_24/codice_25 command removes the initial "codice_26" (this directory) and "codice_27" (parent directory) entries in subdirectories directly, therefore sector size 32 on a RAM disk is possible for FAT12, but requires 2 or more sectors per cluster. A FAT12 boot sector without the DOS 4 extensions needs 29 bytes before the first unnecessary FAT16B 32-bit number of hidden sectors, this leaves three bytes for the (on a RAM disk unused) boot code and the magic at the end of all boot sectors. On Windows NT the smallest supported sector size is 128.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: On Windows NT operating systems the codice_2 command options codice_29 and codice_30 correspond to the maximal cluster size codice_31 (128) with a sector size 1024 and 2048, respectively. For the common sector size 512 codice_32 yields 128 sectors per cluster.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Both editions of each ECMA-107 and ISO/IEC 9293 specify a "Max Cluster Number" codice_33 determined by the formula codice_34, and reserve cluster numbers codice_35 up to 4086 (, FAT12) and later 65526 (, FAT16) for future standardization.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Microsoft's EFI FAT32 specification states that any FAT file system with less than 4085 clusters is FAT12, else any FAT file system with less than 65,525 clusters is FAT16, and otherwise it is FAT32. The entry for cluster 0 at the beginning of the FAT must be identical to the media descriptor byte found in the BPB, whereas the entry for cluster 1 reflects the end-of-chain value used by the formatter for cluster chains (, or ). The entries for cluster numbers 0 and 1 end at a byte boundary even for FAT12, e.g., for media descriptor .


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The first data cluster is 2, and consequently the last cluster codice_33 gets number codice_35. This results in data cluster numbers 2...4085 () for FAT12, 2...65525 () for FAT16, and 2...268435445 () for FAT32.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The only available values reserved for future standardization are therefore (FAT12) and (FAT16). As noted below "less than 4085" is also used for Linux implementations, or as Microsoft's FAT specification puts it:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: ...when it says <, it does not mean <=. Note also that the numbers are correct. The first number for FAT12 is 4085; the second number for FAT16 is 65525. These numbers and the "<" signs are not wrong.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FAT file system does not contain built-in mechanisms which prevent newly written files from becoming scattered across the partition. On volumes where files are created and deleted frequently or their lengths often changed, the medium will become increasingly fragmented over time.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: While the design of the FAT file system does not cause any organizational overhead in disk structures or reduce the amount of free storage space with increased amounts of fragmentation, as it occurs with external fragmentation, the time required to read and write fragmented files will increase as the operating system will have to follow the cluster chains in the FAT (with parts having to be loaded into memory first in particular on large volumes) and read the corresponding data physically scattered over the whole medium reducing chances for the low-level block device driver to perform multi-sector disk I/O or initiate larger DMA transfers, thereby effectively increasing I/O protocol overhead as well as arm movement and head settle times inside the disk drive. Also, file operations will become slower with growing fragmentation as it takes increasingly longer for the operating system to find files or free clusters.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Other file systems, e.g., HPFS or exFAT, use free space bitmaps that indicate used and available clusters, which could then be quickly looked up in order to find free contiguous areas. Another solution is the linkage of all free clusters into one or more lists (as is done in Unix file systems). Instead, the FAT has to be scanned as an array to find free clusters, which can lead to performance penalties with large disks.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: In fact, seeking for files in large subdirectories or computing the free disk space on FAT volumes is one of the most resource intensive operations, as it requires reading the directory tables or even the entire FAT linearly. Since the total amount of clusters and the size of their entries in the FAT was still small on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes, this could still be tolerated on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes most of the time, considering that the introduction of more sophisticated disk structures would have also increased the complexity and memory footprint of real-mode operating systems with their minimum total memory requirements of 128 KB or less (such as with DOS) for which FAT has been designed and optimized originally.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: With the introduction of FAT32, long seek and scan times became more apparent, particularly on very large volumes. A possible justification suggested by Microsoft's Raymond Chen for limiting the maximum size of FAT32 partitions created on Windows was the time required to perform a "codice_38" operation, which always displays the free disk space as the last line. Displaying this line took longer and longer as the number of clusters increased. FAT32 therefore introduced a special file system information sector where the previously computed amount of free space is preserved over power cycles, so that the free space counter needs to be recalculated only when a removable FAT32 formatted medium gets ejected without first unmounting it or if the system is switched off without properly shutting down the operating system, a problem mostly visible with pre-ATX-style PCs, on plain DOS systems and some battery-powered consumer products.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: With the huge cluster sizes (16 KB, 32 KB, 64 KB) forced by larger FAT partitions, internal fragmentation in form of disk space waste by file slack due to cluster overhang (as files are rarely exact multiples of cluster size) starts to be a problem as well, especially when there are a great many small files.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Various optimizations and tweaks to the implementation of FAT file system drivers, block device drivers and disk tools have been devised to overcome most of the performance bottlenecks in the file system's inherent design without having to change the layout of the on-disk structures. They can be divided into on-line and off-line methods and work by trying to avoid fragmentation in the file system in the first place, deploying methods to better cope with existing fragmentation, and by reordering and optimizing the on-disk structures. With optimizations in place, the performance on FAT volumes can often reach that of more sophisticated file systems in practical scenarios, while at the same time retaining the advantage of being accessible even on very small or old systems.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: DOS 3.0 and higher will not immediately reuse disk space of deleted files for new allocations but instead seek for previously unused space before starting to use disk space of previously deleted files as well. This not only helps to maintain the integrity of deleted files for as long as possible but also speeds up file allocations and avoids fragmentation, since never before allocated disk space is always unfragmented.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: DOS accomplishes this by keeping a pointer to the last allocated cluster on each mounted volume in memory and starts searching for free space from this location upwards instead of at the beginning of the FAT, as it was still done by DOS 2.x. If the end of the FAT is reached, it would wrap around to continue the search at the beginning of the FAT until either free space has been found or the original position has been reached again without having found free space. These pointers are initialized to point to the start of the FATs after bootup, but on FAT32 volumes, DOS 7.1 and higher will attempt to retrieve the last position from the FS Information Sector.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: This mechanism is defeated, however, if an application often deletes and recreates temporary files as the operating system would then try to maintain the integrity of void data effectively causing more fragmentation in the end. In some DOS versions, the usage of a special API function to create temporary files can be used to avoid this problem.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Additionally, directory entries of deleted files will be marked since DOS 3.0. DOS 5.0 and higher will start to reuse these entries only when previously unused directory entries have been used up in the table and the system would otherwise have to expand the table itself.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Since DOS 3.3 the operating system provides means to improve the performance of file operations with codice_39 by keeping track of the position of recently opened files or directories in various forms of lists (MS-DOS/PC DOS) or hash tables (DR-DOS), which can reduce file seek and open times significantly. Before DOS 5.0 special care must be taken when using such mechanisms in conjunction with disk defragmentation software bypassing the file system or disk drivers.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Windows NT will allocate disk space to files on FAT in advance, selecting large contiguous areas, but in case of a failure, files which were being appended will appear larger than they were ever written into, with a lot of random data at the end.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Other high-level mechanisms may read in and process larger parts or the complete FAT on startup or on demand when needed and dynamically build up in-memory tree representations of the volume's file structures different from the on-disk structures. This may, on volumes with many free clusters, occupy even less memory than an image of the FAT itself. In particular on highly fragmented or filled volumes, seeks become much faster than with linear scans over the actual FAT, even if an image of the FAT would be stored in memory. Also, operating on the logically high level of files and cluster-chains instead of on sector or track level, it becomes possible to avoid some degree of file fragmentation in the first place or to carry out local file defragmentation and reordering of directory entries based on their names or access patterns in the background.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Some of the perceived problems with fragmentation of FAT file systems also result from performance limitations of the underlying block device drivers, which becomes more visible the lesser memory is available for sector buffering and track blocking/deblocking:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: While the single-tasking DOS had provisions for multi-sector reads and track blocking/deblocking, the operating system and the traditional PC hard disk architecture (only one outstanding input/output request at a time and no DMA transfers) originally did not contain mechanisms which could alleviate fragmentation by asynchronously prefetching next data while the application was processing the previous chunks. Such features became available later. Later DOS versions also provided built-in support for look-ahead sector buffering and came with dynamically loadable disk caching programs working on physical or logical sector level, often utilizing EMS or XMS memory and sometimes providing adaptive caching strategies or even run in protected mode through DPMS or Cloaking to increase performance by gaining direct access to the cached data in linear memory rather than through conventional DOS APIs.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Write-behind caching was often not enabled by default with Microsoft software (if present) given the problem of data loss in case of a power failure or crash, made easier by the lack of hardware protection between applications and the system.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: A "directory table" is a special type of file that represents a directory (also known as a folder). Since 86-DOS 0.42, each file or (since MS-DOS 1.40 and PC DOS 2.0) subdirectory stored within it is represented by a 32-byte entry in the table. Each entry records the name, extension, attributes (archive, directory, hidden, read-only, system and volume), the address of the first cluster of the file/directory's data, the size of the file/directory, and the date and (since PC DOS 1.1) also the time of last modification. Earlier versions of 86-DOS used 16-byte directory entries only, supporting no files larger than 16 MB and no time of last modification.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Aside from the root directory table in FAT12 and FAT16 file systems, which occupies the special "Root Directory Region" location, all directory tables are stored in the data region. The actual number of entries in a directory stored in the data region can grow by adding another cluster to the chain in the FAT.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FAT file system itself does not impose any limits on the depth of a subdirectory tree for as long as there are free clusters available to allocate the subdirectories, however, the internal Current Directory Structure (CDS) under MS-DOS/PC DOS limits the absolute path of a directory to 66 characters (including the drive letter, but excluding the NUL byte delimiter), thereby limiting the maximum supported depth of subdirectories to 32, whatever occurs earlier. Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS and DR DOS 3.31 to 6.0 (up to including the 1992-11 updates) do not store absolute paths to working directories internally and therefore do not show this limitation. The same applies to Atari GEMDOS, but the Atari Desktop does not support more than 8 sub-directory levels. Most applications aware of this extension support paths up to at least 127 bytes. FlexOS, 4680 OS and 4690 OS support a length of up to 127 bytes as well, allowing depths down to 60 levels. PalmDOS, DR DOS 6.0 (since BDOS 7.1) and higher, Novell DOS, and OpenDOS sport a MS-DOS-compatible CDS and therefore have the same length limits as MS-DOS/PC DOS.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Each entry can be preceded by "fake entries" to support a VFAT long filename (LFN); see further below.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Character 229 () was not allowed as first character in a filename in DOS 1 and 2 due to its use as free entry marker. A special case was added to circumvent this limitation with DOS 3.0 and higher.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The following additional characters are allowed on Atari's GEMDOS, but should be avoided for compatibility with MS-DOS/PC DOS:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The semicolon (codice_56) should be avoided in filenames under DR DOS 3.31 and higher, PalmDOS, Novell DOS, OpenDOS, Concurrent DOS, Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32, because it may conflict with the syntax to specify file and directory passwords: "codice_57". The operating system will strip off one (and also two—since DR-DOS 7.02) semicolons and pending passwords from the filenames before storing them on disk. (The command processor 4DOS uses semicolons for include lists and requires the semicolon to be doubled for password protected files with any commands supporting wildcards.)


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The at-sign character (codice_58) is used for filelists by many DR-DOS, PalmDOS, Novell DOS, OpenDOS and Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32 commands, as well as by 4DOS and may therefore sometimes be difficult to use in filenames.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Under Multiuser DOS and REAL/32, the exclamation mark (!) is not a valid filename character since it is used to separate multiple commands in a single command line.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Additionally, the following special characters are not allowed in the first, fourth, fifth and eight character of a filename, as they conflict with the host command processor (HCP) and input sequence table build file names:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The DOS file names are in the current OEM character set: this can have surprising effects if characters handled in one way for a given code page are interpreted differently for another code page (DOS command codice_61) with respect to lower and upper case, sorting, or validity as file name character.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Before Microsoft added support for long filenames and creation/access time stamps, bytes – of the directory entry were used by other operating systems to store additional metadata, most notably the operating systems of the Digital Research family stored file passwords, access rights, owner IDs, and file deletion data there. While Microsoft's newer extensions are not fully compatible with these extensions by default, most of them can coexist in third-party FAT implementations (at least on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes).


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: 32-byte directory entries, both in the Root Directory Region and in subdirectories, are of the following format (see also 8.3 filename):


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: The FlexOS-based operating systems IBM 4680 OS and IBM 4690 OS support unique distribution attributes stored in some bits of the previously reserved areas in the directory entries:


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: VFAT Long File Names (LFNs) are stored on a FAT file system using a trick: adding additional entries into the directory before the normal file entry. The additional entries are marked with the Volume Label, System, Hidden, and Read Only attributes (yielding ), which is a combination that is not expected in the MS-DOS environment, and therefore ignored by MS-DOS programs and third-party utilities. Notably, a directory containing only volume labels is considered as empty and is allowed to be deleted; such a situation appears if files created with long names are deleted from plain DOS. This method is very similar to the DELWATCH method to utilize the volume attribute to hide pending delete files for possible future undeletion since DR DOS 6.0 (1991) and higher. It is also similar to a method publicly discussed to store long filenames on Ataris and under Linux in 1992.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Because older versions of DOS could mistake LFN names in the root directory for the volume label, VFAT was designed to create a blank volume label in the root directory before adding any LFN name entries (if a volume label did not already exist).


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: Each phony entry can contain up to 13 UCS-2 characters (26 bytes) by using fields in the record which contain file size or time stamps (but not the starting cluster field, for compatibility with disk utilities, the starting cluster field is set to a value of 0. See 8.3 filename for additional explanations). Up to 20 of these 13-character entries may be chained, supporting a maximum length of 255 UCS-2 characters.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: If there are multiple LFN entries required to represent a file name, the entry representing the "end" of the filename comes first. The sequence number of this entry has bit 6 () set to represent that it is the last logical LFN entry, and it has the highest sequence number. The sequence number decreases in the following entries. The entry representing the "start" of the filename has sequence number 1. A value of is used to indicate that the entry is deleted.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: On FAT12 and FAT16 volumes, testing for the values at to be zero and at to be non-zero can be used to distinguish between VFAT LFNs and pending delete files under DELWATCH.


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: A checksum also allows verification of whether a long file name matches the 8.3 name; such a mismatch could occur if a file was deleted and re-created using DOS in the same directory position. The checksum is calculated using the algorithm below. (pFCBName is a pointer to the name as it appears in a regular directory entry, i.e. the first eight characters are the filename, and the last three are the extension. The dot is implicit. Any unused space in the filename is padded with space characters (ASCII ). For example, "Readme.txt" would be "codice_62".)


title: Design of the FAT file system

text: If a filename contains only lowercase letters, or is a combination of a lowercase "basename" with an uppercase "extension", or vice versa; and has no special characters, and fits within the 8.3 limits, a VFAT entry is not created on Windows NT and later versions of Windows such as XP. Instead, two bits in byte of the directory entry are used to indicate that the filename should be considered as entirely or partially lowercase. Specifically, bit 4 means lowercase "extension" and bit 3 lowercase "basename", which allows for combinations such as "codice_63" or "codice_64" but not "codice_65". Few other operating systems support it. This creates a backwards-compatibility problem with older Windows versions (Windows 95 / 98 / 98 SE / ME) that see all-uppercase filenames if this extension has been used, and therefore can change the name of a file when it is transported between operating systems, such as on a USB flash drive. Current 2.6.x versions of Linux will recognize this extension when reading (source: kernel 2.6.18 codice_66 and codice_67); the mount option codice_68 determines whether this feature is used when writing.


title: Sssssss

text: Sssssss (released as Ssssnake in the United Kingdom and Japan) is a 1973 American horror film starring Strother Martin, Dirk Benedict and Heather Menzies. It was directed by Bernard L. Kowalski and written by Hal Dresner and Daniel C. Striepeke, the latter of whom also produced the film. The make-up effects were created by John Chambers and Nick Marcellino. It received a nomination for the Best Science Fiction Film award of the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films in 1975.


title: Sssssss

text: Dr. Carl Stoner, a herpetologist, sells a mysterious creature in a crate to a carnival owner. He later hires college student David Blake as an assistant, claiming that his previous assistant had left town to attend to a sick relative. Unbeknownst to David or anyone else, Stoner is a delusional man.


title: Sssssss

text: Stoner begins David on a course of injections, purportedly as a safeguard against being bitten by a snake in his lab. David's skin slowly starts to change and even peel like a snakeskin. He begins to have strange nightmares and goes into a coma when having dinner with Stoner, not waking up until a few days later. He also begins to lose weight, but Stoner tells him those are side effects from the venom. David begins a romance with Stoner's daughter Kristina, although her father objects and insists that she not have any sexual relations with him.


title: Sssssss

text: When David wakes up the next morning, he looks in the mirror and screams in horror. Later, a distraught David is in the lab, where Stoner gives him another injection. Meanwhile, Stoner's suspicious colleague, Dr. Daniels, arrives to inspect the property. Stoner attempts to hide David in a corner, but David gets enough strength to walk to a window, allowing Daniels to see that his face has become green and scaly. Before Daniels can react, Stoner knocks him out and feeds him to a python, and David collapses.


title: Sssssss

text: Kristina visits a carnival freak show and is horrified when she sees a bizarre "snake-man", whom she recognizes as Stoner's previous assistant. Distraught, she races back home to save David, who is currently mutating into a king cobra, brought about by Stoner's injections. Stoner is bitten by a real king cobra from his lab and dies, just as David's transformation is complete. Kristina arrives home and finds her father's body with the real cobra next to him. Growing suspicious, the police arrive and shoot the cobra before heading to the lab where a mongoose is attacking David's neck, attempting to kill him. But the police do not have a clear shot, and as Kristina screams David's name, the movie ends abruptly, leaving their fates uncertain.


title: Sssssss

text: The venomous snakes in the film were not defanged during production. Five king cobras were imported from Thailand for this feature, ranging from 10 to 15 ft in length. They were recently caught in good health from the wild with full venom potency. The "Snake Park" milking scenes were real and meant to mimic what Bill Haast did at his Miami Serpentarium in Florida daily. About one ounce of venom was collected during each take with no harm to the snakes. A different cobra was used for each take. The filming of this part of the movie took most of a day, as the cobras spent most of their time trying to escape the fenced enclosure rather than rising up in the traditional cobra attack mode.


title: Sssssss

text: "Sssssss" remained unreleased on home video in the United States until 1997, when it was issued by MCA Universal. It also received VHS releases in Japan and Spain by CIC Video, under the titles "Ssssnake" and "Sssilbido de Muerte", respectively.


title: Sssssss

text: The film made its DVD debut on 7 September 2004, via Universal, who would re-release the film three additional times in 2009, 2011 and 2014. The 2011 release was part of a four-film "Cult Horror Collection", with "The Funhouse", "Phantasm II" and "The Serpent and the Rainbow". A DVD was also released in Japan on 7 April 2010.


title: Sssssss

text: "Sssssss" received its first Blu-ray release on 26 April 2016, via Shout! Factory, which included new interviews with stars Dirk Benedict and Heather Menzies as bonus features. It also received a Blu-ray release in Australia on 1 February 2017, via Shock Entertainment.


title: Sssssss

text: Howard Thompson of "The New York Times" called the film "a ss-surprise. Were it not for the lurid, starkly flapping windup, this would be recommended in toto as a gripping, quietly imaginative hair-curler. It is the only movie fiction I have ever seen that sustains a scholarly, informative attitude toward the world of snakes. This aspect is fascinating and chilling, as a gentle old venom researcher, Strother Martin, putters around with cobras and pythons in a country lab." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film 1.5 stars out of 4, writing, "Even after 40 years of improved film technology, the climactic scene in "Sssssss" fails to match the drama of that moment when Frankenstein's monster sits up on the table." Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" called it "highly amusing and genuinely creepy," and praised the "spectacular makeup." Keith Alain of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote that an "attractive streak of humour suggests in the early stages that "Ssssnake" may turn into a macabre little thriller on the lines of "The Fly"," and lamented that "parody is eventually jettisoned in favour of portentous horror ... The rather disparate and ludicrous plot is not made any smoother by Bernard L. Kowalski's direction, which manages to be lumberingly predictable even in its borrowings (the "Freaks"-ish sideshow sequences, for example)." Leonard Maltin gave the film three out of a possible four stars, praising the film's "exceptional" make-up effects.


title: Sssssss

text: Donald Guarisco from AllMovie gave the film a negative review. In his retrospective review he wrote, ""Sssssss" fails because it emulates the films that inspired it all too closely: the story moves forward at a laboriously slow pace, and its threadbare plot makes it all too easy for the viewer to pick apart its plot holes and implausible elements. To make matters worse, the characterizations and dialogue never rise above the level of a subpar comic book and the anticlimactic finale is likely to frustrate even the most patient viewer."


title: Sssssss

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 36% based on 11 reviews with an average rating of 4.1/10.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: , also written as Tenjo Tenge, is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Oh! great. The story primarily focuses on the members of the Juken Club and their opposition, the Executive Council, which is the ruling student body of a high school that educates its students in the art of combat. As the story unfolds, both groups become increasingly involved with an ongoing battle that has been left unresolved for four hundred years. "Tenjho Tenge" was serialized in the "seinen" manga magazine "Ultra Jump" from 1997 to 2010, and collected into 22 volumes by publisher Shueisha.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: It was adapted into a twenty-four episode anime series and aired on TV Asahi between April to September 2004. A two-episode original video animation was also made and released in March 2005.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: Both versions of the series have been licensed for release in English language by two different companies. The manga was licensed and released by CMX beginning in 2005, which came under criticism by fans for editing its sexual content. When CMX closed down in 2010, after releasing 18 volumes, Viz Media picked up the rights and completed their own uncut release of the series in 2013. The anime was licensed and released by Geneon Entertainment, also beginning in 2005, however, it is now licensed by Discotek Media.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The Japanese phrase also is part of the full phrase which can be translated literally as "There is no equal to me in this entire world (i.e. below the heaven and on this earth)", and in daily parlance now, the shortened form (yui ga dokuson) coming to mean a heavy-handed egotism. Traditionally the phrase is attributed to the Buddha Sakyamuni, purported to have said this whilst taking seven steps immediately after being born, supposed to assert his unparalleled status.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The plot begins with Souichiro Nagi and his childhood best friend Bob Makihara going to their first day of high school at Toudou Academy. They had intended to rule the school by beating up anybody that got in their way, as they had done at their previous schools. They soon learn that Toudou is no ordinary high school, but rather a school that was founded to teach and integrate different fighting styles. Its students are skilled in the various arts of combat with some students possessing supernatural abilities, such as pyrokinesis, precognition, and superhuman strength based on the abilities to use their "spirit" or "ki" in Japanese. After an altercation with the Executive Council, Souichiro and Bob join the only surviving club that opposes them, the Juken club. As the storyline develops, both groups find they are becoming increasingly involved in a long enduring conflict that was left unresolved from the Japanese feudal era by some of the characters' ancestors.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: "Tenjho Tenge" was serialized in the Japanese monthly "seinen" manga magazine "Ultra Jump" from 1997 to 2010. It was author and illustrator Oh! Great's first crossover mainstream manga from writing and illustrating pornographic series. About twice a year, its publisher Shueisha compiled five of the chapters into "tankōbon" volumes, with the first released on May 19, 1998, and the twenty-second and final volume on November 19, 2010.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: "Tenjho Tenge" was licensed for an English language publication by CMX, an imprint of DC Comics, as one of their launch titles and the first volume was released on February 16, 2005. Their version of the manga is heavily edited/censored in order for them to give it a Teen "rating" "to give it the widest possible distribution in the United States". According to CMX, these changes were made in conjunction with Shueisha and "Tenjho Tenge" creator Oh! Great, who examines each of their changes. This censorship however garnered quite a bit of controversy. CMX released eighteen volumes in North America before the company was shut down in July 2010.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: In November 2010, Viz Media acquired the rights to the "Tenjho Tenge" manga, stating that their version would be 100% uncut and faithful to the original Japanese. From June 21, 2011, to February 5, 2013, they released the series bi-monthly in eleven 2-in-1 volumes, which collects two individual volumes into a single large one. Viz's releases also includes omake, color pages from the series's original run in "Ultra Jump", and since each release will cover two volumes, the second cover will be printed in as a color page. The manga is also published in many other countries, such as in Taiwan by Sharp Point Press, in Italy, France and Germany by Panini Comics, in Mexico by Grupo Editorial Vid, in Brazil by Editora JBC, and in Spain by Norma Editorial.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The "Tenjho Tenge" anime was directed by Toshifumi Kawase, animated by Madhouse, and produced by TV Asahi and Avex Mode, the animation division of the Avex group of companies. The twenty-four episodes were originally aired weekly on TV Asahi in Japan on Thursdays from April 1, 2004, to September 16, 2004. These episodes were made into eight-volume DVD box sets. Two additional episodes were broadcast by TV Asahi in Japan on March 16, 2005, and released in the form of an original video animation named "Tenjho Tenge: Ultimate Fight". The anime follows closely to its source material up to the manga's eighth volume with the exception of the sexual content which was toned down. The anime has been dubbed into English, French, German, Italian and the Tagalog language. The anime series has been licensed for the English language by Geneon Entertainment, and has released all episodes except the DVD special named "Tenjho Tenge: The Past Chapter", which is the back-story told through flashbacks in the second half of the anime television series condensed into the size of four episodes. The series was broadcast in the United States by the cable channel Fuse.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: Although not mentioned on the Geneon Entertainment's website, or the Tenjho Tenge mini-site, the OVA is available on the last volume, sometimes listed as Episodes 25 and 26. In Australia and the UK, the series was released over seven volumes, and includes the OVA on the seventh disc. Almost 5 years after the closure of Geneon USA, Discotek Media re-licensed the series for a DVD release in 2013. Viewster later added the anime series into their streaming service alongside Galaxy Express 999 and Adieu Galaxy Express 999 anime films in 2016.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The anime's music, including the background music and theme songs, were composed and performed by various artists, such as m.c.A.T and Aiko Kayo who provided the opening and closing themes songs of the anime. In 2004, Avex record label released the "Tenjho Tenge" soundtrack and a single. In 2005, Avex released two character collection albums.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The "Tenjho Tenge" manga is described by Chris Beveridge of Anime On DVD as an "engaging mix of action and comedy together while wrapping it all up in a large plot that's fairly dark and really violent at times". Its creator, Oh! Great, is known to flavor his works with wanton sex and violence. Oh! Great uses sex as an important aspect of the storyline by using it as a powerful motivator both negatively and positively. He often has his characters contemplate the significance and importance of fighting as well as the meaning of strength. This conscious deliberation of subjective reasoning and objective truth between characters is the most imperative aspect of a story and is considered to be rare in manga. Dani Moure of Anime On DVD said readers may find that Oh! Great's narrative is occasionally hard to follow and at times the plot moves slowly. Oh! Great is known for his characters to have unrealistic body proportions, and "Tenjho Tenge" is no different. The majority of the female characters have "ultra large breasts" and the male characters are extraordinarily muscular, but this facilitates the characters' personalities to come through in their distinctive features. Overall, the "Tenjho Tenge" manga is well received, having sold over 10.7 million copies and its volumes regularly being in the top twenty best-selling manga for Japanese Tohan charts and North American Diamond Comic Distributors charts.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The "Tenjho Tenge" anime is described as a significantly toned down version of the Japanese manga, but still retains most of the spirit of its predecessor. Much of the nudity was removed by the animators, but was made up in the way of sexual innuendos, gratuitous cleavage, and panty shots. Since the anime is a close adaptation of the manga, critique of the plot is comparable to the manga's. Some reviewers felt that the anime was handled in a frantic and ill-planned manner that made the conclusion not satisfactory even with the original video animation. The animation done by Madhouse is considered to be well done. They used bright vibrant colors, solid backgrounds, and plenty of visible detail with very little pixelation or jagged movement, but at times used repeated character shots and animations. The animation done during the fight scenes is done in real time and is done as close to reality as possible while still bending, and often violating, the laws of physics. The early fight scenes are thought to be the "most intense seen in recent anime" by Kevin Gilvear of DVD Times. Carlo Santos of Anime News Network affirmed the quality of animation in these scenes does drop somewhat over time, but the action still looks better than the average fighting anime. Both the Japanese and English voice acting are considered to be good, but the English dub at times can be a little uneven. The English dub on occasion has poor dialogue, according to Anime News Network's Patrick King, which causes it to lose much of the anime's sincerity. Overall, the anime is considered to be above average, but suffers from a lack of a good ending, mainly because the anime only covered the first arc of the story.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: The series's original soundtrack is considered to be average. Most of the music does well with setting the tone within the anime, although some reviewers found it to be somewhat repetitive. Some found the drama tracks to be unsatisfactory, even though they were "well executed". For many, the highlight of the soundtrack is m.c.A.T's "Bomb A Head!", which was used as the anime's opening song.


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: CMX came under a great deal of criticism for its edits from readers. These edits included the length and breadth of the book, censoring out anything they felt was questionable for a teen audience such as covering up or removing nudity, fanservice, and sexual innuendo as well as a removal of an omake chapter. This was done by a brand whose promotional material asserts that it offers "pure manga—100% the way the original Japanese creators want you to see it." One of grievances made against CMX is that the edits are not only severe, but very noticeable. One review states it is "possibly the most heavily censored title in the history of the North American manga industry."


title: Tenjho Tenge

text: In response, protesters boycotted the edited version and even started up their own website. Immediately following the controversy, Jake Tarbox, group editor of CMX, resigned from the company. "Tarbox was widely blamed by the fan community for the censoring of "Tenjho Tenge", although inside sources suggest that Tarbox was not responsible for the decision to censor the manga." In the face of complaints, CMX had internal discussions about the possibility of publishing an unedited version of "Tenjho Tenge", but decided to complete the current version. At the 2007 Anime Expo, CMX announced that they planned to change "Tenjho Tenge"s rating to Mature beginning with volume fifteen, but warned that it still would be edited, but more lightly. Jason Thompson declared CMX's censorship of the series one of "The Greatest Censorship Fails" in manga.


title: Sigillum Dei

text: The Sigillum Dei (seal of God, or signum dei vivi, symbol of the living God, called by John Dee the Sigillum Dei Aemeth) is a magical diagram, composed of two circles, a pentagram, two heptagons, and one heptagram, and is labeled with the name of God and his angels. It was an amulet ("amuletum") with the magical function that, according to one of the oldest sources ("Liber Juratus"), allowed the initiated magician to have the power to commune with angels and archangels ("beatific visionary").


title: Sigillum Dei

text: Probably the oldest known description and image of the "Sigillum Dei" is the 14th Century "Liber Juratus" (also "Liber Sacratus", "Liber sacer sive Juratus", or Sworn Booke), attributed to Honorius, son of Euclid. This may have been produced in the late 13th century, but likely not before the time of Pope John XXII. (1316–1334).


title: Sigillum Dei

text: The description of the seal in the "Liber Juratus" begins with the dimensions of the circle surrounding the outside in relation to common symbol figures of the Christian tradition.


title: Sigillum Dei

text: make first a circle whose diameter is three fingers, because of the three cross-nails of the Lord, or five fingers because of the five wounds of Christ, or seven for the seven sacraments, or nine for the nine orders of angels, but usually five fingers will suffice. Then make a second within this circle, let it be a distance from the first two grains because of the two Tablets of the Law of Moses, or three grains because of the persons of the Trinity.


title: Sigillum Dei

text: The so created circular band will be at an apex of a small cross and from this starting point proceed from left to right 72 Latin letters, which vary in tradition (MS Sloane 3853: h, t, o, e, x, o, r, a, b, a, s, l, a, y, q, c, i, y, s, t, a, l, g, a, a, o, n, o, s, v, l, a, r, y, c, e, k, s, p, f, y, o, m, e, n, e, a, u, a, r,


title: Sigillum Dei

text: e, l, a, t, e, d, a, t, o, n, o, n, a, o, y, l, e, p, o, t, m, a), the sum forming the Shemhamphorasch, the ineffable name of God ("magnum nomen Domini Semenphoras licterarum 72"), showing a clear link to Jewish tradition.


title: Sigillum Dei

text: Next to the circular band is a pentagram, which focuses on a Greek Tau, this is surrounded by the five letters of the name of God "El" and "Ely", and five other pairs of letters (lx, al, a, c, to).


title: Sigillum Dei

text: Inside the pentagon, in turn, is a heptagon drawn in such a way that its top side touches the centre tip of the pentagram, and the pages of this heptagon should be labelled with the names of seven angels and archangels (Cafziel, Satquiel, Samael, Raphael, Anael, Michael, Gabriel).


title: Sigillum Dei

text: From this first heptagon is a second and a third drawing, whose description is hard to understand and has been interpreted differently in the manuscript illustrations, but has usually seven key points with crosses and labelled with two rows of Gods: a first series of seven names of God, each in three syllables or components disassembled and relating spatially with those on the initial and final syllables of the last names of angels and vertices of the figure, namely la-ya- ly (to Cafziel), na-ra-th (to Satquiel), ly-bar-re (to Raphael), ly-ba-res (to Michael), (e) t-ly-alg (to Samael), ve -h-am (to Anael), and y-al-gal (to Gabriel); also in sub-segments seven more: Vos, Duynas, Gyram, Gram, Aysaram, Alpha and Omega, a third series El, On, El, On, Electric, On, Omega; as additions to the registered crosses the four letters a, g, a, l; and finally another group of five names of God Ely, Eloy, Christ, and Sother Adonay.


title: Sigillum Dei

text: The colour of the seal of the "Liber Juratus" indicates that the pentagram is usually red, purple with yellow faces, the first heptagon blue, second yellow, the third yellow and the black circles, and also the area between the circles and all other surfaces were to turn green. In magical operations, this would be handled differently – instead drawn on virgin parchment with the blood of the mole, pigeon, hoopoe, bat or other animals, such as cattle, horses or deer.


title: Sigillum Dei

text: Different versions of the "Sigillum Dei" are known from the tradition of the "Clavicula Salomonis", specifically from an Italian manuscript in the collection of Heimann Joseph Michael in the Bodleian Library (MS. Michael 276); and John Aubrey in 1674 made a copy, also in the Bodleian Library (MS. Aubrey 24).


title: Sigillum Dei

text: One of the oldest surviving manuscripts of the "Liber Juratus", dating from the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century, is Sloane MS 313 from the collection of Hans Sloane in the British Library. It was partly owned by the mathematician and magical experimenter John Dee, in whose "Mysteriorum Libri Quinti", or "Five books of mystical exercises" (1581–1583), the "Sigillum Dei" played a central role and gained the suffix "Sigillum Dei: Emeth" or "Aemeth" ("Truth").


title: Sigillum Dei

text: For John Dee, who received the authoritative description of the seal in 1582 via his medium and employee Edward Kelley, this scholarly and antiquarian interest was ultimately subordinate to the purpose of practical application. This can be contrasted with Athanasius Kircher, who devoted a detailed explanation to the "Sigillum Dei" in his "Oedipus aegyptiacus", who linked the rejection of magical practice with a scholarly effort to understand the Christian, Jewish, Arab-Muslim and pagan parts and separate them.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Sofie Gråbøl (; born 30 July 1968) is a Danish actress. She has starred in a number of films, with her breakthrough role in the 1986 Danish film "Early Spring", directed by Astrid Henning-Jensen, playing the lead role in the film version of Tove Ditlevsen's novel "Barndommens gade" when she was 17 years old. On television she has starred in "Taxa" and "Nikolaj og Julie".


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Gråbøl has become known in Denmark for playing emotional roles, but she achieved international fame as a detectivethe cool and distant lead character Inspector Sarah Lund in all three series of "The Killing" (). In the UK it was broadcast on BBC4 with great success, winning a BAFTA award, and bringing Gråbøl celebrity status.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Gråbøl resides in Copenhagen where she has lived all her life. Both her parents, father Kaj Fladhede Gråbøl and mother Mette Koustrup, were architects. She has an older brother Niels Gråbøl who is a director, and the ex-husband of actress Ditte Gråbøl. Gråbøl's father left her mother when her mother was pregnant with Gråbøl. She was brought up by her mother. Her mother remarried to a Maoist architect and for a time they lived in a commune.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Gråbøl divorced her husband, the film director Jacob Thuesen, in 2006. They have two children; a son, Bror, and a daughter, Gudrun.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: In the early years of her career she studied theology and worked in a bookstore. Responding to a newspaper advertisement at the age of 17, she was given the role of an artist's nude model in "Oviri", a 1986 film about Paul Gauguin with Donald Sutherland. Despite having had no formal training, and only entering acting on the encouragement of her mother, she has worked continuously since then.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: She said, "I thought it would be like a summer holiday job ...then one film led to another and suddenly I was an actor and I never really felt that I had made the decision ... I felt at home in the language of acting."" Her breakthrough role was in the 1986 Danish film directed by Astrid Henning-Jensen, "Early Spring".


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: In 2007, Gråbøl portrayed the role of police Detective Sarah Lund obsessed with solving the sadistic killing of a schoolgirl in the Danish television series "The Killing" (, literally "The Crime"). Producers of the show envisioned breaking the clichés of female characters usually portrayed on television and film. Lund was to be a driven and relentless detective without her primary concern being for her physical appearance or sexuality.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Gråbøl was involved early on in the development process of the series and had numerous discussions with writer and series creator Søren Sveistrup. Her input was integral to the creation of the character, from keeping the character's past a mystery to the choice of clothing, and especially that the character was to be emotionally isolated. At one point, the writers were considering having Lund have an affair with one of the suspects. She fought this plot line, explaining that Lund was a female Clint Eastwood, and it was removed. It was originally intended that Sarah Lund should die but this was changed halfway through the series. Gråbøl had become known in Denmark for playing emotional characters and the role of the cool and distant Lund was a stark departure.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: The series was a huge success in Denmark with over half the population watching. Although already well known in Denmark, Gråbøl now found herself stopped on the street as fans of the show wanted to know the secret of the killer. The series was then played throughout Europe. With the show's success, it played in back-to-back weekend installments in the UK on BBC4. With no promotion, the show became a word-of-mouth success and even topped "Mad Men" in the ratings.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Gråbøl had been a famous actress in Denmark for twenty five years when she suddenly, to her surprise, achieved cult status in Britain. Even the shape-concealing jumper (sweater) she wore in the show became iconic. She received requests for interviews and offers to work in Britain, most of which she had to decline due to her busy work schedule. However, she had a cameo in the BBC comedy "Absolutely Fabulous" playing her character Detective Lund. In the UK, Gråbøl was named Best Actress at the Crime Thriller Awards and the show won the 2011 BAFTA for Best International TV Show. The BAFTA was awarded to Gråbøl, creator and writer Søren Sveistrup, producer Piv Bernth and director Birger Larsen.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: In Britain the series had subtitles but for the American audience it was remade. Commenting on the first series of "The Killing" remake, while saying she thought the American version was good, Gråbøl said it was unfortunate that American audiences would not accept shows with subtitles because with the success of the show in Britain, "there's a strong sense of a cultural exchange going on. By watching each other's stories you exchange something very valuable. It's about language and culture and the ways of looking at life." In series two of the American version Gråbøl has a small part as a Seattle district attorney. In July 2012, the US remake was cancelled by the network.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: Gråbøl was diagnosed with breast cancer in December 2012 for which she underwent surgery and chemotherapy. She temporarily retired from acting in 2013, but returned to work the next year, appearing as Hildur Odegard, a Norwegian mayor, in two series of the British TV series "Fortitude". In August 2014 she made her English language début on stage in Edinburgh, appearing as Margaret of Denmark in "James III: The True Mirror", the third of Rona Munro's historical trilogy "The James Plays".


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: In 2015 she played a role, together with Swedish actress Frida Farrell, in the music video "Under the Make-up" for the song with the same title by the Norwegian band a-Ha. It was released on 24 August 2015.


title: Sofie Gråbøl

text: In 2018 she was awarded the Nordic Language Prize in Oslo, Norway for her contribution to positive attitudes between neighbouring Nordic languages.


title: Robin in other media

text: In addition to DC Comics books, the superhero Robin also appears in other media, such as films, television and radio. Dick Grayson, Jason Todd, Tim Drake, Stephanie Brown and Damian Wayne are examples of the characters who use the name Robin.


title: Robin in other media

text: Other than showing up in media associated with being Batman's sidekick, he also makes an appearance as the leader of the Teen Titans.


title: Robin in other media

text: In the 1960s "Batman" television series and its 1966 movie offshoot, Robin (Dick Grayson) was played by Burt Ward. Ward reprises his role as Robin in "Legends of the Superheroes", and the Dick Grayson of Earth-66 in "Crisis on Infinite Earths".


title: Robin in other media

text: Three incarnations of Robin appear in the 2018 DC Universe series "Titans". Brenton Thwaites portrays Dick Grayson, the former sidekick of Batman who took Dick in after being orphaned following his parents death, and is the leader of a group of vigilantes known as the Titans. Curran Walters portrays Jason Todd, Dick's successor of Robin who was caught stealing Batmobile tires. Jay Lycurgo portrays Tim Drake, who made his live-action debut in the third season and is depicted as being of African American and Asian descent. Carrie Kelley, Daxton Chill, Stephanie Brown and Duke Thomas made uncredited (photo) cameo appearances in the episode "Barbara Gordon" in a file on the Batcomputer for replacement Robins which is discovered by Dick Grayson after the death of Jason.


title: Robin in other media

text: The Adventures of Batman is an animated television series produced by Lou Scheimer's Filmation studios.


title: Robin in other media

text: In DC Comics related cartoon series, produced by Filmation and Hanna-Barbera throughout the 1970s and 1980s, such as the "Super Friends", Robin (Dick Grayson) was voiced by Casey Kasem or Burt Ward. Both the live-action and animated versions wore the standard Robin costume, much like the film serial versions of the 1940s. He is not paired with Batman in the Cartoon Network programs "Justice League" and "Justice League Unlimited" due to the Bat-Embargo which limited the use of Batman-related characters from any media source outside of the new Batman Begins movie franchise and The Batman animated series.


title: Robin in other media

text: The Dick Grayson incarnation of Robin made his first appearance during the first season of "" (1992–1995), voiced by Loren Lester. The second season was known as "The Adventures of Batman and Robin". By the time the revamp series "The New Batman Adventures" (1997-99) takes place, Grayson has adopted the identity of Nightwing. Grayson appeared in the film "" (1998) and makes uncredited cameo appearances in "Justice League" (2001-04) and "Justice League Unlimited" (2004-06). He is also referenced in "Batman Beyond" (1999-2001) and its feature film "" (2000).


title: Robin in other media

text: Tim Drake appears as the second incarnation in "The New Batman Adventures" (1997–99), though he is also partially based on Jason Todd. Versions of the Carrie Kelley (Anndi McAfee) and 1950s (Brianne Siddall) Robins, both in the original costume, also make short appearances on the show in a dream sequence from the episode "Legends of the Dark Knight".


title: Robin in other media

text: Tim Drake was voiced by Mathew Valencia in "The New Batman Adventures" and in a guest appearance in "" and by Eli Marienthal and Shane Sweet in guest appearances in "Static Shock", with the former also reprising his role in "". Dean Stockwell voiced an older Drake in "" while Valencia reprised the younger version. Drake also makes uncredited cameo appearances in "Justice League" (2002-04).


title: Robin in other media

text: The Cartoon Network series "Teen Titans" features Robin as the eponymous team's leader. His true identity is never revealed in the series, although he is heavily implied to be Dick Grayson. Robin joins Beast Boy, Cyborg, Raven and Starfire when Jump City is threatened by aliens in "Go!". Robin is generally respected by the others as the team's best leader, but on the inside he is driven by an unhealthy obsession to win, which sometimes alienates him from his teammates ("Divide And Conquer", "Masks", "Winner Take All", "The Quest").


title: Robin in other media

text: In many instances, Robin's relationship to Batman is heavily referenced. In "Go", just before Robin attacks a thief, bats fly at him. After a while the thief says, "This isn't your town, aren't you supposed to be with..." only to be interrupted by Robin who says, "Just moved here. And from now on I work alone.", and throughout the episode, he says he doesn't want to be in a team again so soon. In "Haunted", Raven uses her powers to enter Robin's mind; one of the images she sees is Robin's shadow in a cave area swearing an oath to someone, and part of a circus ring with two figures falling. When Robin rejects Slade in "Apprentice: Part 2" as a father figure he mentions "I already have a father", and then the screen shows a shot of a dark sky with bats flying through it, also referring to Batman. In that same episode, a battle ensues on top of a building that says "Wayne Enterprises". In "The Quest", Robin says that he was trained by the best and this is believed to be a reference to the Batman.


title: Robin in other media

text: Robin also has shown to have romantic feelings for Starfire since they first met. There have been romantic moments shared between the two in the series, but neither Robin nor Starfire admit their feelings for each other until the movie "". During the film, Robin and Starfire come very close to admitting their feelings and having their first romantic kiss, but sadly Robin proves to be too focused on the mission (and also being interrupted by Beast Boy and the others) before insisting that, as heroes, they can never be anything more. However, after the film's climax battle, Robin and Starfire finally admit their feelings for each other and share their first true romantic kiss with Cyborg commenting, "Well, it's about time!". In the end, they are both seen holding hands and finally become a romantic couple.


title: Robin in other media

text: Dick Grayson appeared as Robin in "The Batman", voiced by Evan Sabara. In this version, Dick Grayson is an energetic, gifted 12-year-old acrobat and one of the main attractions of Hayley's Circus, along with his parents, as part of the amazing Flying Grayson's act. His life was changed forever when Tony Zucco and his brothers tried to threaten Grayson's father into taking a "protection" policy. When the Graysons refused, an altercation resulted in the police and Batman being called. The Zuccos were easily defeated for the moment one of Tony's brothers was even captured.


title: Robin in other media

text: An angered Zucco altered the rigs on the Flying Graysons trapeze act, causing Dick's parents to fall to their deaths right in front of their son during a performance. With no surviving family members, Dick was taken in by Bruce Wayne as Bruce saw shades of himself in Dick after his own parents' murder. After Dick discovered that Wayne was Batman, the two worked together to capture Zucco. Dick chose the codename "Robin" because that is what his mother had called him.


title: Robin in other media

text: As depicted in a possible future during the episode "Artifacts", Dick Grayson gives up the "Robin" name and costume to become Nightwing. Barbara and Batman still persist in calling him by his original codename. Batman did this more out of habit, and Barbara did it as a flirting sort of way to annoy Dick. The police department who discover the Batcave in the beginning of the episode call Robin as 'Red Robin', a reference to "Kingdom Come", and they theorize that Bruce Wayne was Red Robin (with his father as Batman and his mother as Batwoman).


title: Robin in other media

text: In the "Krypto the Superdog" episode, "Bathound and the Robin", a literal robin called Robbie is saved by Ace the Bathound and wants to be Ace's sidekick, much to the dismay of Ace. Robbie's costume resembled the classic outfit of Dick Grayson.


title: Robin in other media

text: Dick Grayson was featured in "" in the episode "The Color of Revenge!" He is depicted as the protector of Blüdhaven – the city where he fights crime in the comics as Nightwing – but he is seen in the episode still as Robin. The rift between him and Batman has already taken place, and he is seen to still be angry at Batman for still treating him as a sidekick rather than a superhero in his own right. It is only after cooperating with Batman to defeat Crazy Quilt that Robin earns Batman's respect. After Crazy Quilt is defeated, Robin joins Batman when Killer Moth hijacks the Gotham Bank Money Train, but he rides in the sidecar of Batman's motorcycle (something he stated he never wanted to do again). Robin was voiced by Crawford Wilson, and the teaser episode has several references to the 1960s "Batman" television series. Subsequently, he is seen in "Sidekicks Assemble!" where he leads fellow sidekicks Speedy and Aqualad in a battle against Ra's al Ghul. At the end of the episode, he decides to step out of the shadow of his mentor and take the costume and identity of Nightwing. He is seen as Robin once again in the teaser for "Emperor Joker!", which shows a flashback to an earlier battle between the Dynamic Duo and Firefly. In "The Criss Cross Conspiracy!", Nightwing returns and a flashback shows him as Robin. Dick eventually becomes the new Batman in the alternate future story, "The Knights of Tomorrow!", with Damian Wayne acting as the new Robin. The episode ends with Damian succeeding Dick as the new Batman after the former retires, and Damian's unnamed son (voiced by Sebastian Bader) becomes the new Robin. Damian Wayne is voiced by both Patrick Cavanaugh (as a child) and by Diedrich Bader (as an adult). Later, in the opening for "Triumvirate of Terror" Robin was seen in the team of the Justice League International playing baseball against the Legion of Doom.


title: Robin in other media

text: Robin (Dick Grayson) is one of the main cast members in the animated adaptation of "Young Justice". The character is voiced by actor Jesse McCartney. Along with Aqualad, Kid Flash and Superboy, Robin is one of the founding members of Young Justice. However, when not on team missions, he still lives and performs his duties in Gotham City. As the most experienced member of the team, he assumed that he would automatically be the leader, but this would prove to not be the case. When in combat with Batman, their relationship is so defined that they do not need to communicate and Robin therefore assumed he could disappear and that others would immediately know what to do. Robin nominates Aqualad who accepts, saying that Robin will one day take over as he was born to lead the team. Throughout missions, Robin is shown to be the hacker of the group, making use of the computer interface on his wrist. As the youngest member of the team, he is still a bit immature and can often be heard laughing in combat as to either toy with or intimidate his opponents. He also questions the meaning of words, such as wondering why something is overwhelming, and not just "whelming".


title: Robin in other media

text: In Season 2, set five years later, Dick Grayson has become Nightwing. He still leads the Team and has been replaced as Robin by Tim Drake. During the episode "Satisfaction," a memorial hologram of Jason Todd, the second Robin, can be seen.


title: Robin in other media

text: The third season, "", is set two years after the previous outing. Nightwing still plays a prominent role in the story. In addition, Tim Drake and Stephanie Brown play minor roles. There are also cameo appearances from Damian Wayne and a revived Jason Todd.


title: Robin in other media

text: The "Teen Titans" iteration of Robin returns in the "New Teen Titans" shorts, with Scott Menville reprising his role. One of the shorts included an appearance by the DC One Million version of Robin.


title: Robin in other media

text: The "Teen Titans" iteration of Robin returns in "Teen Titans Go!" with Scott Menville reprising his role. In the show, Robin is portrayed as the self-appointed, hard-as-nails, hubristic, slightly power mad leader of the Teen Titans but fairly more light-hearted, and has a huge crush on Starfire but is too nervous to admit this, though he is also seen as being very arrogant, often depicting himself as the so-called "best superhero", believing that he is better than his friends and heroes should always put themselves in the spotlight and take all the glory. He is also a "sleep-Fighter", and is insecure about his lack of superpowers, which has, on multiple occasions, led to one of the other Titans committing mutiny and replacing Robin as leader. In some episodes, he is shown to fall into fits of madness easily, completely ignoring his team to follow through on his own view of how to carry something out. Such examples included continuing to dig an escape tunnel despite being rescued, forcing his teammates to rely on seven numbered options and scant resources during an educational 1800s-style road trip without even the slightest bit of concern for their well-being (which ultimately leads to their deaths, which he reacts to with a lot of callousness), and thinking that nature is so dangerous he needs to be on edge and eat whatever he can find. An episode also showed that he had a backup Robin squad which features Carrie Kelley, a darker Tim Drake, and the upbeat 60s version all voiced by Scott.


title: Robin in other media

text: Dick Grayson appears in "DC Super Hero Girls" with Keith Ferguson voicing the character. His outfit was inspired by his portrayal, Burt Ward, from the 1966 TV series. He made his first appearance in "#FromBatToWorst" where the young Barbara Gordon wanted to team up with Batman. Robin shows up encountering Babs about having a sidekick as usual. In "#GothamCon", Babs and Harleen went to Gotham City for a convention when Robin appears instead of Batman hosting the event. In "#TweenTitans", he is one of the cast members of the reality television show created by Bruce Wayne, "Make It Wayne" and used to be having a birthday party along with fellow Titans in their tween versions, in which Jessica Cruz and Karen Beecher babysits them and caused chaos.


title: Robin in other media

text: In director Lambert Hillyer's 1943 film serial "Batman", Robin was played by Douglas Croft. Croft was the only actor to portray Robin at the actual age of sixteen; subsequent live-action actors have either been in their early to mid to late 20s.


title: Robin in other media

text: Robin was played by 25-year-old Johnny Duncan in Columbia Pictures's "Batman and Robin" (1949), directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet.


title: Robin in other media

text: Robin did not appear in the Tim Burton movies "Batman" (1989) and "Batman Returns" (1992). This was an unusual move as the two 1940s serials as well as the 1966 movie and attendant TV show had presented the 'Dynamic Duo' as an inseparable pair, with the general public unaware that the comic-book incarnation of Batman often worked alone. The special edition version of the "Batman" (1989) DVD features an animated storyboard sequence of when Robin's parents are killed by the Joker. Jason Hillhouse provides the voice of Dick Grayson, while Kevin Conroy and Mark Hamill reprise their respective roles (from the DC animated universe) as Batman and the Joker in the storyboard sequence. Although Kiefer Sutherland was considered, Burton planned to cast Northern Irish actor Ricky Addison Reed as Robin, but later felt it was unimportant to the story and cut Robin out altogether. In an earlier script of "Batman Returns", he was portrayed as a technologically savvy street kid who would help Batman following his narrow escape when The Penguin tried to kill him. He would later play a crucial role in Batman's final confrontation with The Penguin. In that script, he was simply called Robin, has no known real name, and was to be played by Marlon Wayans.


title: Robin in other media

text: In 2021, DC released a comic series continuation of the Tim Burton films entitled "Batman '89", which includes a new version of Robin based on Marlon Wayans, penned by Sam Hamm named .


title: Robin in other media

text: Wayans was considered for the role of Robin in "Batman Forever", but the change in directors from Burton to Joel Schumacher would also mean a change in the choice of actor for the role of Robin. Chris O'Donnell played the character of Dick Grayson in the film, alongside Val Kilmer in the role of Batman. Dick Grayson's parents and older brother were murdered by Two-Face during a hostage situation at the annual Gotham Circus after the family helps get rid of a bomb rigged to explode. Bruce Wayne takes him in as his ward out of guilt for being unable to save Dick's family. Dick soon finds out that Bruce is Batman and becomes a costumed hero in his late teens.


title: Robin in other media

text: O'Donnell reprised the role in the 1997 film "Batman & Robin", this time opposite George Clooney as Batman. Tension between Batman and Robin is present in the film due to Robin growing tired of playing second fiddle to Batman and desiring to break free from Batman's shadow, particularly after Robin's recklessness leads to him getting frozen by Mr. Freeze. These feelings are later amplified when Poison Ivy exposes Robin to her pheromone dust and causes him to fall in love with her, sowing seeds of doubt regarding Batman's faith in his ward. In the film's climax, Robin eventually sees through Ivy's schemes and makes amends with Batman, and throughout the film, it is hinted that he harbours romantic feelings towards Alfred's niece, Barbara Wilson, who later becomes Batgirl. His costume is a blue rubber suit with a red bird symbol on the chest. He also wears a silvery Arctic version of his Robin costume.


title: Robin in other media

text: Chris O'Donnell revealed to "Access Hollywood" that a Robin spin-off was planned but got scrapped after "Batman & Robin".


title: Robin in other media

text: In a June 2005 interview, Christopher Nolan, the director of "Batman Begins" and "The Dark Knight", said that as long as he was directing the franchise, Robin would not be appearing. Since Christian Bale was portraying Batman as a young man at the time of "", Dick Grayson is still a child at this point. Bale has also given the same opinion regarding Robin, even though his favorite Batman story, "", focuses on Robin's origin.


title: Robin in other media

text: In the film "The Dark Knight Rises", Batman finds an ally in a young policeman who goes by the name of John Blake (portrayed by Joseph Gordon-Levitt), an original character created exclusively for the film.


title: Robin in other media

text: Blake's an orphan whose mother was killed in a car crash and whose father was murdered in a gambling related dispute when Blake was still a child. He was raised in St. Swithin's, an orphanage sponsored by the Wayne Foundation. During his time there, he learned to hide his anger over his parents' death. When Bruce Wayne visited the orphanage, Blake noticed similar qualities between himself and Bruce, and single-handedly deduced that Bruce was Batman. When he was old enough, he became a police officer.


title: Robin in other media

text: After the discovery of Bane, Blake confronts Bruce and attempts to convince him to return as Batman. When Bane publicly declares himself, Blake takes Commissioner Gordon into hiding and arrests Selina Kyle to question her about Bruce's disappearance. He also shows his repulsion towards Gordon and Batman covering up the crimes of Harvey Dent. Blake joins Gordon and the other cops in a revolt against Bane's rule, but is caught and nearly executed. He's rescued by Batman, who tells him to evacuate the city. This attempt fails when external officers blow up the only bridge leading away from Gotham out of fear, since Bane had threatened earlier to have the bomb detonated (by a random citizen, later revealed to be Talia al Ghul, masquerading as Miranda Tate) if anyone tried to leave Gotham.


title: Robin in other media

text: After Batman apparently sacrifices himself to save the city, Blake quits the GCPD, disgusted that the mainland police were willing to let Gotham perish. He attends Bruce's funeral with Gordon, Alfred Pennyworth and Lucius Fox. He later attends the reading of Bruce's will, and is pleasantly surprised to discover that Wayne Manor will become a home for the city's at-risk orphans, named in honor of Thomas and Martha Wayne. When he gives the name "Blake, John" to a clerk holding a package that Bruce had left him, he is told there is nothing there for him. He hands over an ID and suggests they try his legal name, which is revealed to be Robin. The clerk gives him GPS coordinates and spelunking gear, before she tells him that he should use the name "Robin" more often. At the end of the film, Blake follows the coordinates, and finds the Batcave.


title: Robin in other media

text: Gordon-Levitt has stated that the ending of "The Dark Knight Rises" is not a set up for a spin-off film, but is the true conclusion of Christopher Nolan's Batman series.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "" a vandalized Robin costume is seen in a memorial case. A behind-the-scenes video released for the DC Extended Universe stated it belonged to Jason Todd, and was labeled as such at the Warner Bros. Studio Tour Hollywood. However, in July 2018, director Zack Snyder elaborated that the vandalized Robin costume in "Batman v Superman" was originally intended to belong to Dick Grayson, with the backstory being that the character was killed by the Joker before the events of the film, but this was changed due to the studio beginning the development of a "Nightwing" movie. The director also stated that had he stayed with the franchise, Robin would ""stay dead...till" Carrie", hinting at plans in future sequels for Carrie Kelley to take up the Robin mantle.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "Suicide Squad", it is revealed Harley Quinn was an accomplice to Robin's murder. Director/writer David Ayer later clarified that he intended for Joker to be the sole person who killed Robin and that Harley was added as an accomplice through late rewrites by then President and CCO of DC Entertainment, and Executive Producer, Geoff Johns when the film was undergoing extensive reshoots.


title: Robin in other media

text: Robin (Dick Grayson) was featured in the DC DTV movie "", where he was adopted, as a teenager (not a child, as in most interpretations), during the events of the movie. Batman did so because he realized that he was frightening those he was trying to protect. The circumstances of his adoption are not explained. He was voiced by Shane Haboucha.


title: Robin in other media

text: In the DC Universe Animated Original Movie "", an adaptation of the bestselling Batman storyline "Under the Hood" from "Batman" #635–650 and "Batman Annual" No. 25, Neil Patrick Harris voices Dick Grayson/Nightwing while Jensen Ackles portrays Jason Todd/Red Hood. Vincent Martella and his younger brother Alexander Martella each provide the voice of the young Jason Todd in different ages as Robin in a flashback in the beginning of the film.


title: Robin in other media

text: Carrie Kelly appears as Robin in the two-part animated film "", voiced by Ariel Winter. Being a fan of Batman, Carrie took the mantle of Robin herself when the Mutant crime organization had been wreaking havoc on Gotham. Batman comes to see her as a suitable Robin, training her and using her to gather intel. She helps him with leading the former Mutant's group Sons of Batman into learning his less violent ways, when Gotham needed martial law enforced. When Batman is called out to a duel with Superman after refusing to go back into retirement, Carrie helps Bruce fake his death. She, along with Oliver Queen (Green Arrow) and Bruce train the Sons of Batman group to begin taking on his job.


title: Robin in other media

text: Jack DeSena voices an unidentified Robin in the Target exclusive 2014 direct-to-video animated feature "."


title: Robin in other media

text: In 2013, "" was released, the first of a series of films that shared the same continuity, known as the DC Animated Movie Universe. Damian Wayne and Dick Grayson appear in several of these films, Damian/Robin being voiced by Stuart Allan while Sean Maher voices Dick/Nightwing.


title: Robin in other media

text: "Son of Batman", an adaptation of Grant Morrison' Batman storyline "Batman and Son", was the first time Damian Wayne had appeared in a DC-related film.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "Batman vs. Robin", Damian comes into contact with the Court of Owls, being tempted to leave Batman and join him. Throughout the film, Batman and Robin fight over Damian's rawness and his lack of discipline, leading to Damian almost joining the court before Talon (voiced by Jeremy Sisto), an assassin for the Court, is ordered to kill him when the leader discovers his secret identity. After Talon massacres the entire court, he and Robin clash in the Batcave before Talon commits suicide. Afterwards, Damian leaves for a monastery in the Himalayas.


title: Robin in other media

text: Damian returns in "", teaming up with Dick Grayson, who briefly assumes the Batman mantle to investigate his father's disappearance. The Heretic (voiced by Travis Willingham), makes his first film appearance, as an artificially-aged clone of Damian like in the comics. Heretic attempts to absorb Damian's mind into his so he will know what it feels like to be loved, but Talia al Ghul executes him for his treachery and punishment, much to Damian's horror.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "Justice League vs. Teen Titans", Batman decides to have Robin join the Teen Titans to teach him about teamwork and has Nightwing drop him off at Titans Tower. Damian ends up warming up to the team after being initially hostile towards them, forming a particular friendship with Raven.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "", Robin is still a member of the Teen Titans. Suspicious of new team member Terra, he begins tracking her movements. Through this action, he learns that Deathstroke survived their last encounter in "Son of Batman" and that he still seeks revenge against him. Robin tries to fight him off, but is subdued and captured by Terra, who is working with Deathstroke. Later, he and most of the other Teen Titans are hooked up into a machine so that Brother Blood, leader of a cult called H.I.V.E., can absorb all their powers. Nightwing eventually intervenes and saves them; he and Robin subsequently battle Deathstroke while the rest of the Titans battle Brother Blood. Terra intervenes in the fight and kills Deathstroke after he had betrayed her. Following Brother Blood's defeat and Terra's death, Damian is given a dog by Raven, whom he names Titus.


title: Robin in other media

text: Damian makes a cameo at the end of "The Death of Superman", comforting his father after Superman dies defeating Doomsday.


title: Robin in other media

text: Damian cameos appearance in "". After learning that his father is dating reformed thief Catwoman, he voices concern to Bruce and warns him to cover his drink.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "", Robin is one of the few Teen Titans to survive Darkseid's conquest of Earth following the defeat of the Justice League. Blaming Superman's faulty strategy for the deaths of his friends, Damian reforms the League of Assassins, with Lady Shiva as his second-in-command. Two years later, Raven, Constantine, Etrigan, and a depowered Superman seek out Damian for his help in defeating Darkseid. Damian reluctantly joins them, revealing that he attempted to revive Nightwing with the Lazarus Pits, but the process left Dick insane, forcing Damian to keep him locked up. Damian privately admits to Raven that he had developed feelings for her.


title: Robin in other media

text: When the heroes travel to Apokolips, Damian, as Robin, is forced to fight Batman, now brainwashed and serving as Darkseid's second-in-command. When Batman emerges victorious, Darkseid commands him to kill his son. However, the sight of his defeated son reminds Batman of the night his parents died, allowing him to break free of Darkseid's control. Darkseid attempts to kill Batman with his Omega Beams for his defiance, but Robin dies when he takes the blast for his father. With the aid of Zatanna's spirit, Raven revives Damian and heals his injuries.


title: Robin in other media

text: In the aftermath of the battle, the surviving heroes return to Earth, where Damian gives Dick to a partially cyberized Starfire. Constantine encourages Flash to run back in time and create another Flashpoint. Just before the timeline is reset, Damian and Raven share their first and only kiss.


title: Robin in other media

text: Ward reprised his role as Dick Grayson/Robin in the animated movie "" and its sequel "Batman vs. Two-Face".


title: Robin in other media

text: Michael Cera voices Dick Grayson in "The Lego Movie" spin-off "The Lego Batman Movie". This version was adopted by Batman as a teenager and his Robin outfit is actually a modified Reggae outfit for Batman with the pants taken off. He has large, green glasses similar to the Carrie Kelley version. During the climax, he briefly dons a Batman armor labeled "Nightwing" when attempting to save Barbara and Alfred.


title: Robin in other media

text: Feudal Japan versions of both Robin and Red Robin appear in the anime film "Batman Ninja" as well as Red Hood and Nightwing. This was the first time all four mainstream Robin's have appeared together outside of the comics.


title: Robin in other media

text: The 2018 animated film "", taking place in Gotham City in the 19th century, features three orphan boys, Dickie, Jason and Timmy (voiced by Lincoln Melcher, Grey DeLisle, and Tara Strong, respectively), whose last names are never given. After Batman cripples their gang leader (who refers to them as his "Cock Robins", from the old nursery rhyme), they are recruited by Alfred for odd jobs and eventually adopted by Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle. This is a departure from the original graphic novel "Gotham by Gaslight", in which no version of Robin appears.


title: Robin in other media

text: The "Teen Titans Go!" and original "Teen Titans" animated series versions of Robin appear in "Teen Titans Go! vs. Teen Titans", with both voiced by Scott Menville.


title: Robin in other media

text: Both Dick Grayson / Nightwing and Damian Wayne / Robin appears in "Injustice" with Dick voiced by Derek Phillips and Damian voiced by Zach Callison. As in the and its , Robin joins Superman's side after accidentally killing Nightwing during the riot in Arkham Asylum. Nightwing's death in Arkham is also slightly different in that the escrima stick that hit him only disoriented him in the comics and he died from falling on a rock, while in the film, he dies from the stick hitting him in the temple and is killed on the spot. Also, Damian later revolts against Superman and the Regime, and reconciles with the deceased Nightwing and rejoins his father at the film's end. Also, as in the Year 3 of the comics, Nightwing becomes Deadman (dubbed Deadwing) after an encounter with Rama Kushna, but he does not replace Boston Brand.


title: Robin in other media

text: The "Teen Titans Go!" and the 1970s "Challenge of the Superfriends" animated series counterpart versions of Robin appear in the crossover film "" with both voiced by Scott Menville, In addition, the 1970s counterpart (which is albeit uncredited at the end credits) also appears at the end of the movie.