title: Ernst vom Rath

text: According to historian Hans-Jürgen Döscher, Germany's foremost authority on Kristallnacht, vom Rath was homosexual and had met Grynszpan in Le Boeuf sur le Toit, a popular haunt for gay men in 1938. The French writer André Gide, himself a homosexual, testified in his personal diaries that vom Rath was well known in the Parisian homosexual community. There were rumours that occasionally he was called "Madame Ambassador" and "Notre Dame de Paris." His brother, Gustav, was convicted of homosexual offences and there were allegations that vom Rath was treated for rectal gonorrhoea at the Berlin Institute of Radiology.


title: Ernst vom Rath

text: The trial was planned for 1942 but never took place, primarily because the Nazis (who also sent homosexuals to concentration camps) feared it would turn into a gay scandal.


title: Ernst vom Rath

text: Grynszpan's ultimate fate is unknown but he probably died in Sachsenhausen concentration camp. The last documentation indicating he was alive, or thought to be alive, was a Foreign Ministry memorandum on 7 December 1942. In 1960, at the request of his parents in Israel, the lower district court in Hanover officially declared Grynszpan deceased, listing his date of death as 8 May 1945.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: The Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet (Mongolian: , or , ) is the writing system used for the standard dialect of the Mongolian language in the modern state of Mongolia. It has a largely phonemic orthography, meaning that there is a fair degree of consistency in the representation of individual sounds. Cyrillic has not been adopted as the writing system in the Inner Mongolia region of China, which continues to use the traditional Mongolian script.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: Mongolian Cyrillic is the most recent of the many writing systems that have been used for Mongolian. It uses the same characters as the Russian alphabet except for the two additional characters Өө and Үү .


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: It was introduced in the 1940s in the Mongolian People's Republic under Soviet influence, after two months in 1941 where Latin was used as the official script, while Latinisation in the Soviet Union was in vogue. After the Mongolian democratic revolution in 1990, the traditional Mongolian script was briefly considered to replace Cyrillic, but the plan was canceled in the end. However, the Mongolian script has become a compulsory subject in primary and secondary schooling and is slowly gaining in popularity. The Mongolian script is a highly uncommon vertical script, and unlike other historically vertical-only scripts such as the Chinese script it cannot easily be adapted for horizontal use, which puts it at a disadvantage compared to Cyrillic for many modern purposes. Thus, the Cyrillic script continues to be used in everyday life.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and the traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: In China, Cyrillic alphabet also used by the Chinese to learn the modern Mongolian language, and by some Mongols in Inner Mongolia to their demonstrate ethnic identity.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: Үү and Өө are sometimes also written as the Ukrainian letters Її (or Vv) and Єє respectively, when using Russian software or keyboards that do not support them.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: Initial long vowels and non-initial full vowels are written with double vowel letters, while initial short vowels and non-initial epenthetic vowels are written with single vowel letters. Conversely, every vowel letter except у and ү can also represent schwa and zero in non-first syllables. Palatalisation is indicated by и (i), the soft sign ь (') or е (ye), ё (yo), я (ya) and ю (yu) after the palatalised consonant. These latter letters are pronounced without [j] in that position. Щ is never used in Mongolian and only used in Russian words containing the letter. It is pronounced identically to Ш, and is often omitted when teaching the Cyrillic alphabet. Sometimes, Russian loanwords with Щ will be spelled with Ш instead: борш, Хрушев. The difference between [e~i] might be dialectal, while the difference between ɵ~o is positional.


title: Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet

text: The original plan as at 10 October 1945 was to use э only at the beginning of words and in long vowel combinations (as is done in other languages written using Russian-based Cyrillic), дз for modern з, дж for modern ж, ии for modern ий and йө for modern е (to represent the "yö" sound at the beginning of words), but the alphabet was changed to its final form on 13 November.


title: No-hair theorem

text: The no-hair theorem states that all stationary black hole solutions of the Einstein–Maxwell equations of gravitation and electromagnetism in general relativity can be completely characterized by only three independent "externally" observable classical parameters: mass, electric charge, and angular momentum. Other characteristics (such as geometry and magnetic moment) are uniquely determined by these three parameters, and all other information (for which "hair" is a metaphor) about the matter that formed a black hole or is falling into it "disappears" behind the black-hole event horizon and is therefore permanently inaccessible to external observers after the black hole "settles down" (by emitting gravitational and electromagnetic waves). Physicist John Archibald Wheeler expressed this idea with the phrase "black holes have no hair", which was the origin of the name.


title: No-hair theorem

text: Richard Feynman objected to the phrase that seemed to me to best symbolize the finding of one of the graduate students: graduate student Jacob Bekenstein had shown that a black hole reveals nothing outside it of what went in, in the way of spinning electric particles. It might show electric charge, yes; mass, yes; but no other features or as he put it, "A black hole has no hair". Richard Feynman thought that was an obscene phrase and he didn't want to use it. But that is a phrase now often used to state this feature of black holes, that they don't indicate any other properties other than a charge and angular momentum and mass.


title: No-hair theorem

text: The first version of the no-hair theorem for the simplified case of the uniqueness of the Schwarzschild metric was shown by Werner Israel in 1967. The result was quickly generalized to the cases of charged or spinning black holes. There is still no rigorous mathematical proof of a general no-hair theorem, and mathematicians refer to it as the no-hair conjecture. Even in the case of gravity alone (i.e., zero electric fields), the conjecture has only been partially resolved by results of Stephen Hawking, Brandon Carter, and David C. Robinson, under the additional hypothesis of non-degenerate event horizons and the technical, restrictive and difficult-to-justify assumption of real analyticity of the space-time continuum.


title: No-hair theorem

text: Suppose two black holes have the same masses, electrical charges, and angular momenta, but the first black hole was made by collapsing ordinary matter whereas the second was made out of antimatter; nevertheless, then the conjecture states they will be completely indistinguishable to an observer "outside the event horizon". None of the special particle physics pseudo-charges (i.e., the global charges baryonic number, leptonic number, etc., all of which would be different for the originating masses of matter that created the black holes) are conserved in the black hole, or if they are conserved somehow then their values would be unobservable from the outside.


title: No-hair theorem

text: Every isolated unstable black hole decays rapidly to a stable black hole; and (excepting quantum fluctuations) stable black holes can be completely described (in a Cartesian coordinate system) at any moment in time by these eleven numbers:


title: No-hair theorem

text: These numbers represent the conserved attributes of an object which can be determined from a distance by examining its gravitational and electromagnetic fields. All other variations in the black hole will either escape to infinity or be swallowed up by the black hole.


title: No-hair theorem

text: By changing the reference frame one can set the linear momentum and position to zero and orient the spin angular momentum along the positive "z" axis. This eliminates eight of the eleven numbers, leaving three which are independent of the reference frame: mass, angular momentum magnitude, and electric charge. Thus any black hole that has been isolated for a significant period of time can be described by the Kerr–Newman metric in an appropriately chosen reference frame.


title: No-hair theorem

text: The no-hair theorem was originally formulated for black holes within the context of a four-dimensional spacetime, obeying the Einstein field equation of general relativity with zero cosmological constant, in the presence of electromagnetic fields, or optionally other fields such as scalar fields and massive vector fields (Proca fields, etc.).


title: No-hair theorem

text: It has since been extended to include the case where the cosmological constant is positive (which recent observations are tending to support).


title: No-hair theorem

text: Magnetic charge, if detected as predicted by some theories, would form the fourth parameter possessed by a classical black hole.


title: No-hair theorem

text: Counterexamples in which the theorem fails are known in spacetime dimensions higher than four; in the presence of non-abelian Yang–Mills fields, non-abelian Proca fields, some non-minimally coupled scalar fields, or skyrmions; or in some theories of gravity other than Einstein's general relativity. However, these exceptions are often unstable solutions and/or do not lead to conserved quantum numbers so that "The 'spirit' of the no-hair conjecture, however, seems to be maintained". It has been proposed that "hairy" black holes may be considered to be bound states of hairless black holes and solitons.


title: No-hair theorem

text: In 2004, the exact analytical solution of a (3+1)-dimensional spherically symmetric black hole with minimally coupled self-interacting scalar field was derived. This showed that, apart from mass, electrical charge and angular momentum, black holes can carry a finite scalar charge which might be a result of interaction with cosmological scalar fields such as the inflaton. The solution is stable and does not possess any unphysical properties; however, the existence of a scalar field with the desired properties is only speculative.


title: No-hair theorem

text: The LIGO results provide some experimental evidence consistent with the uniqueness of the no-hair theorem. This observation is consistent with Stephen Hawking's theoretical work on black holes in the 1970s.


title: No-hair theorem

text: A study by Sasha Haco, Stephen Hawking, Malcolm Perry and Andrew Strominger postulates that black holes might contain "soft hair", giving the black hole more degrees of freedom than previously thought. This hair permeates at a very low-energy state, which is why it didn't come up in previous calculations that postulated the no-hair theorem. This was the subject of Hawking's final paper which was published posthumously.


title: Kumar Pallana

text: Kumar Valavhadas Pallana (23 December 1918 – 10 October 2013) was an Indian American character actor and vaudevillian. He performed on the Mickey Mouse Club as a plate spinner and juggler.


title: Kumar Pallana

text: Pallana moved to the United States in 1946 and spent 20 years performing around the country before settling down in Texas at his wife's insistence, and started a yoga studio.


title: Kumar Pallana

text: Pallana was married to Ranjana Jethwa and had two children, son Dipak and daughter Sandhya. His son Dipak created, owned and operated a cafe called the Cosmic Cup (now Cosmic Cafe) in Dallas, where Kumar met director Wes Anderson and actor Owen Wilson. Anderson subsequently cast Pallana in his films "Bottle Rocket", "Rushmore", "The Royal Tenenbaums" and "The Darjeeling Limited". Pallana also appeared in the Bollywood movie "Anjaana Anjaani " (2010) and the acclaimed independent film "Another Earth" (2011). A short documentary, "KUMAR:MKE", about Pallana's connection to the Milwaukee film scene, was released in 2015.


title: Kumar Pallana

text: Pallana's daughter Sandhya Pallana worked with him on "The Terminal" and other productions. His son Dipak, also an actor, appeared in films such as "Bottle Rocket", "Rushmore" and "The Royal Tenenbaums".


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell's model of communication is one of the first and most influential models of communication. It was initially published by Harold Lasswell in 1948 and analyzes communication in terms of five basic questions: "Who?", "Says What?", "In What Channel?", "To Whom?", and "With What Effect?". These questions pick out the five fundamental components of the communicative process: the sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, and the effect. Some theorists have raised doubts that the widely used characterization as a "model of communication" is correct and refer to it instead as "Lasswell's formula", "Lasswell's definition", or "Lasswell's construct". In the beginning, it was conceived specifically for the analysis of mass communication like radio, television, and newspapers. However, it has been applied to various other fields and many theorists understand it as a general model of communication.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell's model is still being used today and has influenced many subsequent communication theorists. Some of them expanded the model through additional questions like "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?". Others used it as a starting point for the development of their own models.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell's model is often criticized for its simplicity. A common objection is that it does not explicitly discuss a feedback loop or the influence of context on the communicative process. Another criticism is that it does not take the effects of noise into account. However, not everyone agrees with these objections and it has been suggested that they apply mainly to how Lasswell's model was presented and interpreted by other theorists and not to Lasswell's original formulation.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell's model is one of the earliest and most influential models of communication. It was first published by Harold Lasswell in his 1948 book "The Structure and Function of Communication in Society". Its aim is to organize the "scientific study of the process of communication". It has been described as "a linear and Uni-directional process", "a one-way process", an "action model", a media theory "classic", a "widely used segmentation of the communication process", and "a simple, linear, and potentially hypodermic conceptualization of communication."


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell's model analyzes communication in terms of five basic questions: "Who", "Says What", "In What Channel", "To Whom", and "With What Effect". These questions refer to the most salient components of the process of communication. "Who" asks about the person formulating the message and "what" is about the content of the message. The "channel" is the way the message is conveyed from the sender to the receiver. "Whom" refers to the recipient of the message. This can either be an individual or a bigger audience, as in the case of mass communication. The "effect" is the outcome of the communication, for example, that the audience was persuaded to accept the point of view expressed in the message. It can include effects that were not intended by the sender. In the case of a news paper headline, the sender is the reporter, the message is the content of the headline, the newspaper itself is the channel, the audience is the reader, and the effect is how the reader responds to the headline.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell assigns each question to its own field of inquiry within the discipline of communication studies, corresponding to control analysis, content analysis, media analysis, audience analysis, and effect analysis. Because of the centrality of its five questions, it is sometimes referred to as the 5W model of communication.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Despite being widely seen as a "model of communication", not everyone agrees that this is an accurate characterization. A model of communication is a simplified presentation that aims to give a basic explanation of the process by highlighting its most fundamental characteristics and components. For example, James Watson and Anne Hill see Lasswell's model as a mere questioning device and not as a full model of communication. In the early reception, the term "Lasswell's formula" was commonly used instead by scholars interested in describing and classifying acts of communication. However, many subsequent theorists rejected this terminology since the term "formula" seems to miss part of the significance and applications. Many comparisons with the Shannon–Weaver model invited the term "model" here as well. In this regard, it may be understood as a framework for conceptualizing communication. Some theorists use the term "Lasswell's formula" only for the question "Who, says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect?" and not for the framework as a whole. Because it treats various basic concepts of communication, some scholars also refer to it as "Lasswell's definition" and some dictionaries even make reference to Lasswell in their definitions of communication. Zachary Sapienza et al. hold that there are many different conceptions of Lasswell's model, given both by himself and by other theorists. For this reason, they propose the term "Lasswell's construct" to emphasize that it is not one particular model but "an umbrella term which allows for multiple conceptions".


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Lasswell's model was initially formulated specifically for the analysis of mass communication like radio, television, and newspapers. But it has also been applied to various other fields and forms of communication. They include the analysis of new media, such as the internet, computer animations, and video games. Lasswell's model is also utilized in pedagogical settings to teach students the major elements of the communication process and as a starting point for developing hypotheses. Lasswell and others have used his model beyond the scope of mass communication as a tool for the analysis of all forms of verbal communication. This is also reflected in the fact that some theorists employ his model in their definition of communication in general.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: As one of the earliest models of communication, Lasswell's model has been very influential in the field of communication studies. In 1993, the communication scholars Denis McQuail and Sven Windahl referred to Lasswell's model as "perhaps the most famous single phrase in communication research." McQuail and Windahl also considered the model as a formula that would be transformed into a model once boxes were drawn around each element and arrows connected the elements.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: The model's influence is also reflected in various expansions and developments. Many theorists have used it as a starting point for the development of their own theories. George Gerbner, the founder of the cultivation theory, expanded Lasswell's model in 1956 to focus "attention on perception and reaction by the perceiver and the consequences of the communication". Laswell's 5W model of communication was expanded by Richard Braddock into a 7W model in his 1958 paper "An Extension of Lasswell's Formula". It includes two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?". The first question focuses on the importance of the context on communication. The second question emphasizes that there may be a difference between the sender's intention and the actual effect of the message. Similar extensions were proposed by Lennox Gray adding the question "in what situation?" and Herbert Hyman, who included the question "with what immediate response?". T. Duncan and S. Moriarty added a category for noise and focused on feedback instead of effect. According to media scholar Michael Real, not all such attempts are successful at capturing Lasswell's original intent. Lasswell himself also proposed additional questions, usually for the application of the model to specific fields. In the field of political communication, for example, he includes questions about what value outcomes are sought and whether the effect is in tune with the speaker's goals.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Most criticism of Lasswell's model focuses on its simplicity and lack of indepth discussion. For example, Greenberg and Salwen state: "Although Lasswell's model draws attention to several key elements in the mass communication process, it does no more than describe general areas of study. It does not link elements together with any specificity, and there is no notion of an active process." A common objection emphasizes its lack of a feedback loop. Feedback means that the receiver responds by sending their own message back to the original sender. This makes the process more complicated since each participant acts both as sender and receiver. For many forms of communication, feedback is of vital importance, for example, to assess the effect of the communication on the audience. However, it does not carry the same weight in the case of mass communication. Some theorists argue that this criticism is based on a misinterpretation of Lasswell's model. One reason for this view is that most models of communication take the form of graphical representation. And while there exist such visualizations for Lasswell's model, Lasswell never devised one himself and they are all due to other theorists interpreting his work. These visual representations usually show Lasswell's model as a linear transmission model lacking a feedback loop. Sapienza et al. argue against this view that Lasswell's model is not a linear transmission model since Lasswell also discusses two-way communication in another paper. Another argument in favor of this objection is that the effect discussed by Lasswell may be understood as some form of feedback.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Another shortcoming of Lasswell's model is that it does not take the effects of noise into account. Noise refers to influences that distort the message and make it more difficult for the receiver to reconstruct the source's original intention. For example, crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: A further criticism focuses on the fact that Lasswell's model does not address various influences of the context on communication. "Context" is a wide term and refers to the circumstances of the transmission. There are various forms of context, like the physical surroundings, emotional aspects such as the mood of the participants as well as social and cultural factors. These factors are crucial in many cases for understanding why a conversation evolves one way rather than another.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: The above-mentioned criticisms often lead to another objection: that Lasswell's model is outdated and therefore lacks usefulness in comparison to more modern models. However, despite being one of the oldest models of communication, Lasswell's model is still being used today. Such uses are often restricted to specific applications where the cited criticisms do not carry much weight. Examples include the analysis of mass media and new media.


title: Lasswell's model of communication

text: Not everyone agrees with the criticisms listed above based on the simplicity of Lasswell's model. According to Sapienza et al., many of these objections result from an overly simplified presentation of Lasswell's model by subsequent theorists but do not apply to Lasswell's original formulation. Such simplifications may be motivated by the desire of the interpreter to emphasize the advances of their own models in comparison. Some theorists hold that Lasswell's model is too simple to be called a model of communication and is better characterized as a questioning device. Against this view, it has been argued that the model's simple presentation in terms of five questions is a convenient starting point but does not do justice to its theoretical complexity.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Sir Joseph Austen Chamberlain (16 October 1863 – 16 March 1937) was a British statesman, son of Joseph Chamberlain and older half-brother of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer (twice) and was briefly Conservative Party leader before serving as Foreign Secretary.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Brought up to be the political heir of his father, whom he physically resembled, he was elected to Parliament as a Liberal Unionist at a by-election in 1892, and held office in the Unionist coalition governments of 1895–1905, remaining in the Cabinet as Chancellor of the Exchequer (1903–05) after his father resigned in 1903 to campaign for Tariff Reform. After his father's disabling stroke in 1906 Austen became the leading tariff reformer in the House of Commons. Late in 1911 he and Walter Long were due to fight one another for the leadership of the Conservative Party (in succession to Arthur Balfour), but both withdrew in favour of Bonar Law rather than risk a party split on a close result.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain returned to office in H. H. Asquith's wartime coalition government in May 1915, as Secretary of State for India, but resigned to take responsibility for the disastrous Kut Campaign. He again returned to office in David Lloyd George's coalition government, once again serving as Chancellor of the Exchequer. He then served as Conservative Party leader in the Commons (1921–2), before resigning after the Carlton Club meeting voted to end the Lloyd George Coalition.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Like many leading coalitionists, he did not hold office in the Conservative governments of 1922–4. By now regarded as an elder statesman, he served an important term as Foreign Secretary in Stanley Baldwin's Second Government (1924–9), during which he negotiated the Locarno Pact (1925), aimed at preventing war between France and Germany, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He last held office as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1931. He was one of the few MPs supporting Winston Churchill's appeals for rearmament against the German threat in the 1930s, and remained an active backbench MP until his death in 1937.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Austen Chamberlain was born in Birmingham, the second child and eldest son of Joseph Chamberlain, then a rising industrialist and political radical, later Mayor of Birmingham and a dominant figure in Liberal and Unionist politics at the end of the 19th century. His father and mother, the former Harriet Kenrick had a baby daughter Beatrice Chamberlain who would become an educationalist. Harriet died giving birth to Austen, leaving his father so shaken that for almost 25 years he maintained a distance from his first-born son. In 1868, his father married Harriet's cousin, Florence, and had further children, the oldest of whom, Neville, would become Prime Minister in the year of Austen's death.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Austen was dominated by his elder sister and was therefore sent away to be educated first at Rugby School "to release him from her thrall", before passing on to Trinity College, Cambridge. While at Trinity College, he became a lifelong friend of F. S. Oliver, a future advocate of Imperial Federation and, after 1909, a prominent member of the Round Table movement. Chamberlain made his first political address in 1884 at a meeting of the university's Political Society and was vice-president of the Cambridge Union.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: It would seem that from an early age his father had intended for politics to be Austen's future path, and with that in mind, he was sent first to France, where he studied at the Paris Institute of Political Studies and developed a lasting admiration for the French people and culture. For nine months, he was shown the brilliance of Paris under the Third Republic, and he met and dined with the likes of Georges Clemenceau and Alexandre Ribot.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: From Paris, Austen was sent to Berlin for twelve months, to imbibe the political culture of the other great European power, Germany. Though in his letters home to Beatrice and Neville, he showed an obvious preference for France and the lifestyle he had left behind there, Chamberlain undertook to learn German and learn from his experience in the capital of the German Empire. Among others, Austen met and dined with the "Iron Chancellor", Otto von Bismarck, an experience that was to hold a special place in his heart for the duration of his life.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: While attending the University of Berlin, Austen developed a suspicion of the growing nationalism in Germany based upon his experience of the lecturing style of Heinrich von Treitschke, who opened up to him "a new side of the German character – a narrow-minded, proud, intolerant Prussian chauvinism", the consequences of which he was later to ponder during the First World War and the crises of the 1930s.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Austen returned to England in 1888, lured largely by the prize of a parliamentary constituency. He was first elected to parliament as a member of his father's own Liberal Unionist Party in 1892, sitting for the seat of East Worcestershire. Owing to the prominence of his father and the alliance between the anti-Home Rule Liberal Unionists and Conservatives, Chamberlain was returned unopposed on 30 March, and at the first sitting of the new session, he walked up the floor of the house flanked by his father and his uncle, Richard.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Owing to the dissolution of parliament and the 1892 general election that August, Chamberlain was unable to make his maiden speech until April 1893, but, when delivered, it was acclaimed by the four-time prime minister William Ewart Gladstone as "one of the best speeches which has been made". That Chamberlain was speaking against Gladstone's own Second Home Rule Bill does not seem to have dampened the enthusiasm of the Prime Minister, who responded by publicly congratulating both Austen and his father, Joseph, on such an excellent performance. That was highly significant, given the bad blood existing between Joseph Chamberlain and his former leader.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Appointed a junior Whip of the Liberal Unionists after the general election, Austen's main role was to act as his father's "standard bearer" in matters of policy. Following the Conservative and Unionist landslide win in the election of 1895, Chamberlain was appointed Civil Lord of the Admiralty, holding that post until 1900, when he became Financial Secretary to the Treasury. Lord Salisbury retired as Prime Minister in July 1902, and the following month Chamberlain was promoted to the position of Postmaster General by the new premier, the Conservative Arthur J. Balfour, who also designated this a cabinet position, and appointed him to the Privy Council.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: In the wake of the struggle between his father and Balfour, Austen Chamberlain became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1903. Austen's appointment was largely a compromise solution to the bitter division of the two Unionist heavyweights, which threatened to split the coalition between supporters of Chamberlain's Imperial Tariff campaign and Balfour's more cautious advocacy of protectionism. While Austen supported his father's programme, his influence within the cabinet was diminished following the departure of the senior Chamberlain to become backbenchers. Facing a resurgent Liberal opposition and the threat of an internal party split, Balfour eventually took the Unionists into opposition in December 1905, and in the ensuing rout in the election of 1906, Austen found himself one of the few surviving Liberal Unionists in the House of Commons.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: After his father's stroke and enforced retirement from active politics a few months later, Austen became the effective leader of the tariff reform campaign within the Unionist Party, and thus, he was a contender for the eventual leadership of the party itself.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: With the Unionists in disarray after electoral defeats at both the January and December 1910 elections, Balfour was forced from his position as party leader in November 1911. Chamberlain was one of the leading candidates to succeed as Conservative leader even though he was still technically a member of the Liberal Unionist wing of the coalition (the two parties merged formally only in 1912).


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Given their standing in the party, only Chamberlain and Long had a realistic chance of success and though Balfour had intended Chamberlain to succeed him, it became clear from an early canvass of the sitting MPs that Long would be elected by a slender margin.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: After a short period of internal party campaigning, Chamberlain determined to withdraw from the contest for the good of the still-divided party. He succeeded in persuading Long to withdraw with him in favour of Law, who was subsequently chosen by unanimous vote as a compromise candidate.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain's action, while it prevented him from attaining the party leadership and, arguably, the premiership, did a great deal to maintain unity within the Conservative and Liberal Unionist parties at a time of great uncertainty and strain.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: In the last years before the outbreak of World War I, Chamberlain was concerned with one issue above all others: Home Rule for Ireland. The issue that had prompted his father to leave the Liberal Party in the 1880s now threatened to spill over into outright civil war, with the government of H. H. Asquith committed to the passage of a Third Home Rule Bill. Chamberlain was resolutely opposed to the dissolution of the Union with Ireland. To the strain then was added the death of his father in July 1914, only a few days after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, which began the train of events that led to the war.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Pressure from the Conservative opposition, in part led by Chamberlain, eventually resulted in the formation of the wartime coalition government, in 1915. Chamberlain joined the cabinet as Secretary of State for India. Like other politicians, including Arthur Balfour and George Curzon, Chamberlain supported the invasion of Mesopotamia to increase British prestige in the region, thus discouraging a German-inspired Muslim revolt in India.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain remained at the India Office after David Lloyd George succeeded Asquith as Prime Minister in late 1916, but following inquiries into the failure of the Mesopotamian campaign (undertaken by the separately-administered Indian Army) in 1915, including the loss of the British garrison during the Siege of Kut, Chamberlain resigned his post in 1917; as the minister ultimately responsible, the fault lay with him. He was widely acclaimed for such a principled act.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: After Lloyd George's Paris speech (12 November 1917) at which he said that "when he saw the appalling casualty lists he wish(ed) it had not been necessary to win so many ("victories")" there was talk of Chamberlain withdrawing support from the government. Lloyd George survived by claiming that the aim of the new inter-Allied Supreme War Council was purely to "coordinate" policy, not to overrule the British generals, who still enjoyed a good deal of support from Conservatives.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Later, he returned to government and became a member of the War Cabinet in April 1918 as Minister without Portfolio, replacing Lord Milner, who had become Secretary of State for War.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Following the victory of the Lloyd George coalition in the 1918 general election, Chamberlain was again appointed to the position of Chancellor of the Exchequer in January 1919 and immediately faced the huge task of restoring Britain's finances after four years of wartime expenditure.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Citing ill health, Law retired from the leadership of the Conservative branch of the Lloyd George government in the spring of 1921. His seniority and the general dislike of Curzon, his counterpart in the House of Lords, helped Chamberlain to both succeed Law as Leader of the House of Commons and take over in the office of Lord Privy Seal. He was succeeded at the Exchequer by Sir Robert Horne; it seemed that after ten years of waiting, Austen would again be given the opportunity of succeeding to the premiership.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: The Lloyd George coalition was beginning to falter, following numerous scandals and the unsuccessful conclusion of the Anglo-Irish War, and it was widely believed that it would not survive until the next general election. He had previously had little regard for Lloyd George, but the opportunity of working closely with the "Welsh Wizard" gave Chamberlain a new insight into his nominal superior in the government (by now, the Conservative Party was by far the largest partner in the government).


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: It was an unfortunate change of allegiance for Chamberlain, for by late 1921, the Conservative backbenchers were growing more and more restless for an end to the coalition and a return to single-party (Conservative) government. Conservatives in the House of Lords began, in public, to oppose the coalition, disregarding calls for support from Chamberlain. In the country at large, Conservative candidates began to oppose the coalition at by-elections, and discontent spread to the House of Commons.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: In the autumn of 1922, Chamberlain faced a backbench revolt, largely led by Stanley Baldwin, designed to oust Lloyd George, and when he summoned the Carlton Club meeting 19 October 1922, of Conservative MPs, a motion was there passed for fighting the forthcoming election as an independent party. Chamberlain resigned the party leadership rather than act against what he believed to be his duty. He was succeeded by Law, whose views and intentions he had predicted the evening before the vote at a private meeting. Law formed a government shortly thereafter, but Chamberlain was not given a post, but it seems that he would not have accepted a position even if he had been offered one.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Austen and Neville Chamberlain, Iain Duncan Smith and Liz Truss are the only four Conservative leaders not to lead the party into a general election. Until William Hague (1997–2001), Austen had been the only Conservative overall leader in the history of the party not to become Prime Minister.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: After the second resignation of Law in May 1923 (Law died from throat cancer later that year), Chamberlain was passed over again for the leadership of the party in favour of Stanley Baldwin. Baldwin offered Chamberlain the post of Lord Privy Seal, but Chamberlain insisted other former ministers from the Coalition to be included as well; Baldwin refused. However, Chamberlain returned to government when Baldwin formed his second ministry following success in the election of October 1924, serving in the important office of Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs from 1924 to 1929. Chamberlain was largely allowed a free hand by the easy-going Baldwin.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: It is as Foreign Secretary that Chamberlain's place in history was finally assured. In a difficult period in international relations, Chamberlain faced not only a split in the "entente cordiale" by the French invasion of the Ruhr but also the controversy over the 1924 Geneva Protocol, which threatened to dilute British sovereignty over the issue of League of Nations economic sanctions.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Despite the importance to history of other pressing issues, his reputation chiefly rests on his part in the negotiations over what came to be known as the Locarno Pact of 1925. Seeking to maintain the postwar status quo in the West, Chamberlain responded favourably to the approaches of German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann for a British guarantee of Germany's western borders. Besides promoting Franco-German reconciliation, Chamberlain's main motive was to create a situation in which Germany could pursue territorial revisionism in Eastern Europe peacefully.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain's understanding was that if Franco-German relations improved, France would gradually abandon the "Cordon sanitaire", the French alliance system in Eastern Europe between the wars. Once France had abandoned its allies in Eastern Europe as the price of better relations with the "Reich", the Poles and Czechoslovaks would have no Great Power ally to protect them, would be forced to adjust to German demands. Chamberlain believed that they would peacefully hand over the territories claimed by Germany such as the Sudetenland, the Polish Corridor and the Free City of Danzig. Promoting territorial revisionism in Eastern Europe in Germany's favour was one of Chamberlain's principal reasons for Locarno.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Together with Aristide Briand of France, Chamberlain and Stresemann met at the town of Locarno in October 1925 and signed a mutual agreement (together with representatives from Belgium and Italy) to settle all differences between the nations by arbitration, not war. For his services, Chamberlain was not only awarded the Nobel Peace Prize but also made a Knight of the Order of the Garter. He was the first ordinary Knight of the Garter since Elizabethan times (Sir Henry Lee) to die without having been made a peer. He was the 871st Knight of the Garter.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain also secured Britain's accession to the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which theoretically outlawed war as an instrument of policy. Chamberlain infamously said that Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was "a man with whom business could be done".


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Following his less-satisfactory engagement in issues in the Far East and Egypt, and the resignation of Baldwin's government after the election of 1929, Chamberlain resigned his position as Foreign Secretary and went into retirement. He briefly returned to government in 1931 as First Lord of the Admiralty in Ramsay MacDonald's first National Government, but soon retired later that year after having been forced to deal with the unfortunate Invergordon Mutiny.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Over the next six years as a senior backbencher, he gave strong support to the National Government on domestic issues but was critical on foreign policy. In 1935 the government faced a parliamentary rebellion over the Hoare-Laval Pact; his opposition to the vote of censure is widely believed to have been instrumental in saving the government from defeat on the floor of the House.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain was again briefly considered in 1935 for the post of Foreign Secretary but was passed over once the crisis was over for being too old for the job. Instead, his advice was sought as to the suitability of his former Parliamentary Private Secretary, now Minister for the League of Nations, Anthony Eden for the post.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: From 1934 to 1937, Chamberlain was, with Winston Churchill, Roger Keyes and Leo Amery, the most prominent voice calling for British rearmament in the face of a growing threat from Nazi Germany.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: However, in 1935, Stanley Baldwin's government produced a White Paper and announced modest rearmament. Although Baldwin would forever be condemned for his failure to rearm sufficiently, the Labour Party opposed the White Paper. Attlee said:


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: We believe in a League system in which the whole world would be ranged against an aggressor. If it is shown that someone is proposing to break the peace, let us bring the whole world opinion against her.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Afterwards, Austen Chamberlain, the former British Foreign Secretary, fully supported Baldwin and severely criticised Attlee's speech with the words:


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: If war breaks out, and we become involved in a struggle and if the Honourable Member for Limehouse [Clement Attlee] is sitting on the government benches while London is being bombed, do you think he will hold the language he held today? If he does he will be one of the first victims of the war, for he will be strung up by an angry and justifiably angry populace to the nearest lamp post.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: In addition to speaking eloquently in Parliament on the matter, he was the chairman of two Conservative parliamentary delegations in late 1936 that met with Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to remonstrate with him about his government's delay in rearming the British defence forces. More respected than Churchill, Chamberlain became something of an icon to young Conservatives, as the last survivor of Victorian high politics.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Though he never again served in a government, he survived in good health until March 1937, dying just ten weeks before his younger half-brother, Neville, became the first and only member of the Chamberlain dynasty to become Prime Minister.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain died at the age of 73 in his London home, 24 Egerton Terrace, on 16 March 1937. He is buried in East Finchley Cemetery in London.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: His estate was valued at probate at £45,044, a relatively modest sum for such a famous public figure. Much of his father's fortune had been lost in a failed attempt by his younger brother Neville to grow sisal in the West Indies in the early 1890s, and unlike Neville, he never went into business to make money for himself.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: His personal and political papers are housed in the Cadbury Research Library at the University of Birmingham.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Robert Blake wrote that Austen Chamberlain "for all his talents was only a thin echo of his formidable father, a mere shadow of that extraordinary figure ... Austen Chamberlain was altogether kinder than his father, more likeable, more honourable, more high-minded and less effective ... he lacked that ultimate hardness without which men seldom reach supreme political power". Blake comments that he often missed his chances because he could be persuaded to back off by the suggestion that he was acting for self-seeking reasons, hence Churchill's quip that "he always played the game, and he always lost it".


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: David Dutton comments that early assessments of Chamberlain's career compared him unfavourably with his father, who overshadowed his early career, and his brother, who overshadowed his later decades. In his forties, when he was ready to carve out his own identity, he had to act as a surrogate for his disabled father, whom he resembled in appearance (although he was softer and less wiry, both in face and body) and dress (wearing a monocle, and an orchid in his lapel). Until William Hague (1997–2001), he was the only Conservative leader of the twentieth century not to become Prime Minister. Although this is sometimes attributed to character defects, Dutton argues that he was a major figure in his own right, who only narrowly missed becoming Prime Minister in 1922 or 1923. Dutton quotes with approval Leo Amery's verdict written just after Chamberlain's death: 'He just missed greatness and the highest position, but his was a fine life of honourable public service'.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: Chamberlain could speak effectively, but was never a stirring orator. For most of his career he was renowned for rectitude and civic duty. Before the war Chamberlain had been a somewhat reluctant radical, but after 1918 he became more conservative, concerned at the new threat of socialism, and whose dress – he not only wore a monocle and frock coat but was one of the last MPs to wear a top hat inside the Commons Chamber – made him appear a relic from a previous generation. Dutton suggests that his "exaggerated sense of his own importance and dignity which compounded an already stiff and unbending personal demeanour", came from having to serve under men – Law and Baldwin – whom he regarded as his juniors.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: In 1906, Chamberlain married Ivy Muriel Dundas (died 1941), daughter of Colonel Henry Dundas. She was created a Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire (GBE) in 1925. The couple had two sons, Joseph and Lawrence, and a daughter, Diane.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: During the 1920s, the Chamberlains lived at a house called Twytt's Ghyll in Fir Toll Road, Mayfield, East Sussex. The house was sold in 1929. R.C.G. Foster said, "He kept himself quite aloof from the village and was not popular with his neighbours". He had an interest in rock gardening. At his death, his estate was valued for probate at £45,044 18/1.


title: Austen Chamberlain

text: A collection of archival material related to Austen Chamberlain can be found at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham. A separate collection of letters relating to Austen Chamberlain can also be found there.


title: MPEG-4

text: MPEG-4 is a group of international standards for the compression of digital audio and visual data, multimedia systems, and file storage formats. It was originally introduced in late 1998 as a group of audio and video coding formats and related technology agreed upon by the ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC29/WG11) under the formal standard ISO/IEC 14496 – "Coding of audio-visual objects". Uses of MPEG-4 include compression of audiovisual data for Internet video and CD distribution, voice (telephone, videophone) and broadcast television applications. The MPEG-4 standard was developed by a group led by Touradj Ebrahimi (later the JPEG president) and Fernando Pereira.


title: MPEG-4

text: MPEG-4 absorbs many of the features of MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 and other related standards, adding new features such as (extended) VRML support for 3D rendering, object-oriented composite files (including audio, video and VRML objects), support for externally specified Digital Rights Management and various types of interactivity. AAC (Advanced Audio Coding) was standardized as an adjunct to MPEG-2 (as Part 1) before MPEG-4 was issued.


title: MPEG-4

text: MPEG-4 is still an evolving standard and is divided into a number of parts. Companies promoting MPEG-4 compatibility do not always clearly state which "part" level compatibility they are referring to. The key parts to be aware of are MPEG-4 Part 2 (including Advanced Simple Profile, used by codecs such as DivX, Xvid, Nero Digital and 3ivx and by QuickTime 6) and MPEG-4 part 10 (MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 or Advanced Video Coding, used by the x264 encoder, Nero Digital AVC, QuickTime 7, and high-definition video media like Blu-ray Disc).


title: MPEG-4

text: Most of the features included in MPEG-4 are left to individual developers to decide whether or not to implement. This means that there are probably no complete implementations of the entire MPEG-4 set of standards. To deal with this, the standard includes the concept of "profiles" and "levels", allowing a specific set of capabilities to be defined in a manner appropriate for a subset of applications.


title: MPEG-4

text: Initially, MPEG-4 was aimed primarily at low-bit-rate video communications; however, its scope as a multimedia coding standard was later expanded. MPEG-4 is efficient across a variety of bit rates ranging from a few kilobits per second to tens of megabits per second. MPEG-4 provides the following functions:


title: MPEG-4

text: MPEG-4 provides a series of technologies for developers, for various service-providers and for end users:


title: MPEG-4

text: These subsets, called 'Profiles', limit the size of the tool set a decoder is required to implement. In order to restrict computational complexity, one or more 'Levels' are set for each Profile. A Profile and Level combination allows:


title: MPEG-4

text: MPEG-4 consists of several standards—termed "parts"—including the following (each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification):


title: MPEG-4

text: Profiles are also defined within the individual "parts", so an implementation of a part is ordinarily not an implementation of an entire part.


title: MPEG-4

text: The low profile levels are part of the MPEG-4 video encoding/decoding constraints and are compatible with the older ITU H.261 standard, also compatible with former analog TV standards for broadcast and records (such as NTSC or PAL video). The ASP profile in its highest level is suitable for most usual DVD medias and players or for many online video sites, but not for Blu-ray records or online HD video contents.


title: MPEG-4

text: More advanced profiles for HD media have been defined later in the AVC profile, which is functionally identical to the ITU H.264 standard but are now also integrated in MPEG-4 Part 10 (see H.264/MPEG-4 AVC for the list of defined levels in this AVC profile).


title: MPEG-4

text: MPEG-4 contains patented technologies, the use of which requires licensing in countries that acknowledge software algorithm patents. Over two dozen companies claim to have patents covering MPEG-4. MPEG LA licenses patents required for MPEG-4 Part 2 Visual from a wide range of companies (audio is licensed separately) and lists all of its licensors and licensees on the site. New licenses for MPEG-4 System patents are under development and no new licenses are being offered while holders of its old MPEG-4 Systems license are still covered under the terms of that license for the patents listed (MPEG LA – Patent List).


title: MPEG-4

text: The majority of patents used for the MPEG-4 Visual format are held by three Japanese companies: Mitsubishi Electric (255 patents), Hitachi (206 patents), and Panasonic (200 patents).


title: Bouquet garni

text: The bouquet garni (French for "garnished bouquet"; ) is a bundle of herbs usually tied with string and mainly used to prepare soup, stock, casseroles and various stews. The bouquet is cooked with the other ingredients and removed prior to consumption. Liquid remaining in the bouquet garni can be wrung out into the dish.


title: Bouquet garni

text: There is no standard recipe for "bouquet garni", but most French recipes include thyme, bay leaf and parsley. It may also include basil, burnet, chervil, rosemary, peppercorns, savory and tarragon. Vegetables such as carrot, celery (leaves or leaf stalks), celeriac, leek, onion and parsley root are sometimes included in the "bouquet". In Provence, dried orange peel may be added.


title: Bouquet garni

text: Sometimes, the "bouquet" is not bound with string, and its ingredients are filled into a small sachet, a piece of celery stalk, a net, or a tea strainer instead. Traditionally, the aromatics are bound within leek leaves, though a cheesecloth, muslin or coffee filter tied with butcher twine can be used.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Yogi is a 2009 Indian Tamil-language action drama film directed by Subramaniam Siva, starring director-turned-actor Ameer as the titular protagonist alongside Madhumitha, and Swathi, Vincent Asokan, Ponvannan, lyricist Snehan in his acting debut, and Ganja Karuppu. An uncredited remake of the 2005 South African Academy Award-winning film "Tsotsi", the film was written and produced by Ameer himself, and features musical score composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: The film follows Yogi, a slum-dwelling criminal who makes a living out of murders and robberies. When he is chased by cops during a robbing spree, Yogi steals a woman's car and succeeds in fleeing. His life starts to change when he realizes there is a baby inside the car, and he can't just let go of it even though he attempts to do so while abandoning the getaway car.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Launched in October 2007, "Yogi" was released theatrically on 27 November 2009, opening to mixed reviews. Critics praised the performances but criticized the excessive melodrama, slow pacing and similarities to "Tsotsi". It became a moderate box office success. The same year, it was showcased at the 6th Dubai International Film Festival.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Yogeshwaran aka Yogi and his gang of three men live in a slum on the edge making a living out of robberies and murders and having no human emotions. Yogi, in particular, has a dark secret about his bad past, which he keeps to himself. One day during a robbing spree, he is chased by the police. He gets into a car parked by a woman in front of a fruit shop and manages to flee, when he suddenly hears the cry of a child, finding a three-month-old baby in the car's backseat. He abandons the car and leaves the baby in there, but as he hears the baby crying, he is moved, and the human being in him wakes up. He gets back to shove the baby into a large shopping bag and takes it home with him. He hides the baby from the rest of his gang and tries to take care of the baby alone.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Yogi, then holding at gunpoint, coerces Rajasulochana, a young mother hailing from Andhra Pradesh and deserted by her husband, to breastfeed that baby. Meanwhile, it is revealed that the child's real mother, Caroline, is desperate to get her child back, whilst her husband Linden, happening to be merely the stepfather of the baby, searches with the help of rowdies for the baby, which he actually wants dead.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: In the meantime, Yogi slowly gets transformed, turning into a new man thanks to the baby, which apparently prompts feelings in him, even planning to keep and bring up the child himself. A flashback reveals his past, where he had an atrocious childhood as he was terrorized by his sadistic father, a beggar who was responsible for the death of his mother and sister and for making Yogi himself a brute. However, he changes his plans and decides to reunite the baby with its mother, but unfortunately, the child slips into Linden's hands. Yogi gets to know that Linden wants to kill the baby and tries to prevent that and save the baby.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Shortly after the release of his multiple-award-winning Tamil film "Paruthiveeran" in February 2007, there were some speculations regarding Ameer's next project. Even before completing "Paruthiveeran", it was reported that Ameer's next film will be "Kutravaali", a film about a criminal, that will not feature any songs, starring Suriya in the lead role, which, however turned out to be wrong. In January 2007 then, it was reported, that Ameer will be directing a film, titled "Kannabiran", again with Surya in the lead role, produced by himself. In the following months, Ameer again and again cited, that he was working on "Kannabiran" and he was still looking for someone to play the lead role. It was also stated, that he might direct a film with Vikram or Vijay after "Kannabiran". All these reports turned out be rumors, when Ameer suddenly shelved the "Kannabiran"-project for unknown reasons and instead teamed up with director Subramaniam Siva to create a film, that will be written and produced by himself and directed by Subramaniam Siva, which will be titled "Yogi", in which Ameer himself will act in the lead role.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: The distribution rights were initially said to be brought by Kalaignar TV, who had beaten Sun Pictures, who had also plans to acquire the film's rights. However, as a sudden twist, the film's rights slipped into the hands of Sun Pictures, who were said to distribute this film. Eventually these news turned out to be fictional, with the film being released by the production house itself.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Ameer decided to take up the title role of the film himself, after no other actor was ready to enact the character of Yogeshwaran. He then was looking for an actress to take up the lead female role. Initially looking for a 13-year-old schoolgirl to play that role as per the original script, he had to drop the idea as he couldn't find any suitable actress for that role and hence changed the script. Priyamani, who played the lead female character of "Muththazhagu" in Ameer's previous venture, "Paruthiveeran", that won her much accolades, fame and the National Film Award, and who, according to Ameer, was the first choice, was approached to play the role as later was Trisha Krishnan, who debuted in Ameer's 2002 film "Mounam Pesiyadhe". However, both the actresses refused the offer, before Madhumitha then accepted to play the role of the lead female character named Rajasulochana, which is said to have great scope to perform. Also actress Swathi, who acted in films like "Selva" and "Vaanmathi" with Vijay and Ajith Kumar, respectively in the 1990s was signed up to play an important role in the film. Moreover, Ameer insisted, that the actress should dub for herself in the film as well. Also lyricist Snehan was cast to play a vital role in the film as was journalist Devaraj, director Nandha Periyasamy and a real-life politician Gazzali. Apart from these, 20 newcomers are said to make their debut in the film, including two real-life slum dwellers, who would play as Ameer's friends.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Filming was held for 161 days in various areas in and around Chennai on a cost of nearly 12 crores. The shooting of the film began in mid-November 2007 and was completed by mid-July 2009. Since the story is said to revolve around a slum dweller in an urban slum, shooting was mainly held around slum areas in Chennai as in Egmore, Saidapet, Chennai Central and Teynampet. The various locations in Chennai include the Chennai City Centre and the Sathyam Theatre, for which the unit had to get permissions first, which was said to be very costly and one main reason for the delay of the shooting. Several fight scenes in the climax were shot at the terrace of Big Bazaar in Vadapalani, at Ennore and a house in Besant Nagar. In August 2009, however, it was reported, that "last leg shooting" was being held in Thiruvottiyur in Chennai at the famous Vadivudaiyamman Temple. In April 2008, reports claimed, that Ameer was injured during the shooting, which was going on at the AVM Studios, when he was jumping from 40 meter high and sustained fracture in his right hand.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: The musical score of "Yogi" is composed by Ameer's friend, Yuvan Shankar Raja, teaming up with Ameer again for this picture, having earlier worked on several projects as "Mounam Pesiyadhe" (2002), "Raam" (2005), and "Paruthiveeran" (2007), which all turned out to be huge musical hits. The score and most of the songs are centred on the traditional Indian string instrument sarangi, an essential part of Hindustani classical music, which is considered the hardest to Indian instrument to master. Noted Sarangi player Ustad Sultan Khan was therefore assigned to perform the sarangi pieces in this film.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: The soundtrack was released on 13 September 2009 at Sathyam Cinemas among many prominent personalities. Yuvan Shankar Raja and Ameer had travelled to France in September 2007 to compose and record the songs, which were released only two years later. The album consists of six tracks and features the voices of Ameer himself, composer Yuvan Shankar Raja, lyricist Snehan, rapper Blaaze, Neha Bhasin and noted Sarangi player Ustad Sultan Khan, who has performed the Sarangi in this album as well, among others. Both versions of "Yogi Yogi Thaan" weren't featured in the film. The lyrics were written by Snehan, who usually pens for Ameer's films.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: The soundtrack received generally positive reviews. Karthik of "Bangalore Mirror" described it as "brilliant", while a critic from "Indiaglitz".com wrote it was "stylish" and "scintillating". "Rediff"'s Pavithra Srinivasan gave a mixed review, citing that Yuvan Shankar Raja "partially delivers in "Yogi"". However, despite garnering favorable reviews, the songs failed to become prominent, due to the film's poor theatrical run.


title: Yogi (2009 film)

text: Pavithra Srinivasan from "Rediff.com" gave the film 3 stars out 5 and praised the secondary actors, dialogues, twists, music and art direction. Criticism was aimed towards the performance of Ameer, slow pacing and the film's similarities with "Tsotsi". Bhama Devi Ravi from "The Times of India" gave the film 2.5 stars out of 5, noting it had plenty of fight scenes unlike the original, and praised the film's rawness along with the performances. However, the reviewer felt the film reminded too much of "Tsotsi", and also criticized the melodramatic episodes and lack of depth in characterization. "Behindwoods" similarly gave it 2.5 stars out of 5, praising the performances and depiction of the darker side of human life. The reviewer criticized the dosage of melodrama and the placement of some fight scenes. S. Viswanath from "Deccan Herald" praised the performances of Ameer and Madhumitha, but similarly criticized the film's similarities with "Tsotsi" and execution. A reviewer from "Sify.com" praised the performances and cinematography, while criticizing the music, loopholes in writing and excessive melodrama in the second half, along with the execution and predictability of the climax. Malathi Rangarajan from "The Hindu" praised the performances of Devaraj and Madhumitha, Ganja Karuppu's situational humor, editing and music. However, she felt Ameer was expressionless and the pace was too slow for an action film.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: In materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules, usually related to the spins of electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighboring spins (on different sublattices) pointing in opposite directions. This is, like ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism, a manifestation of ordered magnetism. The phenomenon of antiferromagnetism was first introduced by Lev Landau in 1933.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Generally, antiferromagnetic order may exist at sufficiently low temperatures, but vanishes at and above the Néel temperature – named after Louis Néel, who had first identified this type of magnetic ordering. Above the Néel temperature, the material is typically paramagnetic.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: When no external field is applied, the antiferromagnetic structure corresponds to a vanishing total magnetization. In an external magnetic field, a kind of ferrimagnetic behavior may be displayed in the antiferromagnetic phase, with the absolute value of one of the sublattice magnetizations differing from that of the other sublattice, resulting in a nonzero net magnetization. Although the net magnetization should be zero at a temperature of absolute zero, the effect of spin canting often causes a small net magnetization to develop, as seen for example in hematite.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: The magnetic susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic material typically shows a maximum at the Néel temperature. In contrast, at the transition between the ferromagnetic to the paramagnetic phases the susceptibility will diverge. In the antiferromagnetic case, a divergence is observed in the "staggered susceptibility".


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Various microscopic (exchange) interactions between the magnetic moments or spins may lead to antiferromagnetic structures. In the simplest case, one may consider an Ising model on a bipartite lattice, e.g. the simple cubic lattice, with couplings between spins at nearest neighbor sites. Depending on the sign of that interaction, ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic order will result. Geometrical frustration or competing ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions may lead to different and, perhaps, more complicated magnetic structures.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: The relationship between magnetization and the magnetizing field is non-linear like in ferromagnetic materials. This fact is due to the contribution of the hysteresis loop, which for ferromagnetic materials involves a residual magnetization.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Antiferromagnetic structures were first shown through neutron diffraction of transition metal oxides such as nickel, iron, and manganese oxides. The experiments, performed by Clifford Shull, gave the first results showing that magnetic dipoles could be oriented in an antiferromagnetic structure.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Antiferromagnetic materials occur commonly among transition metal compounds, especially oxides. Examples include hematite, metals such as chromium, alloys such as iron manganese (FeMn), and oxides such as nickel oxide (NiO). There are also numerous examples among high nuclearity metal clusters. Organic molecules can also exhibit antiferromagnetic coupling under rare circumstances, as seen in radicals such as 5-dehydro-m-xylylene.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Antiferromagnets can couple to ferromagnets, for instance, through a mechanism known as exchange bias, in which the ferromagnetic film is either grown upon the antiferromagnet or annealed in an aligning magnetic field, causing the surface atoms of the ferromagnet to align with the surface atoms of the antiferromagnet. This provides the ability to "pin" the orientation of a ferromagnetic film, which provides one of the main uses in so-called spin valves, which are the basis of magnetic sensors including modern hard disk drive read heads. The temperature at or above which an antiferromagnetic layer loses its ability to "pin" the magnetization direction of an adjacent ferromagnetic layer is called the blocking temperature of that layer and is usually lower than the Néel temperature.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Unlike ferromagnetism, anti-ferromagnetic interactions can lead to multiple optimal states (ground states—states of minimal energy). In one dimension, the anti-ferromagnetic ground state is an alternating series of spins: up, down, up, down, etc. Yet in two dimensions, multiple ground states can occur.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Consider an equilateral triangle with three spins, one on each vertex. If each spin can take on only two values (up or down), there are 2 = 8 possible states of the system, six of which are ground states. The two situations which are not ground states are when all three spins are up or are all down. In any of the other six states, there will be two favorable interactions and one unfavorable one. This illustrates frustration: the inability of the system to find a single ground state. This type of magnetic behavior has been found in minerals that have a crystal stacking structure such as a Kagome lattice or hexagonal lattice.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Synthetic antiferromagnets (often abbreviated by SAF) are artificial antiferromagnets consisting of two or more thin ferromagnetic layers separated by a nonmagnetic layer. Dipole coupling of the ferromagnetic layers results in antiparallel alignment of the magnetization of the ferromagnets.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: Antiferromagnetism plays a crucial role in giant magnetoresistance, as had been discovered in 1988 by the Nobel prize winners Albert Fert and Peter Grünberg (awarded in 2007) using synthetic antiferromagnets.


title: Antiferromagnetism

text: There are also examples of disordered materials (such as iron phosphate glasses) that become antiferromagnetic below their Néel temperature. These disordered networks 'frustrate' the antiparallelism of adjacent spins; i.e. it is not possible to construct a network where each spin is surrounded by opposite neighbour spins. It can only be determined that the average correlation of neighbour spins is antiferromagnetic. This type of magnetism is sometimes called "speromagnetism".


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding is a method of species identification using a short section of DNA from a specific gene or genes. The premise of DNA barcoding is that by comparison with a reference library of such DNA sections (also called "sequences"), an individual sequence can be used to uniquely identify an organism to species, just as a supermarket scanner uses the familiar black stripes of the UPC barcode to identify an item in its stock against its reference database. These "barcodes" are sometimes used in an effort to identify unknown species or parts of an organism, simply to catalog as many taxa as possible, or to compare with traditional taxonomy in an effort to determine species boundaries.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Different gene regions are used to identify the different organismal groups using barcoding. The most commonly used barcode region for animals and some protists is a portion of the cytochrome "c" oxidase I (COI or COX1) gene, found in mitochondrial DNA. Other genes suitable for DNA barcoding are the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rRNA often used for fungi and RuBisCO used for plants. Microorganisms are detected using different gene regions. The 16S rRNA gene for example is widely used in identification of prokaryotes, whereas the 18S rRNA gene is mostly used for detecting microbial eukaryotes. These gene regions are chosen because they have less intraspecific (within species) variation than interspecific (between species) variation, which is known as the "Barcoding Gap".


title: DNA barcoding

text: Some applications of DNA barcoding include: identifying plant leaves even when flowers or fruits are not available; identifying pollen collected on the bodies of pollinating animals; identifying insect larvae which may have fewer diagnostic characters than adults; or investigating the diet of an animal based on its stomach content, saliva or feces. When barcoding is used to identify organisms from a sample containing DNA from more than one organism, the term DNA metabarcoding is used, e.g. DNA metabarcoding of diatom communities in rivers and streams, which is used to assess water quality.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding techniques were developed from early DNA sequencing work on microbial communities using the 5S rRNA gene. In 2003, specific methods and terminology of modern DNA barcoding were proposed as a standardized method for identifying species, as well as potentially allocating unknown sequences to higher taxa such as orders and phyla, in a paper by Paul D.N. Hebert et al. from the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Hebert and his colleagues demonstrated the utility of the cytochrome "c" oxidase I (COI) gene, first utilized by Folmer et al. in 1994, using their published DNA primers as a tool for phylogenetic analyses at the species levels as a suitable discriminatory tool between metazoan invertebrates. The "Folmer region" of the COI gene is commonly used for distinction between taxa based on its patterns of variation at the DNA level. The relative ease of retrieving the sequence, and variability mixed with conservation between species, are some of the benefits of COI. Calling the profiles "barcodes", Hebert et al. envisaged the development of a COI database that could serve as the basis for a "global bioidentification system".


title: DNA barcoding

text: Barcoding can be done from tissue from a target specimen, from a mixture of organisms (bulk sample), or from DNA present in environmental samples (e.g. water or soil). The methods for sampling, preservation or analysis differ between those different types of sample.


title: DNA barcoding

text: To barcode a tissue sample from the target specimen, a small piece of skin, a scale, a leg or antenna is likely to be sufficient (depending on the size of the specimen). To avoid contamination, it is necessary to sterilize used tools between samples. It is recommended to collect two samples from one specimen, one to archive, and one for the barcoding process. Sample preservation is crucial to overcome the issue of DNA degradation.


title: DNA barcoding

text: A bulk sample is a type of environmental sample containing several organisms from the taxonomic group under study. The difference between bulk samples (in the sense used here) and other environmental samples is that the bulk sample usually provides a large quantity of good-quality DNA. Examples of bulk samples include aquatic macroinvertebrate samples collected by kick-net, or insect samples collected with a Malaise trap. Filtered or size-fractionated water samples containing whole organisms like unicellular eukaryotes are also sometimes defined as bulk samples. Such samples can be collected by the same techniques used to obtain traditional samples for morphology-based identification.


title: DNA barcoding

text: The environmental DNA (eDNA) method is a non-invasive approach to detect and identify species from cellular debris or extracellular DNA present in environmental samples (e.g. water or soil) through barcoding or metabarcoding. The approach is based on the fact that every living organism leaves DNA in the environment, and this environmental DNA can be detected even for organisms that are at very low abundance. Thus, for field sampling, the most crucial part is to use DNA-free material and tools on each sampling site or sample to avoid contamination, if the DNA of the target organism(s) is likely to be present in low quantities. On the other hand, an eDNA sample always includes the DNA of whole-cell, living microorganisms, which are often present in large quantities. Therefore, microorganism samples taken in the natural environment also are called eDNA samples, but contamination is less problematic in this context due to the large quantity of target organisms. The eDNA method is applied on most sample types, like water, sediment, soil, animal feces, stomach content or blood from e.g. leeches.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding requires that DNA in the sample is extracted. Several different DNA extraction methods exist, and factors like cost, time, sample type and yield affect the selection of the optimal method.


title: DNA barcoding

text: When DNA from organismal or eDNA samples is amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the reaction can be affected negatively by inhibitor molecules contained in the sample. Removal of these inhibitors is crucial to ensure that high quality DNA is available for subsequent analyzing.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Amplification of the extracted DNA is a required step in DNA barcoding. Typically, only a small fragment of the total DNA material is sequenced (typically 400–800 base pairs) to obtain the DNA barcode. Amplification of eDNA material is usually focused on smaller fragment sizes (<200 base pairs), as eDNA is more likely to be fragmented than DNA material from other sources. However, some studies argue that there is no relationship between amplicon size and detection rate of eDNA.


title: DNA barcoding

text: When the DNA barcode marker region has been amplified, the next step is to sequence the marker region using DNA sequencing methods. Many different sequencing platforms are available, and technical development is proceeding rapidly.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Markers used for DNA barcoding are called barcodes. In order to successfully characterize species based on DNA barcodes, selection of informative DNA regions is crucial. A good DNA barcode should have low intra-specific and high inter-specific variability and possess conserved flanking sites for developing universal PCR primers for wide taxonomic application. The goal is to design primers that will detect and distinguish most or all the species in the studied group of organisms (high taxonomic resolution). The length of the barcode sequence should be short enough to be used with current sampling source, DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing methods.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Ideally, one gene sequence would be used for all taxonomic groups, from viruses to plants and animals. However, no such gene region has been found yet, so different barcodes are used for different groups of organisms, or depending on the study question.


title: DNA barcoding

text: For animals, the most widely used barcode is mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase I ("COI") locus. Other mitochondrial genes, such as Cytb, 12S or 18S are also used. Mitochondrial genes are preferred over nuclear genes because of their lack of introns, their haploid mode of inheritance and their limited recombination. Moreover, each cell has various mitochondria (up to several thousand) and each of them contains several circular DNA molecules. Mitochondria can therefore offer abundant source of DNA even when sample tissue is limited.


title: DNA barcoding

text: In plants, however, mitochondrial genes are not appropriate for DNA barcoding because they exhibit low mutation rates. A few candidate genes have been found in the chloroplast genome, the most promising being maturase K gene ("matK") by itself or in association with other genes. Multi-locus markers such as ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS DNA) along with "matK", "rbcL", "trnH" or other genes have also been used for species identification. The best discrimination between plant species has been achieved when using two or more chloroplast barcodes.


title: DNA barcoding

text: For bacteria, the small subunit of ribosomal RNA (16S) gene can be used for different taxa, as it is highly conserved. Some studies suggest "COI", type II chaperonin ("cpn60") or β subunit of RNA polymerase ("rpoB") also could serve as bacterial DNA barcodes.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Barcoding fungi is more challenging, and more than one primer combination might be required. The "COI" marker performs well in certain fungi groups, but not equally well in others. Therefore, additional markers are being used, such as ITS rDNA and the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA (28S LSU rRNA).


title: DNA barcoding

text: Within the group of protists, various barcodes have been proposed, such as the D1–D2 or D2–D3 regions of 28S rDNA, V4 subregion of 18S rRNA gene, ITS rDNA and "COI". Additionally, some specific barcodes can be used for photosynthetic protists, for example the large subunit of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase gene ("rbcL") and the chloroplastic 23S rRNA gene.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Reference libraries are used for the taxonomic identification, also called annotation, of sequences obtained from barcoding or metabarcoding. These databases contain the DNA barcodes assigned to previously identified taxa. Most reference libraries do not cover all species within an organism group, and new entries are continually created. In the case of macro- and many microorganisms (such as algae), these reference libraries require detailed documentation (sampling location and date, person who collected it, image, etc.) and authoritative taxonomic identification of the voucher specimen, as well as submission of sequences in a particular format. However, such standards are fulfilled for only a small number of species. The process also requires the storage of voucher specimens in museum collections, herbaria and other collaborating institutions. Both taxonomically comprehensive coverage and content quality are important for identification accuracy. In the microbial world, there is no DNA information for most species names, and many DNA sequences cannot be assigned to any Linnaean binomial. Several reference databases exist depending on the organism group and the genetic marker used. There are smaller, national databases (e.g. FinBOL), and large consortia like the International Barcode of Life Project (iBOL).


title: DNA barcoding

text: Launched in 2007, the Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD) is one of the biggest databases, containing about 780 000 BINs (Barcode Index Numbers) in 2022. It is a freely accessible repository for the specimen and sequence records for barcode studies, and it is also a workbench aiding the management, quality assurance and analysis of barcode data. The database mainly contains BIN records for animals based on the COI genetic marker.


title: DNA barcoding

text: The UNITE database was launched in 2003 and is a reference database for the molecular identification of fungal (and since 2018 all eukaryotic) species with the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genetic marker region. This database is based on the concept of species hypotheses: you choose the % at which you want to work, and the sequences are sorted in comparison to sequences obtained from voucher specimens identified by experts.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Diat.barcode database was first published under the name R-syst::diatom in 2016 starting with data from two sources: the Thonon culture collection (TCC) in the hydrobiological station of the French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA), and from the NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) nucleotide database. Diat.barcode provides data for two genetic markers, "rbc"L (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) and 18S (18S ribosomal RNA). The database also involves additional, trait information of species, like morphological characteristics (biovolume, size dimensions, etc.), life-forms (mobility, colony-type, etc.) or ecological features (pollution sensitivity, etc.).


title: DNA barcoding

text: In order to obtain well structured, clean and interpretable data, raw sequencing data must be processed using bioinformatic analysis. The FASTQ file with the sequencing data contains two types of information: the sequences detected in the sample (FASTA file) and a quality file with quality scores (PHRED scores) associated with each nucleotide of each DNA sequence. The PHRED scores indicate the probability with which the associated nucleotide has been correctly scored.


title: DNA barcoding

text: In general, the PHRED score decreases towards the end of each DNA sequence. Thus some bioinformatics pipelines simply cut the end of the sequences at a defined threshold.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Some sequencing technologies, like MiSeq, use paired-end sequencing during which sequencing is performed from both directions producing better quality. The overlapping sequences are then aligned into contigs and merged. Usually, several samples are pooled in one run, and each sample is characterized by a short DNA fragment, the tag. In a demultiplexing step, sequences are sorted using these tags to reassemble the separate samples. Before further analysis, tags and other adapters are removed from the barcoding sequence DNA fragment. During trimming, the bad quality sequences (low PHRED scores), or sequences that are much shorter or longer than the targeted DNA barcode, are removed. The following dereplication step is the process where all of the quality-filtered sequences are collapsed into a set of unique reads (individual sequence units ISUs) with the information of their abundance in the samples. After that, chimeras (i.e. compound sequences formed from pieces of mixed origin) are detected and removed. Finally, the sequences are clustered into OTUs (Operational Taxonomic Units), using one of many clustering strategies. The most frequently used bioinformatic software include Mothur, Uparse, Qiime, Galaxy, Obitools, JAMP, Barque, and DADA2.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Comparing the abundance of reads, i.e. sequences, between different samples is still a challenge because both the total number of reads in a sample as well as the relative amount of reads for a species can vary between samples, methods, or other variables. For comparison, one may then reduce the number of reads of each sample to the minimal number of reads of the samples to be compared – a process called rarefaction. Another way is to use the relative abundance of reads.


title: DNA barcoding

text: The taxonomic assignment of the OTUs to species is achieved by matching of sequences to reference libraries. The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) is commonly used to identify regions of similarity between sequences by comparing sequence reads from the sample to sequences in reference databases. If the reference database contains sequences of the relevant species, then the sample sequences can be identified to species level. If a sequence cannot be matched to an existing reference library entry, DNA barcoding can be used to create a new entry.


title: DNA barcoding

text: In some cases, due to the incompleteness of reference databases, identification can only be achieved at higher taxonomic levels, such as assignment to a family or class. In some organism groups such as bacteria, taxonomic assignment to species level is often not possible. In such cases, a sample may be assigned to a particular operational taxonomic unit (OTU).


title: DNA barcoding

text: Applications of DNA barcoding include identification of new species, safety assessment of food, identification and assessment of cryptic species, detection of alien species, identification of endangered and threatened species, linking egg and larval stages to adult species, securing intellectual property rights for bioresources, framing global management plans for conservation strategies and elucidate feeding niches. DNA barcode markers can be applied to address basic questions in systematics, ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation, including community assembly, species interaction networks, taxonomic discovery, and assessing priority areas for environmental protection.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Specific short DNA sequences or markers from a standardized region of the genome can provide a DNA barcode for identifying species. Molecular methods are especially useful when traditional methods are not applicable. DNA barcoding has great applicability in identification of larvae for which there are generally few diagnostic characters available, and in association of different life stages (e.g. larval and adult) in many animals. Identification of species listed in the Convention of the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) appendixes using barcoding techniques is used in monitoring of illegal trade.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Alien species can be detected via barcoding. Barcoding can be suitable for detection of species in e.g. border control, where rapid and accurate morphological identification is often not possible due to similarities between different species, lack of sufficient diagnostic characteristics and/or lack of taxonomic expertise. Barcoding and metabarcoding can also be used to screen ecosystems for invasive species, and to distinguish between an invasive species and native, morphologically similar, species.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding enables the identification and recognition of cryptic species. The results of DNA barcoding analyses depend however upon the choice of analytical methods, so the process of delimiting cryptic species using DNA barcodes can be as subjective as any other form of taxonomy. Hebert et al. (2004) concluded that the butterfly "Astraptes fulgerator" in north-western Costa Rica actually consists of 10 different species. These results, however, were subsequently challenged by Brower (2006), who pointed out numerous serious flaws in the analysis, and concluded that the original data could support no more than the possibility of three to seven cryptic taxa rather than ten cryptic species. Smith et al. (2007) used cytochrome "c" oxidase I DNA barcodes for species identification of the 20 morphospecies of "Belvosia" parasitoid flies (Diptera: Tachinidae) reared from caterpillars (Lepidoptera) in Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), northwestern Costa Rica. These authors discovered that barcoding raises the species count to 32, by revealing that each of the three parasitoid species, previously considered as generalists, actually are arrays of highly host-specific cryptic species. For 15 morphospecies of polychaetes within the deep Antarctic benthos studied through DNA barcoding, cryptic diversity was found in 50% of the cases. Furthermore, 10 previously overlooked morphospecies were detected, increasing the total species richness in the sample by 233%.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding and metabarcoding can be useful in diet analysis studies, and is typically used if prey specimens cannot be identified based on morphological characters. There is a range of sampling approaches in diet analysis: DNA metabarcoding can be conducted on stomach contents, feces, saliva or whole body analysis. In fecal samples or highly digested stomach contents, it is often not possible to distinguish tissue from single species, and therefore metabarcoding can be applied instead. Feces or saliva represent non-invasive sampling approaches, while whole body analysis often means that the individual needs to be killed first. For smaller organisms, sequencing for stomach content is then often done by sequencing the entire animal.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding represents an essential tool to evaluate the quality of food products. The purpose is to guarantee food traceability, to minimize food piracy, and to valuate local and typical agro-food production. Another purpose is to safeguard public health; for example, metabarcoding offers the possibility to identify groupers causing Ciguatera fish poisoning from meal remnants, or to separate poisonous mushrooms from edible ones (Ref).


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding can be used to assess the presence of endangered species for conservation efforts (Ref), or the presence of indicator species reflective to specific ecological conditions (Ref), for example excess nutrients or low oxygen levels.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Traditional bioassessment methods are well established internationally, and serve biomonitoring well, as for example for aquatic bioassessment within the EU Directives WFD and MSFD. However, DNA barcoding could improve traditional methods for the following reasons; DNA barcoding (i) can increase taxonomic resolution and harmonize the identification of taxa which are difficult to identify or lack experts, (ii) can more accurately/precisely relate environmental factors to specific taxa (iii) can increase comparability among regions, (iv) allows for the inclusion of early life stages and fragmented specimens, (v) allows delimitation of cryptic/rare species (vi) allows for development of new indices e.g. rare/cryptic species which may be sensitive/tolerant to stressors, (vii) increases the number of samples which can be processed and reduces processing time resulting in increased knowledge of species ecology, (viii) is a non-invasive way of monitoring when using eDNA methods.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding is faster than traditional morphological methods all the way from training through to taxonomic assignment. It takes less time to gain expertise in DNA methods than becoming an expert in taxonomy. In addition, the DNA barcoding workflow (i.e. from sample to result) is generally quicker than traditional morphological workflow and allows the processing of more samples.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding allows the resolution of taxa from higher (e.g. family) to lower (e.g. species) taxonomic levels, that are otherwise too difficult to identify using traditional morphological methods, like e.g. identification via microscopy. For example, Chironomidae (the non-biting midge) are widely distributed in both terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. Their richness and abundance make them important for ecological processes and networks, and they are one of many invertebrate groups used in biomonitoring. Invertebrate samples can contain as many as 100 species of chironomids which often make up as much as 50% of a sample. Despite this, they are usually not identified below the family level because of the taxonomic expertise and time required. This may result in different chironomid species with different ecological preferences grouped together, resulting in inaccurate assessment of water quality.


title: DNA barcoding

text: DNA barcoding provides the opportunity to resolve taxa, and directly relate stressor effects to specific taxa such as individual chironomid species. For example, Beermann et al. (2018) DNA barcoded Chironomidae to investigate their response to multiple stressors; reduced flow, increased fine-sediment and increased salinity. After barcoding, it was found that the chironomid sample consisted of 183 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs), i.e. barcodes (sequences) that are often equivalent to morphological species. These 183 OTUs displayed 15 response types rather than the previously reported two response types recorded when all chironomids were grouped together in the same multiple stressor study. A similar trend was discovered in a study by Macher et al. (2016) which discovered cryptic diversity within the New Zealand mayfly species "Deleatidium sp." This study found different response patterns of 12 molecular distinct OTUs to stressors which may change the consensus that this mayfly is sensitive to pollution.


title: DNA barcoding

text: Despite the advantages offered by DNA barcoding, it has also been suggested that DNA barcoding is best used as a complement to traditional morphological methods. This recommendation is based on multiple perceived challenges.