title: Bhoja

text: Merutunga also states that Karna once challenged Bhoja to either a war or a palace-building contest. Bhoja, who was an old man by this time, chose the second option. Bhoja lost this contest, but refused to accept Karna's suzerainty. As a result, Karna, in alliance with Bhima, invaded Malwa. According to Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom. Several literary works written under Chaulukya patronage suggest that Bhima subjugated Bhoja while Bhoja was still alive. However, such claims are not corroborated by historical evidence.


title: Bhoja

text: Bhoja is best remembered for his intellect and patronage to cultural activities. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship. The Kashmiri writer Bilhana famously rued that Bhoja died before him, because of which he failed to seek the king's patronage. Several later kings also emulated Bhoja. For example, Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire styled himself as "Abhinava-Bhoja" ("the new Bhoja") and "Sakala-Kala-Bhoja" ("Bhoja of all the arts").


title: Bhoja

text: Bhoja was himself a polymath. Under his rule, Mālwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India. He is said to have paid great attention to the education of his people, so much so that even humble weavers in the kingdom are supposed to have composed metrical Sanskrit kavyas.


title: Bhoja

text: Bhoja is said to have founded the city of Bhojpur, a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides the Bhojeshwar Temple there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him. The temple originally stood on the banks of a reservoir 18.5 long and 7.5 miles wide. This reservoir was formed through construction of 3 earth-and-stone dams during Bhoja's reign. The first dam, built on Betwa River, trapped the river waters in a depression surrounded by hills. A second dam was constructed in a gap between the hills, near present-day Mendua village. A third dam, located in present-day Bhopal, diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river into the Betwa dam reservoir. This man-made reservoir existed until 15th century, when Hoshang Shah emptied the lake by breaching two of the dams.


title: Bhoja

text: Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Sarasvatī in present-day Dhar. According to folklore, the Bhopal city was established by and named after him ("Bhojpal"), but it is possible that the city derives its name from another king called Bhupala (or Bhupal).


title: Bhoja

text: Bhoja was renowned as a scholar-king, and several books are attributed to him. Because these books cover an enormous range of topics, it is not certain if he actually wrote all these books or if he only commissioned these works, acting as a patron of their actual writers. But it is known that he was an expert on poetry, and the treatise "Shringara-Prakasha" was definitely authored by him.


title: Bhoja

text: According to Ajada, who wrote a commentary titled "Padaka-prakasha" on "Sarasvati-Kanthabharana", Bhoja wrote 84 books. The surviving works attributed to Bhoja include the following Sanskrit-language texts (IAST titles in bracket):


title: Bhoja

text: The Prakrit language poems "Kodanda-Kavya" and "Kurma-Sataka" are also attributed to Bhoja. The "Kodanda-Kavya" (Kodaṅḍakāvya) was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu. The "Kurma-Sataka" ("Avanikūrmaśataka"), which praises the Kurma (tortoise) incarnation of Vishnu, was found inscribed at the Bhoj Shala in Dhar.


title: Bhoja

text: "Sangitaraja", attributed to Kalasena or Kumbha, names Bhoja as an authority on music, which suggests that Bhoja also compiled or wrote a work on music.


title: Bhoja

text: Historical evidence suggests that Bhoja was a devotee of Shiva. His writings qualify Shiva as "Jagadguru" ("World teacher"), and his inscriptions begin with verses praising Shiva. The "Udaipur Prashasti" inscription of the later Paramara rulers states that Bhoja "covered the earth with temples" dedicated to the various aspects of Shiva, including Kedareshvara, Rameshwara, Somanatha, Kala, and Rudra. The Jain writer Merutunga, in his "Prabandha-Chintamani", states that Bhoja constructed 104 temples in his capital city of Dhara alone. However, the Bhojeshwar Temple in Bhojpur is the only surviving shrine that can be attributed to Bhoja with certainty. Several historians, including G. H. Ojha and R. Nath, have identified the Samadhishvara Shiva Temple in Chittor with the Tribhuvana Narayana Shiva or Bhoja-svamin temple attributed to Bhoja; the temple has been restored several times since its construction.


title: Bhoja

text: The Jain legends state that Bhoja converted to Jainism. According to this account, his court poet Dhanapala convinced the king to give up Vedic animal sacrifices. The poet also openly ridiculed Bhoja's other religious beliefs, including his worship of Kamadeva-Rati and cow. Gradually, Dhanapala convinced Bhoja to become a Jain.


title: Bhoja

text: These accounts of Bhoja's conversion to Jainism are irreconcilable with historical evidence. In a "Bhoja-Prabandlha" legend, a Brahmin named Govinda calls Bhoja a Vaishnavite. It is possible that Bhoja patronized other faiths despite being a Shaivite.


title: Bhoja

text: Bhoja married multiple women as part of matrimonial alliances with other ruling dynasties. His chief queen was Liladevi or Lilavati. His other queens included Padmavati (princess of Kuntala), Chandramukhi (princess of Anga) and Kamala.


title: Bhoja

text: Inscriptional evidence suggests that he was succeeded by Jayasimha, who was probably his son. Jayasimha's Mandhata grant of 1055 CE mentions his predecessors as Bhoja, Sindhuraja and Vakpati. However, this inscription does not specify the relationship between Bhoja and Jayasimha, and it is the only epigraph that mentions a Paramara king named Jayasimha. The "Udaipur Prashasti" and "Nagpur Prashasti" inscriptions of the later Paramara kings give a detailed genealogy of the Paramara kings, but do not mention Jayasimha. These two inscriptions name Udayaditya as the next ruler after Bhoja. Udayaditya is now known to be Bhoja's brother.


title: Bhoja

text: In terms of the number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the fabled Vikramaditya. Sheldon Pollock describes Bhoja as "the most celebrated poet-king and philosopher-king of his time, and perhaps of any Indian time". Bhoja came to be featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king, who was the ultimate judge of literary qualities and generously rewarded good poets and writers. Most of these legends were written three to five centuries after his death.


title: Bhoja

text: Apart from epigraphic records, much of the information about Bhoja comes from these legendary accounts, including Merutunga's "Prabandha-Chintamani" (14th century), Rajavallabha's "Bhoja-Charitra" (15th century), and Ballala's "Bhoja-Prabandha" (17th century). However, many of the popular legends about Bhoja do not have any historical basis. For example, the "Bhoja-Prabandha" anachronistically describes the ancient poet Kalidasa as a contemporary of Bhoja.


title: Bhoja

text: In order to enhance their imperial claims, the Paramaras promoted several legends associating Bhoja with the ancient legendary kings. For example, in "Simhasana Dvatrimsika" (popularly known as "Singhasan Battisi"), Bhoja finds a throne of Vikramaditya, and each of the 32 divine figurines attached to the throne tell him a story about Vikramaditya. A "Bhavishya Purana" legend describes Bhoja as a descendant of Vikramaditya and Shalivahana. According to this legend, the mleccha (foreign) influence had corrupted Indian culture by the time of Bhoja's ascension. Bhoja marched up to the banks of the Indus river, and defeated several mleccha kings. The poet Kalidasa, who accompanied him, magically turned into ashes a mleccha named Mahamada, whose followers came to be known as Muslim (The character Mahamada is based on Muhammad possibly combined with Mahmud of Ghazni). After returning to his capital, Bhoja established Sanskrit language among the top three varnas and Prakrit language among the Shudras. During his 50-year reign, Aryavarta (the land between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas) became a blessed land where the varna system was established. On the other hand, caste mixture took place beyond the Vindhyas (that is, in South India). Again, this is an imaginary account not supported by any historical evidence.


title: Bhoja

text: He has been depicted numerous times in Indian cinema. Some films based on him include: "Raja Bhoj" (1922), "Raja Bhoj" (1926) by D. J. Jhaveri, "King Bhoj" (1930) by A. Narayanan and "Bhoja Kalidasa" (1940) by Hanumappa Vishwanath Babu.


title: Chris Overton

text: Chris Overton is an English actor and filmmaker, best known for his film, "The Silent Child" for which he received critical acclaim and won the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film. Overton is the husband of Rachel Shenton, who wrote and starred in "The Silent Child".


title: Naomi Schiff

text: Naomi Schiff (born 18 May 1994) is a Rwandan and Belgian racing driver and television presenter. She was born in Belgium, to a Belgian father and Rwandan mother, grew up in South Africa, and now lives in the United Kingdom.


title: Naomi Schiff

text: In 2020, Schiff was appointed as the diversity and inclusion ambassador for the W Series, and in 2022 she became a presenter for Sky Sports.


title: Naomi Schiff

text: Schiff began her career in single-seater racing cars at age 16 in 2010 in the Southern African Formula Volkswagen. She finished that season in 17th place with seven points. In 2011, she took part in four races in the Bridgestone Special Open trophy. She drove for the CK Racing team but was not classified.


title: Naomi Schiff

text: After a year's break from racing, Schiff appeared in the team RC Formula during a round on the track Ciudad del Motor de Aragón European Cup Formula Renault 2.0. Similarly, she appeared at the start of Supercar Challenge Superlights - SR3 in GH Motorsport team.


title: Naomi Schiff

text: Schiff won the 2014 Clio Cup China Series with 135 points. That same year she also competed in the 24 Hours of Zolder. The following year she won the KTM X-Bow GT4 with teammate Reinhard Kofler.


title: Naomi Schiff

text: In February 2022, she presented the Mercedes AMG Petronas F1 Team car launch for the Mercedes W13 alongside Natalie Pinkham. The following month, she was announced as co-presenter on a new Sky Sports F1 show "Any Driven Monday" and is part of the 2022 Sky Sports F1 team.


title: Suffering from Success

text: Suffering from Success is the seventh studio album by American disc jockey and producer DJ Khaled. It was released on October 22, 2013, by We the Best Music Group, Terror Squad Entertainment, Young Money Entertainment, Cash Money Records and Republic Records. The album has guest appearances from Future, Diddy, Meek Mill, Rick Ross, T.I., 2 Chainz, French Montana, Timbaland, Lil Wayne, Drake, Chris Brown, Nicki Minaj and Jeremih. Producers include DJ Khaled, Boi-1da, J.U.S.T.I.C.E. League, Arthur McArthur, Timbaland, Streetrunner, Young Chop and Lee on the Beats.


title: Suffering from Success

text: "Suffering from Success" was supported by two singles, "No New Friends" featuring Lil Wayne, Drake and Rick Ross, and "I Wanna Be with You" featuring Nicki Minaj, Future and Ross. The album was met with mixed reviews from music critics and debuted at number 7 on the US "Billboard" 200.


title: Suffering from Success

text: On January 17, 2013, DJ Khaled announced that he had begun working on his seventh album, titled "Suffering from Success". In January 2013, during an interview with MTV News, DJ Khaled explained where the album title came from, saying: "We just got done turning in Ross' album, and you know people don't realize, when you turn in an album, it's a lot of work behind the scenes; from clearing records, dealing with lawyers, sample clearances, mix and mastering, marketing plan. At that time, I'm running around and I notice a big bald spot on my beard that kept getting bigger and bigger. I'm acting like I don't want to see it, I'm brushing it away and it kept getting it bigger and bigger. So When I finally got home off the road, I was like you know what, 'I'm gonna go to the doctors.' I don't like going to the doctors, so I go, and she's like it's a disorder that comes from your nerves and your stress, but she said 'I'm going to give you medication, and I'll see you back in 4 months.' Through that whole process while I'm at the doctor's office, my phone's ringing, I'm dealing with marketing people, I'm dealing with lawyers, I'm dealing with Ross, I'm dealing with personal shit, a whole bunch of shit at the same time. It didn't stop, she's thinking I'm crazy. So she gave me my medicine and all that, and she found out who I was, and after watching that 45 minute doctor's session, she grabbed my shoulder and she just goes, 'Son, you're suffering from success.' I looked at her and was like, 'That might be the realest thing you can tell me, and it opened my mind up like, success comes with stress, and happiness. So I'm driving home from the doctor's office and I'm like, "that's gonna be the name of my new album, "Suffering From Success".'" On June 10, 2013, it was announced that the album would be released on September 24, 2013. On July 31, 2013, the album cover was released. On August 26, 2013, DJ Khaled announced the album has been pushed back from September 24, 2013 to October 22, 2013.


title: Suffering from Success

text: In these early reports from MTV, it said that the album would include the features from Lil Wayne, Rick Ross and Kanye West. Drake, Future and Nicki Minaj, which would be featured on the first two singles. In May 2013, Khaled also confirmed to be working with Big Sean on the album. On August 26, 2013, on a vlog, it was revealed that Khaled was in the studio with Meek Mill, Vado, Birdman, Juelz Santana, Ace Hood, Mavado, and Swizz Beatz. On September 12, 2013, American rapper Scarface announced that Akon and himself, would be featured on the album. On September 27, 2013, Khaled revealed that President Barack Obama would be featured on the album in an unspecified way. On October 6, 2013, the final track listing was released, revealing guest appearances on the album from Future, Ace Hood, Diddy, Meek Mill, Rick Ross, T.I., Swizz Beatz, 2 Chainz, French Montana, Big Sean, Timbaland, Plies, Lil Wayne, Chris Brown, Wiz Khalifa, Wale, Nicki Minaj, Drake, Mavado, Bas, Jeremih, J. Cole, Akon, Anthony Hamilton, Jadakiss, John Legend, Scarface, Birdman, Vado and Kat Dahlia.


title: Suffering from Success

text: On April 14, 2013, DJ Khaled released a promotional video for "Suffering from Success", and the first single, called "No New Friends" featuring Drake, Rick Ross and Lil Wayne, which was released on April 19, 2013. The music video was shot on May 15 and 16, 2013 in Miami, Florida and featured cameos by Ace Hood and Birdman among others. The music video for "No New Friends" premiered on MTV Jams on June 9, 2013, and was co-directed by Colin Tilley and Drake. "No New Friends" has peaked at number 37 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Suffering from Success

text: On July 25, 2013, Khaled publicly "proposed" to fellow Cash Money artist Nicki Minaj via MTV. He supported his offer with a 10 karat diamond ring from Rafaello & Co.,valued at about $500,000. Later, he reaffirmed his proposal in an interview with Power 106's DJ Felli Fel, stating: "I ain't a young boy no more. I'm on my thinking the future. I just had to be honest. I always liked her. She's my friend, of course. And I like her. It's more than a crush." On July 29, 2013, in an interview with Funkmaster Flex, Minaj denied Khaled's proposal, saying: "Khaled is my brother and Khaled was not serious with that damn proposal, ya'll. Please let it go. He was kidding." On the same day, Flex premiered Khaled's new single, titled "I Wanna Be with You" which featured Minaj; as well as frequent collaborators Future and Rick Ross. This led some to believe that his proposal was a "publicity stunt" to promote his new single. Shortly after the song's release, Khaled confirmed it was all a joke and a way to introduce the record. The music video was shot in Miami, Florida on August 9, 2013. On September 3, 2013, the music video for "I Wanna Be with You" premiered on MTV Jams.


title: Suffering from Success

text: On October 17, 2013, DJ Khaled released a making of video for the song "Never Surrender" featuring Scarface, Akon, Jadakiss, Meek Mill, Anthony Hamilton, and John Legend. The following day the audio to the song was premiered. Then on October 20, 2013, the song's music video was released. The video shows a "crew of drug dealers that gets unraveled when one of their own gets caught and snitches on the rest of them".


title: Suffering from Success

text: "Suffering from Success" was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 56, based on 6 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Suffering from Success

text: Omar Burgess of HipHopDX gave the album two and a half stars out of five, saying "It’s unfortunate that repetitive material and songs that are just overall poorly executed mar such moments. From his extensive work as a DJ, producer and an executive producer, DJ Khaled clearly knows what wins. And if you find yourself at a nightclub or party, it’s very likely a song found on "Suffering From Success" will serve as your theme song for the night. But coming from someone who has been so influential for the better part of the last decade, DJ Khaled’s latest has very little utility beyond the velvet rope." Erin Lowers of "Exclaim!" gave the album a five out of ten, saying "While DJ Khaled has the power to curate a memorable album with the producers and artists featured, this record fails to stick. Despite being titled "Suffering from Success", what it's actually ailing it is a lack of originality."


title: Suffering from Success

text: Sheldon Pearce of "XXL" gave the album an L, saying ""Suffering From Success" is Khaled’s first full step back since becoming the premiere DJ for crafting rap hits in the mid-2000s. He simply doesn’t provide enough flash to continue his meteoric ascent toward becoming an independently viable brand. If you want to talk the talk, you’ve got to walk the walk. The barometer for his success will always be the quantifiable impact of his records and the buzz they generate in the hip-hop community, and there are very few buzz worthy records present here. Khaled will undoubtedly continue to bring the same bravado, after all… all he does is win." David Jeffries of AllMusic gave the album three and a half stars out of five, saying "Khaled does his usual cheerleading and gets some production credits himself, but the real trick he pulls off is inspiring all these artists to somehow save up all these high-grade club tracks and singles for the DJ's annual dispatch. "Suffering from Success", once again." Grant Jones of RapReviews gave the album a four out of ten, saying "Decidedly hit and miss, it's the songs that stray beyond the typical tales of money, sex and cars that are worth returning to, and while I'm not saying anybody should wholeheartedly embrace baldness, maybe ten years of partying has taken its toll."


title: Suffering from Success

text: In 2017, the album became a subject to memes on Facebook, Reddit, and Twitter involving image macros where it gain more attention in the following year.


title: Suffering from Success

text: The album debuted at number 7 on the "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 27,000 copies in the United States. In its second week, the album dropped to number 28, selling 9,000 more copies. In its third week the album sold 5,000 more copies. In its fourth week, the album sold 3,000 more copies bringing its total album sales to 44,000 copies.


title: Cameron McVey

text: Cameron Andrew McVey (born 11 March 1957) is an English singer, songwriter and music producer. He worked with the bands Massive Attack, Portishead, All Saints, Sugababes/Mutya Keisha Siobhan and his wife Neneh Cherry. He is the father of Marlon Roudette, Tyson, and Mabel.


title: Cameron McVey

text: McVey grew up in Cockfosters, North London. He was educated at Queen Elizabeth's Boys' School, Barnet.


title: Cameron McVey

text: McVey started out as a member of the new wave band Bim in the early 1980s, in which he was the lead singer. The band released one album in 1982, "Boobams Out!" and seven singles from 1980 to 1982.


title: Cameron McVey

text: In 1987, as one half of duo Morgan-McVey, he released the single "Looking Good Diving". Originally conceived as a Simon & Garfunkel-style male vocal duo who would harmonise over reggae beats, early demos failed to deliver on the concept. Facing creative inertia, the act's record company convinced them to work with rising pop producers Stock Aitken Waterman (SAW), a proposition that left them with mixed feelings. Band member Jamie Morgan says McVey was so "embarrassed" by the resulting record and video, the band quickly disintegrated. However, McVey has since been complimentary of SAW's studio skills, calling the trio "more punk than the punks".


title: Cameron McVey

text: The track's B-side "Looking Good Diving with the Wild Bunch" would later be reworked into Neneh Cherry's 1988 single "Buffalo Stance".


title: Cameron McVey

text: In 2006, McVey (under the name Burt Ford) along with Neneh Cherry, Matt Kent (aka Karmil) and Lolita Moon released the album "Laylow", as a band called CirKus. In 2008, CirKus (with the same line-up) released their second album "Medicine".


title: Cameron McVey

text: McVey met Neneh Cherry in 1987 at Heathrow Airport while they were en route to Japan as fashion models as part of London Designer Ray Petri's Buffalo Posse. The couple married in 1990; they have two daughters, singers Tyson, born in 1989 (also known as Lolita Moon), and Mabel. The family lived throughout Europe. In 1993, they moved near Málaga, Spain and lived there until 1999. Briefly in 1995, they lived in Brooklyn, New York, where they had purchased a home in the Park Slope neighbourhood. Soon after moving in, the couple were held up at gunpoint and robbed by a teenage bandit. They headed back to London's Primrose Hill. Eventually they migrated to Cherry's native Hässleholm, Sweden, living in the same schoolhouse-turned-home where Cherry was raised (featured in the "Homebrew" album's artwork).


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: The is the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force's special forces unit established on March 27, 2004 by the then Defense Agency to counter terrorist activities and deter guerrilla-style attacks on Japanese soil and to conduct military operations against guerrillas or enemy commandos. The unit is based in Camp Narashino in Funabashi, Chiba along with the 1st Airborne Brigade.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: The SFGp has been referred to as Japan's Green Berets and Delta Force, due to their specialized role in the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force. The initial members of the Special Forces Group trained with Delta Force.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: The civilian counterpart of the SFGp is the Special Assault Teams of the prefectural police departments under the Japanese National Police Agency.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: In 1998, the Defense Agency had proposed the formation of a unit within the JGSDF that would handle tasks such as counter-terrorism with a selected group of JGSDF soldiers from the 1st Airborne Brigade sent to the United States to be trained by Green Berets and Delta Force operators. At the same time, two platoons were created from the brigade to be the foundations for the new unit. These consisted of the "G Platoon" (Formation Unit) and the "S Platoon" (Research Unit).


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: The establishment of the unit's framework had been completed in 2003, after 3 years of training and organisation. The unit's structure is based on that of Green Berets and Delta Force, SAS(Special Air Service), KSK(Kommando Spezialkräfte), Australian Special Forces units. Bilingual 1st Special Forces Group personnel were on hand to assist the JGSDF in creating their Table of Organization and Equipment (TO&E). Takashi Araya once mentioned in an interview that he trained with Green Berets abroad for a year.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On March 27, 2004, the Defense Agency activated the unit as the Special Operations Group with the mandate under the JGSDF as its counter-terrorist unit.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: In 2005, the SFGp had deployed four of its operators to serve as bodyguards for the commander of the JGSDF's contingent in Iraq under the Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On March 28, 2007, the SFGp, along with the 1st Airborne Brigade, the 1st Helicopter Brigade, and the 101st NBC Protection Unit, became part of the newly created Central Readiness Force.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On page 14 of the January-March 2014 edition of「Special Warfare」, authorized official bimonthly publication by the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School and Fort Bragg, the U.S. Army Green Berets 1st SFG(A) and the JGSDF SFGp conduct a bilateral exercise "Silent Eagle," each fall at JBLM in Washington State.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: In 2016, the SFGp was placed on standby during the 42nd G7 summit in case their assistance is required to back up the Special Assault Team and the Anti-Firearms Squad.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On page 83 of the October-December 2017 edition of「Special Warfare」, authorized official bimonthly publication by the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School and Fort Bragg, the strongest relationship and history between the U.S. Army Green Beret 1st SFG(A) 1st Battalion stationed in Okinawa, and JGSDF SFGp, as well as the training conducted by the former USPACOM subordinated Green Berets CRF(Crisis Response Force) and JGSDF SFGp at Joint Combined Exchange Training(JCET) in Camp Narashino and Okinawa on various missions, including direct action(DA), hostage rescue(HR), urban movement and mobility on rotary wing and vehicle platforms.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On January 18, 2018, the SFGp conducted one of their few exercises before the presence of the Australian and Japanese prime ministers. At least one SFGp operator was an observer at the Special Operations Forces Industry Conference (SOFIC) 2018 exercises in Florida. King Abdullah II of Jordan visited Japan and was given a demonstration by SFGp operators on November 27, 2018.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On February 18, 2019, unnamed SFGp operators were deployed to attend Flintlock military exercises in Africa. On November 5, 2021, the SFGp has trained in Guam with the Green Berets. Exercises between the 1st Special Forces Group and the SFGp are conducted yearly under the codename "Silent Eagle".


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On August, 2022, Joint counter-terrorism exercise「Exercise Dusk Samurai 2022」with the Australian Army 2nd Commando Regiment at Sydney Parramatta, Australia, was posted on the Australian Department of Defence (Australia) official website.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: On October 06, 2022, Posted on the JGSDF official website, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter that the SFGp and the Australian Army Special Operations Command (Australia) conducted field training in Australia in August 2022.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: This is the first official announcement by the JGSDF regarding SFGp's training and joint training between SFGp and special forces units of other countries (This was the sixth joint exercise with the Australian Army Special Forces since 2015）.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: Potential recruits to the SFGp are drawn from Ranger-qualified JGSDF soldiers and paratroopers of the 1st Airborne Brigade. The unit's passing rate is said to be at 3% due to demanding physical fitness qualifications aside from a recruit's ranger or airborne qualifications.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: SFGp operators are required to study English in order to be bilingual, although they are trained to learn other languages like Arabic, Chinese and Russian.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: When the first soldiers were recruited, there was an effort for them to have foreign training due to a lack of experience. According to Takashi Araya, he had to train with the Green Berets in order to be familiarized with modern special forces concepts since those who are Ranger-trained and those who are in the SFGp are not different in terms of their training. Others were given training by various private military contractors when they have free time in either the US or in the UK with their own money.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: The SFGp has access to equipment used by the JGSDF, such as the Komatsu LAVs and Toyota Koukidoushas for transport and reconnaissance use. They also work in conjunction with the 1st Helicopter Brigade to provide mobility support, though they can be also deployed via C-130 Hercules aircraft.


title: Special Forces Group (Japan)

text: As part of regulating and protecting the identities of the various soldiers serving in the SFGp, their faces are hidden in balaclavas and cannot be revealed except with authorization from their commanding officers. SFGp officers are exempted from the rule.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: Lithium aluminium hydride, commonly abbreviated to LAH, is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula LiAlH. It is a white solid, discovered by Finholt, Bond and Schlesinger in 1947. This compound is used as a reducing agent in organic synthesis, especially for the reduction of esters, carboxylic acids, and amides. The solid is dangerously reactive toward water, releasing gaseous hydrogen (H). Some related derivatives have been discussed for hydrogen storage.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH is a colourless solid but commercial samples are usually gray due to contamination. This material can be purified by recrystallization from diethyl ether. Large-scale purifications employ a Soxhlet extractor. Commonly, the impure gray material is used in synthesis, since the impurities are innocuous and can be easily separated from the organic products. The pure powdered material is pyrophoric, but not its large crystals. Some commercial materials contain mineral oil to inhibit reactions with atmospheric moisture, but more commonly it is packed in moisture-proof plastic sacks.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH violently reacts with water, including atmospheric moisture, to liberate dihydrogen gas. The reaction proceeds according to the following idealized equation:


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: This reaction provides a useful method to generate hydrogen in the laboratory. Aged, air-exposed samples often appear white because they have absorbed enough moisture to generate a mixture of the white compounds lithium hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH crystallizes in the monoclinic space group "P"2/"c". The unit cell has the dimensions: "a" = 4.82, "b" = 7.81, and "c" = 7.92 Å, α = γ = 90° and β = 112°. In the structure, Li centers are surrounded by five tetrahedra. The Li centers are bonded to one hydrogen atom from each of the surrounding tetrahedra creating a bipyramid arrangement. At high pressures (>2.2 GPa) a phase transition may occur to give β-LAH.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: In addition to this method, the industrial synthesis entails the initial preparation of sodium aluminium hydride from the elements under high pressure and temperature:


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: which proceeds in a high yield. LiCl is removed by filtration from an ethereal solution of LAH, with subsequent precipitation of LiAlH to yield a product containing around 1% "w"/"w" LiCl.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: An alternative preparation starts from LiH, and metallic Al instead of AlCl. Catalyzed by a small quantity of TiCl (0.2%), the reaction proceeds well using dimethylether as solvent. This method avoids the cogeneration of salt.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH is soluble in many ethereal solutions. However, it may spontaneously decompose due to the presence of catalytic impurities, though, it appears to be more stable in tetrahydrofuran (THF). Thus, THF is preferred over, e.g., diethyl ether, despite the lower solubility.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: The table summarizes thermodynamic data for LAH and reactions involving LAH, in the form of standard enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy change, respectively.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH is metastable at room temperature. During prolonged storage it slowly decomposes to LiAlH and LiH. This process can be accelerated by the presence of catalytic elements, such as titanium, iron or vanadium.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: Lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH) is widely used in organic chemistry as a reducing agent. It is more powerful than the related reagent sodium borohydride owing to the weaker Al-H bond compared to the B-H bond. Often as a solution in diethyl ether and followed by an acid workup, it will convert esters, carboxylic acids, acyl chlorides, aldehydes, and ketones into the corresponding alcohols (see: carbonyl reduction). Similarly, it converts amide, nitro, nitrile, imine, oxime, and organic azides into the amines (see: amide reduction). It reduces quaternary ammonium cations into the corresponding tertiary amines. Reactivity can be tuned by replacing hydride groups by alkoxy groups. Due to its pyrophoric nature, instability, toxicity, low shelf life and handling problems associated with its reactivity, it has been replaced in the last decade, both at the small-industrial scale and for large-scale reductions by the more convenient related reagent sodium bis (2-methoxyethoxy)aluminium hydride, which exhibits similar reactivity but with higher safety, easier handling and better economics.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH is most commonly used for the reduction of esters and carboxylic acids to primary alcohols; prior to the advent of LiAlH this was a difficult conversion involving sodium metal in boiling ethanol (the Bouveault-Blanc reduction). Aldehydes and ketones can also be reduced to alcohols by LAH, but this is usually done using milder reagents such as NaBH; α, β-unsaturated ketones are reduced to allylic alcohols. When epoxides are reduced using LAH, the reagent attacks the less hindered end of the epoxide, usually producing a secondary or tertiary alcohol. Epoxycyclohexanes are reduced to give axial alcohols preferentially.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: Partial reduction of acid chlorides to give the corresponding aldehyde product cannot proceed via LAH, since the latter reduces all the way to the primary alcohol. Instead, the milder lithium tri-"tert"-butoxyaluminum hydride, which reacts significantly faster with the acid chloride than with the aldehyde, must be used. For example, when isovaleric acid is treated with thionyl chloride to give isovaleroyl chloride, it can then be reduced via lithium tri-"tert"-butoxyaluminum hydride to give isovaleraldehyde in 65% yield.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: Lithium aluminium hydride also reduces alkyl halides to alkanes. Alkyl iodides react the fastest, followed by alkyl bromides and then alkyl chlorides. Primary halides are the most reactive followed by secondary halides. Tertiary halides react only in certain cases.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: Lithium aluminium hydride does not reduce simple alkenes or arenes. Alkynes are reduced only if an alcohol group is nearby. It was observed that the LiAlH reduces the double bond in the N-allylamides.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH is widely used to prepare main group and transition metal hydrides from the corresponding metal halides.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LAH also reacts with many inorganic ligands to form coordinated alumina complexes associated with lithium ions.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: LiAlH contains 10.6 wt% hydrogen, thereby making LAH a potential hydrogen storage medium for future fuel cell-powered vehicles. The high hydrogen content, as well as the discovery of reversible hydrogen storage in Ti-doped NaAlH, have sparked renewed research into LiAlH during the last decade. A substantial research effort has been devoted to accelerating the decomposition kinetics by catalytic doping and by ball milling.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: In order to take advantage of the total hydrogen capacity, the intermediate compound LiH must be dehydrogenated as well. Due to its high thermodynamic stability this requires temperatures in excess of 400 °C, which is not considered feasible for transportation purposes. Accepting LiH + Al as the final product, the hydrogen storage capacity is reduced to 7.96 wt%. Another problem related to hydrogen storage is the recycling back to LiAlH which, owing to its relatively low stability, requires an extremely high hydrogen pressure in excess of 10000 bar. Cycling only reaction R2 — that is, using LiAlH as starting material — would store 5.6 wt% hydrogen in a single step (vs. two steps for NaAlH which stores about the same amount of hydrogen). However, attempts at this process have not been successful so far.


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: A variety of salts analogous to LAH are known. NaH can be used to efficiently produce sodium aluminium hydride (NaAlH) by metathesis in THF:


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: The reverse, i.e., production of LAH from either sodium aluminium hydride or potassium aluminium hydride can be achieved by reaction with LiCl or lithium hydride in diethyl ether or THF:


title: Lithium aluminium hydride

text: Red-Al (or SMEAH, NaAlH(OCHOCH)) is synthesized by reacting sodium aluminum tetrahydride (NaAlH) and 2-methoxyethanol:


title: Russian occupation of Donetsk Oblast

text: The Russian occupation of Donetsk Oblast is an ongoing military occupation within Ukraine, which began on 7 April 2014 when part of the oblast was occupied by the Russian army and separatist forces and came under the control of the Donetsk People's Republic, a Russian-influenced breakaway entity located within it. The oblast's administrative center is Donetsk; however, its Regional State Administration has been temporarily relocated to Kramatorsk because of the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War.


title: Krabi

text: Krabi (, ) is the main town in the province of Krabi ("thesaban mueang") on the west coast of southern Thailand at the mouth of the Krabi River where it empties in Phang Nga Bay. As of 2020, the town had a population of 32,644. The town is the capital of Krabi Province and the 10 Krabi city sub-districts. Tourism is an important industry. Krabi is south of Bangkok by road.


title: Krabi

text: At the start of the Rattanakosin period in the late eighteenth century, when the capital was finally settled at Bangkok, an elephant kraal was established in Krabi by order of Chao Phraya Nakhon (Noi), the governor of Nakhon Si Thammarat, which was by then a part of the Thai Kingdom. He sent his vizier, the Phra Palad, to oversee this task, which was to ensure a regular supply of elephants for the larger town. So many followers immigrated in the steps of the Phra Palad that soon Krabi had a large community in three different boroughs: Pakasai, Khlong Pon, and Pak Lao. In 1872, King Chulalongkorn elevated these to town status, called Krabi, a word that preserves in its meaning the monkey symbolism of the old standard. The town's first governor was Luang Thep Sena, though it continued for a while as a dependency of Nakhon Si Thammarat. This was changed in 1875, when Krabi was raised to a fourth-level town in the old system of Thai government. Administrators then reported directly to the central government in Bangkok, and Krabi's history as an entity separate from other provinces had begun.


title: Krabi

text: The town covers the "tambon" Paknam and Krabi Yai of Krabi District, and is divided into 10 communities ("chumchon").


title: Krabi

text: Facing the Andaman Sea, like Phuket, Krabi has a tropical monsoon climate, and is subject to a ten-month rainy season between March and December, often with sustained heavy rains for days at a time during the monsoons. Krabi's highest ever recorded temperature was on 26 March 1998. Its lowest temperature was recorded on 11 January 2009: .


title: Krabi

text: Much of the province has been given over to several national parks. Top destinations are Hat Noppharat Thara - Mu Ko Phi Phi National Park, Ao Nang, Railay, and Ko Phi Phi. The province includes over 80 smaller islands such as Ko Lanta and Phi Phi, well-known to adventurers, yachtsmen, scuba-divers, snorkelers, and day-trippers from Phuket. Krabi's beaches attract both native Thai people and foreigners alike.


title: Krabi

text: Ko Lanta National Park, also in Krabi Province, includes several coral-fringed islands with well-known diving sites. The largest island, Ko Lanta Yai, is the site of park headquarters, and is also home to "Chao Le", or sea gypsies, who sustain themselves largely through fishing. The islands are best visited during the drier months of October through April.


title: Krabi

text: Kayaking, sailing, bird watching, snorkeling are also among top activities. In the interior, two predominantly mainland national parks, Khao Phanom Bencha National Park and Than Bokkhorani, offer inland scenic attractions including waterfalls and caves, and opportunities for trekking, bird watching, and eco-tours.


title: Krabi

text: The rock faces at Railay Beach near Ao Nang have attracted climbers from all over the world and each year are the venue for the Rock and Fire Festival in mid April. There are several rock climbing schools at Railay Beach. The rock is limestone and has characteristic pockets, overhangs and faces. Railay has numerous multi-pitch areas most of which start from the beach itself. A famous example is "Humanality". In addition, deep water soloing is popular on the numerous nearby rocky islands accessible by long-tail boat. Another popular destination is the Fossil Shell Beach located at Ban Laem Pho. The beach is famous for its fossilized snail shells, dwellers of the freshwater swamp that covered this area some 40 million years ago.


title: Krabi

text: Since 1999 the town has been served by the international Krabi Airport. Passing through the town is Phetkasem Road (Thailand Route 4).


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Maundy (from Old French "mandé", from Latin "mandatum" meaning "command"), or Washing of the Saints' Feet, Washing of the Feet, or Pedelavium or Pedilavium, is a religious rite observed by various Christian denominations. The Latin word "mandatum" is the first word sung at the ceremony of the washing of the feet, ""Mandatum novum do vobis ut diligatis invicem sicut dilexi vos"", from the text of John 13:34 in the Vulgate ("I give you a new commandment, That ye love one another as I have loved you", ). This is also seen as referring to the commandment of Christ that believers should emulate his loving humility in the washing of the feet (). The term "mandatum" ("mandé", maundy), therefore, was applied to the rite of foot-washing on the Thursday preceding Easter Sunday, called Maundy Thursday.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Footwashing was practiced by the early Church, prior to receiving the Eucharist, and was recorded by the early Christian apologist Tertullian, who discussed it involving a basin of "water for the saints' feet", along with a "linen towel".


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Many denominations (including Anglicans, Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians, Mennonites, and Catholics) therefore observe the liturgical washing of the feet on Maundy Thursday of Holy Week. Moreover, for some denominations, foot-washing was an example, a pattern. Many groups throughout Church history and many modern denominations have practiced foot washing as a church ordinance including Adventists, Anabaptists, Baptists, Free Will Baptists, and Pentecostals.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The root of this practice is to be found in the hospitality customs of ancient civilizations, especially where sandals were the chief footwear. A host would provide water for guests to wash their feet, provide a servant to wash the feet of the guests or even serve the guests by washing their feet. This is mentioned in several places in the Old Testament of the Bible (e.g. Genesis ; ; ; ; I Samuel ; et al.), as well as other religious and historical documents. A typical Eastern host might bow, greet, and kiss his guest, then offer water to allow the guest to wash his feet or have servants do it. Though the wearing of sandals might necessitate washing the feet, the water was also offered as a courtesy even when shoes were worn.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: I Samuel is the first biblical passage where an honored person offers to wash feet as a sign of humility. In John 12, Mary of Bethany anointed Jesus' feet presumably in gratitude for raising her brother Lazarus from the dead, and in preparation for his death and burial. The Bible records washing of the saint's feet being practised by the primitive church in I Timothy perhaps in reference to piety, submission and/or humility. There are several names for this practice: "maundy", "foot washing", "washing the saints' feet", "pedilavium", and "mandatum".


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The foot washing, described in the thirteenth chapter of the Gospel of John, is concerned with the Latin title of "Servus servorum dei" ("Servant of the Servant of God"), which was historically reserved to the Bishops and to the Pope, also called the Bishop of Rome. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, commissioned the Twelve to be Servant of the Servant of God, and this calling to the Imitation of Christ has been firstly extended to all the bishops of the Church as the direct successors of the Apostles. The Apostles received the Holy Spirit from Jesus in the gospel of John chapter 20.22 and in fullness upon the day of the Pentecost in chapter 2 of the Book of Acts, for the evangelization and salvation of all the human race. This belief is common to Catholics, to some denominations of the Western Christianity, and is consistent and in keeping with Eastern Christian beliefs.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: A main point of contention between Eastern Orthodox Christians and Western Christians is the "Filioque" doctrine, and the subsequent understanding concerning the progression and movement of the Holy Spirit. The Filioque doctrine is rejected by many Eastern Orthodox, whereas it is advanced by most Western Christians. Western Christians maintain that the Holy Spirit proceeds simultaneous from God the Father and God the Son, whereas many Eastern Christians maintain that God the Holy Spirit proceeds uniquely from God the Father: Eastern Christians subsequently believe that the Apostles received the Holy Spirit with his seven gifts from God the Father, and all the bishops onward, like their successors. However, this variance in belief does not impact the words of Christ and the command to his apostles to be the Servant of the Servant of God.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: It is also recalled in the Latin text of the "Magnificat", for which God "regarded the lowliness" of Mary, Mother of Jesus, and, by effect of that, "magnified" her ("He hath put down the mighty from their seat: and hath exalted the humble and meek."). God also did the same to all the other creatures, both before and after the Incarnation, for:


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Christian denominations that observe foot washing do so on the basis of the authoritative example and command of Jesus as found in (NKJV):


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Jesus demonstrates the custom of the time when he comments on the lack of hospitality in one Pharisee's home by not providing water to wash his feet in Luke 7:44:


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The rite of foot washing finds its roots in scripture, where Jesus tells his followers "to wash one another's feet" (cf. ). After the death of the apostles or the end of the Apostolic Age, the practice was continued.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Footwashing was practiced in the early centuries of post-apostolic Christianity, with Tertullian (145–220) mentioning the practice as being a part of Christian worship in his "De Corona". Footwashing was done with a basin "of water for the saints' feet" and a "linen towel", prior to the reception of the Eucharist. Additionally, in the 1st century, Christian women went to locations in which marginalized people resided (such as prisons) and washed their feet. The early Church Father Clement of Alexandria linked the new sandals given by to Prodigal Son with feetwashing, describing "non-perishable shoes that are only fit to be worn by those who have had their feet washed by Jesus, the Teacher and Lord." The early Church thus saw footwashing to be connected to repentance, involving a spiritual cleansing by Jesus.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Around 256 AD, Cyprian, the bishop of Carthage, wrote about footwashing teaching "the hands how to act in service".


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: It was practiced by the Church at Milan (c. 380) and is mentioned by the "Council of Elvira" (300). The Church Fathers Origen, as well as John Chrysostom and Augustine (c. 400) encouraged the practice as an imitation of Christ.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Observance of foot washing at the time of baptism was maintained in Africa, Gaul, Germany, Milan, northern Italy, and Ireland.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: According to the "Mennonite Encyclopedia" "St. Benedict's "Rule" (529) for the Benedictine Order prescribed hospitality feetwashing in addition to a communal feetwashing for humility"; a statement confirmed by the Catholic Encyclopedia. It apparently was established in the Roman church, though not in connection with baptism, by the 8th century.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The Greek Orthodox Church counted footwashing among the sacraments, though it was not practiced that often.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The Synod of Toledo (694) "declared that footwashing should be observed on Maundy Thursday" and Roman Catholic churches thus came to observe footwashing on that day.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: There is some evidence that it was observed by the early Hussites; and the practice was a meaningful part of the 16th century radical reformation, which resulted in Anabaptist denominations regularly practicing footwashing as an ordinance.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The ritual washing of feet is currently practiced in many religious denominations including those listed below.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In Catholic Church, the ritual washing of feet is now associated with the Mass of the Lord's Supper, which celebrates in a special way the Last Supper of Jesus, before which he washed the feet of his twelve apostles.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Evidence for the practice on this day goes back at least to the latter half of the 12th century, when "the pope washed the feet of twelve sub-deacons after his Mass and of thirteen poor men after his dinner." From 1570 to 1955, the Roman Missal printed, after the text of the Holy Thursday Mass, a rite of washing of feet unconnected with the Mass. For many years Pius IX performed the foot washing in the sala over the portico of Saint Peter's, Rome.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In 1955 Pope Pius XII revised the ritual and inserted it into the Mass. Since then, the rite is celebrated after the homily that follows the reading of the gospel account of how Jesus washed the feet of his twelve apostles (). Some persons who have been selected – usually twelve, but the Roman Missal does not specify the number – are led to chairs prepared in a suitable place. The priest goes to each and, with the help of the ministers, pours water over each one's feet and dries them. There are some advocates of restricting this ritual to clergy or at least men.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In a notable break from the 1955 norms, Pope Francis washed the feet of two women and Muslims at a juvenile detention center in Rome 2013. In 2016 it was announced that the Roman Missal had been revised to permit women to have their feet washed on Maundy Thursday; previously it permitted only males to do so. In 2016 Catholic priests around the world washed both women's and men's feet on Holy Thursday "their gesture of humility represented to many the progress of inclusion in the Catholic church."


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: At one time, most of the European monarchs also performed the Washing of Feet in their royal courts on Maundy Thursday, a practice continued by the Austro-Hungarian Emperor and the King of Spain up to the beginning of the 20th century (see Royal Maundy). In 1181 Roger de Moulins, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller issued a statute declaring, "In Lent every Saturday, they are accustomed to celebrate maundy for thirteen poor persons, and to wash their feet, and to give to each a shirt and new breeches and new shoes, and to three chaplains, or to three clerics out of the thirteen, three deniers and to each of the others, two deniers".


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Foot washing rites are practiced by many Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist churches, whereby foot washing is most often experienced in connection with Maundy Thursday services and, sometimes, at ordination services where the Bishop may wash the feet of those who are to be ordained. In certain Methodist connexions, such as the Missionary Methodist Church and the New Congregational Methodist Church, footwashing is practiced at the time that the Lord's Supper is celebrated.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Though history shows that foot washing has at times been practiced in connection with baptism, and at times as a separate occasion, by far its most common practice has been in connection with the Lord's supper service. There has been some revival of the practice as other liturgical churches have also rediscovered the practice.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches practice the ritual of the Washing of Feet on Holy and Great Thursday (Maundy Thursday) according to their ancient rites. The service may be performed either by a bishop, washing the feet of twelve priests; or by an Hegumen (Abbot) washing the feet of twelve members of the brotherhood of his monastery. The ceremony takes place at the end of the Divine Liturgy.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: After Holy Communion, and before the dismissal, the brethren all go in procession to the place where the Washing of Feet is to take place (it may be in the center of the nave, in the narthex, or a location outside). After a psalm and some troparia (hymns) an ektenia (litany) is recited, and the bishop or abbot reads a prayer. Then the deacon reads the account in the Gospel of John, while the clergy perform the roles of Christ and his apostles as each action is chanted by the deacon. The deacon stops when the dialogue between Jesus and Peter begins. The senior-ranking clergyman among those whose feet are being washed speaks the words of Peter, and the bishop or abbot speaks the words of Jesus. Then the bishop or abbot himself concludes the reading of the Gospel, after which he says another prayer and sprinkles all of those present with the water that was used for the foot washing. The procession then returns to the church and the final dismissal is given as normal.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In the Coptic Orthodox Church the service is performed by the parish priest. He blesses the water for the foot washing with the cross, just as he would for blessing holy water and he washes the feet of the entire congregation.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In the Syrian Orthodox Church, this service is performed by a bishop or priest. There will be some 12 selected men, both priests and the lay people, and the bishop or priest will wash and kiss the feet of those 12 men. It is not merely a dramatization of the past event. Further it is a prayer where the whole congregation prays to wash and cleanse them of their sins.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The Moravian Church has historically practiced footwashing (pedelavium). This reflected the emphasis Moravians place on practicing customs of the early Church, such as the Lovefeast. In 1818, the practice was made no longer compulsory, though it continues in the present-day. Traditionally, Moravian Christians practiced footwashing before partaking in the Lord's Supper, although in most Moravian congregations, these rites are observed chiefly on Maundy Thursday.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Groups descending from the 1708 Schwarzenau Brethren, such as the Grace Brethren, Church of the Brethren, Brethren Church, Brethren in Christ, Old German Baptist Brethren, and the Dunkard Brethren regularly practice foot washing (generally called "feetwashing") as one of three ordinances that compose their Lovefeast, the others being the Eucharist and a fellowship meal. Historically related groups such as the Amish and most Mennonites also wash feet, tracing the practice to the 1632 Dordrecht Confession of Faith. For members, this practice promotes humility towards and care for others, resulting in a higher egalitarianism among members.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Many Baptists observe the literal washing of feet as a third ordinance. The communion and foot washing service is practiced regularly by members of the Separate Baptists in Christ, General Association of Baptists, Free Will Baptists, Primitive Baptists, Union Baptists, Old Regular Baptist, Christian Baptist Church of God. Feet washing is also practiced as a third ordinance by many Southern Baptists, General Baptists, and Independent Baptists.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Various Pentecostal denominations practice the ordinance or ritual of footwashing, in connection with the sacrament of the Lord's Supper or Communion, in the past. Often, foot washing is held as an optional service separate from communion on a different date. When celebrated in conjunction with the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, or communion, the Pastor, or designated minister, will read the scriptural text, out of the Gospel of St. John, then instruct the men to assemble in one location of the church, and the women to assemble in another location of the church - where basins with water and towels have already been suitably prepared in front of a pew, or row of chairs. Each member takes turns sitting in a chair or pew while another kneels before him or her and washes their feet. Customs may vary. Sometimes the foot washer places both of the other persons feet into the water, scooping water over them with his/her hand, simply holding them, sometimes the feet are held over the basin while water is poured over them, and in some congregations, only one foot is made bare and has water poured over it/washed. Often, the person whose feet are being washed lays a hand/or hands upon the shoulder of the person washing their feet and he or she will pray for the person washing their feet. The foot washer also prays for humility and for the person they are washing. When all have participated in washing the feet of others and having their feet washed, a benediction and dismissal of the service is conducted. Members are often instructed to continue their service to others in the church and to the world at large. After the dismissal, participates usually participate in helping clean up the area, basins, etc.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In the mid-1830s, Joseph Smith introduced the original temple rites of the Latter Day Saint movement in Kirtland, Ohio, which primarily involved foot washing, followed by speaking in tongues and visions. This foot washing took place exclusively among men, and was based upon the Old and New Testament. After Joseph Smith was initiated into the first three degrees of Freemasonry, this was adapted into the whole body Endowment ritual more similar to contemporary Mormon practice, which is nearly identical to Masonic temple rites, and does not specifically involve the feet.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: In 1843, Smith included a foot washing element in the faith's second anointing ceremony in which elite married couples are anointed as heavenly monarchs and priests.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The observance of "washing the saints' feet" is quite varied, but a typical service follows the partaking of unleavened bread and wine. Deacons (in many cases) place pans of water in front of pews that have been arranged for the service. The men and women participate in separate groups, men washing men's feet and women washing women's feet. Each member of the congregation takes a turn washing the feet of another member. Each foot is placed one at a time into the basin of water, is washed by cupping the hand and pouring water over the foot, and is dried with a long towel girded around the waist of the member performing the washing. Most of these services appear to be quite moving to the participants.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: The True Jesus Church includes footwashing as a scriptural sacrament based on . Like the other two sacraments, namely Baptism and the Lord's Supper, members of the church believe that footwashing imparts salvific grace to the recipient—in this case, to have a part with Christ ().


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Most Church of God denominations also include footwashing in their Passover ceremony based on John 13:1–11.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: Most Seventh-day Adventist congregations schedule an opportunity for foot washing preceding each quarterly (four times a year) Communion service. As with their "open" Communion, all believers in attendance, not just members or pastors, are invited to share in the washing of feet with another: men with men, women with women, and frequently, spouse with spouse. This service is alternatively called the Ordinance of Foot-Washing or the Ordinance of Humility. Its primary purpose is to renew the cleansing that only comes from Christ, but secondarily to seek and celebrate reconciliation with another member before Communion/the Lord's Supper.


title: Maundy (foot washing)

text: A number of Jewish rabbis who disagree with the initiation custom of "brit milah", or circumcision of a male baby, instead have offered "brit shalom", or a multi-part naming ceremony which eschews circumcision. One portion of the ritual, "Brit rechitzah", involves the washing of the baby's feet.


title: Thyrsus

text: A thyrsus or thyrsos (Ancient Greek: θύρσος) was a wand or staff of giant fennel ("Ferula communis") covered with ivy vines and leaves, sometimes wound with taeniae and topped with a pine cone, artichoke, or by a bunch of vine-leaves and grapes or ivy-leaves and berries, carried during Hellenic festivals and religious ceremonies. The thyrsus is typically associated with the Greek god Dionysus, and represents a symbol of prosperity, fertility, and hedonism similarly to Dionysus.


title: Thyrsus

text: In Greek religion, the staff was carried by the votaries of Dionysus. Euripides wrote that honey dripped from the thyrsos staves that the Bacchic maenads carried. The thyrsus was a sacred instrument at religious rituals and fêtes.


title: Thyrsus

text: The fabulous history of Bacchus relates that he converted the thyrsi carried by himself and his followers into dangerous weapons, by concealing an iron point in the head of leaves. Hence his thyrsus is called "a spear enveloped in vine-leaves", and its point was thought to incite to madness.


title: Thyrsus

text: The thyrsus, associated with Dionysus (or Bacchus) and his followers, the Satyrs and Maenads (or Bacchants), is a symbol of prosperity, fertility, hedonism, and pleasure/enjoyment in general. The thyrsus was tossed in the Bacchic dance:


title: Thyrsus

text: Sometimes the thyrsus was displayed in conjunction with a kantharos wine cup, another symbol of Dionysus, forming a male-and-female combination.


title: Thyrsus

text: In the "Iliad", Diomedes, one of the leading warriors of the Achaeans, mentions the thyrsus while speaking to Glaucus, one of the Lycian commanders in the Trojan army, about Lycurgus, the king of Scyros:


title: Thyrsus

text: He it was that/drove the nursing women who were in charge/of frenzied Bacchus through the land of Nysa,/and they flung their thyrsi on the ground as/murderous Lycurgus beat them with his oxgoad. The thyrsus is explicitly attributed to Dionysus and his followers in Euripides's play, "The Bacchae," a Greek tragedy describing the degradation of Thebes in vindication for the sullied name of Dionysus's mortal mother. The story surrounds the murder of the young king and indoctrination of all of the Theban women into Dionysus's cult, with the thyrsus serving as a badge of sorts for members.


title: Thyrsus

text: To raise my Bacchic shout, and clothe all who respond/ In fawnskin habits, and put my thyrsus in their hands–/ The weapon wreathed with ivy-shoots... Euripides also writes, "There's a brute wildness in the fennel-wands—Reverence it well."Plato describes the hedonistic connotation of the thyrsus, and thereby Dionysus, in his philosophical "Phaedo":


title: Thyrsus

text: I conceive that the founders of the mysteries had a real meaning and were not mere triflers when they intimated in a figure long ago that he who passes unsanctified and uninitiated into the world below will live in a slough, but that he who arrives there after initiation and purification will dwell with the gods. For 'many,' as they say in the mysteries, 'are the thyrsus bearers, but few are the mystics,' – meaning, as I interpret the words, the true philosophers.In Part II of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's "Faust", Mephistopheles tries to catch a Lamia, only to find out that she is an illusion and instead holds a thyrsus. The play contains major themes of sin and hedonism, and makes connection to Dionysus through the thyrsus:


title: Thyrsus

text: Well, then, a tall one I will catch... And now a thyrsus-pole I snatch! Only a pine-cone as its head.Robert Browning mentions the thyrsus in passing in "The Bishop Orders His Tomb at St Praxed's Church", as the dying bishop confuses Christian piety with classical extravagance. Ovid talks about Bacchus carrying a thyrsus and his followers doing the same in his Metamorphoses Book III, which is a retelling of The Bacchae.


title: Thyrsus

text: The bas-relief in bronze ye promised me,/Those Pans and nymphs ye wot of, and perchance/Some tripod, thrysus, with a vase or so.


title: Thyrsus

text: In the BTS song "Dionysus" from album , the thyrsus is mentioned as one of the imagery representing Dionysus.


title: Caratacus

text: Caratacus (Brythonic "*Caratācos", Middle Welsh "Caratawc"; Welsh "Caradog"; Breton "Karadeg"; Greek "Καράτακος"; variants Latin "Caractacus", Greek "Καρτάκης") was a 1st-century AD British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who resisted the Roman conquest of Britain.


title: Caratacus

text: Before the Roman invasion, Caratacus is associated with the expansion of his tribe's territory. His apparent success led to Roman invasion, nominally in support of his defeated enemies. He resisted the Romans for almost a decade, mixing guerrilla warfare with set-piece battles, but was unsuccessful in the latter. After his final defeat he fled to the territory of Queen Cartimandua, who captured him and handed him over to the Romans. He was sentenced to death as a military prisoner, but made a speech before his execution that persuaded the Emperor Claudius to spare him.


title: Caratacus

text: The legendary Welsh character Caradog ap Bran and the legendary British king Arvirargus may be based upon Caratacus. Caratacus's speech to Claudius has been a common subject in art.


title: Caratacus

text: Caratacus's name appears as both "Caratacus" and "Caractacus" in manuscripts of Tacitus, and as "Καράτακος" and "Καρτάκης" in manuscripts of Dio. Older reference works tend to favour the spelling "Caractacus", but modern scholars agree, based on historical linguistics and source criticism, that the original Common Brittonic form was "*Karatākos", pronounced , cognate with Welsh "Caradog", Breton "Karadeg", and Irish "Carthach", meaning "loving, beloved, dear; friend".


title: Caratacus

text: Caratacus is named by Dio Cassius as a son of the Catuvellaunian king Cunobelinus. Based on coin distribution Caratacus appears to have been the protégé of his uncle Epaticcus, who expanded Catuvellaunian power westwards most likely from his palace in Verulam the heartland of the Catuvellauni into the territory of the Atrebates. After Epaticcus died in about AD 35, the Atrebates, under Verica, regained some of their territory, but it appears Caratacus completed the conquest, as Dio tells us Verica was ousted, fled to Rome and appealed to the emperor Claudius for help. This was the excuse used by Claudius to launch his invasion of Britain in the summer of 43. The invasion targeted Caratacus's stronghold of Camulodunon (modern Colchester), previously the seat of his father Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus had died some time before the invasion. Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus led the initial defence of the country against Aulus Plautius's four legions, thought to have been around 40,000 men, primarily using guerrilla tactics. They lost much of the south-east after being defeated in two crucial battles, the Battle of the River Medway and River Thames. Togodumnus was killed (although both Miles Russell and John Hind argue that Dio was mistaken in reporting Togodumnus's death, that he was defeated but survived, and was later appointed by the Romans as a friendly king over a number of territories, becoming the loyal king referred to by Tacitus as Cogidubnus or Togidubnus) and the Catuvellauni's territories were conquered. Their stronghold of Camulodunon was converted into the first Roman colonia in Britain, Colonia Victricensis.


title: Caratacus

text: We next hear of Caratacus in Tacitus's "Annals", leading the Silures and Ordovices of Wales against Plautius's successor as governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 50, Scapula managed to defeat Caratacus in a set-piece battle somewhere in Ordovician territory, capturing Caratacus's wife and daughter and receiving the surrender of his brothers. Caratacus himself escaped, and fled north to the lands of the Brigantes (modern Yorkshire) where the Brigantian queen, Cartimandua, handed him over to the Romans in chains. This was one of the factors that led to two Brigantian revolts against Cartimandua and her Roman allies, once later in the 50s and once in 69, led by Venutius, who had once been Cartimandua's husband. With the capture of Caratacus, much of southern Britain from the Humber to the Severn was pacified and garrisoned throughout the 50s.


title: Caratacus

text: Legends place Caratacus's last stand at either Caer Caradoc near Church Stretton or British Camp in the Malvern Hills, but the description of Tacitus makes either unlikely:


title: Caratacus

text: Although the Severn is visible from British Camp, it is nowhere near it, so this battle must have taken place elsewhere. A number of locations have been suggested, including a site near Brampton Bryan. Bari Jones, in "Archaeology Today" in 1998, identified Blodwel Rocks at Llanymynech in Powys as representing a close fit with Tacitus's account.


title: Caratacus

text: After his capture, Caratacus was sent to Rome as a war prize, presumably to be killed after a triumphal parade. Although a captive, he was allowed to address the Roman Senate. Tacitus records a version of his speech in which he says that his stubborn resistance made Rome's glory in defeating him all the greater:


title: Caratacus

text: He made such an impression that he was pardoned and allowed to live in peace in Rome. After his liberation, according to Dio Cassius, Caratacus was so impressed by the city of Rome that he said "And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, still covet our poor huts?"


title: Caratacus

text: Caratacus's memory may have been preserved in medieval Welsh tradition. A genealogy in the Welsh Harley MS 3859 () includes the generations ""Caratauc map Cinbelin map Teuhant"", corresponding, via established processes of language change, to "Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, son of Tasciovanus", preserving the names of the three historical figures in correct relationship.


title: Caratacus

text: Caratacus does not appear in Geoffrey of Monmouth's "History of the Kings of Britain" (1136), although he appears to correspond to Arviragus, the younger son of Kymbelinus, who continues to resist the Roman invasion after the death of his older brother Guiderius. In Welsh versions his name is Gweirydd, son of Cynfelyn, and his brother is called Gwydyr; the name Arviragus is taken from a poem by Juvenal.


title: Caratacus

text: Caradog, son of Bran, who appears in medieval Welsh literature, has also been identified with Caratacus, although nothing in the medieval legend corresponds except his name. He appears in the "Mabinogion" as a son of Bran the Blessed, who is left in charge of Britain while his father makes war in Ireland, but is overthrown by Caswallawn (the historical Cassivellaunus, who lived a century earlier than Caratacus). The Welsh Triads agree that he was Bran's son, and name two sons, Cawrdaf and Eudaf.


title: Caratacus

text: Two hills in Shropshire bear the name Caer Caradoc (Welsh – Caer Caradog), meaning fort of Caradoc, and have popular associations with him. One is an Iron Age hill fort and Scheduled Monument near the town of Clun. It overlooks the village of Chapel Lawn. The other Caer Caradoc is a prominent hill near Church Stretton, 16 miles (26 km) to the north-east.


title: Caratacus

text: Caradog only began to be identified with Caratacus after the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus, and new material appeared based on this identification. An 18th-century tradition, popularised by the Welsh antiquarian and forger Iolo Morganwg, credits Caradog, on his return from imprisonment in Rome, with the introduction of Christianity to Britain. Iolo also makes the legendary king Coel Hen a son of Caradog's son Saint Cyllin. Richard Williams Morgan claimed that a reference to Cyllin as a son of Caratacus was found in the family records of Iestyn ab Gwrgant and used this as evidence of the early entry of Christianity to Britain: "Cyllin ab Caradog, a wise and just king. In his days many of the Cymry embraced the faith in Christ through the teaching of the saints of Cor-Eurgain, and many godly men from the countries of Greece and Rome were in Cambria. He first of the Cymry gave infants names; for before, names were not given except to adults, and then from something characteristic in their bodies, minds, or manners."


title: Caratacus

text: Another tradition, which has remained popular among British Israelites and others, makes Caratacus already a Christian before he came to Rome, Christianity having been brought to Britain by either Joseph of Arimathea or St. Paul, and identifies a number of early Christians as his relatives.


title: Caratacus

text: One is Pomponia Graecina, wife of Aulus Plautius, the conqueror of Britain, who as Tacitus relates, was accused of following a "foreign superstition", which the tradition considers to be Christianity. Tacitus describes her as the "wife of the Plautius who returned from Britain with an ovation", which led John Lingard (1771–1851) to conclude, in his "History and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church", that she was British; however, this conclusion is a misinterpretation of what Tacitus wrote. An ovation was a military parade in honour of a victorious general, so the person who "returned from Britain with an ovation" is clearly Plautius, not Pomponia. This has not prevented the error being repeated and disseminated widely.


title: Caratacus

text: Another is Claudia Rufina, a historical British woman known to the poet Martial. Martial describes Claudia's marriage to a man named Pudens, almost certainly Aulus Pudens, an Umbrian centurion and friend of the poet who appears regularly in his "Epigrams". It has been argued since the 17th century that this pair may be the same as the Claudia and Pudens mentioned as members of the Roman Christian community in "2 Timothy" in the New Testament. Some go further, claiming that Claudia was Caratacus' daughter, and that the historical Pope Linus, who is described as the "brother of Claudia" in an early church document, was Caratacus' son. Pudens is identified with St. Pudens, and it is claimed that the basilica of Santa Pudenziana in Rome, and with which St. Pudens is associated, was once called the "Palatium Britannicum" and was the home of Caratacus and his family.


title: Caratacus

text: This theory was popularised in a 1961 book called "The Drama of the Lost Disciples" by George Jowett, but Jowett did not originate it. He cites renaissance historians such as Archbishop James Ussher, Caesar Baronius and John Hardyng, as well as classical writers like Caesar, Tacitus and Juvenal, although his classical citations at least are wildly inaccurate, many of his assertions are unsourced, and many of his identifications entirely speculative. He also regularly cites "St. Paul in Britain", an 1860 book by R. W. Morgan, and advocates other tenets of British Israelism, in particular that the British are descended from the lost tribes of Israel.


title: Electroclash

text: Electroclash (also known as synthcore, retro-electro, tech-pop, nouveau disco, and the new new wave) is a genre of music that fuses 1980s electro, new wave and synth-pop with 1990s techno, retro-style electropop and electronic dance music. It emerged in the later 1990s and is often thought of as reaching its peak circa 2002/2003. It was pioneered by and associated with acts such as I-F, DJ Hell, Miss Kittin and The Hacker, and Fischerspooner.


title: Electroclash

text: The term electroclash describes a musical movement that combined synthpop, techno, punk and performance art. The genre was in reaction to the rigid formulations of techno music, putting an emphasis on song writing, showmanship and a sense of humour, and was described by "The Guardian" as one of "the two most significant upheavals in recent dance music history". The visual aesthetic of electroclash has been associated with the 1982 cult film "Liquid Sky". DJ Hell is widely credited as inventor and name giver of the genre, while DJ and promoter Larry Tee later popularized the term in the US by naming the Electroclash 2001 Festival in New York after it.


title: Electroclash

text: Electroclash emerged in the late 1990s. The Munich-based label International DeeJay Gigolo Records, founded by DJ Hell, is considered the "germ cell" and "THE home" of the electroclash sound. Gigolo featured many of the early electroclash songs, such as for example Christopher Just's "I'm a Disco Dancer" from 1997 or Chris Korda's "Save the Planet, Kill Yourself", which originally even had been released as early as 1993. Then in 1998, Gigolo released the songs "1982" and "Frank Sinatra" by French recording duo Miss Kittin & The Hacker, which were among the most successful early hits of the new genre. This was followed by the hit "Emerge" by New York duo Fischerspooner, as well as the remake of Corey Hart's "Sunglasses At Night" by Canadian duo Tiga & Zyntherius, both released on Gigolo in 2001. DJ Hell brought the artists of the new genre together on the label and acted primarily as their mentor. But also Hell's own releases like the album "Munich Machine" from 1998 are seen as groundbreaking for the genre Electroclash. In the widely recognized film documentary "Welcome to the club! 25 years of electronic dance music" by European television network Arte, Miss Kittin describes the origination of the first songs of the new style together with DJ Hell and declares him the inventor of the Electroclash genre. Since DJ Hell gathered the international artists of the new genre at Gigolo in Munich and many of them gave their first performances in the city's nightclubs, Munich is considered the city in which electroclash "was significantly co-invented, if not invented". Soon the new style of music also spread to other cities such as Berlin, London and New York.


title: Electroclash

text: Also I-F's track "Space Invaders Are Smoking Grass", released in 1998 on Disko B, with its "old-fashioned verse-chorus dynamics to burbling electro in a vocodered homage to Atari-era hi-jinks" is considered one of the pioneering tracks of the electroclash genre. Further early artists include Chicks on Speed, Peaches, ADULT. and Toktok vs. Soffy O with their year 2000 hit "Missy Queen's Gonna Die".


title: Electroclash

text: During their early years, Ladytron were sometimes labeled as electroclash, but others stated that they were not entirely electroclash and they also rejected this tag themselves. Goldfrapp's albums "Black Cherry" (2003) and "Supernature" (2005) incorporated electroclash influences.


title: Electroclash

text: In the U.S. the genre came to media attention, when the Electroclash Festival was held in New York in October 2001 to "make a local breakthrough with this scene, presenting a select group of superstar and pioneer artists from Europe and the U. S." The Electroclash Festival was held again in 2002 with subsequent live tours across the US and Europe in 2003 and 2004. Other notable artists who performed at the festival and subsequent tours include Scissor Sisters, ADULT., Erol Alkan, Princess Superstar, Mignon, Mount Sims, Tiga and Spalding Rockwell.


title: Electroclash

text: The electroclash label and the hype around it were fiercely criticized by some of its acclaimed protagonists in the early 2000s. For example, I-F and other artists signed an "Anti-Electroclash-Manifest", where they complained about the sellout of the style by those who would "rule the media waves" and only "sell the old freshly packaged". In 2002, Toktok vs. Soffy O. stated that when they were first asked about electroclash they just thought: "This is nothing else than what we've known for at least five years and what is now reaching the recycling peak for the third or fourth time".


title: VMware vSphere

text: VMware vSphere (formerly VMware Infrastructure 4) is VMware's cloud computing virtualization platform.


title: VMware vSphere

text: It includes an updated vCenter Configuration Manager, as well as vCenter Application Discovery Manager, and the ability of vMotion to move more than one virtual machine at a time from one host server to another.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: Metrication, the process of introducing the metric system of measurement in place of imperial units, has made steady progress in the United Kingdom since the mid-20th century but today remains equivocal and varies by context. Most of government, industry and commerce use metric units, but imperial units are officially used to specify journey distances, vehicle speeds and the sizes of returnable milk containers, beer and cider glasses, and fresh milk is often still sold in multiples of pints, with the metric equivalent also marked. Imperial units are also often used to describe body measurements and vehicle fuel economy. In schools, metric units are taught and used as the norm. Imperial units that remain in common usage in the UK are also taught.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: Adopting the metric system was discussed in Parliament as early as 1818 and some industries and government agencies had metricated, or were in the process of metricating by the mid-1960s. A formal government policy to support metrication was agreed by 1965. This policy, initiated in response to requests from industry, was to support voluntary metrication, with costs picked up where they fell. In 1969, the government created the Metrication Board as a quango to promote and coordinate metrication. In 1978, after some carpet retailers reverted to pricing by the square yard rather than the square metre, government policy shifted, and they started issuing orders making metrication mandatory in certain sectors. In 1980, government policy shifted again to prefer voluntary metrication, and the Metrication Board was abolished. By the time the Metrication Board was wound up, all the economic sectors that fell within its remit except road signage and parts of the retail trade sector had metricated.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: The treaty of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC), which the United Kingdom joined in 1973, obliged the United Kingdom to incorporate into domestic law all EEC directives, including the use of a prescribed SI-based set of units for many purposes within five years. By 1980, most pre-packaged goods were sold using the prescribed units. Mandatory use of prescribed units for retail sales took effect in 1995 for packaged goods and in 2000 for goods sold loose by weight. The use of "supplementary indications" or alternative units (generally the traditional imperial units formerly used) was originally to have been permitted for only a limited period. That period being extended a number of times due to public resistance, until in 2009 the requirement to ultimately cease use of traditional units alongside metric units was finally removed.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: British scientists, philosophers and engineers have been at the forefront of the development of metrication – in 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS), including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members, defined various electrical units in terms of metric rather than imperial units, and in the 1870s Johnson, Matthey & Co manufactured the international prototype metre and kilogram.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: When James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne in 1603, England and Scotland had different systems of measure. Superficially the English and the Scots units of measure were similar – many had the same names – but there were differences in their sizes: in particular the Scots pint and gallon were more than twice the size of their English counterparts. In 1707, under the Act of Union, the Parliaments of England and Scotland were merged and the English units of measurement became the standard for the whole new Kingdom of Great Britain. The practical effect of this was that both systems were used in Scotland, and the Scottish measures remained in common use until the Weights and Measures Act 1824 outlawed them.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: This period marked the Age of Enlightenment, when people started using the power of reason to reform society and advance knowledge. Britons played their role in the realm of measurement, laying down practical and philosophical foundations for a decimal system of measurement which were ultimately to provide the building blocks of the metric system.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: One of the earliest decimal measuring devices, developed in 1620 by the English clergyman and mathematician Edmund Gunter, introduced two new units of measure – the chain and the link – and a new measuring device: Gunter's chain. Gunter's chain was in length (i.e. one tenth of a furlong) and consisted of 100 links, making each link . The decimal nature of these units and of the device made it easy to calculate the area of a rectangle of land in acres and decimal fractions of an acre.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: Having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, the Scottish inventor James Watt, in 1783, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system. A letter of invitation, in 1790, from the French National Assembly to the British Parliament, to help create such a system using the length of a pendulum as the base unit of length received the support of the British Parliament, championed by John Riggs Miller, but when the French overthrew their monarchy and decided to use the meridional definition of the metre as their base unit, Britain withdrew support. The French continued alone and created the foundations of what is now called the "Système International d'Unités" and is the measurement system for most of the world.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: A few days later Wrottesley met with Gladstone, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, but was unable to win him over to the idea. The inherent problems associated with handling multiple currencies and systems of units encountered in the Great Exhibition of 1851 triggered calls for a standardisation of units across Europe with the metric system being suggested as the natural choice. In 1854, de Morgan was influential in setting up the "Decimal Association" to lobby for decimalisation of both measurement and coinage. In 1862, the Select Committee on Weights and Measures favoured the introduction of decimalisation to accompany the introduction of metric weights and measures. A further Royal Commission "on the question of the introduction of metric system of weights and measures" also reported in 1869.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In 1863, a bill which would have mandated the use of the metric system throughout the British Empire, and which had passed its first and second readings in the House of Commons, was rejected at its Commons Committee stage as impractical, and so did not pass into law. The following year, after pressure from the astronomers George Airy and Sir John Herschel, the bill was watered down to merely legalise the use of the metric system in contracts. It was presented and passed as a Private Member's Bill. Ambiguous wording in the 1864 Act meant that traders who possessed metric weights and measures were still liable to arrest under the Weights and Measures Act 1835 (5 & 6 Will 4 c. 63).


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: While the politicians were discussing whether or not to adopt the metric system, British scientists were in the forefront in developing the system. In 1845, a paper by James Prescott Joule proved the equivalence of mechanical and thermal energy, a concept that is vital to the metric system – in SI, power is measured in watts and energy in joules regardless of whether it is mechanical, electrical or thermal.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In 1861, a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science (BAAS) including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the "Standards of Electrical Resistance". In their first report (1862), they laid the ground rules for their work – the metric system was to be used and measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In the second report (1863), they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length, mass and time were identified as "fundamental units" (now known as "base units").


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In 1873, another committee of the BAAS that also counted Maxwell and Thomson among its members and was tasked with "the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units". They recommended the CGS (centimetre-gram-second) system of units. The committee also recommended the names "dyne" and "erg" for the CGS units of force and energy. The CGS system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In 1875, a British delegation was one of twenty national delegations to a convention in Paris that resulted in seventeen of the nations signing the Metre Convention on 20 May 1875, and the establishment of three bodies, the CGPM, CIPM and BIPM, that were charged with overseeing weights and measures on behalf of the international community. The United Kingdom was one of the countries that declined to sign the convention. In 1882 the British firm Johnson, Matthey & Co secured an agreement with the French government to supply 30 standard metres and 40 standard kilograms. Two years later the United Kingdom signed the treaty and the following year it was found that the standard yard which had been in use since 1855 had been shrinking at the rate of one part per million every twenty years. In 1889, one of the standard metres and one of the standard kilograms that had been cast by Johnson, Matthey & Co were selected at random as the reference standard and the other standards, having been cross-correlated with each other, were distributed to the signatory nations of the treaty.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In 1896, Parliament passed the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act, legalising metric units for all purposes but not making them compulsory.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: The situation was clarified in 1897 following another Select Committee which also recommended that metrication become compulsory by 1899. In 1902, an Empire conference decided that metrication should be compulsory across the British Empire. In 1904, scientist Lord Kelvin led a campaign for metrication and collected 8 million signatures of British subjects. On the opposition side, 1904 saw the establishment of the British Weights and Measures Association for "the purpose of defending and, where practicable, improving the present system of weights and measures". At this time 45% of British exports were to metricated countries. Parliament voted to set up a Select Committee on the matter.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: This Select Committee reported in 1907 and a bill was drafted proposing compulsory metrication by 1910, including decimalisation of coinage.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: The matter was dropped in the face of wars and depression, and would not be again raised until the White Paper of 1951, the result of the Hodgson Committee Report of 1949 which unanimously recommended compulsory metrication and currency decimalisation within ten years. The report said "The real problem facing Great Britain is not whether to adhere either to the Imperial or to the metric system, but whether to maintain two legal systems or to abolish the Imperial." The report also recommended that any change should be implemented in concert with the Commonwealth (former Empire) and the US, that the United Kingdom adopt a decimal currency and that the United Kingdom and United States harmonise their respective definitions of the yard using the metre as a reference. The Hodgson Report was originally rejected by British industry, but in 1959 the United Kingdom and United States redefined their respective yards to be 0.9144 m exactly.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: The British Standards Institution (BSI) chose to stimulate metrication discussion in May 1962 by issuing a short statement on the subject. The introduction of the metric system was a topic at the Fifth Commonwealth Standards Conference that was held in Sydney in October 1962. Also in October 1963, the BSI, based on the results of inquiries by its committees, stated that their view was that changes in the field of measurement were inevitable. They also stated that they thought these changes should be channelled towards the metric system becoming the primary weights and measures system for the UK as soon as possible.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In 1965, the then Federation of British Industry informed the British Government that its members favoured the adoption of the metric system, though some sectors emphasised the need for a voluntary system of adoption. The Board of Trade, on behalf of the Government, agreed to support a ten-year metrication programme. There would be minimal legislation as the programme was to be voluntary and costs were to be borne where they fell.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: Work on adapting specifications started almost as soon as the government first gave its approval in 1965. The BSI took the lead in coordinating the efforts of industry, and where appropriate working with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), CEE, CEN and CENELEC while the Royal Society liaised with professional societies, schools and the like. Initially the BSI targeted 1,200 basic standards which were converted to metric units by 1970. Most of the remaining 4,000 standards were converted in the ensuing five years.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: In July 1968, following the publication of a report from the Standing Joint Committee on Metrication, the government announced that an advisory metrication board would be set up as soon as possible, to oversee the metrication process, with a target completion date of the end of 1975. The report favoured the board being made up of part-time members drawn from commerce and industry, with government, education and consumer interests also being represented. In December 1968, the government announced the set-up of the Metrication Board to coordinate the metrication programme, with Lord Ritchie-Calder being appointed as chairman. By this time much of the groundwork, especially rewriting of many British Standards using metric units, had been done and many of the industries that stood to benefit from metrication had already metricated, or had a metrication programme in progress.


title: Metrication in the United Kingdom

text: The general election of 18 June 1970 resulted in a change of government and four months later, on 27 October 1970, following an anti-metrication motion being tabled calling on the newly elected Conservative Party government not to continue with the previous government's metrication commitments, the government announced that a White Paper would be produced to examine the cost, savings, advantages and disadvantages of a change to the metric system. During the debate when the announcement was made, Conservative MPs complained that metrication was being introduced by stealth.