title: University of Roehampton

text: According to Higher Education Funding Council for England's 2014 Research Excellence Framework (REF), the university is the most research-intensive post-1992 university in the UK. Roehampton submitted work by more than two-thirds of its academic staff, in 13 subject areas. This is the highest proportion of any post-1992 university. Dance was the top performing subject, with 94% of research rated 4* and 3* – making it the highest-rated department in its subject area in the UK. Roehampton was also ranked 3rd in London for research quality in Education, and 4th for English. Roehampton was the strongest-performing university in London in these subject areas. Overall, 66 per cent Roehampton's research was judged either world-leading or internationally excellent.


title: University of Roehampton

text: In May 2022, 226 academics (almost half the academic staff at the University of Roehampton) received an email from Vice Chancellor, Professor Jean-Noël Ezingeard, informing them that their jobs were at risk. The email proposed wide-ranging restructuring and redundancies across the university. The proposed job losses target the arts and humanities and would devastate longstanding and acclaimed teaching and research in subject areas such as creative writing, drama, and classics. The Member of Parliament for Putney, Roehampton and Southfields, Fleur Anderson, wrote to Professor Ezingeard on 6 June 2022 expressing her concern over the proposed restructuring and redundancies. Amongst the concerns laid out by Anderson in her letter were that the university's proposals amount to the practice of 'fire and rehire'; that the proposals would have a negative impact on current and prospective students; and that the proposed restructuring of the university would limit working-class education and opportunities, particularly in the creative fields.


title: University of Roehampton

text: The RSU is the main organisation of student representation at the university. It is led by student officers elected by the student body and aims to promote the interests and welfare of all those studying at Roehampton. It is also a focal point for social activities and is responsible for organising events like the Summer Ball, Summer Ball being the biggest event of the academic year. Attracting over 2000 students and held on campus, the event attracts a variety of musical and entertainment acts. The RSU also organises nights out in London, some of these consist of the Clapham grand once a month, fez club Putney on Wednesday nights and the union's special event the Bop hosted at the union bar. The Union itself has 12 different bars, cafes and restaurants spread around the campus.


title: University of Roehampton

text: In September 2013 Roehampton Students' Union was awarded £226,900 from NUS Students' Green Fund for a sustainability initiative with a focus on urban food growing. The project is called Growhampton. Growhampton runs a cafe, the Hive, alongside a regular market day, where food produced by students and small local organisations is sold. In June 2015, Wandsworth Council awarded Growhampton funds to launch a food education outreach programme, which now operates in Wandsworth schools, youth groups and community groups, with a focus on food growing. Growhampton also works directly with a local charities, including Regenerate and Paradise Co-op.


title: University of Roehampton

text: The Third Row Dance Company is a company for undergraduate dance students, led by students. Founded in 2008, the company is made up of dancers selected through an audition process. It commissions professional choreographers to create works, in order for the dancers to gain experience of the professional dance world, which are performed to other students both within the university and outside. Guest choreographers have included Australian dancer and choreographer Daniel Riley, formerly of Bangarra Dance Theatre and since late 2021 artistic director of the Australian Dance Theatre.


title: University of Roehampton

text: Amongst the alumni of the University of Roehampton, and other institutions that fall under that banner are:


title: University of Roehampton

text: Baroness Sandip Verma was appointed the Chancellor in 2022. Dame Jacqueline Wilson was appointed Chancellor of the university in August 2014, she succeeded the first Chancellor John Simpson (2004–2014). Jacqueline Wilson retired from the role in 2020. Jacqueline is also a Teaching Fellow, who teaches modules.


title: University of Roehampton

text: The Vice-Chancellor of the university is Professor Jean-Noël Ezingeard, who succeeded Professor Paul O'Prey in May 2019. Former Vice-Chancellor O'Prey was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the Queen's 90th Birthday Honours list for his services to higher education and the literary history of the First World War.


title: French Connection II

text: French Connection II is a 1975 American action thriller film starring Gene Hackman and directed by John Frankenheimer. It is a sequel to the 1971 Academy Award for Best Picture winner "The French Connection". The film continues the story of the central character, Detective Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle, again played by Gene Hackman who won the Academy Award for Best Actor for the first film. In the film, Doyle travels to Marseille, France, where he is attempting to track down French drug-dealer Alain Charnier, played by Fernando Rey, who escaped at the end of the first film. Hackman and Rey are the only returning cast members.


title: French Connection II

text: Picking up four years after the original left off, narcotics officer Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle (Gene Hackman) is still searching for elusive drug kingpin Alain Charnier (Fernando Rey). Orders from his superiors send Doyle to Marseille, France, to track down the criminal mastermind and bust his drug ring. Once in France, Doyle is met by English-speaking Inspector Henri Barthélémy (Bernard Fresson), who resents his rude and crude crimefighting demeanor. Doyle then begins to find himself as a fish out of water in France, where he is confronted with a language he cannot understand. Doyle is shown round the police station where he finds his desk is situated directly outside the toilets. He tells Barthélémy that he is not satisfied with this positioning and hopes it is not a joke at his expense. Barthélémy informs Doyle that he has read his personnel file and is aware of his reputation and especially hopes he has not brought a gun with him as it is strictly forbidden in France for visiting police officers from other countries to carry firearms.


title: French Connection II

text: Doyle continues to struggle with the language and tries to order drinks in a bar. He eventually makes himself understood, befriending a bartender while buying him drinks and they eventually stumble out of the bar together at closing time, followed by two men. The next day, while Doyle is watching a beach volleyball match, Charnier sees him from a restaurant below. Determined to find Charnier on his own, Popeye escapes from what are in fact French police escorts keeping watch on him. Doyle doesn't understand that he is being used as a bait by French police. The same night Charnier sends his men to capture Doyle, killing one of his watchers in the process, and take him to a secluded, seedy hotel in the old quarter for interrogation.


title: French Connection II

text: For several weeks, Doyle is injected with heroin in effort to force him into capitulation. Scenes of his growing addiction follow, including one in which an elderly lady (Cathleen Nesbitt) visits him in his befuddled state. She talks to him, declaring herself to be English, and saying that her son is "just like" him, while stroking his arm. Initially she seems compassionate to his plight, but a change in the camera angle reveals her 'track' marks. The gentle old lady steals his watch.


title: French Connection II

text: Meanwhile, Barthélémy has sent police everywhere to search for Doyle. Charnier interrogates a needy Doyle about what he knows, but Doyle says he was sent here just because he is the only one who can recognize him. Charnier believes Doyle, so lets him go after one massive injection. Doyle is dumped barely alive but addicted in front of police headquarters. Grueling scenes of resuscitation and drug withdrawal follow. In his effort to save both Doyle's life and his reputation, Barthélémy immediately quarantines Doyle in the police cells and begins his cold turkey withdrawal from the heroin. Supervising his recovery, and at his side with both emotional support and taunts questioning his toughness, Barthélémy ensures that Doyle completes the cycle of physical withdrawal. When he is well enough to be on his feet, Doyle starts back on the road to regaining his physical fitness. He searches Marseille and, finding the hideout he was brought to, sets it on fire. He breaks into a room at the hotel and discovers Charnier's henchmen, whom he pursues and interrogates as to Charnier's whereabouts. A delivery of opium is taking place at the harbour. Doyle, Barthélémy and other inspectors rush to the boat that is being unloaded and engage Charnier's henchmen in a gun battle in a dry dock. The thugs open the spillways, water starts rushing in, Doyle and Barthélémy are trapped. The henchmen and a policeman are killed, but Doyle rescues Barthélémy. French police hold Doyle responsible for the policeman's death and want to send him home. But Doyle believes that the deal is not done and convinces Barthélémy, who "owes him one", to keep watch over the ship. They eventually spot the ship's captain on his way to meet Charnier's lieutenant, whom Doyle recognizes. A tailing ensues taking the police to the drug warehouse, which they raid, but are met with a barrage of fire. Doyle picks up a gun and kills a gangster machine-gunning them. Charnier's lieutenant and other men escape with the drugs on board a van, but Barthélémy closes the warehouse door and stops them. But once again Charnier has escaped. Doyle, in a foot chase of Charnier, who is sailing out of the harbor on his yacht, catches up with the boat at the end of the pier, takes his gun out of his holster, calls Charnier's name, and in the last seconds of the movie shoots him dead.


title: French Connection II

text: I like the script, I like the characters, I like the Hackman character in France and not speaking a word of French. It's a very difficult film because we want in no way to rip off the first one, which is one of the best films I've ever seen. I want to make a movie that stands on its own as a movie.


title: French Connection II

text: Frankenheimer also admitted he made the film in part because of the financial failure of "The Impossible Object". "I want to make pictures that one sees", he said. "There's a great public out there and you have to reach them; otherwise you're not in the movie business."


title: French Connection II

text: The music was composed and conducted by Don Ellis, who returned from the original film. A soundtrack CD was released by "Film Score Monthly" in 2005 and paired with the music from the first film.


title: French Connection II

text: On release, "French Connection II" attracted positive reactions from the press and fared well at the box office, though nowhere near as well as its predecessor. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 84% based on 37 reviews, and a rating average of 6.7/10.


title: French Connection II

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film two and a half out of four stars, feeling that Doyle's heroin detox sequence halfway through the film, while well-acted by Hackman, stripped the film's momentum. He said that "if Frankenheimer and his screenplay don't do justice to the character (of Det. Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle), they at least do justice to the genre, and this is better than most of the many cop movies that followed "The French Connection" into release."


title: French Connection II

text: Vincent Canby wrote in his review in "The New York Times", "Popeye is a colorful and interesting — though hardly noble — character, and when the Marseille drug people kidnap him, forcibly create a heroin habit in him, and then release him, you have a very special kind of jeopardy that the film and Mr. Hackman exploit most effectively."


title: French Connection II

text: Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" called the film "an intelligent action melodrama" with a performance from Hackman that was so "excellent" as to "suggest the possibility of winning another major award for the same character in a sequel film."


title: French Connection II

text: Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" awarded three stars out of four and wrote, "Too many Popeye histrionics turns one of the screen's more compelling characters into a bit of a cartoon. And when Hackman is shot full of heroin by the Frenchman's thugs, once again the action is overplayed ... Despite these objections, 'French Connection II' concludes with a wallop that argues persuasively for its being seen."


title: French Connection II

text: Paul D. Zimmerman wrote in "Newsweek" that Doyle's drug addiction in the middle of the film "stalls the story" and that the action-packed climax "seems executed for those seeking the shoot-'em-up sequel that Frankenheimer apparently wanted to avoid. If the movie ultimately doesn't work, this can be said in Frankenheimer's defense: that, with every right and probably much pressure to do so, he refused to rip off 'The French Connection' as so many films with other names already had."


title: French Connection II

text: Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "'French Connection II' is an audience picture, bold and vigorous, opting for action rather than nuance. There is none of the lingering irony of 'French Connection I.' Vivid characterizations and plot are all, and they are whiz-bang."


title: French Connection II

text: Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote that "this is not a sequel that was really crying to be made ... John Frankenheimer's direction of 'French Connection II' isn't bad, but it also isn't ingenious or exciting enough to compensate for the perfunctory screenwriting."


title: French Connection II

text: "French Connection II" earned North American rentals of $5.6 million, surpassing its $4.3 million budget. On the DVD commentary of the film, lead actor Gene Hackman remarked that the disappointing box office may have been due to the four-year gap between releases of the original and its sequel.


title: The Bee Family

text: The Bee Family (formerly the Eh Bee Family) are Canadian internet personalities best known for their Vine, YouTube, and Instagram channels, which have over 9 million combined subscribers and well over 2 billion total views They are aged 44, 43, 17, and 16 years old. They create skits and parodies to entertain a family-centered audience. They are a family of four based in Thornhill, Ontario consisting of the father (Andrés Burgos, known as Papa Bee), the mother (Rossana Burgos, known as Mama Bee), their son (Roberto Burgos, known as Mr Monkey or Mr Bee), and their daughter (Gabriela Rossana Burgos, also known as Gabriela Bee or Miss Monkey).


title: The Bee Family

text: The Eh Bee Family first started posting vines in January 2013. They became popular on Vine and made it their career. Their social media accounts include Vine, YouTube, Instagram, and Facebook. They have also starred in sponsored advertisements for such companies as Johnson & Johnson, Toyota, and Regal Cinemas and have also been featured in the "New York Daily News", on BuzzFeed, "Good Morning America", Today.com, and other media outlets. The family's social media was nominated for a Streamy Award in 2015 and a Shorty Award in 2016. On February 17, 2018, Gabriela Bee released her song "Sound in Color". On September 1, 2018, Gabriela Bee released another song, "Something More".


title: The Bee Family

text: In April 2019, posted a cover version of the Beatles’ 1968 hit song "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da" on YouTube, appearing in the video as seven different musicians and performing all of the vocals by herself. By November 2021, the song had earned more than 29 million views.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: The Toy is a 1982 American comedy film directed by Richard Donner. The film stars Richard Pryor, Jackie Gleason, Ned Beatty, Scott Schwartz, Teresa Ganzel, and Virginia Capers. It is an adaptation of the 1976 French comedy film "Le Jouet".


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Jack Brown is a married, unemployed man in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, in danger of having his house repossessed. After numerous unsuccessful attempts to get a job working for the local paper, the "Bugle", he becomes so desperate that he ends up taking a job as a janitor for the wealthy and ruthless businessman U.S. Bates, who owns the paper, a department store and many other businesses. Brown is humiliated as he clumsily attempts to serve food at a luncheon. He is fired from that gig by Bates, but "Master" Eric Bates, the spoiled son of the boss, sees Jack while looking through Bates' department store. Amused at seeing Jack goof around in the store's toy section, Eric informs his father's long-suffering right-hand man, Sydney Morehouse, that what he wants is Jack himself.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Morehouse fails to convince Eric that human beings cannot be owned. In exchange for a generous financial settlement to stave off repossession, Jack agrees to be Eric's live-in friend during Eric's one-week spring break from military school.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Emotionally estranged from his father, Eric takes a liking to Jack but still manages to humiliate him with numerous pranks. After a particularly humiliating incident in the mansion incited by Bates' ditzy trophy wife Fancy, who introduces him at a dinner party as Eric's new "toy", Jack grows tired of the situation and leaves. He agrees to return only when Bates (with Morehouse as his proxy) offers Jack enough money to pay off the full mortgage.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Jack returns, determined to teach Eric how a friend is supposed to be treated. They bond while participating in mini-cart racing, video games, and fishing. The pair decide to start a newspaper of their own. After witnessing multiple examples of Bates' cruelty to his employees, they dig up dirt on him, such as a story of how he won his butler, Barkley, in a game of billiards. They publish their paper and distribute it throughout the city. When Morehouse finds a copy and presents it to his boss, Bates is outraged, but keeps his anger in check and calls Jack and Eric for a private meeting at his office.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: To prove to his son that money can buy loyalty, he offers Jack a reporting job with his newspaper in exchange for shutting their newspaper down, which is what Jack wanted all along. When he accepts, Eric is upset because he thinks Jack is selling out. Jack tells Eric that most men need jobs, just as his priority is to support himself and his wife.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: An outdoor party is later held at the Bates estate, attended by prominent citizens who are supporters of a senator. They are unaware that members of the KKK are also in attendance. Jack's wife, Angela, tries to bring attention to this with her anti-Klan group, but Jack convinces her to leave. He learns the true reason for the party is to get the KKK Grand Wizard and the senator together in a picture, which Bates would then use to blackmail the senator. Jack and Eric team up to disrupt the party, which is witnessed from afar by Angela and her group. Jack informs the senator of Bates' intentions and he leaves the party in outrage. Jack then proceeds to embarrass the Grand Wizard by causing him to fall into a bowl of chocolate fudge. The Grand Wizard throws a pie at Jack, but hits a policeman instead, leading to his arrest. Bates chases after Jack in a golf cart but ends up crashing into the pool. Jack saves him from drowning and Bates thanks him. Bates says Jack's "toy" job is over and he may go home.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: The next day, while driving Eric to the airport to return to military school, Bates tries desperately to have a heart-to-heart talk. Eric runs off to Jack's house. Jack refuses to let Eric live with him and gently admonishes the boy to give his father a chance. Bates arrives and confesses to his son how much he truly does love him and Eric finally accepts it and the two embrace. As he and Eric depart for the airport, Bates says his offer for the newspaper job stands and promises Eric that next year he will have two weeks of spring vacation: one with Jack and one with himself, much to Eric's joy.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: The film was made by Rastar, the company of Ray Stark, then under head of production Guy McElwaine. McElwaine had been an agent – his clients included Pryor – before being enticed over to Rastar.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: In his autobiography "Pryor Convictions", Pryor wrote that he and Gleason got along like "kindred souls". He stated the stories Gleason told between setups were funnier than the film itself. Moreover, in a 1982 Los Angeles Times interview Pryor said "I'd loved Jackie Gleason for years." A national talent search was held to find the actor who played Gleason's son.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Pryor cast Annazette Chase to portray Angela after they worked together in "The Mack" (1973). The film was shot on locations in Baton Rouge, Louisiana during the summer of 1982.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: In May, during filming, Pryor was hospitalised with pneumonia. He was released after a week and resumed filming. Donner blamed this on the air pollution in Baton Rouge which he said was the worst he had ever experienced. The director said he would "never" work in the city again.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Michael Jackson attempted to write a theme song for the film and a possible soundtrack in 1981, but did not complete it due to his commitments working on the "Thriller" album. Jackson would continue to rework the track throughout his career, renaming it "I Am Your Joy", and eventually, "Best Of Joy". A version recorded in 2008 was remixed by Theron "Neff-U" Feemster and Brad Buxer, being released posthumously on the "Michael" album in 2010.


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Veber said he thought the film "could be very funny... The fact that Richard Pryor as the journalist is black could make it even more amusing for the boy has the 'toy' giftwrapped. Pryor in a box could be very funny."


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: "The Toy" was panned by critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 3% based on reviews from 30 critics, with the consensus reading: "A muddled and unfunny collision of two comedic titans, "The Toy" is unsuitable for children -- or anyone else seeking entertainment." Metacritic gave the film a score of 16 based on 8 reviews, indicating an "overwhelming dislike".


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: Vincent Canby gave the film a bad review, stating "My mind wasn't simply wandering during the film—it was ricocheting between the screen and the exit sign."


title: The Toy (1982 film)

text: The film opened in the United States the same weekend as "" and "48 Hrs." and finished at number one for the weekend with a gross of $6,322,804 from 1,381 screens. The film grossed $47,118,057 in the United States and Canada.


title: Lemon Party

text: The Lemon Party of Canada () was a frivolous Canadian political party which has operated on a federal level, and provincially in Quebec. The party was registered on January 8, 1987 by then-leader Denis R. Patenaude, and deregistered on November 14, 1998 for failing to have at least ten candidates stand for election. The party was headed by "Pope Terence the First", whose existence is unconfirmed. Their official agent is Mary-Gabrielle Blay II.


title: Lemon Party

text: Its 2004 national convention produced a platform of policies which were "placed in small green plastic boxes and sold to industrial pig farms in Mexico", according to a large party spokeswoman. The subsequent electoral campaign, under the slogan "For a bitter Canada", received minor, but sympathetic, media coverage. Its last press release was published online five days prior to the 2006 Canadian elections, ridiculing both Liberal Paul Martin and Conservative Stephen Harper. The Lemon Party prided itself on its record on fiscal discipline and in pushing for economic growth. Its economic plan was allegedly authored by Montreal economist Ianik Marcil.


title: Lemon Party

text: The Lemon Party has not been registered as a political party since the early 1990s, when it was registered only in Quebec.


title: Igboland

text: Igboland (Standard ), also known as Southeastern Nigeria (but extends into South-Southern Nigeria), is the indigenous homeland of the Igbo people.


title: Igboland

text: It is a cultural and common linguistic region in southern Nigeria. Geographically, it is divided by the lower Niger River into two sections: an eastern (the larger of the two) and a western one. Its population is characterised by the diverse Igbo culture and the speakers of equally diverse Igbo languages.<ref name="https://books.google.com"></ref>


title: Igboland

text: Politically, Igboland is divided into several southern Nigerian states; culturally, it has included several subgroupings, including the Anioma, the Ngwa, the Aro, the Ezza, the Ibeku, the Ohuhu, the Oboro, the Ikwerre, the Ogba, the Omuma, the Ohafia, the Oyigbo, the Mbaise, the Isu and the Ekpeye.


title: Igboland

text: Igboland is surrounded on all sides by large rivers, and other southern and central Nigeria indigenous tribes, namely Igala, Tiv, Yako, Idoma and Ibibio. In the words of William B. Baikie,


title: Igboland

text: "Igbo settlement, extends east and west in the Niger-Delta region which is owned by the Middle-Belt, formerly known as Bendel, from the Old Kalabar river to the banks of the Kwora, Niger River, and live in some territory at Aboh, an Igbo clan, to the west-ward of the latter stream. On the north it borders on Igara, Igala and A'kpoto, and it is separated from the sea only by petty tribes, all of which trace their origin to this great race".


title: Igboland

text: It is primarily situated in the Lowland forest region of Nigeria, They can also be found in some parts of the Niger-Delta. Here the Niger river fans out into the Atlantic Ocean in a vast network of creeks and mangrove swamps on the Bight of Bonny.


title: Igboland

text: The earliest found settlements in Igboland date to 900 BC in the central area, from where the majority of the Igbo-speaking population is believed to have migrated. The northern Igbo Kingdom of Nri, which rose around the 10th century AD, is credited with the foundation of much of Igboland's culture, customs, and religious practices. It is the oldest existing monarchy in present-day Nigeria. In southern Igboland several groups developed, of which the most notable was the Aro Confederacy.


title: Igboland

text: During the late 19th century, Igboland was made part of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate of the British Empire and was amalgamated into modern-day Nigeria in 1914. Nigeria gained independence in 1960. Shortly afterward, Igboland was involved in its biggest war during Biafra's movement for secession. It ended in 1970, when Nigerian government forces prevailed in the conflict.


title: Igboland

text: Historically, Igboland has taken up a large part of southeastern Nigeria, mostly on the eastern side of the Niger River. Their territory extends westward across the Niger to the regions of Aniocha, Ndokwa, Ukwuani, and Ika in present-day Delta State. Its eastern side is terminated by the Cross River, although micro-communities exist over on the other side of the river; its northernmost point enters the Savannah climate around Nsukka.


title: Igboland

text: In Nigeria today, Igboland is roughly made up of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo, Northern Delta and Rivers states. More than 30 million people inhabit Igboland and with a population density ranging from it could be the most densely populated area in Africa after the Nile Valley. Altogether Igboland has an area of some .


title: Igboland

text: Igboland's culture has been shaped by its rainforest climate, its ancient trade along the rivers, migration, and social history within its various clans and peoples. It has been influenced by its ancient trading neighbours, allies, and more recently by relations with Europeans.


title: Igboland

text: Mid-nineteenth century trader W. B. Baikie said, "I seized the moment, and, by our interpreter, told Tshukuma, that we had come to make his acquaintance and his friendship, and to ascertain if the people were willing to trade with us." He signed a trade agreement with Igbo chief, Tshukuma (Chukwuma) Obi from Aboh clan, one of the leading Igbo clans, which engaged in early active trading with Europe. Similarly, Baikie recounted that "after our salutations, I spoke of friendship, of trade, and of education, and particularly enlarged upon the evils of war, and the benefits of peace, all of which was well received", when signing a trade agreement on August 30, 1885 with Ezebogo, an Igbo chief in Asaba.


title: Igboland

text: Due to the native common linguistic standard and interrelated cultures in Igboland, the lower Niger River, which divides Igboland into unequal eastern and western parts, has from ancient times provided easy means of communication, trading and unity amongst the Igbo on both sides of the river. It also enabled ancient trade and migration of people into Igboland, and between Igboland and rest of the world. Some of the notable ancient trade and export routes in Igboland included the famous lower Niger and Njaba-Oguta lake-Orashi navigational routes via Asaba-Onitsha-Aboh, and Awo-omamma-Oguta-Ogba–Egbema–Ndoni-Aboh ferry services, respectively.


title: Igboland

text: There is evidence of Late Stone Age (late Paleolithic) human presence from at least 10,000 years ago. Early settlement of Igboland is dated to 6000 BC based on pottery found in the Okigwe, Oka Igwe, and known today as Awka. In 1978 a team led by Thurstan Shaw, with the University of Nigeria at Nsukka, excavated a rock quarry. They found that it was a mine for tool and pottery making for a 'stone civilisation' nearby at Ibagwa. Anthropologists at the University of Benin have discovered fossils and use of monoliths dating to 4500 BC at Ngodo in the Uturu town. Further evidence of ancient settlements were uncovered at what researchers believe may be an Nsukka metal cultural area from 3000 BC, and later settlements attributed to Ngwa culture at AD 8-18. It is unclear what cultural links there are between these pre-historic artefacts and the people of the region today. Later human settlement in the region may have links with other discoveries made in the wider area, particularly with the culture associated with the terracotta discoveries at Nok, which spanned a wide area of present-day north-central Nigeria.


title: Igboland

text: Some local villagers retain what they believe are original names of settlements, such as Umuzuoka, The Blacksmiths Ụzụoka, Ọkigwe, Ịmọka, etc.


title: Igboland

text: The Nsukka-Okigwe axis forms a basis for a proposed Proto-Igbo cultural heartland antecedent to contemporary Igbo culture. Much of the Igbo population is believed to have expanded from a smaller area within in this region, diverging into several independent Igbo-speaking tribes, village-groups, kingdoms and states. The movements were generally broken into two trends in migration: a more northerly group that expanded towards the banks of the Niger and the upper quadrant of the Cross River; the other, following a southerly trail, had risen from the Isu populations based closer to the axis from which the majority of southern Igbo communities emerged. Mbaise are notably the best examples of an Igbo group claiming autochthony; they reject theories of many migratory histories about their origins. Based on the proximity of traditions to those of their neighbours, and familial and political ties, many of these groups are apparently culturally northern or southern Igbo.


title: Igboland

text: The first Igbo Ukwu metal and precious artefacts finds were made accidentally in 1939, when a resident named Isiah Anozie found them in the process of digging a cistern. This led to the discovery of a larger network of linked metal works from the 9th century. The works were based in Igbo Ukwu. Further finds were made found by archaeology teams led by Thurstan Shaw in 1959–60, and in 1964 in the compound of Jonah Anozie.


title: Igboland

text: Initially, throughout the 1960s and 1970s, scholars believed that the Igbo Ukwu bronze and copper items found here had been made elsewhere and were trade goods, or were influenced by outside technology due to their technical sophistication. The opposite was revealed to be true: local copper deposits had been exploited by the 9th century and anthropological evidence, such as the Ichi-like scarifications on the human figures, show the items were of local Igbo cultural origin. The works have since been attributed to an isolated bronze industry, which had developed without outside influence over time and reached great sophistication.


title: Igboland

text: Igbo trade routes of the early second millennium reached the cities of Mecca, Medina and Jeddah through a network of trade routes journeyed by middlemen. Beads that originated in India in the 9th century have been found in Igbo Ukwu burial sites: Thousands of glass beads were uncovered from the ruined remains of a nobleman's garments. The burial site was associated with the Nri Kingdom, which began around the same century, according to indigenous history.


title: Igboland

text: The northern Igbo Kingdom of Nri, rising around the 10th century based on Umunri traditions, is credited with the foundation of much of Igboland's culture, customs, and religious practices. It is the oldest existing monarchy in present-day Nigeria. It was around the mid-10th century that the divine figure Eri is said to have migrated, according to Umunri lore, to the Anambra () river basin — specifically at its meeting with Ezu river known as Ezu na Omambara in present-day Aguleri. The exact origins of Eri are unknown and much of Nri traditions present him as a divine leader and civiliser sent from heaven to begin civilisation. In contrast, Eri's origins generally suggest a north easterly origin which has sparked up debate pertaining to a possible Igala (not a fact) origin for Eri.


title: Igboland

text: Due to historic trade and migration of old, other people also entered the Igboland in about the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries and mixed with the natives. Towards the western end of Igboland, across the Niger River, rose a man known as Eze Chima who fled Benin with his accomplices after a dispute with the Oba of Benin who consequently exiled him in the 1560s. As they left Benin City heading eastwards, Eze Chima and his followers settled in a number of lands and established monarchies with the natives in those areas. Other accounts point to Eze Chima coming from Ife as a result of Ekaladeran, an Bini prince who migrated to Ife from Bini and usurped the original Igbo rulers. . Ife was originally inhabited by Igbos prior to 1300. Those grew into major village groups and towns after the 16th century. Collectively, these places are known as Umuezechima which translates as 'the children or descendants of king Chima'.


title: Igboland

text: Igboland was historically known as the "Ibo(e)", "Ebo(e)", and "Ibwo Country" by early European explorers. Igboland was conquered by the British Empire after several decades of resistance on all fronts; some of the most famous of the resistance include the Ekumeku Movement, the Anglo-Aro War, and the Aba Women's Riots which was contributed to by women of different ethnic backgrounds in eastern Nigeria.


title: Igboland

text: A number of polities rose either directly or indirectly as a result of Nri; the most powerful kingdom of these was the Aro Confederacy which rose in the Cross River region in the 17th century and declined after British colonisation in the early 20th century. The Aro state centred on Arochukwu followed Nri's steady decline, basing much of its economic activities on the rising trade in slaves to Europeans by coastal African middlemen.


title: Igboland

text: The present site of Arochukwu was originally settled by the Ibibio people under the Obong Okon Ita kingdom before the conquest of what became Obinkita in the 17th century by two main Igbo groups: the Eze Agwu clan and the Oke Nnachi assisted by the Ibom Isi (or Akpa) mercenaries under the leadership of the Nnubi dynasty. Led by Agwu Inobia, a descendant of Nna Uru from Abiriba, the Eze Agwu clan was centered at their capital Amanagwu and were resisted by Obong Okon Ita which led to the start of the Aro-Ibibio Wars.


title: Igboland

text: The war initially became a stalemate. Both sides arranged a marriage between the king of Obong Okon Ita and a woman from Amanagwu. The marriage eventually failed to bring peace but played a decisive role in the war. Oke Nnachi was led by Nnachi Ipia who was a "dibia" or priest among the Edda people and was called by Agwu Inobia to help in the war against the Ibibio. These groups were followed by a third non-Igbo Ekoi-cultured group, Akpa or Ibom Oburutu who were led by Akuma Nnaubi, the first Eze Aro, the title of the king of the Aro.


title: Igboland

text: In southern Igboland several groups developed mostly independent of Nri influence. Most of these groups followed a migration out of Isu communities in present-day Imo State, although some communities, such as the Mbaise cluster of village groups, claim to be autochthonous.


title: Igboland

text: Following the British parliament's abolition of the slave trade in 1807, the British Royal Navy had opened up trade with coastal towns Bonny and Opobo and further inland on the Niger with Asaba in the 1870s. The palm oil industry, the biggest export, grew large and important to the British who traded here. British arrival and trade led to increased encounters between the Igbo and other polities and ethnic groups around the Niger River and led to a deepening sense of a distinct Igbo ethnic identity. Missionaries had started arriving in the 1850s. The Igbo, at first wary of the religion, started to embrace Christianity and Western education as traditional society broke down. Christianity had played a great part in the introduction of European ideology into Igbo society and culture often time through erasure of cultural practice; adherents to the denominations were often barred in partaking in ancient rites and traditions, and joining fraternities and secret societies were forbidden as the church grew stronger.


title: Igboland

text: Due to the incompatibility of the Igbo decentralized style of government and the centralized system required for British indirect rule, British colonial rule was marked with open conflicts and much tension. Under British colonial rule, the diversity within each of Nigeria's major ethnic groups slowly decreased and distinctions between the Igbo and other large ethnic groups, such as the Hausa and the Yoruba, became sharper. British rule brought about changes in culture such as the introduction of warrant chiefs as Eze (traditional rulers) where there were no such monarchies.


title: Igboland

text: Following the independence of Nigeria from the United Kingdom in 1960, most of Igboland was included in its Eastern Region.


title: Igboland

text: Following a coup in 1966 which saw mostly Igbo soldiers assassinating politicians from the western and northern regions of Nigeria, Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi seized control of Lagos, the capital, and came into power as military head of state of Nigeria. In revolt and retaliation against the government General Aguiyi-Ironsi was ambushed and assassinated by Northern members of the military on 29 July 1966 in a revolt against that had strong ethnic overtones. Ironsi's assassination stood out more because of the method of his killers; Ironsi had his legs tied to the back of a Land Rover and was driven around town while still attached. The Eastern Region formed the core of the secessionist Republic of Biafra. A regional council of the peoples of Eastern Nigeria decided the region should secede as the Republic of Biafra on May 30, 1967.


title: Igboland

text: Nigerian General Emeka Odumegwu-Ojukwu on this day made a declaration of independence of Biafra from Nigeria and became the head of state of the new republic. The Nigerian Civil War (or the "Nigerian-Biafran War") lasted from 6 July 1967 until 15 January 1970, after which Biafra once again became part of Nigeria. The Republic of Biafra was defeated after three years of war by the federal government of Nigeria from 1967 to 1970 with military support from the United Kingdom (strategy and ammunition), Soviet Union (ammunition), the United Arab Republic (air force), as well as with support from other states around the world. The effects of Nigerian war strategies such as starvation on Biafran civilians (most of whom were ethnic Igbo) remains a controversial topic. The movement for the sovereignty of Biafra has continued with a minority, most making up the MASSOB organisation.


title: Shear force

text: In solid mechanics, shearing forces are unaligned forces acting on one part of a body in a specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are collinear (aligned with each other), they are called tension forces and compression forces. William A. Nash defines shear force in terms of planes: "If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called a "shear force" or "shearing force"."


title: Shear force

text: This section calculates the force required to cut a piece of material with a shearing action. The relevant information is the area of the material being sheared, ie the area across which the shearing action takes place, and the shear strength of the material. A round bar of steel is used as an example. The shear strength is calculated from the tensile strength using a factor which relates the two strengths. In this case 0.6 applies to the example steel, known as EN8 bright, although it can vary from 0.58–0.62 depending on application.


title: Shear force

text: EN8 bright has a tensile strength of 800MPa and mild steel, for comparison, has a tensile strength of 400MPa.


title: Shear force

text: When working with a riveted or tensioned bolted joint, the strength comes from friction between the materials bolted together. Bolts are correctly torqued to maintain the friction. The shear force only becomes relevant when the bolts are not torqued.


title: Shear force

text: A bolt with property class 12.9 has a tensile strength of 1200MPa (1MPa = 1N/mm) or 1.2kN/mm and the yield strength is 0.90 times tensile strength, 1080MPa in this case.


title: Shear force

text: A bolt with property class 4.6 has a tensile strength of 400MPa (1MPa = 1N/mm) or 0.4 kN/mm and yield strength is 0.60 times tensile strength, 240MPa in this case.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The Communist Party of Spain (; PCE) is a Marxist-Leninist party that, since 1986, has been part of the United Left coalition, which is part of Unidas Podemos. It currently has two of its politicians serving as government ministers in the Spanish government, in the roles of Minister of Labour and Social Economy and Minister of Consumer Affairs respectively.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The PCE was founded by 1921, after a split in the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (; PSOE). The PCE was founded by those who opposed the social democratic wing of the PSOE, because the social democrat wing did not support the PSOE's integration in the Communist International founded by Vladimir Lenin two years prior. The PCE was a merger of the Spanish Communist Party () and the Spanish Communist Workers' Party (). The PCE was first legalized after the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in April 1931. The republic was the first democratic regime in the history of Spain. The PCE gained much support in the months before the Spanish coup of July 1936, which marked the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, and it was a major force during the war as well. The Republicans lost, and Franco established a military dictatorship, under which the PCE was one of the most heavily repressed parties, with specific laws banning communist parties, among others.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Under the dictatorship, the PCE was the main opposition to the Francoist dictatorship. In the early years of the dictatorship, many PCE members joined the Spanish Maquis, a group of guerrillas who fought against the regime. Years later, the Maquis' power declined, and the PCE abandoned the military strategy. Instead, it chose to interfere in the only legal syndicate (which was part of the Francoist apparatus), the Vertical Syndicate.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Franco died on 20 November 1975, and two days later, Juan Carlos I was crowned. Juan Carlos I would lead the Spanish transition to democracy, a time when the PCE became also extremely relevant, due to Franco's anti-communist legacy. Prime Minister Adolfo Suárez legalized the PCE on 9 April 1977, a decision which was particularly controversial, but ended peacefully. The PCE largely contributed to the restoration of democracy in Spain during the lead of Secretary-General Santiago Carrillo.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Since 1986, it is part of the United Left coalition. In its statutes, the PCE defines its goals as "democratically participate in a revolutionary transformation of society and its political structures, overcoming the capitalist system and constructing socialism in the Spanish State, as a contribution to the transition to socialism worldwide, with our goals set in the realization of the emancipating ideal of communism". It defines itself as revolutionary, internationalist, solidarity, republican, feminist, and secularist, specifically, of the laïcité variety.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The youth organization of PCE is the Communist Youth Union of Spain. PCE publishes "Mundo Obrero" (Workers World) monthly.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The PCE was the result of a merger between two organizations: the original Spanish Communist Party ("Partido Comunista Español" or PCE) and the Spanish Communist Workers' Party ("Partido Comunista Obrero Español" or PCOE). The former was created in April 1920 from portions of the Socialists' youth organization ("Federación de Juventudes Socialistas" or FJS) while the latter had been formed from a union of dissident Socialists ("terceristas") and members of the General Union of Workers ("Unión General de Trabajadores" or UGT) who regarded the original PCE as not properly representative of the working class.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The two parties joined in the new Partido Comunista de España on 14 November 1921. The unified PCE became a member of the Third International and held its first congress in Sevilla in March 1922. In May, Jules Humbert-Droz, the top Comintern official in Western Europe, arrived in Spain to supervise the still fractious party and would continue to do so until the establishment of the republic.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: By the end of 1922, the party had approximately 5,000 members. The PCE's left-wing engaged in political violence, especially in Bilbao, largely directed against other leftists. A party leader's bodyguard shot and killed a Socialist in November 1922 and organized party militants attempted a general strike in August 1923 that ended in a shootout at the barricaded party headquarters, resulting in twenty communists dead or injured and another seventy arrested.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: With the advent of the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera in September 1923, political parties, including the PCE, were repressed and rendered largely powerless though not dissolved. The party continued to publish its weekly newspaper "La Antorcha" until 1927. In November 1925, PCE leaders joined with Comintern officials and leaders of the Catalan-separatist Estat Català in endorsing a revolutionary program calling for the following:


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: However, Moscow urged a cautious approach, and the CNT and Basque nationalists were reluctant to cooperate with communists, so the plans were never carried out. The PCE continued to suffer from repression and dissension. The party's second secretary general, José Bullejos, purged the party of politically suspect members, and was himself arrested in 1928. In 1930, the arguments over doctrine led the Catalan-Balearic Communist Federation (FCCB) to break from the party and associate with the International Right Opposition. Amid this infighting, Comintern official Dmitry Manuilsky reportedly stated that, while Spain had "an excellent proletariat", it had only "a few little groups, but not a communist party".


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Thus, the PCE was in a very debilitated state when the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed in 1931. On 3 December 1933 the first PCE parliamentarian, Cayetano Bolívar Escribano, was elected. Bolívar was jailed at the time of elections and left imprisonment to occupy his post in the parliament.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: PCE was a small party during the initial years of the Republic, until it began to grow due to the victory of the Popular Front (of which the Communists had been a constituent part) in February 1936 and the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in July of that year. The PCE, directed by José Díaz and Dolores Ibárruri (known popularly as "La Pasionaria"), worked consistently for the victory of the Republican forces and the Popular Front government, but was wary of the social revolution that was being waged by Spanish workers.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The PCE leadership judged that while progressive laws could be passed, an attempt at a full-scale socialist revolution would needlessly divide the forces of the Republic. It would cause massive conflict behind republican lines, thus diverting military forces from the battle against Franco and driving many democratic republicans who were prepared to fight against the rebels into the arms of the rebels.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Being a well-knit and highly disciplined organization, the PCE could in spite of its numerical weakness play an important part in the war. In the first five months of the war, PCE grew from 30,000 members to 100,000. It also founded a Spanish branch of the International Red Aid, which assisted the Republican cause considerably.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: In 1936, due to the special political situation in Catalonia, Partit Comunista de Catalunya (the Catalan branch of PCE) was separated from the party to fuse with other socialists to form Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya. Since then the PCE does not have an organization in Catalonia, but relies on a regional referent party. This set-up has been imitated by many of the communist splinter groups in Spain.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: After the Republican defeat in April 1939, the PCE was persecuted by the Nationales of caudillo Francisco Franco (1939–1975), although maintained the best organization among the opposition parties inside Spain. During the initial years of the Francoist State, PCE organized guerrilla struggles in some parts of the country.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: From the signing of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact to the German assault on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, Spanish communists pursued neutralist policies with regards to Germany's aggression against Poland and France, regarding the war as imperialist and unjust. Much like the identical positions of other Moscow-directed Stalinist parties, this position was changed immediately after Germany invaded the Soviet Union.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: A large part of the party membership was forced into exile. Some PCE members went to the Soviet Union and fought as volunteers for the Red Army during the Second World War, such as General Enrique Líster. A large section of PCE members were based in France, were a major party organization was set up. During the later half of the Franco years, PCE changed its strategy and started organizing Workers' Commissions (CC.OO.) within the official trade union apparatus. CC.OO. and PCE gained strength and became the backbone of the opposition forces in the country.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Dolores Ibárruri, "La Pasionaria", a dedicated follower of consequent Comintern policies, replaced Jose Diaz as General Secretary in 1944, and held the position until 1960. Santiago Carrillo was General Secretary from 1960 to 1982. In 1963, after the Communist Party of Spain abandoned the armed struggle, hard-line Communists, led by Julio Álvarez del Vayo, founded the Spanish National Liberation Front (FELN), a small splinter group.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Carrillo put the party on a eurocommunist course, distancing it from its Leninist origins. Carrillo accepted concessions to the "bourgeoisie", accepting the restoration of a liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. This was regarded by many Party members as treason, for these concessions were made to classes the Party's doctrine called "exploiters".


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: The Party was legalized after the January 1977 Atocha massacre, on 9 April 1977, as one of the last steps in the Spanish transition to democracy. Only weeks after the legalization, PCE had over 200,000 card-holding members. But the concessions made by Carrillo (labelled "revisionist" by his orthodox communist opponents) and the social democratization of the party under his leadership provoked dissent amongst party ranks. Several party members left the party. Enrique Líster broke away in 1973 and formed the Partido Comunista Obrero Español. Other more radical left-wing groups that broke away were Partido Comunista de los Trabajadores (formed by the Left Opposition of PCE in 1977) and PCE (VIII-IX Congresos) (formed in 1971).


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: In the first elections after the transition in 1977, the PCE obtained 9% of the votes, and in 1979 it increased its vote share to 11%. By this time, however, the party had become increasingly divided into three currents. Carrillo's supporters were squeezed between, on the one hand, pro-soviet communists who had remained within the party and felt his Eurocommunist course took the party too far on a social democratic path and, on the other hand, "renovators" who advocated for democratizing the party and opening it up towards more collaboration with other groups on the left. In the midst of successive waves of expulsions of members who belonged to the minority currents, the PCE suffered an electoral defeat in 1982, getting just 4% of the vote.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: After the 1982 elections, Carrillo was removed as general secretary, and the new party leader Gerardo Iglesias pursued a strategy of leftist convergence and collaboration with non-communist parties and social movements. Over the objections of Carrillo, who was expelled in 1985 and went on to found a new party and warn that supporting IU was tantamount to "burying communism", the PCE developed the "United Left" alliance Izquierda Unida (IU). This broad coalition initially encompassed parties ranging from the pro-Soviet PCPE to the socialist PASOC, the Progressive Federation, and the Carlist Party.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Despite its role in the anti-NATO protests of 1986, IU fared weakly in the 1986 elections, and by 1988, the Communist Party elected Julio Anguita as new General Secretary, which he remained until 1998. Under Anguita, the party took a turn towards the left and fundamental opposition to both PSOE and PP, and many of the members who had previously been expelled for pro-Soviet views returned to the party. By 1991, the party had 70,000 members, and IU rebounded in the 1989 elections, winning 9.1% of the vote that year and slightly increasing it to 9.6% in 1993 and 10.5% in 1996.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: Notably, PSUC, the Catalan referent of PCE, did not reverse its eurocommunist course in the late 1980s, as the PCE had done, and gradually, PSUC and PCE grew apart. Finally, PSUC decided to dissolve itself into Iniciativa per Catalunya, and cease to function as a communist party. This provoked a 45% minority to break-away and form PSUC viu (Living PSUC). Since 1998, PSUC viu (United and Alternative Left) is the referent of PCE in Catalonia.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: After Anguita's retirement, and succession by Francisco Frutos, the PCE again modified its course. Frutos led IU into the election of 2000, after signing an electoral pact with PSOE, only to see the IU vote halved to 4%. He was then himself defeated when running to become the new IU coordinator by Gaspar Llamazares, who pursued a course of further rapprochement with PSOE. Tensions within IU grew when Llamazares was re-elected as IU coordinator in 2004 with a plurality of the vote against the candidate who was supported by the PCE leadership, Enrique Santiago. He again defeated a PCE candidate in an IU leadership primary in 2007. The alliance suffered more disappointing election results (4-5% in 2004 and 2008). By 2009, PCE membership was down to 20,000.


title: Communist Party of Spain

text: After the 2008 election, Llamazares resigned as IU coordinator, and later that year, PCE politician Cayo Lara was elected to replace him on the platform "For an anti-capitalist, republican, federal, and alternative United Left". IU shifted back towards a more confrontational attitude towards the PSOE, and José Luis Centella succeeded Frutos as PCE general secretary the next year. For the 2015 elections, IU joined up with further partners in the Popular Unity (UP) alliance, led by PCE politician Alberto Garzón. It received 4% of the vote, and was eclipsed by the new left-wing party Podemos. UP subsequently joined with Podemos in the Unidos Podemos alliance, which received 21% of the vote in the 2016 election. The PCE, meanwhile, moved in its XX Congress in 2017 to explicitly embrace Marxism–Leninism again, marking a break with the previous forty years.


title: South African Standard Time

text: South African Standard Time (SAST) is the time zone used by all of South Africa as well as Eswatini and Lesotho. The zone is two hours ahead of UTC () and is the same as Central Africa Time. Daylight saving time is not observed in either time zone. Solar noon in this time zone occurs at 30° E in SAST, effectively making Pietermaritzburg at the correct solar noon point, with Johannesburg and Pretoria slightly west at 28° E and Durban slightly east at 31° E. Thus, most of South Africa's population experience true solar noon at approximately 12:00 daily.


title: South African Standard Time

text: The western Northern Cape and Western Cape differ, however. Everywhere on land west of 22°30′ E effectively experiences year-round daylight saving time because of its location in true but still being in South African Standard Time. Sunrise and sunset are thus relatively late in Cape Town, compared to the rest of the country.


title: South African Standard Time

text: The South African National Time Standard, or 'SA Time' Master Clock, is maintained at the Time and Frequency Laboratory of the National Metrology Institute of South Africa (NMISA) at Pretoria and is distributed publicly by an NTP Internet Time service.


title: South African Standard Time

text: Before 8 February 1892, there was no uniformity of time in South Africa and local mean time was in use at the various towns. In 1892, a railway conference was held in Bloemfontein and discussed difficulty of working a railway system, in the absence of a uniform time system. The governments of the Orange Free State, Transvaal and the Cape Colony officially adopted a uniform standard time of which was defined as mean time 22.5° east of Greenwich. On 1 March 1903 was adopted, which became the current when UTC replaced GMT for most purposes.


title: South African Standard Time

text: Prior to 1 March 1903, the Colony of Natal was already using a uniform time supplied by the Natal Observatory. The observatory's local mean time was ().


title: South African Standard Time

text: South Africa observed a daylight saving time of GMT+03:00 () between 20 September 1942 to 21 March 1943 and 19 September 1943 to 19 March 1944.


title: South African Standard Time

text: South African Standard Time is defined as "Coordinated Universal Time plus two hours" () as defined in South African National Government Gazette No. 40125 of 8 July 2016.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: DaMarcus Lamont Beasley (; born May 24, 1982) is an American former professional soccer player. A left-footed player, Beasley played both as a left winger and left wingback throughout his career. He retired from soccer after the 2019 MLS Season.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: After starring at the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship, Beasley emerged as a star with the Chicago Fire before making a move to Dutch club PSV Eindhoven in 2004. He later spent time in the Premier League with Manchester City, in the Scottish Premier League for Rangers and in the Bundesliga for Hannover 96. He finished his career with spells with Puebla and Houston Dynamo.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley is the only U.S. man to play in four FIFA World Cups, his first in 2002 and his latest in 2014, earning 126 caps during his 16-year international career.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Born in Fort Wayne, Indiana, Beasley joined IMG Academy, the United States Soccer Federation's Residency program in Bradenton, Florida. Before moving to Florida, Beasley played at South Side High School for two years. Beasley starred in the 1999 Under-17 World Cup in New Zealand, winning the Silver Ball as the tournament's second best player, behind teammate Landon Donovan.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley signed with MLS on March 16, 1999, and was allocated to the LA Galaxy. However, before making any appearances with LA, he was traded in February 2000 to the Chicago Fire in exchange for first-round picks in the 2000 MLS SuperDraft and 2001 MLS SuperDraft. He would excel with Chicago, scoring 14 goals and recording 20 assists over 4.5 seasons while being named to the league Best XI in 2003. He was close to signing for Southampton FC in 2004, but MLS rejected the offer much to Beasley's displeasure.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: His stay with the Fire ended on July 19, 2004 when Dutch giants PSV Eindhoven agreed on a transfer fee with MLS worth $2.5 million. He signed a four-year contract.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: PSV manager Guus Hiddink brought Beasley in as the successor to Arjen Robben (who went to Chelsea), and because of that, Beasley was granted the number 11 jersey. In his first season in the Eredivisie, Beasley played 29 games, scored 6 goals in 34 domestic games of the Dutch season and helped PSV win their 18th league title. On May 28, 2005, PSV advanced to the final of the 2004–05 KNVB Cup by defeating Feyenoord in a penalty shootout after Beasley's goal in the final minute of regulation tied the match.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: In addition to making an impact on the domestic level, Beasley became the first American to play in the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League, against Milan. In the first leg, PSV lost 2–0 at the San Siro, while in the second leg, PSV won 3–1 at Philips Stadion, though they were eliminated based on the away goals rule. Despite the loss, Beasley was an important player, leading his team with 4 goals in 12 Champions League matches.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: DaMarcus was fined €1,500 ($1,852) for driving under the influence of alcohol as a result of an incident on January 16, 2006. His Dutch driving privileges were suspended for the next three months, followed by a three-month probationary period.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: After a disappointing individual season for Beasley in which PSV won their 19th championship, on August 31, 2006, he joined English Premier League side Manchester City on a season-long loan fulfilling his ambition to play in England. However, his first few weeks with City were troubled by injury, limiting his ability to play. On December 30, Beasley scored his first goal for City, a match-winner in the 83rd minute against West Ham United. He went on to score three times more before returning to PSV after making 22 appearances in total.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Scottish Premier League club Rangers signed Beasley for £700,000 in June 2007. He became the second American to play for the Rangers' first team, after Claudio Reyna. On August 4, 2007, Beasley made his Rangers debut, playing a full 90 minutes in a 3–0 win against Inverness Caledonian Thistle. Beasley scored his first goal for the club against FK Zeta in a Champions League qualifier on August 7, 2007, becoming the first American to score for two clubs in the competition. During the match, Beasley was subjected to racial taunting by Zeta fans, along with fellow black teammate, Jean-Claude Darcheville. He urged UEFA and FIFA to do something about the chants, which prompted an investigation intended to crack down on the crowds at soccer matches. Beasley scored his first Scottish Premier League goal in Rangers' 2–1 win over Kilmarnock on August 25, 2007.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On October 2, 2007, Beasley was influential in Rangers 3–0 win against Lyon in the Champions League group stage. He was involved in all three Rangers goals in a victory for the Scottish side. His inswinging corner was headed in by Lee McCulloch to give Rangers a 1–0 advantage. Beasley's wide pass to Alan Hutton allowed him to spring free and set up Daniel Cousin for the second. Finally, Beasley took a 50-meter aerial pass from Cousin while on the run, controlled, and finished. Beasley was named Man of the Match.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: During a Champions League match against VfB Stuttgart, Beasley was hurt in a collision with goalkeeper Raphael Schäfer. This left him unable to complete the match and he was substituted. The true extent of the injury meant that he was expected to miss the rest of the Scottish Premier League season. However, Beasley was named in the Rangers squad for the match against Dundee United on May 10. He made his return on May 19 against St Mirren. His first start for Rangers after his injury came in the Scottish Cup final against Queen of the South; he notched a goal and an assist in the 3–2 victory.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On August 23, 2008, in a Scottish Premier League match against Aberdeen at Pittodrie Stadium, Beasley looked to have scored his first goal of the campaign, though the goal was wrongly ruled out for offside. Beasley helped Rangers win the SPL title for 2008–09, being awarded a championship medal after appearing in ten league matches during the season.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: During the 2009–10 season, Beasley saw little playing time with Rangers. He stated in December 2009 that he would seek a move away from the club during the upcoming January transfer window in order to secure a place in the United States squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Shortly after this declaration, Beasley was given a run of games in the Rangers team during the month of December. He had some impressive performances, scoring in games against Dundee United and Motherwell. After the Motherwell game Beasley expressed his desire to stay with Rangers and help them retain the Scottish Premier League title. Although Rangers won the title, Beasley was not entitled to a championship medal, having played in only eight games, less than the 25% required.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On August 30, 2010, Beasley signed a two-year contract with German Bundesliga club Hannover 96. He made his debut on September 18, 2010, coming on as a substitute in the 77th minute in a 2–0 away loss to VfL Wolfsburg.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On June 22, 2011, Beasley joined Mexican Primera División side Puebla. Beasley scored his first goal for Puebla in his unofficial debut against Monterrey in the Copa Tijuana. On July 23, Beasley made his competitive debut for "Los Camoteros" in a 1–0 win over Atlas in the opening match of the 2011 Apertura Season. He scored his first competitive goal for Puebla on August 21 in a 2–1 win over Pumas UNAM.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On July 23, 2014, Beasley joined Major League Soccer club Houston Dynamo as a designated player. He made his Dynamo debut on August 3, 2014, starting at left back against DC United in a 1–0 win. Beasley suffered a hamstring injury on October 12 that ended his 2014 season. He appeared in 10 games for the Dynamo in his first year with Houston.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: In 2015, Beasley was selected for his 4th MLS All Star game and was named the Dynamo team defender of the year. He scored his first goal for the Dynamo on August 8, 2015 in a 2–1 against the San Jose Earthquakes.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: 2016 saw Beasley miss over a month due to knee surgery. After the season Beasley re-signed with the Dynamo, however he took a pay cut and no longer counted as a designated player.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley didn't miss significant time because of injury in 2017 and had a strong season, being named an MLS All Star and helping lead the Dynamo make the MLS Playoffs for the first time in 3 seasons. He received the MLS Fair Play Individual Award, which is given to the player who commits the fewest fouls and demonstrates good sportsmanship.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: In 2018, Beasley and the Dynamo missed out on the playoffs, but did win the US Open Cup, which qualified them for the 2019 CONCACAF Champions League. the first time the Dynamo had qualified for the competition since 2013. On December 30, 2018, Beasley signed a new contract to bring him back for the 2019 season.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On February 19, Beasley and the Dynamo opened the 2019 season with a Champions League match against Guastatoya. Beasley scored the only goal of the match hitting a weak foot volley from outside the box to give the Dynamo the win. On March 12, Beasley came off injured in a CCL match against Tigres. He underwent surgery on his knee on March 20 and was out for almost 2 months. Beasley returned from the injury and made his first MLS appearance of the season on May 15 in a 1–0 loss to the Portland Timbers. On May 20, Beasley announced that he would be retiring after the 2019 season. Beasley would make 18 appearances across all competitions in 2019, his last coming on October 6 as the Dynamo defeated the LA Galaxy 4–2 in the final game of the season and Beasley's career. Beasley was subbed off in the 89th minute to a standing ovation from the crowd. After the match the Dynamo showed a tribute on the videoboard and Beasley addressed the crowd, saying "I wouldn't think of another club to end my career with. Houston is my home. I'm not gonna say goodbye."


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley was capped over 100 times for the United States national team, participating in four FIFA World Cups. He was also a key part of the United States team that won the CONCACAF Gold Cup in 2002, 2005, 2007, 2013 & 2017 as a viewer. For the 2013 Gold Cup, Beasley was the team's captain.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley played for the Under-20 team at the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship in Argentina. He received his first senior cap on January 27, 2001 age 18, against China. At age 20, he was named in the United States' squad for the 2002 World Cup in Japan and South Korea, playing in all three group matches as the team achieved its best performance in over half a century by reaching the quarter-finals.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley, along with fellow young midfielder Landon Donovan, was criticized by fans and U.S. coach Bruce Arena for poor play during the 2006 World Cup. He set up the U.S.'s only goal (scored by Clint Dempsey) against Ghana and had a potential game-winning goal disallowed against Italy when Brian McBride was adjudged to be screening Gianluigi Buffon in an offside position.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: In a 2010 World Cup qualification fourth-round game against Trinidad and Tobago, Beasley played the full 90 minutes at left back. Beasley remarked that this was the first time in his career he had played an entire game at the position.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: As Beasley struggled with injuries and playing time at Rangers, he saw his national team form drop considerably. During the second match of the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, against Brazil, Beasley lost the ball on a short corner kick, creating a Brazil counter-attack that resulted in a goal. He was substituted shortly after and did not make an appearance for the rest of the tournament.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley was named by U.S. coach Bob Bradley to the nation's 23-man roster for the 2010 World Cup, but made only one substitute appearance in a group stage match, against Algeria. After making four substitute appearances in the next two-and-a-half years, Beasley was called for up 2014 World Cup qualifiers in March 2013. He started at left back and received strong reviews in a victories over Costa Rica, Jamaica, Panama, and a draw against Mexico. In July 2013, United States national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann named Beasley captain for the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup, where he started at left-back for five of the six matches the U.S. played. The U.S. won the tournament.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: With his inclusion in the United States' 2014 World Cup squad, Beasley joined Claudio Reyna and Kasey Keller as the only American players to be a member of four World Cup squads. By appearing against Ghana in the team's opening match of the tournament, he became the first player to play in four World Cup tournaments for the United States. He played all four matches for the United States, including a match against Belgium in the round of 16.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley announced his retirement from the national team on December 15, 2014. However, he returned to the national team for the 2015 Gold Cup at the request of United States coach Jürgen Klinsmann. He only made one appearance in the competition, playing only in the third-place play-off match against Panama. He entered the game in extra time and missed the last penalty. With a start at left wingback in a June 2017 World Cup qualifier at Mexico, Beasley became the first American to play in five World Cup qualifying cycles.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: Beasley's older brother Jamar was a member of the Cedar Rapids Rampage, United States national futsal team, and former player in MLS and for the US under-20 team. DaMarcus and Jamar got involved with soccer as children due to their father wanting them to be involved in sports. He also played football and basketball as a kid. He has also launched a jewellery collection in collaboration with The Diamond Studio, a Scottish jewellery suite. On February 1, 2010, Beasley's car was firebombed in front of his house in Glasgow.


title: DaMarcus Beasley

text: On October 28, 2020, Fort Wayne FC announced Beasley's addition to their ownership group as co-owner of the club. The teams has announced plans to self-promoted from USL League Two to USL League One beginning in the 2023 season.


title: Arishadvargas

text: In Hindu theology, Arishadvarga or Shadripu/Shada Ripu (; meaning the six enemies) are the six enemies of the mind, which are: "Kama" (desire), "krodha" (anger), "lobha" (greed), "Mada" (arrogance), "moha" (delusion), and "matsarya" (jealousy); the negative characteristics of which prevent man from attaining "moksha".


title: Arishadvargas

text: These are the fundamental tenets of Kali Yuga . The more each individual fights them, the longer will be the life of "Dharma" in this yuga.


title: Arishadvargas

text: According to Hindu scriptures, these bind the soul to the cycle of birth and death and keep it confined in this material world (confines of Maya or relative existence). Especially the first three are said to pave the way towards hell. The first two bring about difficult experiences we face in our lives..


title: Arishadvargas

text: The "Mada" or "Ahankar", the false ego, all our actions in the world are for selfish ends. Hence there is no other factor causing the illusory duality of differentiation between 'us' and 'them' and the repeated pain and delusion it entails than the psychological ego-sense. When the materially identified ego has sided with the materialistic forces of creation (Maya), it is said to have the following faults: "kama", "krodha", "lobha", "moha", "mada" and "matsarya". Also called evil passions, man's spiritual heritage constantly gets looted by these internal thieves (and their numerous variations), causing him to lose knowledge of his True Being.


title: Arishadvargas

text: If a person is virtually a prisoner of "arishadvargas" (the six internal enemies), then his life is completely governed by destiny. As a person moves ahead on the path of Self-Realization, the grip of destiny over him loosens and he gets more and more leverage to change his destiny. When a person identifies himself with the Self, then he becomes part of the power of destiny. Merely his power of "Sankalpa" is good enough to materialize and change any situation either for good or bad according to his "Sankalpa".


title: Arishadvargas

text: Doubt has positive and negative nature, this is the opposite of the nature of an object. According to Naiyayikas, knowledge is based on perception (anubhava), which is valid. But those based on remembrance (Smriti), doubt, error, and hypothetical argument are invalid. Similar unique or rare features in an object create doubt as to where its from and perhaps when exhibited from within a person's mind or from delusions, its validity. "Sometimes real and false create doubt or " doubt arises about the appearance of false as real."" "(See also Maya)" Like any scene of a mirage, if it is perceived then it might not be real, but if it is not perceived it can be felt or experienced. "Unattainability of the truth of the real, as well as the unreal, creates doubt of its reality."


title: Arishadvargas

text: According to Hindu belief, without experiencing these Shadripu at the fullest a person cannot understand the meaning of the Love which is the soul. These enemies of mind pull the human from all the sides away from the soul and make the life of the human miserable. To overcome this misery every human needs to experience all these Shadripu's and understand the consequences which later teach the person the importance of love and divinity. A human who controls all these Shadripu's even at some of the extent later enjoy's the power of peace.


title: Arishadvargas

text: A mind which is in delusion ("Moha") ignores its inner consciousness (Ātman). As a result, it starts believing that its ego is its only existence. Such an ego-dependent mind, soon goes into a state of arrogance ("Mada"). And in an arrogant mind, personal desires ("Kama") start flourishing. As the mind, fulfils some of its initial smaller desires, it keeps desiring more stuff to become greedy ("Lobha"). After sometime, at some point, it eventually fails to fulfil some of its bigger desires, and then the mind gets angry ("Krodha"). Finally the mind starts envying ("Matsarya") others who have more stuff than it has.


title: Islamic economics

text: Islamic economics () refers to the knowledge of economics or economic activities and processes in terms of Islamic principles and teachings. Islam has a set of special moral norms and values about individual and social economic behavior. Therefore, it has its own economic system, which is based on its philosophical views and is compatible with the Islamic organization of other aspects of human behavior: social and political systems.


title: Islamic economics

text: Is a term used to refer to Islamic commercial jurisprudence (, "fiqh al-mu'āmalāt"), and also to an ideology of economics based on the teachings of Islam that is mostly similar to the labour theory of value, which is "labour-based exchange and exchange-based labour".


title: Islamic economics

text: Islamic commercial jurisprudence entails the rules of transacting finance or other economic activity in a "Shari'a" compliant manner, i.e., a manner conforming to Islamic scripture (Quran and sunnah).


title: Islamic economics

text: Islamic jurisprudence ("fiqh") has traditionally dealt with determining what is required, prohibited, encouraged, discouraged, or just permissible, according to the revealed word of God (Quran) and the religious practices established by Muhammad (sunnah). This applied to issues like property, money, employment, taxes, loans, along with everything else. The social science of economics, on the other hand, works to describe, analyse and understand production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, and studied how to best achieve policy goals, such as full employment, price stability, economic equity and productivity growth.


title: Islamic economics

text: Early forms of mercantilism and capitalism are thought to have been developed in the Islamic Golden Age from the 9th century and later became dominant in European Muslim territories like Al-Andalus and the Emirate of Sicily.


title: Islamic economics

text: The Islamic economic concepts taken and applied by the gunpowder empires and various Islamic kingdoms and sultanates led to systemic changes in their economy. Particularly in the Mughal India, its wealthiest region of Bengal, a major trading nation of the medieval world, signaled the period of proto-industrialization, making direct contribution to the world's first Industrial Revolution after the British conquests.


title: Islamic economics

text: In the mid-twentieth century, campaigns began promoting the idea of specifically Islamic patterns of economic thought and behavior. By the 1970s, "Islamic economics" was introduced as an academic discipline in a number of institutions of higher learning throughout the Muslim world and in the West. The central features of an Islamic economy are often summarized as: (1) the "behavioral norms and moral foundations" derived from the Quran and Sunnah; (2) collection of "zakat" and other Islamic taxes, (3) prohibition of interest ("riba") charged on loans.


title: Islamic economics

text: Advocates of Islamic economics generally describe it as neither socialist nor capitalist, but as a "third way", an ideal mean with none of the drawbacks of the other two systems.


title: Islamic economics

text: Among the claims made for an Islamic economic system by Islamic activists and revivalists are that the gap between the rich and the poor will be reduced and prosperity enhanced by such means as the discouraging of the hoarding of wealth,


title: Islamic economics

text: taxing wealth (through "zakat") but not trade, exposing lenders to risk through profit sharing and venture capital,


title: Islamic economics

text: and other activities that Islam regards as sinful such as unlawful confiscation of land. However, critics like Timur Kuran have described it as primarily a "vehicle for asserting the primacy of Islam", with economic reform being a secondary motive.


title: Islamic economics

text: Recently and as a complement to Islamic economics, the field of Islamic entrepreneurship or entrepreneurship from an Islamic perspective has gained traction. Islamic entrepreneurship studies the Muslim entrepreneur, entrepreneurial ventures, and contextual factors impacting entrepreneurship at the intersection of the Islamic faith and entrepreneurial activities.


title: Islamic economics

text: According to Hasan Raza, after more than six decades of its formal/ informal existence, a consensus on the definition of Islamic economics has not yet emerged. Some definitions that have been offered include:


title: Islamic economics

text: Fiqh (religious law) has developed several traditional concepts having to do with economics. These included:


title: Islamic economics

text: These concepts, like others in Islamic law, came from study of the Quran and ahadith—or as one observer put it, were


title: Islamic economics

text: constructed on the basis of isolated prescriptions, anecdotes, examples, words of the Prophet, all gathered together and systematized by commentators according to an inductive, casuistic method."


title: Islamic economics

text: In addition to Quran and ahadith, sometimes other sources such as "al-urf" (custom), or "al-ijma" (consensus of the jurists) are employed, to create laws that determine whether actions were forbidden, discouraged, allowed, encouraged and obligatory for Muslims. The different school of fiqh ("madhhab") vary slightly in their rulings.


title: Islamic economics

text: Works of fiqh are typically divided into different "books" such as a Book of "Iman", of "Salah", "Zakat", "Taqwa", "Hajj," but not `economics` or `economy`. Some brief works might contain almost nothing related to matters of property, sales, finance Others do not gather questions on economic issues in one heading, the case in "Tawzih al-masa'il", a work of fatawa by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who although a pioneer of political Islam approached the subject of economy


title: Islamic economics

text: Other works divided the subjects of fiqh into four "quarters": typically worship (al-`Ibadat), marriage and family law (al-Munakahat), criminal law (Jinayat), commercial transaction law ("Mu'amalat"). At least one author (M. Kahf) writes that "Mu'amalat" is "closely related" to Islamic Economics. (However even with the "quarters" division of fiqh topics "mu'amalat" would not include inheritance or wedding dower ("mahr") (which at least often comes under marriage and family law), or calculation of alms ("zakat," which comes under "al-`Ibadat")).


title: Islamic economics

text: A number of scholars (Olivier Roy, Timur Kuran, Omar Norman) have noted the recentness of reflecting on economic issues in the Islamic world, and the difference between economics the social science based on data, and Islamic jurisprudence based on revealed truth.


title: Islamic economics

text: Salman Ahmed Shaikh and Monzer Kahf insist on a clear distinction between the roles of "Fiqh" and Islamic Economics, Shaikh saying to be meritorious as a separate field of inquiry, Islamic economics cannot confine itself just to explaining and deducing laws in economic matters based on core principles. Since this function is already performed by the discipline of Islamic jurisprudence ...


title: Islamic economics

text: M. Kahf writes that "mu'amalat" and Islamic economics "often intermingle", "mu'amalat" "sets terms and conditions of conduct for economic and financial relationships in the Islamic economy" and provides the "grounds on which new instruments" of Islamic financing are developed, but that the "nature of "Fiqh" imposes a concern about individual transactions and their minute legalistic characteristics", so that analyzing Islamic economics in terms of "Fiqh"" risks losing "the ability to provide a macro economic theory".


title: Islamic economics

text: According to economist Muhammad Akram Khan the "main plank" of Islamic economics is the "theory of riba", while "another landmark" is zakat, a tax on wealth and income. According to another contemporary writer Salah El-Sheikh, "Islamic economic principles" (what he calls a "FiqhiConomic model") utilize the Faqīh (Islamic jurisprudence) as supporting material, but are grounded upon the ethical teachings within the Qu'rān. Sharīah's basic tenets involve gharar and (fadl māl bilā 'iwad). Gharar insists all knowledge about a trade or transaction is known before two individuals complete a transaction and (fadl māl bilā 'iwad) warns against unjustified enrichment through trade and business. These tenets were "among the first economic regulations" and their philosophy can be seen today in modern Capitalism. Within Sharīah, El-Sheikh states, Gharar functions as a divine deterrent against asymmetric information and allows trade to prosper. Riba, ensures each transaction is conducted at a fair price, not allowing one party to benefit exceedingly, which shares a parallel philosophy with Karl Marx "Das Kapital": seeking a greater outcome for the community.


title: Islamic economics

text: Classical scholars in the Muslim world did however, make valuable contributions to Islamic thought on issues involving production, consumption, income, wealth, property, taxation, land ownership, etc. are Abu Yusuf (d. 798), Muhammad bin al-Hasan (d. 805), Al-Mawardi (d. 1058), Ibn Hazm (d. 1064), Sarakhsi (d. 1090), Tusi (d. 1093), Ghazali (d. 1111), Al-Dimashqi (d. after 1175), Ibn Rushd (d. 1187), Ibn Taymiyyah (d.1328), Ibn al-Ukhuwwah (d. 1329), Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 1350), Sayyid Ali Hamadani (d. 1384), Al-Shatibi (d. 1388), Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), Al-Maqrizi (d. 1442), Dawwani (d. 1501), Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir (d. 1707), and Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (d. 1762).


title: Islamic economics

text: Abu Yusuf (d. 798) was author of the book "al Kharaj"—literally "the return or revenue" but was used by the author to mean "public revenues and taxation"—which was a policy guide to Harun al-Rashid, the fifth Abbasid Caliph. Muhammad bin al-Hasan (d.805) wrote "al Iktisab fi al Rizq al Mustatab" [Earned Desired income], intended as advice to businessmen "in their endeavors to create income opportunities". Abu 'Ubaid al Qasim bin Sallam (d.839) was the author of "al-Amwal" (plural of "wealth").


title: Islamic economics

text: Perhaps the most well-known Islamic scholar who wrote about economical issues was Ibn Khaldun, who has been called "the father of modern economics" by I.M. Oweiss. Ibn Khaldun wrote on what is now called economic and political theory in the introduction, or "Muqaddimah" ("Prolegomena"), of his "History of the World" ("Kitab al-Ibar"). He discussed what he called "asabiyya" (social cohesion), which he cited as the cause of the advancement of some civilizations. Ibn Khaldun felt that many social forces are cyclic, although there could be sudden sharp turns that break the pattern.


title: Islamic economics

text: His ideas about the benefits of the division of labor also relate to "asabiyya", the greater the social cohesion, the more complex the successful division may be, the greater the economic growth. He noted that growth and development positively stimulates both supply and demand, and that the forces of supply and demand are what determines the prices of goods. He also noted macroeconomic forces of population growth, human capital development, and technological developments effects on development. In fact, Ibn Khaldun thought that population growth was directly a function of wealth.


title: Islamic economics

text: Medieval Islamic economics appears to have somewhat resembled a form of capitalism, some arguing that it laid the foundations for the development of modern capitalism.


title: Islamic economics

text: Economic policies based on sharia were introduced throughout the Gunpowder empires, which led to their commercial expansion. Chiefly the Ottoman Empire and Mughal India underwent substantial increases in per capita income and population, and a sustained pace of technological innovation. Significant was Muslim India's Fatawa 'Alamgiri, compiled by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir and Shah Waliullah Dehlawi's family, through which the Indian subcontinent surpassed Qing China to become the world's largest economy, valued 25% of world GDP, while the region of Mughal Bengal waved the period of proto-industrialization, making direct contribution to England's first Industrial Revolution after the Battle of Plassey.


title: Islamic economics

text: According to Turkish-American economist Timur Kuran, "not until the mid-twentieth century" was there any body of thought that could be called "Islamic economics", that was "recognizable as a coherent or self-contained doctrine". But around 1950 "campaigns launched to identify self-consciously, if not also exclusively, Islamic patterns of economic thought and behavior". The famous early-20th Century Muslim nationalist and author Muhammad Iqbal, for example, did not refer to religion in his treatise on economics.


title: Islamic economics

text: Islamic economics grew naturally from the Islamic revival and political Islam whose adherents considered Islam to be a complete system of life in all its aspects, rather than a spiritual formula and believed that it logically followed that Islam must have an economic system, unique from and superior to non-Islamic economic systems. "Islamic economics" "emerged" in the 1940s according to the Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Maulana ala Maududi's 1941 address "The economic problem of man and its Islamic solution" ("Insaan ka Maashi Maslah aur aus ka Islami Hul") is "generally considered to be one of the founding documents of modern Islamic economics"


title: Islamic economics

text: More conservative salafi have shown less interest in socioeconomic issues, asking the question, "the prophet and his companions didn't study 'laws' of economics, look for patterns, strive for understanding of what happens in commerce, production, consumption. Why should we?" Maududi himself also dismissed the need for a "new science of economics, embodied in voluminous books, with high-sounding terminology and large organisation", as the true "economic problem of man"—along with all his social, political and other problems—"can be easily understood" and is simply the failure to follow Islamic law.


title: Islamic economics

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, Shi'a thinkers worked to describe Islamic economics' "own answers to contemporary economic problems." Several works were particularly influential:


title: Islamic economics

text: Al-Sadr in particular was described as having "almost single-handedly developed the notion of Islamic economics".


title: Islamic economics

text: In their writings, Sadr and the other authors "sought to depict Islam as a religion committed to social justice, the equitable distribution of wealth, and the cause of the deprived classes," with doctrines "acceptable to Islamic jurists," while refuting existing non-Islamic theories of capitalism and Marxism. Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr and also cleric Mahmoud Taleghani developed an "Islamic economics" emphasizing a major role for the state in matters such as circulation and equitable distribution of wealth, and a reward to participants in the marketplace for being exposed to risk or liability.


title: Islamic economics

text: This version of Islamic economics, which influenced the Iranian Revolution, called for public ownership of land and of large "industrial enterprises," while private economic activity continued "within reasonable limits." These ideas informed the large public sector and public subsidy policies of the Iranian Revolution.


title: Islamic economics

text: Sunni cleric Taqiuddin al-Nabhani proposed economic system ("Nidham ul-Iqtisad fil Islam" (The Economic System of Islam) by Taqiuddin Nabhani (1953)) combined public ownership of large chunks of the economy (utilities, public transport, health care, energy resources such as oil, and unused farm land), with use of the gold standard and specific instructions for the gold and silver weights of coins, arguing this would "demolish ... American control and the control of the dollar as an international currency."


title: Islamic economics

text: In the Sunni world the first international conference on Islamic economics was held at the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah in 1976. Since then the International Association for Islamic Economics in collaboration with the Islamic Development Bank has held conferences in Islamabad (1983), Kuala Lumpur (1992), Loughborough (2000), Bahrain (2003), Jakarta (2005) and Jeddah (2008), Iqbal (2008). In addition there have been hundreds of seminars, workshops and discussion groups around the world on Islamic economics and finance. In the U.S. a small number of patent applications have been filed for Sharia compliant financial service methods.


title: Islamic economics

text: What has been called one of "two versions" of "Islamic economy" existed during the first ten years (1979–1989) of the Islamic Republic of Iran during the life of Supreme Leader (and revolution founder) Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. This was an "Islamist socialist, and state-run": It was "little by little supplanted" by a more liberal economic policy.


title: Islamic economics

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, as the Islamic revolution failed to reach the per capita income level achieved by the regime it overthrew, and Communist states and socialist parties in the non-Muslim world turned away from socialism, Muslim interest shifted away from government ownership and regulation. In Iran, ""eqtesad-e Eslami" (meaning both Islamic economics and economy) ... once a revolutionary shibboleth, is indubitably absent in all official documents and the media. It disappeared from Iranian political discourse" about 1990. During the era of Zia-ul-Haq, several Islamic economic concepts and practices were introduced into the domestic economy, as part of Zia's Islamisation reforms (see Islamic economics in Pakistan).


title: Islamic economics

text: The term lived on in the Muslim world, shifting form to the less ambitious goal of interest-free banking. Some Muslim bankers and religious leaders suggested ways to integrate Islamic law on usage of money with modern concepts of ethical investing. In banking this was done through the use of sales transactions (focusing on the fixed rate return modes) to support investing without interest-bearing debt. Many modern writers have strongly criticized this approach as a means of covering conventional banking with an Islamic facade. (Sohrab Behada has argued that the economic system proposed by Islam is essentially a capitalist one.)


title: Islamic economics

text: King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah hosted the first international conference on Islamic economics in 1976. Thereafter the International Association for Islamic Economics in collaboration with the Islamic Development Bank has held conferences in Islamabad (1983), Kuala Lumpur (1992), Loughborough (2000), Bahrain (2003), Jakarta (2005), Jeddah (2008) and Iqbal (2008).