title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: In 1908, the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard was established. The period from 1908–1919 was one of steady and continuous growth of the Naval Station, Pearl Harbor, with the exception of the discouraging collapse of the drydock in 1913. The Act of 13 May 1908 authorized the enlargement and dredging of the Pearl Harbor channel and lochs "to admit the largest ships," the building of shops and supply houses for the Navy Yard, and the construction of a drydock. Work on the dock started on 21 September 1909. In April 1910, the barquentine "Amaranth" became the fourth deep-sea, cargo-carrying vessel to venture into the newly dredged harbor, having been preceded by the three-masted schooner "W.H. Marston" on 8 March, and the schooner "Ariel" and bark "Marston" a few days later. "Amaranth" delivered materials for construction of the dry dock facility. Work progressed satisfactorily on all projects, except the drydock. After much wrangling with Congress to secure an appropriation of over three million dollars for its construction, the drydock was wrecked by "underground pressure". "On February 17, 1913, the entire drydock structure rumbled, rocked, and caved in." The drydock was ceremonially opened to flooding on 21 August 1919, by Mrs. Josephus Daniels, wife of the Secretary of the Navy. In 1917, Ford Island in the middle of Pearl Harbor was purchased for joint Army and Navy use in the development of military aviation in the Pacific.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: As the Imperial Japanese military pressed its war in China, concern over Japan's intentions caused the U.S. to begin taking defensive measures. On 1 February 1933, the U.S. Navy staged a mock attack on the base at Pearl Harbor as part of a preparedness exercise. The attack "succeeded" and the defense was deemed a "failure".


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: The attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on Sunday 7 December 1941 brought the United States into World War II.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: Aircraft and midget submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy under the command of Admiral Chuichi Nagumo began bombing Honolulu at the U.S. naval base. Through earlier code breaking activity, the Americans had determined that an attack was likely to occur. However, while the Americans failed to discover Japan's target location, it was believed that the Philippines was the most likely target. At 06:05 on 7 December, the six Japanese carriers launched a first wave of 183 aircraft composed mainly of dive bombers, horizontal bombers and fighters.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: The Japanese struck American ships and military installations at 07:51. The first wave attacked airfields of Ford Island. At 08:30, a second wave of 170 Japanese aircraft, mostly torpedo bombers, attacked the fleet anchored in Pearl Harbor. The battleship was hit with an armor-piercing bomb which penetrated the forward ammunition compartment, blowing the ship apart and sinking it within seconds, killing 1,177 crew members.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: The overall death toll was 2,467 people: 2,403 American citizens—2,335 members of the U.S. military and 68 civilians—and 64 members of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Five U.S. battleships were sunk and the other remaining three were badly damaged. Overall, nine ships of the U.S. fleet were sunk and 21 ships were severely damaged. Three of the 21 would be irreparable. 188 U.S. aircraft were completely destroyed and 159 others were damaged. Japan lost 29 out of the 353 aircraft they attacked with. The attack on Pearl Harbor was the largest attack committed by foreign nationals on American soil in peacetime and in general prior to the September 11 attacks.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: The first shots fired were from the destroyer on a midget submarine that surfaced outside of Pearl Harbor; "Ward" sank the midget sub at approximately 06:55, about an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: Just after 3 p.m. on Sunday 21 May 1944 an explosion in a staging area for Landing Ships, Tank (LSTs) and other amphibious assault ships in West Loch leading to a fire which quickly spread among the ships being prepared for Operation Forager, the invasion of the Japanese-held Mariana Islands. Over the next 24 hours, six LSTs sank, 163 naval personnel died and 396 were injured.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: A subsequent Naval Board of Inquiry never determined the exact cause of the disaster. But it concluded the initial explosion was caused when a mortar round aboard detonated during an unloading operation because it was either dropped or went off when gasoline vapours ignited. The incident – together with the Port Chicago disaster two months later – led to major changes in weapon handling practices within the United States Navy.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: Over the years, Pearl Harbor remained a main base for the US Pacific Fleet after World War II along with Naval Base San Diego. In 2010, the Navy and the Air Force merged their two nearby bases; Pearl Harbor joined with Hickam Air Force Base to create Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: On 29 January 1964 the Navy base itself was recognized as a National Historic Landmark district and with the National Register of Historic Places since 1976. Within its bounds, it contains several other National Historic Landmarks associated with the attack on Pearl Harbor, including the "Arizona", , and . As an active Navy base, many of the historic buildings that contributed to the NHL designation are under threat of demolition and rebuilding.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: From 1932 to 1983 the most recognizable structure on the submarine base was the 100-foot-tall Escape Training Tank. A similar tower on Ford Island was converted to an airport control tower during World War II and still stands. Generations of submariners learned to escape in up to 80 feet of water using buoyant ascent, and were trained in the use of the Momsen lung or Steinke hood. The Steinke hood was replaced by the Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment in the 2000s.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: Bloch Arena located on the base is still in use today and hosted the collegiate Pearl Harbor Basketball Invitational and was home to the Honolulu Chiefs of the American Basketball League. The address is 224 A Avenue, Honolulu, HI 96818.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: On 4 December 2019, while the nuclear submarine USS "Columbia" was in dry dock at Pearl Harbor, 22 year-old Machinist Mate Auxiliary Fireman Gabriel Romero shot and killed two naval station civilian employees and injured another before shooting and killing himself. Romero was one of "Columbia"'s crew and been assigned to the armed Topside Roving Patrol aboard the vessel; both two weapons involved in the shooting were issued from the "Columbia". Later investigation by the Navy determined that Romero was "likely unfit" for service on a submarine and that officers aboard the "Columbia" had failed to recognize signs of Romero's degrading mental state.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: In October 14, 1992, the US EPA added the Pearl Harbor Naval Complex as a superfund to the so called National Priorities List.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: As part of the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review, the Navy announced in early 2006 that it would shift 60% of its attack submarines to the Pacific by 2010.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: ("Mighty Mo" or "Big Mo") is a United States Navy , and was the fourth ship of the U.S. Navy to be named in honor of the U.S. state of Missouri. "Missouri" was the last battleship built by the United States, and was the site of the surrender of the Empire of Japan which ended World War II.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: "Missouri" was ordered in 1940 and commissioned in June 1944. In the Pacific Theater of World War II she fought in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa and shelled the Japanese home islands, and she fought in the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. She was decommissioned in 1955 into the United States Navy reserve fleets (the "Mothball Fleet"), but reactivated and modernized in 1984 as part of the 600-ship Navy plan, and provided fire support during Operation Desert Storm in January/February 1991.


title: Naval Station Pearl Harbor

text: "Missouri" received a total of 11 battle stars for service in World War II, Korea, and the Persian Gulf, and was finally decommissioned on 31 March 1992, but remained on the Naval Vessel Register until her name was struck in January 1995. In 1998, she was donated to the USS "Missouri" Memorial Association and became a museum ship at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: The Latino-Faliscan or Latino-Venetic languages form a group of the Italic languages within the Indo-European family. They were spoken by the Latino-Faliscan people of Italy from 1200 BC.


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: Latin and Faliscan belong to the group, as well as two others often considered dialects of archaic Latin: Lanuvian and Praenestine.


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: As the power of Ancient Rome grew, Latin absorbed elements of the other languages and replaced Faliscan. The other variants went extinct as Latin became dominant. Latin in turn developed via Vulgar Latin into the Romance languages, now spoken by more than 800 million people, largely as a result of the influence of the Spanish, French and Portuguese Empires.


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: Latin and Faliscan also have characteristics not shared by other branches of Italic. They retain the Indo-European labiovelars /*kʷ, *gʷ/ as "qu-, gu-" (later becoming velar and semivocal), whereas in Osco-Umbrian they become labial "p, b". Latin and Faliscan use the accusative suffix "-d", seen in "med" ("me", accusative), which is absent in Osco-Umbrian. In addition, Latin displays evolution of "ou" into "ū" (Latin "lūna" < Proto-Italic "*louksnā" < PIE "*lówksneh₂" "moon").


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: It is likely that the consonant inventory of Proto-Latino-Faliscan was basically identical to that of archaic Latin. Consonants not found in the Praeneste fibula are marked with an asterisk.


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: The /kʷ/ sound still existed in archaic Latin when the Latin alphabet was developed, since it gives rise to the minimum pair: "quī" /kʷī/ ("who", nominative) > "cuī" /ku.ī/ ("to whom", dative). Note that in other positions there is no distinction between diphthongs and hiatuses: for example, "persuādere" ("to persuade") is a diphthong but "sua" ("his"/"her") is a hiatus. For reasons of symmetry, it is quite possible that many sequences of "gu" in archaic Latin in fact represent a voiced labiovelar /gʷ/.


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: Indo-Europeanists initially assumed that the various Indo-European languages of ancient Italy belonged to one unitary family, like the Celtic or Germanic languages. This view probably originated with Antoine Meillet (1866–1936).


title: Latino-Faliscan languages

text: This unitary model, however, has been strongly criticised, first by Alois Walde (1869–1924). Decisive counter-arguments were given by Vittore Pisani (1899–1990) and Giacomo Devoto (1897–1974). Both proposed that the Italic languages could be grouped into two distinct branches of Indo-European. This view, though reformulated in the years following the Second World War, has become dominant. Nonetheless, how exactly the languages are to be grouped, how they entered Italy, and how they became distinct, are open questions in historical linguistics.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: The curiously recurring template pattern (CRTP) is an idiom, originally in C++, in which a class codice_1 derives from a class template instantiation using codice_1 itself as a template argument. More generally it is known as F-bound polymorphism, and it is a form of "F"-bounded quantification.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: The technique was formalized in 1989 as ""F"-bounded quantification." The name "CRTP" was independently coined by Jim Coplien in 1995, who had observed it in some of the earliest C++ template code


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: as well as in code examples that Timothy Budd created in his multiparadigm language Leda. It is sometimes called "Upside-Down Inheritance" due to the way it allows class hierarchies to be extended by substituting different base classes.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: The Microsoft Implementation of CRTP in Active Template Library (ATL) was independently discovered, also in 1995, by Jan Falkin, who accidentally derived a base class from a derived class. Christian Beaumont first saw Jan's code and initially thought it could not possibly compile in the Microsoft compiler available at the time. Following the revelation that it did indeed work, Christian based the entire ATL and Windows Template Library (WTL) design on this mistake.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: Some use cases for this pattern are static polymorphism and other metaprogramming techniques such as those described by Andrei Alexandrescu in "Modern C++ Design".


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: It also figures prominently in the C++ implementation of the Data, Context, and Interaction paradigm.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: Typically, the base class template will take advantage of the fact that member function bodies (definitions) are not instantiated until long after their declarations, and will use members of the derived class within its own member functions, via the use of a cast; e.g.:


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: In the above example, the function codice_4, though "declared" before the existence of the codice_5 is known by the compiler (i.e., before codice_6 is declared), is not actually "instantiated" by the compiler until it is actually "called" by some later code which occurs "after" the declaration of codice_6 (not shown in the above example), so that at the time the function "implementation" is instantiated, the declaration of codice_8 is known.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: This technique achieves a similar effect to the use of virtual functions, without the costs (and some flexibility) of dynamic polymorphism. This particular use of the CRTP has been called "simulated dynamic binding" by some. This pattern is used extensively in the Windows ATL and WTL libraries.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: To elaborate on the above example, consider a base class with no virtual functions. Whenever the base class calls another member function, it will always call its own base class functions. When we derive a class from this base class, we inherit all the member variables and member functions that were not overridden (no constructors or destructors). If the derived class calls an inherited function which then calls another member function, then that function will never call any derived or overridden member functions in the derived class.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: However, if base class member functions use CRTP for all member function calls, the overridden functions in the derived class will be selected at compile time. This effectively emulates the virtual function call system at compile time without the costs in size or function call overhead (VTBL structures, and method lookups, multiple-inheritance VTBL machinery) at the disadvantage of not being able to make this choice at runtime.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: The main purpose of an object counter is retrieving statistics of object creation and destruction for a given class. This can be easily solved using CRTP:


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: Each time an object of class codice_1 is created, the constructor of codice_10 is called, incrementing both the created and alive count. Each time an object of class codice_1 is destroyed, the alive count is decremented. It is important to note that codice_10 and codice_13 are two separate classes and this is why they will keep separate counts of codice_1s and codice_15s. In this example of CRTP, this distinction of classes is the only use of the template parameter (codice_16 in codice_17) and the reason why we cannot use a simple un-templated base class.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: Method chaining, also known as named parameter idiom, is a common syntax for invoking multiple method calls in object-oriented programming languages. Each method returns an object, allowing the calls to be chained together in a single statement without requiring variables to store the intermediate results.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: When the named parameter object pattern is applied to an object hierarchy, things can go wrong. Suppose we have such a base class:


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: This happens because 'print' is a function of the base – 'Printer' – and then it returns a 'Printer' instance.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: When using polymorphism, one sometimes needs to create copies of objects by the base class pointer. A commonly used idiom for this is adding a virtual clone function that is defined in every derived class. The CRTP can be used to avoid having to duplicate that function or other similar functions in every derived class.


title: Curiously recurring template pattern

text: One issue with static polymorphism is that without using a general base class like codice_19 from the above example, derived classes cannot be stored homogeneously – that is, putting different types derived from the same base class in the same container. For example, a container defined as codice_20 does not work because codice_21 is not a class, but a template needing specialization. A container defined as codice_22 can only store codice_23s, not codice_24s. This is because each of the classes derived from the CRTP base class codice_21 is a unique type. A common solution to this problem is to inherit from a shared base class with a virtual destructor, like the codice_19 example above, allowing for the creation of a codice_27.


title: Communards

text: The Communards () were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.


title: Communards

text: After the suppression of the Commune by the French Army in May 1871, 43,000 Communards were taken prisoner, and 6,500 to 7,500 fled abroad. The number of Communard soldiers killed in combat or executed afterwards during the week has long been disputed: Prosper-Olivier Lissagaray put the number at twenty thousand, but estimates by more recent historians put the probable number between ten and fifteen thousand men. 7,500 were jailed or deported under arrangements which continued until a general amnesty during the 1880s; this action by Adolphe Thiers forestalled the proto-communist movement in the French Third Republic (1871–1940).


title: Communards

text: The working class of Paris were feeling ostracized after the decadence of the Second Empire and the Franco-Prussian War. The Prussians besieged Paris in September 1870, causing suffering among Parisians. The poor ate cat or rat meat or went hungry. Out of resentment from this situation grew radical and socialist political clubs and newspapers. While Paris was occupied, socialist groups tried twice to overthrow the provisional government.


title: Communards

text: In January 1871, Otto von Bismarck and the French minister of foreign affairs, Jules Favre, decided that France would hold national elections. Adolphe Thiers, who had been loyal to the Second Empire, was elected head of the new republic. During the war, the capital had moved from Paris to Bordeaux. When the war ended, the government moved temporarily to Versailles. In the early morning of March 18, the government stationed in Versailles sent military forces into Paris to collect a reserve of cannons. The detachment was gathering the guns when units of the Paris national guard surrounded them, and killed two French army generals. By the end of the day, the insurgent soldiers of the national guard controlled the city. They declared a new government called the Paris Commune, which lasted from March 18 to May 28, 1871.


title: Communards

text: Thiers refused to bargain with the Communards, despite their attempts to do so. He taught newly released French soldiers the "evils" of the Communards as the government prepared for a battle. The Commune responded by building barricades in the Paris streets. Starting on May 21 and continuing through May 28, the French army entered Paris and gradually recaptured the city. Around eighteen thousand communards were killed in combat, more were executed afterwards. The violence of The "Bloody Week" became a rallying cry for the working classes; some politicians would later proudly brag about their participation with the Commune.


title: Communards

text: After Bloody Week, the government asked for an inquest into the causes of the uprising. The inquest concluded that the main cause of the insurrection was a lack of belief in God, and that this problem had to be corrected immediately. It was decided that a moral revival was needed, and a key part of this was deporting 4,500 Communards to New Caledonia. There was a two-part goal in this, as the government also hoped that the Communards would civilize the native Kanak people on the island. The government hoped that being exposed to the order of nature would return the Communards to the side of "good."


title: Communards

text: New Caledonia had become a French colony in 1853, but just ten years later it still only had 350 European colonists. After 1863, New Caledonia became the principal destination of convicts transported from France after French Guiana was deemed too unhealthy for people of European descent. Thereafter, convicts from France made up the largest number of arriving residents. During the busiest time of deportation, there were estimated to be about 50,000 total people on the island. This included 30,000 Kanak, 2,750 civilian colonists, 3,030 military personnel, 4,000 "déportés" (political criminals, including the Communards), 6,000 (common-law criminal convicts), and 1,280 criminal convicts who had served their sentences but were still living on the island. There were four main penitentiary sites on the island, one of which, Isle of Pines (1870–1880), was for the Communards deportees exclusively.


title: Communards

text: There were three sentences given out to the : simple deportation, deportation to a fortified place, and deportation with forced labor. A simple deportation sentence was given to about two-thirds of the Communards. These people were sent to live in small villages on the Isle of Pines. Those sentenced to deportation to a fortified place were sent to the Ducos peninsula. About 300 Communards were sentenced to deportation with forced labor; these were the people convicted of crimes such as arson in addition to their political crimes. They were sent to be with the criminal convicts on Nou. Some prisoners’ sentences were changed by the local penal administrators, and some were changed by the French government after petitions for leniency.


title: Communards

text: The government did not give out enough food, clothing, or shelter for all of the . Some were assigned housing in rickety structures, but others had to find their own materials to build huts. Construction tools could be bought from the administration. Hunting for food became part of the daily routine. Some even traded their clothing for food with the Kanak. Not every part of life on the island was bad, however. Those living on the Isle of Pines and Ducos peninsula had freedom of movement, allowing them to live where they wanted and swim and fish at their leisure. They lived in simple wood huts that formed small, face-to-face communities that were intended to be self-governing.


title: Communards

text: Those sentenced to forced labor often endured abuse at the hands of their jailers. They were habitually mistreated while imprisoned, with whippings and the use of thumbscrews as common punishments for minor infractions.


title: Communards

text: The National Assembly passed legislation that gave the wives and children of freedom to go to New Caledonia. It also gave wives a much greater right to property than they had in France, giving them half the property rights over any grant given to their husbands. Through this legislation, 174 families making up 601 people were reunited by 1877.


title: Communards

text: The relatively 'laid back' period of deportation ended when six déportés successfully escaped from the Ducos peninsula in 1874. François Jourde was the main planner of the escape, which he developed while living in the port town of Nouméa. He had developed connections with a ship's captain, John Law, who was paid for his participation. The escapees, who included Jourde, Henri Rochefort, Paschal Grousset, Olivier Pain, Achille Ballière, and Bastien Grandhille, boarded the boat under the cover of darkness and hid in the ship's hold until they cleared the harbor. Law dropped them off in Sydney, Australia, where crowds gathered to see them. Reports of their escape and the strict conditions they had lived under were printed in newspapers in Australia, the United States, and Europe. While the escapees attempted to publicize the plight of those still on the island, the déportés who remained had to deal with the repercussions of the escape. New rules forbade the prisoners from approaching the sea without permission, subjected them to daily roll calls, and banned them from entering the forests, even to collect firewood.


title: Communards

text: There are clearly documented examples of friendships between the Communards and the Kanak. Achille Ballière and his friends visited the Kanak in their homes, shared meals with them, and played with their children. In the first few years of the deportation there were at least two marriages between the Kanak and Communards. However, the separation of the groups enforced after the 1874 escapes prevented any more such relationships from forming. During the eight-month-long Kanak insurrection in 1878, the Communards displayed a solidarity with their effort in the local press. This solidarity did not last long, however, as beliefs of racial differences soon took over.


title: Communards

text: Louise Michel looked to the Kanak youth for guidance and inspiration, and offered them moral support when they joined the 1878 insurrection. She ran a school for the Kanak and encouraged a local theater to perform a Kanak drama. She fully expected the achievements of the Kanak to match those of the French, though she wrote about them in very paternalistic terms that were common for her time period.


title: Communards

text: Henri Rochefort gave a series of lectures that were published in the "New York Herald Tribune" while staying in the United States after his escape from New Caledonia. They were highly critical of the French government for denying its citizens liberty. His 1884 novel helped shape the legend of the deportation. It offered a portrayal of the deportation and the policies of the government in New Caledonia that was different from what the governmental propaganda was promoting.


title: Communards

text: Adrien Lejeune was famously the last surviving communard when he died at 94 years' old in the Soviet Union in 1942.


title: Communards

text: By the summer of 1878, the concern of amnesty for the Communards had become a significant political issue for France. In January 1879, the prime minister, Dufaure, granted mass pardons for the Communards in an attempt to stop the calls for amnesty. The pardons excused the convictions of the Communards. This was a problem for many people, however, who had never actually been convicted, only indicted. On January 16, the government published a list of whose sentences were pardoned. These people were allowed to return to France. More than one thousand Communards, however, were not included in this list. Men who had been convicted of crimes other than political or whose political opinions were considered too dangerous were left behind.


title: Communards

text: After the announcement of the pardons, many people in France were hoping for a stronger declaration of total amnesty. Petitions were passed around in all Paris neighborhoods to try and influence the government. A bill calling for total amnesty was introduced into the Chamber of Deputies by Louis Blanc and into the senate by Victor Hugo. The legislation that was eventually pushed through ensured full civil rights to those not convicted of crimes beyond political, and officially ended the prosecution of Communards in military courts. In July 1880, parliament finally voted for total amnesty.


title: Communards

text: Nine ships brought the back to France. The first arrived in August 1879 and the last arrived in July 1880. Large crowds greeted the ships with celebrations. Donations of money were collected for the Communards and festivals were held to raise money. A committee of aid, headed by Louis Blanc and Victor Hugo, planned a dinner at which they dispersed a small amount of money to all who attended. Offers of employment were made, overcoats were given out, and temporary housing was offered.


title: Communards

text: Some Communards chose never to come back to France after having built successful lives in New Caledonia or adopting other countries, such as Australia, as home. Many Communards who did come back returned to public life, such as Louise Michel. However, many found the adjustment to freedom difficult. Meetings between Communards and their former jailers occurred in the streets, at times leading to minor skirmishes. In December 1879, an investigative committee was formed to look into charges of torture in New Caledonia. The inquiry lasted two years, collecting the results of previous government studies, more than forty depositions, and testimonials to parliament by the Communards. The Communards’ memories of abuse then became public record, which helped to heal the relations between the former prisoners and the state.


title: Style guide

text: A style guide or manual of style is a set of standards for the writing, formatting, and design of documents. It is often called a style sheet, although that term also has multiple other meanings. The standards can be applied either for general use, or be required usage for an individual publication, a particular organization, or a specific field.


title: Style guide

text: A style guide establishes standard style requirements to improve communication by ensuring consistency both within a document, and across multiple documents. Because practices vary, a style guide may set out standards to be used in areas such as punctuation, capitalization, citing sources, formatting of numbers and dates, table appearance and other areas. The style guide may require certain best practices in writing style, usage, language composition, visual composition, orthography, and typography. For academic and technical documents, a guide may also enforce the best practice in ethics (such as authorship, research ethics, and disclosure) and compliance (technical and regulatory). For translations, a style guide may be used to enforce consistent grammar choices such as tenses, formality levels in tones, and localization decisions such as units of measurements.


title: Style guide

text: Style guides are specialized in a variety of ways, from the general use of a broad public audience, to a wide variety of specialized uses, such as for students and scholars of various academic disciplines, medicine, journalism, the law, government, business in general, and specific industries. The term house style refers to the individual style manual of a particular publisher or organization.


title: Style guide

text: Style guides vary widely in scope and size, and writers working in most large industries or professional sectors reference a specific style guide, written for their industry or sector when writing very specialized document types. These guides are useful primarily for only peer-to-peer specialist documentation or to help writers working in specific industries and/or sectors communicate highly technical information in scholarly articles or industry white papers.


title: Style guide

text: Notable exceptions are "The Associated Press Stylebook" and "The Chicago Manual of Style," both of which focus on "general", third-person English. "The Associated Press Stylebook" is written for journalists, and "The Chicago Manual of Style" is written for academic writing.


title: Style guide

text: This variety in scope and length is enabled by the cascading of one style over another, in a way analogous to how styles cascade in web development and in desktop cascade over CSS styles.


title: Style guide

text: A short style guide is often called a "style sheet". A comprehensive guide tends to be long and is often called a "style manual" or "manual of style" ("MOS" or "MoS"). In many cases, a project such as one book, journal, or monograph series typically has a short style sheet that cascades over the somewhat larger style guide of an organization such as a publishing company, whose content is usually called "house style". Most house styles, in turn, cascade over an "industry-wide or profession-wide style manual" that is even more comprehensive. Some examples of these industry style guides include the following:


title: Style guide

text: Finally, these reference works cascade over the orthographic norms of the language in use (for example, English orthography for English-language publications). This, of course, may be subject to national variety, such as the different varieties of American English and British English.


title: Style guide

text: Some style guides focus on specific topic areas such as graphic design, including typography. Website style guides cover a publication's visual and technical aspects along with text.


title: Style guide

text: Style guides that cover usage may suggest ways of describing people that avoid racism, sexism, and homophobia. Guides in specific scientific and technical fields cover nomenclature, which specifies names or classifying labels that are preferred because they are clear, standardized, and ontologically sound (e.g., taxonomy, chemical nomenclature, and gene nomenclature).


title: Style guide

text: Most style guides are revised from time to time to accommodate changes in conventions and usage. The frequency of updating and the revision control are determined by the subject. For style manuals in reference work format, new editions typically appear every 1 to 20 years. For example, the AP Stylebook is revised annually, and, as of 2021, the Chicago, APA, and ASA manuals are in their 17th, 7th, and 4th editions, respectively. Many house styles and individual project styles change more frequently, especially for new projects.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: The Samsung Galaxy Z series (named as Samsung Galaxy Foldables in certain territories) is a line of foldable smartphones manufactured by Samsung Electronics.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: With the announcement of the Galaxy Z Flip, Samsung's future foldable smartphones will be part of the Galaxy Z series.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: The Samsung Galaxy Fold was the first phone in the Galaxy Z series, and the only one not marketed under the "Z" brand. It was announced on February 20, 2019 and released on September 6, 2019, in South Korea. A version of the device marketed as the Samsung W20 5G was released on December 12 exclusively for China Telecom, with a faster Snapdragon 855+ processor and a unique white finish.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: The Samsung Galaxy Z Flip and Z Flip 5G were released on 14 February 2020 and 7 August 2020 respectively, and was the first device to be marketed under the "Z" brand. Unlike the Galaxy Fold, the device folds vertically and uses a hybrid glass coating branded as "Infinity Flex Display".


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: The Samsung Galaxy Z Fold 2 5G was released on 18 September 2020, and is the second generation of Samsung's outward fold design introduced with the original Fold. It features a significantly larger front screen than its predecessor, a high refresh rate 120 Hz folding screen, minimal bezels and improved cameras. A luxury model called the Samsung W21 5G was unveiled in November 2020 exclusively for the Chinese market.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: Samsung unveiled its third generation of folding phones, the Galaxy Z Fold 3 5G and Galaxy Z Flip 3 5G on 11 August 2021.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: Both the Z Fold 3 and Z Flip 3 have more durable materials, a redesigned hinge, and IPX8 water resistance.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: The Samsung Galaxy Z Fold 4 (stylized as Samsung Galaxy Z Fold4) is a foldable smartphone that is part of the Samsung Galaxy Z series. It was announced at the August 2022 edition of Galaxy Unpacked alongside the Galaxy Z Flip 4 with a release either later in the month or in early September. It is the successor to the Galaxy Z Fold 3.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: The Samsung Galaxy Z Flip 4 (stylized as Samsung Galaxy Z Flip4) is a foldable smartphone that is part of the Samsung Galaxy Z series. This device was announced in August 2022, with a release either later in the month or in early September.


title: Samsung Galaxy Z series

text: In March 2022, Samsung began to quietly rebrand the current Galaxy Fold and Flip devices in the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) to remove the "Z" branding from their names. This is for sensitivity reasons due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, as the letter "Z" has been used as a symbol by the Russian military and as a pro-war symbol by Russian citizens.


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: Thunder in Paradise is an American action-adventure film TV series from the creators of "Baywatch," which stars Hulk Hogan, Chris Lemmon, and Carol Alt. This first-run syndicated TV series originally premiered as a direct-to-video feature film in September 1993, then ran for one season from March 25 until November 27, 1994, before being cancelled. In May 1994, during a taping of "WCW Saturday Night", Hogan publicly expressed a desire to return to professional wrestling and hinted that he would no longer be a part of the show. The series was later rebroadcast on the TNT cable network.


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: "Thunder in Paradise" follows the adventures of two ex-United States Navy SEALs, Randolph J. "Hurricane" Spencer and Martin "Bru" Brubaker, who work as mercenaries out of their tropical resort headquarters along Florida's Gulf Coast of the United States. Using their futuristic, high-tech boat, nicknamed "Thunder", they travel around the world fighting various criminals and villains. They must also balance their dangerous undercover work with their responsibilities of raising widower Spencer's young stepdaughter Jessica, who lives with them.


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: Former model Kelly LaRue, who owns and manages the Scuttlebutt Bar & Grill on the beach in front of the resort, looks after Jessica whenever Spence and Bru go on their missions. Kelly also serves as a romantic foil for Bru. Edward Whitaker, Jessica's uncle, owns the beach resort and makes semi-regular appearances in the series, primarily for comic relief.


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: On September 26, 2006, Lionsgate released a DVD 3-disc "Thunder in Paradise Collection" that contained "Thunder in Paradise" ("Thunder in Paradise" Parts 1 & 2), "Thunder in Paradise II" ("Sealed with a Kismet" Parts 1 & 2), and "Thunder in Paradise 3" ("Deadly Lessons" Part 1 & 2).


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: The "Thunder in Paradise" pilot movie was filmed in and around the historic The Don CeSar hotel in St. Pete Beach, Florida, during April 1992. When the series was picked up for a full season, the production company then moved to Disney's Hollywood Studios near Orlando, Florida, where the primary filming location became Disney's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa at Walt Disney World. Other filming locations at Walt Disney World included Disney's Old Key West Resort, Disney's Fort Wilderness Resort & Campground, and Epcot, used heavily due to the wide variety of futuristic and international architectural styles available at that theme park. The destruction of the school featured in the two-part episode "Deadly Lessons" was an actual controlled demolition of a school building in Central Florida that the production company agreed to perform in exchange for filming rights. Stetson University in DeLand, Florida was utilized for an episode.


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: On the release of the DVD collection in 2006, the series was reviewed by David Cornelius of DVD Talk:


title: Thunder in Paradise

text: Cornelius admits to giving the series a higher rating than usual, and selectively recommends it but warns "Those not so fond of Bad Movie fun, meanwhile, should obviously Skip It." In 2008, "Entertainment Weekly" ranked it as the "cheesiest" syndicated TV series.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: L'Alpe d'Huez () is a ski resort in southeastern France at . It is a mountain pasture in the Central French Western Alps, in the commune of Huez, which is part of the department of Isère in the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: It is part of the massif, over the Oisans, and is from Grenoble. The Alpe d'Huez resort is accessible from Grenoble by the , which runs along the Romanche Valley passing through the communes of Livet-et-Gavet and Le Bourg-d'Oisans as well as Haut-Oisans via the Col de Sarenne.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Alpe d'Huez is known internationally as an iconic cycling venue, as it is used regularly in the Tour de France cycle race, including twice on the same day in 2013. In 2019, it became the site of the first Tomorrowland Winter festival.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The site of the Alpe has been permanently occupied since the Middle Ages. East of "L'Alpe veti", a medieval agglomeration had grown from the end of the 11th to the 14th century under the name of Brandes. It was composed of a castle, a parish church with a cemetery, a village with about 80 homes, surface and underground mine workings, as well as several industrial districts. Its occupants operated a silver mine on behalf of the Dauphin. It is currently the only medieval known and preserved in its entirety, making it a unique site in Europe and classified as historical monuments by a decree of 6 August 1995.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Excavated and studied continuously since 1977 by a team of the CNRS, this site is registered as an historic monument. The medieval mining operation stretched from Gua (the Valley) to the Lac Blanc [White Lake] (Massif des Rousses). The massif was also the subject of mining operations, including copper, from the Bronze Age.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The station was developed from the 1920s. This is where the first platter lift for skiers was opened in 1936 with perches by , creator of the Poma company.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Alpe d'Huez also has an altiport, the Alpe d'Huez Airport, built for the 10th Winter Olympics held at Grenoble in 1968. It was named for on 15 April 2000, in memory of the famous mountain pilot. The altiport hosts helicopters including those of civil security, SAF Helicopteres and the Dauphiné flying club. A gourmet restaurant is located on the edge of the platform.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Alpe d'Huez has a modern and original church, the appearance of which recalls a silhouette of the Virgin Mary. Under the leadership of Father Jaap Reuten, head of the parish from 1964 to 1992, it was designed by the architect Jean Marol in the 1960s (completed in 1970), and decorated with colour-rich stained-glass windows by the artist Arcabas.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: This church houses a pipe organ which is unique in the world. The organ takes the form of a hand drawn up towards the sky, designed by composer Jean Guillou and the German organ builder Detlef Kleuker. Each year, concerts are held around this instrument on Thursday night, winter and summer, as well as organ, pan flute and choral courses during the summer.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Alpe d'Huez is one of Europe's premier skiing venues. The site of the Pomagalski's first surface lift in the mid thirties, the resort gained popularity when it hosted the bobsleigh events of the 1968 Winter Olympics. At that time the resort was seen as a competitor to Courchevel as France's most upmarket purpose built resort but the development of Les Trois Vallées, Val d'Isère, Tignes, La Plagne and Les Arcs saw Alpe D'Huez fall from favour in the 1970s and early 1980s.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: With of piste and 84 ski lifts, the resort is now one of the world's largest. Extensive snowmaking facilities helped combat the ski area's largely south-facing orientation and helped Alpe d'Huez appeal to beginner skiers, with very easy slopes. The expansion of the skiing above the linked resorts of Vaujany, Oz-en-Oisans, Villard Reculas and Auris boosted the quantity and quality of intermediate grade slopes but the resort is mostly known for freeskiing, drawing many steep skiing enthusiasts to its high altitude terrain.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Aside from the Tunnel and Sarenne black runs, the latter the world's longest at , many Off-piste opportunities exist both from the summit of the Pic Blanc and the Dome des Petites Rousses. These include the 50-degree Cheminees du Mascle couloirs, the open powder field of Le Grand Sablat, the Couloir Fleur and the Perrins bowl. Up to of vertical descent are available with heli drops back to the resort's altiport. The proximity to the exclusively off-piste resort of La Grave as well as tree skiing at Serre Chevalier and the glacier and terrain parks of Les Deux Alpes have made Alpe d'Huez a popular base for skiers looking to explore the Oisans region.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Alpe d'Huez hosted the bobsleigh events at the 1968 Winter Olympics based at Grenoble away. The track, built in spring 1966 for FRF 5.5 million, hosted the World Championships in 1967. The cooling could not keep the ice solid in bright daylight – not least because the track faced south. The four-man event was cancelled because of thawing ice, and modifications were made that spring to prepare for the Games. The refrigeration system was strengthened in turns 6, 9, 12, and 13; turn 12 was covered with stone and earthwork to prevent concrete coming up, turn 12 was cooled with liquid nitrogen, and shades were built on turns 6, 9, 12, and 13 to minimise direct sunlight. Thawing remained a problem and Olympic bobsleigh events had to be scheduled before sunrise. The track closed in 1972 due to high operating costs; the structure remains as demolition was not economical.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The climb to the summit starts at Le Bourg d'Oisans in the Romanche valley. The climb goes via the D211 from where the distance to the summit (at ) is , with an average gradient of 8.1%, with 21 hairpin bends and a maximum gradient of 13%.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: L'Alpe d'Huez is climbed regularly in the Tour de France. It was first included in the race in 1952 and has been a stage finish regularly since 1976. The race was brought to the mountain by Élie Wermelinger, the chief commissaire or referee. He drove his Panhard Dyna car between snow banks that lined the road in March 1952, invited by a consortium of businesses who had opened hotels at the summit. Their leader was Georges Rajon, who ran the Hotel Christina. The ski station there opened in 1936. Wermelinger reported to the organiser, Jacques Goddet, and the Tour signed a contract with the businessmen to include the Alpe. It cost them the modern equivalent of €3,250.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: That first Alpe d'Huez stage was won in 1952 by Fausto Coppi. Coppi attacked from the summit to rid himself of the French rider Jean Robic. This was the year that motorcycle television crews first came to the Tour. It was also the Tour's first mountain-top finish. The veteran reporter, Jacques Augendre, said:


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Augendre omitted Laurent Fignon, who, along with Coppi and Armstrong, took yellow on the Alpe without winning the stage in 1983, 1984, and 1989. He held it into Paris in 1983 and 1984 but in 1989 he lost it on the final stage to Paris, a time trial, to Greg LeMond to finish second by 8", the closest finish in tour history.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: After Coppi's win, the Alpe was dropped until 1964, when it was included as a mid-stage climb, and then again until 1976, both times at Rajon's instigation. The hairpin bends are named after the winners of stages. All hairpins had been named by the 22nd climb in 2001 so naming restarted at the bottom with Lance Armstrong's name added to Coppi's.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Stage 18 of the 2013 Tour de France included a double ascent of the climb, reaching on the first passage, and continuing to the traditional finish on the second.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Only one rider has won the Alpe stage while in yellow, Geraint Thomas in the second of two back to back Alpine stage wins in 2018. He also held on to win the overall Tour.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: French journalist and "L'Équipe" sportswriter Jean-Paul Vespini wrote a book about Alpe d'Huez and its role in the Tour de France: "The Tour Is Won on the Alpe: Alpe d'Huez and the Classic Battles of the Tour de France".


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The Alpe has chaotic crowds of spectators. In 1999, Giuseppe Guerini won despite being knocked off by a spectator who stepped into his path to take a photograph. The 2004 individual time trial became chaotic when fans pushed riders toward the top. Attendance figures on the mountain have to be treated with caution. A million spectators were claimed for 1997. Eric Muller, the mayor of Alpe d'Huez, however, said there were 350,000 in 2001, four years later despite acceptance that the number rises every year. "We expect more than 400,000 for the centenary race in 2003", he said. The author Tim Moore wrote:


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: As a variant on a sporting theme, Alpe d'Huez annoys the purists but enthrals the broader public, like 20/20 cricket or beach volleyball. Last year, a full-blown tent-stamping riot had required heavy police intervention. During this year's clean-up operation, down in a ravine with the bottle shards and dented emulsion tins, a body turned up. He'd fallen off the mountain and no one had noticed. When the Tour goes up Alpe d'Huez, it's a squalid, manic and sometimes lethal shambles, and that's just the way they like it. It's the Glastonbury Festival for cycling fans.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Alpe d'Huez has been nicknamed the "Dutch Mountain", since Dutchmen won eight of the first 14 finishes in le Tour De France. British author Geoffrey Nicholson wrote:


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The attraction of opposites draws [Dutch spectators] from the Low Countries to the Alps each summer in any case. But all winter in the Netherlands coach companies offer two or three nights at Alpe d'Huez as a special feature of their alpine tours. And those Dutch families who don't come by coach, park their campers and pitch their tents along the narrow ledges beside the road like sea-birds nesting at St Kilda. The Dutch haven't adopted the Alpe d'Huez simply because it is sunny and agreeable, or even because the modern, funnel-shaped church, Notre Dame des Neiges, has a Dutch priest, Father Reuten (until a few years ago, it was used as a press room and was probably the only church in France where, for one day at least, there were ashtrays in the nave and a bar in the vestry, or where an organist was once asked to leave because he was disturbing the writers' concentration). No, what draws the Dutch to Alpe d'Huez is the remarkable run of success their riders have had there".


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1952: Jean Robic attacked at the start of the climb and only Fausto Coppi could stay with him. The two climbed together until Coppi attacked at bend five, from the top. He won the stage, the lead in the general classification, and kept it till the end of the race.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1977: Lucien Van Impe, a Belgian rider leading the climbers' competition, broke clear on the Col du Glandon. He gained enough time to threaten the leader, Bernard Thévenet. He was still clear on the Alpe when a car drove into him. The time that Van Impe lost waiting for another wheel may have been enough to cost him the Yellow Jersey, as Thévenet and Hennie Kuiper charged on to the finish with Thévenet remaining in the lead by eight seconds over Kuiper.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1978: Another Belgian leading the mountains race also came close to taking the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification. Michel Pollentier also finished alone, but he was caught soon afterwards defrauding a drugs control and was disqualified. Due to this disqualification Dutch rider Joop Zoetemelk, who finished 3rd on the stage and would have climbed to 2nd in the General Classification, took over the yellow jersey, but would lose it on the final time trial to Bernard Hinault. Zoetemelk has his name on two of the hairpin turns at Alp d'Huez being one of the select few riders to win this stage twice; once in 1976 and once in 1979.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1984: The Tour invited amateurs to take part in the 1980s. The best was Luis Herrera, who lived at altitude in Colombia. None of the professionals could follow him. He won alone to the cacophony of broadcasters who had arrived to report his progress.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1986: Bernard Hinault said he would help Greg LeMond win the Tour but appeared to ride otherwise. The two crossed the line arm in arm in an apparent sign of truce creating a moment that has become one of the most iconic photographs in Tour history.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1997: Marco Pantani, who won on the Alpe two years earlier, attacked three times and only Jan Ullrich could match him. He lasted until from the summit and Pantani rode on alone to win in what is often quoted as record speed (see below).


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 1999: Giuseppe Guerini, who broke away on his own, collided with a spectator but got up and went on to win the stage.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 2001: Lance Armstrong feigned vulnerability earlier in the stage, appearing to be having an off-day. At the bottom of the Alpe d'Huez climb, Armstrong moved to the front of the lead group of riders and then looked back at Jan Ullrich. Armstrong later commented that he wasn't looking back at Ullrich but was actually looking back to see the position of his teammate Chechu Rubiera. Seeing no response from Ullrich, Armstrong accelerated away from the field to claim the victory, 1:59 ahead of Ullrich. Armstrong would later be stripped of this achievement and his tour win by his conviction for doping in 2012. His name however, is still honored on one of the 21 signs of previous winners, lining the hairpin turns of Alpe d'Huez.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 2013: Christophe Riblon won the stage at the summit of Alpe d'Huez during the 100th edition of the Tour. For the first time ever, riders rode up the climb twice with the descent over the Col de Sarenne in between.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 2018: Geraint Thomas, Tom Dumoulin, Chris Froome, Romain Bardet and Mikel Landa were able to catch Steven Kruijswijk, who had been on a 70 km solo attack, about 2/3 of the way up the climb and with about 500 meters to go Thomas dropped the remaining elite riders to become the first rider to win the Alpe d’Huez stage while wearing the yellow jersey.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: 2022: World cyclo-cross and Olympic mountain-bike champion Tom Pidcock, riding his first Tour, broke away on the Galibier descent, before going solo from a break including four-time Tour winner Chris Froome with around 8 km to go and won on the Alpe, the youngest winner on the Alpe in Tour de France history.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: † Stage 18 of the 2013 Tour climbed to Alpe d'Huez twice. Moreno Moser was the leader at the first time over the summit.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The climb has been timed since 1994 so earlier times are subject to discussion. From 1994 to 1997 the climb was timed from from the finish. Since 1999 photo-finish has been used from . Other times have been taken from the summit, which is the start of the climb. Others have been taken from the junction from the start.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: These variations have led to a debate. Pantani's 37m 35s has been cited by "Procycling" and World Cycling Productions, publisher of Tour de France DVDs, and by "Cycle Sport". In a biography of Pantani, Matt Rendell notes Pantani at: 1994 – 38m 0s; 1995 – 38m 4s; 1997 – 37m 35s. The Alpe tourist association describes the climb as and lists Pantani's 37m 35s (23.08 km/h) as the record.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Other sources give Pantani's times from 1994, 1995 and 1997 as the fastest, based on timings adjusted for the . Such sources list Pantani's time in 1995 as the record at 36m 40s. In "Blazing Saddles", Rendell has changed his view and listed it as 36m 50s as does CyclingNews. Second, third, and fourth fastest are Pantani in 1997 (36m 55s), Pantani in 1994 (37m 15s) and Lance Armstrong in 2004 (37m 36s). Jan Ullrich's time in 1997 (37m 41s) makes him the fifth fastest, highlighting how the 1990s had faster ascents than other eras.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: A number of cycling publications cite times prior to 1994, although distances are typically not included, making comparisons difficult. Coppi has been listed with 45m 22s for 1952.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: In the 1980s Gert-Jan Theunisse, Pedro Delgado, Luis Herrera, and Laurent Fignon rode in times stated to be faster than Coppi's, but still not breaking 40m. Greg LeMond and Bernard Hinault have been reported as having the times of 48m 0s in 1986.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: It was not until Gianni Bugno and Miguel Indurain in 1991, that times faster than 40m were reported, including in the 39m range for Bjarne Riis in 1995 and Richard Virenque in 1997.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: †Lance Armstrong, and Floyd Landis admitted to doping and had the Tour de France titles withdrawn. Jan Ullrich also admitted to doping, Marco Pantani also had a confirmed hematocrit level over 50 in 1999 and Virenque was implicated in what, at the time, was the biggest doping scandal in Tour history.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: The resort caters for mountain bikers during the summer months, the pinnacle of which is the Megavalanche, a 'Downhill Enduro' Event that takes riders from lift station at the highest peak, Pic Blanc, to Allemont in the valley floor.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: Since 2006 Cyrille Neveu has organized the Triathlon EDF Alpe d'Huez, which has become a major summer attraction.


title: Alpe d'Huez

text: In 2018, the virtual cycling training and racing program Zwift released a recreation of the Alpe d'Huez climb called Alpe du Zwift. This virtual version of the climb was created using GPS data from the original route to copy it perfectly in both gradient and distance.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Mathematical and theoretical biology, or biomathematics, is a branch of biology which employs theoretical analysis, mathematical models and abstractions of the living organisms to investigate the principles that govern the structure, development and behavior of the systems, as opposed to experimental biology which deals with the conduction of experiments to prove and validate the scientific theories. The field is sometimes called mathematical biology or biomathematics to stress the mathematical side, or theoretical biology to stress the biological side. Theoretical biology focuses more on the development of theoretical principles for biology while mathematical biology focuses on the use of mathematical tools to study biological systems, even though the two terms are sometimes interchanged.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Mathematical biology aims at the mathematical representation and modeling of biological processes, using techniques and tools of applied mathematics. It can be useful in both theoretical and practical research. Describing systems in a quantitative manner means their behavior can be better simulated, and hence properties can be predicted that might not be evident to the experimenter. This requires precise mathematical models.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Because of the complexity of the living systems, theoretical biology employs several fields of mathematics, and has contributed to the development of new techniques.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Mathematics has been used in biology as early as the 13th century, when Fibonacci used the famous Fibonacci series to describe a growing population of rabbits. In the 18th century Daniel Bernoulli applied mathematics to describe the effect of smallpox on the human population. Thomas Malthus' 1789 essay on the growth of the human population was based on the concept of exponential growth. Pierre François Verhulst formulated the logistic growth model in 1836.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Fritz Müller described the evolutionary benefits of what is now called Müllerian mimicry in 1879, in an account notable for being the first use of a mathematical argument in evolutionary ecology to show how powerful the effect of natural selection would be, unless one includes Malthus's discussion of the effects of population growth that influenced Charles Darwin: Malthus argued that growth would be exponential (he uses the word "geometric") while resources (the environment's carrying capacity) could only grow arithmetically.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: The term "theoretical biology" was first used as a monograph title by Johannes Reinke in 1901, and soon after by Jakob von Uexküll in 1920. One founding text is considered to be On Growth and Form (1917) by D'Arcy Thompson, and other early pioneers include Ronald Fisher, Hans Leo Przibram, Vito Volterra, Nicolas Rashevsky and Conrad Hal Waddington.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Several areas of specialized research in mathematical and theoretical biology as well as external links to related projects in various universities are concisely presented in the following subsections, including also a large number of appropriate validating references from a list of several thousands of published authors contributing to this field. Many of the included examples are characterised by highly complex, nonlinear, and supercomplex mechanisms, as it is being increasingly recognised that the result of such interactions may only be understood through a combination of mathematical, logical, physical/chemical, molecular and computational models.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Abstract relational biology (ARB) is concerned with the study of general, relational models of complex biological systems, usually abstracting out specific morphological, or anatomical, structures. Some of the simplest models in ARB are the Metabolic-Replication, or (M,R)--systems introduced by Robert Rosen in 1957-1958 as abstract, relational models of cellular and organismal organization.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Other approaches include the notion of autopoiesis developed by Maturana and Varela, Kauffman's Work-Constraints cycles, and more recently the notion of closure of constraints.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Algebraic biology (also known as symbolic systems biology) applies the algebraic methods of symbolic computation to the study of biological problems, especially in genomics, proteomics, analysis of molecular structures and study of genes.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: An elaboration of systems biology to understand the more complex life processes was developed since 1970 in connection with molecular set theory, relational biology and algebraic biology.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: A monograph on this topic summarizes an extensive amount of published research in this area up to 1986, including subsections in the following areas: computer modeling in biology and medicine, arterial system models, neuron models, biochemical and oscillation networks, quantum automata, quantum computers in molecular biology and genetics, cancer modelling, neural nets, genetic networks, abstract categories in relational biology, metabolic-replication systems, category theory applications in biology and medicine, automata theory, cellular automata, tessellation models and complete self-reproduction, chaotic systems in organisms, relational biology and organismic theories.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Computational neuroscience (also known as theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience) is the theoretical study of the nervous system.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Ecology and evolutionary biology have traditionally been the dominant fields of mathematical biology.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Evolutionary biology has been the subject of extensive mathematical theorizing. The traditional approach in this area, which includes complications from genetics, is population genetics. Most population geneticists consider the appearance of new alleles by mutation, the appearance of new genotypes by recombination, and changes in the frequencies of existing alleles and genotypes at a small number of gene loci. When infinitesimal effects at a large number of gene loci are considered, together with the assumption of linkage equilibrium or quasi-linkage equilibrium, one derives quantitative genetics. Ronald Fisher made fundamental advances in statistics, such as analysis of variance, via his work on quantitative genetics. Another important branch of population genetics that led to the extensive development of coalescent theory is phylogenetics. Phylogenetics is an area that deals with the reconstruction and analysis of phylogenetic (evolutionary) trees and networks based on inherited characteristics Traditional population genetic models deal with alleles and genotypes, and are frequently stochastic.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Many population genetics models assume that population sizes are constant. Variable population sizes, often in the absence of genetic variation, are treated by the field of population dynamics. Work in this area dates back to the 19th century, and even as far as 1798 when Thomas Malthus formulated the first principle of population dynamics, which later became known as the Malthusian growth model. The Lotka–Volterra predator-prey equations are another famous example. Population dynamics overlap with another active area of research in mathematical biology: mathematical epidemiology, the study of infectious disease affecting populations. Various models of the spread of infections have been proposed and analyzed, and provide important results that may be applied to health policy decisions.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: In evolutionary game theory, developed first by John Maynard Smith and George R. Price, selection acts directly on inherited phenotypes, without genetic complications. This approach has been mathematically refined to produce the field of adaptive dynamics.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: The earlier stages of mathematical biology were dominated by mathematical biophysics, described as the application of mathematics in biophysics, often involving specific physical/mathematical models of biosystems and their components or compartments.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: A fixed mapping between an initial state and a final state. Starting from an initial condition and moving forward in time, a deterministic process always generates the same trajectory, and no two trajectories cross in state space.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: A random mapping between an initial state and a final state, making the state of the system a random variable with a corresponding probability distribution.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: One classic work in this area is Alan Turing's paper on morphogenesis entitled "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis", published in 1952 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: A model of a biological system is converted into a system of equations, although the word 'model' is often used synonymously with the system of corresponding equations. The solution of the equations, by either analytical or numerical means, describes how the biological system behaves either over time or at equilibrium. There are many different types of equations and the type of behavior that can occur is dependent on both the model and the equations used. The model often makes assumptions about the system. The equations may also make assumptions about the nature of what may occur.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Molecular set theory (MST) is a mathematical formulation of the wide-sense chemical kinetics of biomolecular reactions in terms of sets of molecules and their chemical transformations represented by set-theoretical mappings between molecular sets. It was introduced by Anthony Bartholomay, and its applications were developed in mathematical biology and especially in mathematical medicine.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: In a more general sense, MST is the theory of molecular categories defined as categories of molecular sets and their chemical transformations represented as set-theoretical mappings of molecular sets. The theory has also contributed to biostatistics and the formulation of clinical biochemistry problems in mathematical formulations of pathological, biochemical changes of interest to Physiology, Clinical Biochemistry and Medicine.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: Theoretical approaches to biological organization aim to understand the interdependence between the parts of organisms. They emphasize the circularities that these interdependences lead to. Theoretical biologists developed several concepts to formalize this idea.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: For example, abstract relational biology (ARB) is concerned with the study of general, relational models of complex biological systems, usually abstracting out specific morphological, or anatomical, structures. Some of the simplest models in ARB are the Metabolic-Replication, or (M,R)--systems introduced by Robert Rosen in 1957-1958 as abstract, relational models of cellular and organismal organization.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: The eukaryotic cell cycle is very complex and is one of the most studied topics, since its misregulation leads to cancers.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: It is possibly a good example of a mathematical model as it deals with simple calculus but gives valid results. Two research groups have produced several models of the cell cycle simulating several organisms. They have recently produced a generic eukaryotic cell cycle model that can represent a particular eukaryote depending on the values of the parameters, demonstrating that the idiosyncrasies of the individual cell cycles are due to different protein concentrations and affinities, while the underlying mechanisms are conserved (Csikasz-Nagy et al., 2006).


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: By means of a system of ordinary differential equations these models show the change in time (dynamical system) of the protein inside a single typical cell; this type of model is called a deterministic process (whereas a model describing a statistical distribution of protein concentrations in a population of cells is called a stochastic process).


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: To obtain these equations an iterative series of steps must be done: first the several models and observations are combined to form a consensus diagram and the appropriate kinetic laws are chosen to write the differential equations, such as rate kinetics for stoichiometric reactions, Michaelis-Menten kinetics for enzyme substrate reactions and Goldbeter–Koshland kinetics for ultrasensitive transcription factors, afterwards the parameters of the equations (rate constants, enzyme efficiency coefficients and Michaelis constants) must be fitted to match observations; when they cannot be fitted the kinetic equation is revised and when that is not possible the wiring diagram is modified. The parameters are fitted and validated using observations of both wild type and mutants, such as protein half-life and cell size.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: To fit the parameters, the differential equations must be studied. This can be done either by simulation or by analysis. In a simulation, given a starting vector (list of the values of the variables), the progression of the system is calculated by solving the equations at each time-frame in small increments.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: A better representation, which handles the large number of variables and parameters, is a bifurcation diagram using bifurcation theory. The presence of these special steady-state points at certain values of a parameter (e.g. mass) is represented by a point and once the parameter passes a certain value, a qualitative change occurs, called a bifurcation, in which the nature of the space changes, with profound consequences for the protein concentrations: the cell cycle has phases (partially corresponding to G1 and G2) in which mass, via a stable point, controls cyclin levels, and phases (S and M phases) in which the concentrations change independently, but once the phase has changed at a bifurcation event (Cell cycle checkpoint), the system cannot go back to the previous levels since at the current mass the vector field is profoundly different and the mass cannot be reversed back through the bifurcation event, making a checkpoint irreversible. In particular the S and M checkpoints are regulated by means of special bifurcations called a Hopf bifurcation and an infinite period bifurcation.


title: Mathematical and theoretical biology

text: "Biologist Salary | Payscale". Payscale.Com, 2021, https://www.payscale.com/research/US/Job=Biologist/Salary. Accessed 3 May 2021.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: The 2022 Monaco Grand Prix (officially known as the Formula 1 Grand Prix de Monaco 2022) was a Formula One motor race held on 29 May 2022 at the Circuit de Monaco in the Principality of Monaco. It was round 7 of 22 in the 2022 Formula One World Championship.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: Charles Leclerc took pole in front of Carlos Sainz Jr. and Sergio Pérez. The race started with a rolling start after a 65-minute delay. Leclerc lost the race lead to strategy error and dropped down to fourth place behind Max Verstappen and Sainz, as Pérez won the race.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: Max Verstappen was the Drivers' Championship leader after the sixth round, the Spanish Grand Prix, with 110 points, 6 ahead of Charles Leclerc in second, with Sergio Pérez in third, 25 points behind Verstappen. In the Constructors' Championship, Red Bull Racing led Ferrari by 26 points and Mercedes by 75.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: The drivers and teams were the same as the season entry list with no additional stand-in drivers for the race.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the C3, C4, and C5 tyre compounds (designated hard, medium, and soft, respectively) for teams to use at the event.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: Three free practice sessions were scheduled per the sport's regulations. In defiance of Monaco tradition, for the first time the first two sessions were not held on Thursday but on Friday, in balance with the other Grand Prix weekends during the season. The first two practice sessions took place at 14:00 and 17:00 local time (), respectively, on 27 May. Charles Leclerc led both sessions, ahead of Sergio Pérez and Carlos Sainz Jr. in the first session, and ahead of Sainz and Pérez in the second session. Both sessions also had one red flag each; in the first session, it was after Mick Schumacher stopped by the pit lane with a gearbox issue, while Daniel Ricciardo had a crash in the second session. The final session took place on 28 May, 13:00 local time, ahead of the qualifying practice session. Pèrez was the fastest ahead of Leclerc and Sainz.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: In the first segment of qualifying, there was a red flag after Yuki Tsunoda clipped the barrier, and Alexander Albon, Pierre Gasly, Lance Stroll, Nicholas Latifi, and Zhou Guanyu were eliminated from the session; some drivers, such as Valtteri Bottas, Gasly, Lewis Hamilton, and Zhou, were not able to have a final lap due to traffic and crossed the line on the checkered flag. In the second segment, Tsunoda, Bottas, Kevin Magnussen, Daniel Ricciardo, and Schumacher were eliminated.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: In the third and final segment Sergio Pérez spun and crashed before the tunnel section, and was then hit by Carlos Sainz Jr., who saw the yellow flags too late. The red flag was thrown, and the session ended was not resumed, with the 30-seconds left on the clock not sufficient for anyone to start another lap. Charles Leclerc, who led all three qualifying sessions, took the pole position ahead of Sainz and Pérez. Championship leader Max Verstappen finished fourth, with Lando Norris, George Russell, Fernando Alonso, who crashed on his own at Mirabeau in his last flying lap, Hamilton, Sebastian Vettel, and Esteban Ocon completing the top ten.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: The race was due to start at 15:00 local time on 29 May and was scheduled to last for 78 laps. The race start was first delayed to 15:09, as heavy rain was identified approaching the circuit. The delay was to give teams time to switch to wet tyres before the start. Two formation laps were run at 15:16, before the decision was made to suspend the start procedure due to the rain intensity, and all cars were directed to the pit lane. In the interval between 15:16 and 16:05, a power failure to the start signalling systems, including the starting gantry and signal light panels, caused further delay. This failure, even after repaired, cast doubt on the ability to perform a standing start at all, and rolling starts were used for the rest of the race session. The two formation laps reduced the scheduled distance of the race by one lap, to 77.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: The race began as the safety car led the field out of the pit lane at 16:05, with all drivers on wet tyres and a rolling start planned. Nicholas Latifi went long at the hairpin and Lance Stroll hit the barriers at Massenet while still behind the safety car; both went to the pit lane to fix their cars. On the lap 3 rolling start, pole-sitter Charles Leclerc led the race ahead of Carlos Sainz Jr., Sergio Pérez, Max Verstappen, and Lando Norris. The rain had stopped, and Pierre Gasly opted for intermediate tyres on lap 4, which was followed by other drivers at the back of the grid; he overtook Zhou Guanyu and Daniel Ricciardo on laps 12 and 15, respectively. By lap 14, Leclerc had built a lead of 4.7 seconds over Sainz, who was ahead of Pérez by 2.6 seconds, and Verstappen a few seconds further behind.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: On lap 17, Pérez pitted for intermediate tyres, followed by Verstappen and Leclerc on lap 19. This left Sainz in the lead, the only driver in the top four still on wet tyres. Further back in the field, Esteban Ocon and Lewis Hamilton collided without damage on lap 18, and Ocon was given a five-second time penalty for the contact; on lap 20, Hamilton attempted to pass Ocon but did not succeed. On lap 21, race leader Sainz was instructed to pit, to swap from wet tyres directly to slick tyres. Leclerc, his teammate behind him in third, was first told via team radio to pit, and then not after he had already committed to the pit lane; both Ferrari cars pitted, with Sainz and Leclerc switching to the hard tyre. Due to Leclerc pitting immediately after Sainz (causing a delay to his servicing) and the lapped cars of Alexander Albon and Latifi on their out lap, Leclerc fell back to fourth behind Verstappen, while Sainz re-joined the track in second, behind Pérez and ahead of Verstappen, with Red Bull's overcut succeeding.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: On lap 24, Mick Schumacher lost control of his car through the swimming pool section, crashing into the barriers. Although the car lost the rear and split in half, Schumacher came out of the accident unscathed. This led to a virtual safety car, then a full safety car, before the race was suspended with a red flag, given the need to repair the barriers. In red flag conditions, teams are permitted to change tyres as they choose. Both Ferrari cars kept the hard tyres they had been running on, while the Red Bull cars switched to new medium tyres. The race resumed at 17:15 under the safety car with a second rolling start. At the restart, Pérez led Sainz, ahead of Verstappen, Leclerc, George Russell, Lando Norris, and Fernando Alonso, who was able to maintain track position despite having a slower pace of several seconds. On lap 51, Norris went to the pits for medium tyres, while Zhou tried to overtake Yuki Tsunoda at the exit of the tunnel but almost lost control of the car. In the final laps, Pérez suffered graining on the tyres but was able keep the lead and win the race, ahead of Sainz, Verstappen, Leclerc, and Russell completing the top five. Norris, Alonso, Hamilton, Valtteri Bottas, and Sebastian Vettel completed the top ten, with Ocon falling to 12th. Due to the numerous delays, the three-hour time limit for the race (including stoppages) was reached, and only 64 laps were completed.


title: 2022 Monaco Grand Prix

text: After the race, Leclerc described the race "a freaking disaster", and Ferrari team principal Mattia Binotto said they would investigate the strategical error. At the same time, Ferrari lodged a protest against Red Bull, alleging that both cars went over the line at the pit exit, asking for a five-second penalty, in reference to the 2020 Turkish Grand Prix, and a clarification of the rules. The stewards dismissed both protests after Ferrari conceded that the Red Bull cars tyres' did not go over the white line. The race director's notes had been wrongly copied and pasted from 2021, and the rule had been changed from 2021 from "any part of the car" to "any tyre of the car" may not cross the line; had the rules not changed, Verstappen would have broken the rule. The FIA underwent further criticism, including by Formula One owners and Hamilton, for delaying the start.


title: Taxi dancer

text: A taxi dancer is a paid dance partner in a partner dance. Taxi dancers are hired to dance with their customers on a dance-by-dance basis. When taxi dancing first appeared in taxi-dance halls during the early 20th century in the United States, male patrons typically bought dance tickets for a small sum each.


title: Taxi dancer

text: When a patron presented a ticket to a chosen taxi dancer, she danced with him for the length of a song. She earned a commission on every dance ticket earned. Though taxi dancing has for the most part disappeared in the United States, it is still practised in some other countries.


title: Taxi dancer

text: The term "taxi dancer" comes from the fact that, as with a taxi-cab driver, the dancer's pay is proportional to the time he or she spends dancing with the customer. Patrons in a taxi-dance hall typically purchased dance tickets for ten cents each, which gave rise to the term "dime-a-dance girl". Other names for a taxi dancer are "dance hostess" and "taxi" (in Argentina). In the 1920s and 30s, the term "nickel hopper" gained popularity in the United States because out of each dime-a-dance, the taxi dancer typically earned five cents.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Taxi dancing traces its origins to the Barbary Coast district of San Francisco which evolved from the California Gold Rush of 1849. In its heyday the Barbary Coast was an economically thriving place of mostly men that was frequented by gold prospectors and sailors from all over the world. That district created a unique form of dance hall called the "Barbary Coast dance hall", also known as the "Forty-Nine ['49] dance hall". Within a Barbary Coast dance hall female employees danced with male patrons, and earned their living from commissions paid for by the drinks they could encourage their male dance partners to buy.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Still later after the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 and during early days of jazz music, a new entertainment district developed in San Francisco and was nicknamed Terrific Street. And within that district an innovative dance hall, "The So Different Club", implemented a system where customers could buy a token which entitled them to one dance with a female employee. Since dancing had become a popular pastime, many of the So Different Club's patrons went here to see and learn the latest new dances.


title: Taxi dancer

text: In 1913, San Francisco enacted a law against dancing in any cafe or saloon where alcohol was served. The closure of the dance halls on Terrific Street fostered a new kind of pay-to-dance scheme, called a "closed dance hall", which did not serve alcohol. That name was derived from the fact that female customers were not allowed – the only women permitted in these halls were the female employees. The closed dance hall introduced the "ticket-a-dance" system which became the centerpiece of the taxi-dance hall business model. A taxi dancer earned her income from the tickets she traded for dances.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Taxi dancing then spread to Chicago where dance academies, which were struggling to survive, began to adopt the ticket-a-dance system for their students. The first instance of the ticket-a-dance system in Chicago occurred at Mader-Johnson Dance Studios. The dance studio's owner, Godfrey Johnson, describes his innovation:


title: Taxi dancer

text: This system was so popular at dance academies that the taxi-dance system quickly spread to an increasing number of non-instructional dance halls.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Taxi dancers typically received half of the ticket price as wages and the other half paid for the orchestra, dance hall, and operating expenses. Although they only worked a few hours a night, they frequently made two to three times the salary of a woman working in a factory or a store. At that time, the taxi-dance hall surpassed the public ballroom in becoming the most popular place for urban dancing.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Taxi-dancing flourished in the United States during the 1920s and 1930s, as scores of taxi-dance halls opened in Chicago, New York, and other major cities. Like other nightlife venues, the taxi-dance hall ran the gamut from the classy establishment to the cramped and seedy hole-in-the-wall. Roseland in New York City, for example, which offered taxi dancing in the late 1930s, appealed to the more discerning patron. Far more common were halls catering to a working-class clientele. By the mid-1920s, taxi dancing had become a nightlife entertainment staple in many large American cities. Reflecting this popularity, the entertainment industry got into the act, releasing the crowd-pleasing song "Ten Cents a Dance" (1930) and the movies "The Taxi Dancer" (1927), with star Joan Crawford, and "Ten Cents a Dance" (1931), featuring Barbara Stanwyck. In 1931, there were over 100 taxi-dance halls in New York City alone, patronized by between 35,000 and 50,000 men every week.


title: Taxi dancer

text: At the same time taxi dancing was growing in popularity, the activity was coming under the increasing scrutiny of moral reformers in New York City and elsewhere, who deemed some dance halls dens of iniquity. To be sure, most establishments were properly run, respectable venues, but a handful were less so. In the less reputable halls, it was not uncommon to find charity girls engaged in treating working as dancers. Although treating activity did occur in a good number of halls, and even in some of the more respectable places, it rarely crossed into prostitution. The taxi dancers who engaged in treating, or the receipt of "presents," typically drew sharp distinctions between the activity and that of prostitution, but they often walked a fine line between the two. Periodically, licentious "close" dancing also was happening (see taxi dancer experience below) in some of the shady halls. Considered scandalous and obscene by many reformers, this kind of dancing was another concern to the authorities. Before long taxi-dance hall reform gained momentum, leading to licensing systems and more police supervision, and eventually some dance halls were closed for lewd behavior. In San Francisco where it all started, the police commission ruled against the employment of women as taxi dancers in 1921, and thereafter taxi dancing in San Francisco forever become illegal.


title: Taxi dancer

text: After World War II the popularity of taxi dancing in the United States began to diminish. By the mid-1950s large numbers of taxi-dance halls had disappeared, and although a handful of establishments tried to hold on for a few more years in New York City and elsewhere, taxi dancing had all but vanished from the nightlife scene in the U.S. by the 1960s.


title: Taxi dancer

text: In the 1920s and '30s, taxi-dancer work was seen by many as a questionable occupation, somewhat on the margins of proper society. Even though most taxi dance halls were respectable venues, staffed with ordinary young women just working to make a proper living, some establishments were more suspect. The less reputable halls tended to draw a rougher, lower-class clientele, as well as the ire of reformers, and the image of the taxi dancing profession as a whole suffered. Often the young women who took up taxi dancing determined not to tell their parents and neighbors about their employment, or just outright lied if queried.


title: Taxi dancer

text: The dance halls, which were often sparsely decorated and dimly lit, were usually located on the second floors of buildings in the nightlife areas of cities. Several taxi-dance halls, for instance, were located in New York City's Times Square. A barker was normally stationed outside the venue, and patrons typically had to climb a stairs to enter the establishment. Before admittance patrons had to buy a ticket or a set of dance tickets. Usually they were not allowed in free to survey the scene.


title: Taxi dancer

text: In the hall, the taxi dancers were usually gathered together behind a waist high rope or rail barricade on one side or corner of the room, and, as such, were not permitted to freely mingle with patrons. Because the male patron selected his dancing partner, the dancers had to appeal to him from their quarantined position. This produced a competitive situation, and on slow nights, which were not uncommon, the taxi dancers often cooed and coaxed to draw attention in their direction. In time, and with more experience, a dancer usually developed some sort of distinctiveness or mannerism, in dress or personality, to attract the male patron. Those who did not were often not successful. Once selected, the taxi dancer tried to build a rapport with her partner so he stayed with her, dance after dance. Successful taxi dancers usually had a few patrons who came to a hall solely to dance with them, and for long periods. In some of the less reputable establishments the dancing at times was particularly close; the dancer used her thighs to make her partner erect, and if encouraged to continue, ejaculate.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Patrons who tired of dancing but wished to continue talking with a taxi dancer usually could do so. A section in the dance hall with tables and chairs was reserved for this purpose. It was called "talk time," although other terms were used. In 1939, at the Honeymoon Lane Danceland in Times Square, the fee to sit and chat with a dancer was six dollars an hour, a princely sum for the time. At Honeymoon, although the dancer and patron were able to sit side by side, a low fence-like structure separated them due to police regulations. It was not uncommon for taxi dancers to date patrons they had met in the dance halls, and this was generally acquiesced to by management. In 1923, author Henry Miller first met June, his second wife, at Wilson's Dancing Academy in Times Square where she was working as a taxi dancer. (Wilson's was later renamed the Orpheum Dance Palace in 1931.) Going by the alias June Mansfield or June Smith, she had started at Wilson's as a dance instructress in 1917 at age 15.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Generally, what is known today about the life and lives of the taxi dancer of the 1920s and 1930s comes from a major sociological study published by The University of Chicago Press in 1932 (see Classic sociological study below). According to the study, the typical taxi dancer of the period was an attractive young woman between the age 15 and 28 who was usually single. Although some dancers were undoubtedly older, the taxi-dancer profession tended to skew strongly toward the young and single. A majority of the young women came from homes in which there was little or no financial support from a father or father figure. The dancers were occasionally runaways from their families, and it was not unusual for a young woman to be from a home where the parents had separated. Despite their relatively young age range, a sizable percentage of taxi dancers had been previously married.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Often the dancers were immigrants from European countries, such as Poland, Sweden, the Netherlands, Germany, and France. Due to cultural differences, conflicts often arose between parents and their dancing offspring, especially if the parents were originally from rural areas. Sometimes a young woman of an immigrant family who worked as a taxi dancer was the primary financial support of the family. When this occurred and the young woman supplanted the parent or parents as breadwinner, sometimes she assumed an aggressive role in the family by "subordinating the parental standards to her own requirements and demands."


title: Taxi dancer

text: These conflicts in values between young women taxi dancers and their parents frequently caused the young women to lead so-called "double lives", denying that they worked at a taxi-dance hall. To further this divide, the young women sometimes adopted aliases so news of their activities might not reach their families' ears. When parents found out, there were three typical outcomes: the young woman either gave up her dancing career, left home estranged from the family or was encouraged to continue.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Despite the frequent hardships, many taxi dancers seemed to enjoy the lifestyle and its enticements of "money, excitement, and affection". Most young women interviewed for the study spoke favorably about their experiences in the taxi-dance hall.


title: Taxi dancer

text: In 1932, The University of Chicago Press published "The Taxi-Dance Hall: A Sociological Study in Commercialized Recreation and City Life" by researcher Paul G. Cressey. In its examination of Chicago's taxi-dancing milieu of the 1920s and early 1930s, the book, utilizing vivid, firsthand interviews of taxi dancers as well as their patrons, brought to light the little known world of the taxi dance hall. The study is now considered one of the classic urban ethnographies of the Chicago School.


title: Taxi dancer

text: As taxi dancing evolved to become a staple in the American nightlife of the 1920s and 30s, taxi dancers developed an argot of their own. In his 1932 sociological study, Cressey took note of the specialized vocabulary in the Chicago dance halls:


title: Taxi dancer

text: Although the ticket-per-dance system of taxi dancing has become nearly nonexistent in the United States and around the world, some nightclubs and dance instruction establishments continue to offer dancers who may be hired as dance partners. Most often these dance partners are female, but sometimes male. Instead of being called taxi dancers, the dancers are today usually referred to as "dance hostesses." Dance hostesses are often employed to assist beginners to learn to dance or may be utilized to further the general goal of building the dance community of an establishment.


title: Taxi dancer

text: In social settings and social forms of dance, a partner wanting constructive feedback from a dance hostess must explicitly request it. As the hostess's role is primarily social, she (or he) is unlikely to criticize directly. Due to the increased profile of partner dances during the 2000s, hostessing has become more common in settings where partners are in short supply, for either male or female dancers. For example, male dancers are often employed on cruise ships to dance with single female passengers. This system is usually referred to as the Dance Host program. Dance hostesses (male and female) are also available for hire in Vienna, Austria, where dozens of formal balls are held each year.


title: Taxi dancer

text: Volunteer dance hostesses (experienced male and female dancers) are often used in dance styles such as Ceroc to help beginners.


title: Taxi dancer

text: There remain a handful of nightclubs in the United States, particularly in the cities of New York and Los Angeles, where an individual can pay to dance with a female dance hostess. Usually these modern clubs forgo the use of the ticket-a-dance system, and instead have time-clocks and punch-cards that allow a patron to pay for the dancer's time by the hour. Some of these dance clubs operate in buildings where taxi dancing was done in the early 20th century. No longer called taxi-dance halls, these latter-day establishments are now called hostess clubs.