title: Some Nights (album)

text: "We Are Young" was released as the lead single from the album and bolstered the band to mainstream success with the aid of television and advertising. It topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100 for six weeks and Alternative Songs for two weeks, with over six million digital downloads. The title track was commissioned as the second single and has reached No. 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, selling 6.8 million digital downloads as well as becoming their second No. 1 on Alternative Songs. The band later won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist, and "We Are Young" won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year. Fun received four other Grammy nominations: two for "We Are Young" and two for the album itself.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: fun. signed to Fueled by Ramen in late 2010. Lead vocalist Nate Ruess, who had apprehensions about joining a major label in the past, recalled the switch being "very, very easy" for the group, stating that both parties approached it as if they "knew what [they] were getting into with each other." The transition was in the works with the label for almost nine months, when the head of the label reached out to the band. Ruess was flattered that employed workers for the label would buy their own tickets to Fun. shows and "talk about us with the passion you'd generally reserve for an artist you're working with." After lengthy discussions within the band, the band decided to give the label a try.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: Ruess recalls that he was listening to "so much hip-hop" during the production that it became a big influence for him, specifically Kanye West's "My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy". The band felt inspired and gradually began working on new songs, each carrying an obvious hip-hop influence. Consciously, the band began working in the hip-hop factor and realized they wanted a hip-hop producer. After scanning the liner notes of his other hip-hop records, Ruess noticed that Jeff Bhasker was one of the most common names. Bhasker was preoccupied at the time working with Beyoncé but Ruess was persistent in meeting with him.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The most common creative process in the recording of "Some Nights" began with Ruess. Ruess would come in with lyrics and a melody, leading Andrew Dost and guitarist Jack Antonoff to build chord structure and instrumentation from there, or "support that melody". Dost noted that in recording, despite the composer's well-defined framework, the individuals' egos "pretty much disappear" and "everybody is happy to work towards the best possible song" cohesively together. The dynamic between Bhasker and the band in the studio was mutually inspired, as Bhasker had never worked with a rock band before and Fun had never worked with a hip-hop producer. Bhasker particularly enjoyed recording guitars with guitarist Jack Antonoff as he wasn't used to it, and Dost felt hearing Bhasker compose beats was "mind-blowing".


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The emphasis for Ruess on "Some Nights" was to make the songs more cohesive, as he felt his writing was "all over the place". This meant creating songs that were concise instead of being "long and drawn out". Bhasker was a proponent of using a single instrument to provide the biggest sounds, desiring not to "over-cram [the] songs with ideas," declaring that everything that makes the song must be well-chosen. Janelle Monáe collaborated with the trio on "We Are Young" through a friendship with Bhasker. Bhasker was credited with bringing the band a bigger sound and an entirely new sonic translation to the band not present on their debut, "Aim and Ignite".


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album creates a mix of indie pop, theatric rock, and hip-hop—a sound that is credited to Bhasker. "Some Nights" as a title floated around before any songs for the album were even created and was envisioned by Ruess. It was inspired by how personalities can change on any given night. Ruess has attributed the phrasing "some nights" to a viral audio recording of newscasters bickering off the air. Although the album isn't a concept album, the title changed the band's ideas for the album considerably, with Dost stating, "It's really nice once you have a title to know what the parameters are of what you're working on as a whole." The band completed production on the album in October 2011. Ruess called the seven months spent recording the record the most rewarding of any in his ten years of professional music work, calling it his career highlight.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album and the band's music has received several comparisons to Queen. "Rolling Stone"'s Jody Rosen, called the album a mix of "close harmony chorales, showy key changes, a dash of Queen here, a dollop of Les Miz there". In an interview with "Fuse", producer Jeff Bhasker also stated that the album's lead single "We Are Young" "had a Queen/Freddie Mercury vibe to it". Marcus Glimer of "The A.V. Club" wrote that the album featured "more synthetic elements [keyboards and drum machines]" than their debut album "Aim and Ignite", and compared the beat to "All Alone" to a hip-hop track. NPR columnist Daoud Tyler-Ameen commented that the album might be the start of a new phase of music, in which musicians would infuse the "sounds and rhythms once associated with hip-hop" with their pop music.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album's lyrics have been called "plaintive", for dealing with themes of loneliness, self-worth, introspection, paranoia and existentialism, contrasting with the album's "anthemic" music. Tyler-Ameen considered the album "remarkable for its sheer optimism", despite the sad and mournful lyrics, Rosen wrote that "Ruess' knack for the anthemic is matched by Gen-Y humor – emo self-deprecation that leavens the bombast". while Marcus Gilmer praised Ruess' "prose-style lyrics", similar to his work in his previous band, The Format. Ruess later commented on the importance of lyrics to him, saying that he took "great pride" after he finished writing them. He also considered most lyrics written by current musicians to be "dumbed down", partially causing "rock music's current woes".


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album's lead single, "We Are Young", was highly successful, and bolstered the band into mainstream popularity in early 2012. The song caught attention through the Fox television series "Glee" covering it. The band was in shock at the news, with Dost saying that "that's just one of the coolest things that could possibly have happened." "Glee"'s cover of "We Are Young" was the show's highest selling debut single of their season and connected their listening audience to the band. Even after being benefited by the high-profile cover, "We Are Young" became the soundtrack to a Chevrolet spot that aired during Super Bowl XLVI, which brought Fun. to a type of exposure that "Billboard" noted "few current bands receive." The Chevrolet advertisement was credited by the "Los Angeles Times" for the song's chart success on iTunes: it went to number one on the Hot Digital Songs chart a week before the album's release. The song was performed on the MTV Movie Awards on June 4, 2012, alongside Janelle Monáe.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: As a thank-you to their fans for their support of the band, Fun. streamed "Some Nights" in advance on their official website a week before the album's release. November 3, 2012, the band performed "Some Nights" and "Carry On" on "Saturday Night Live", to promote the release of both singles.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: "All Alone" was performed on "" on April 19, and was released as the fifth and final single from the album on May 13, 2013, in the United Kingdom.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: "Some Nights" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 60, based on 21 reviews, which indicates "mixed or average reviews". "Rolling Stone"s Jody Rosen complimented the album's "classic bubble-pop tunefulness with rococo rock & roll". Sputnikmusic staff reviewer Adam Knott wrote, "The energy and personality which flood out of every melody give this album its own stamp of authority. It tips over into excess at rare moments, but even as you can hear those moments happening, they provoke grins inside and out." Ray Rahman of "Entertainment Weekly" was less positive, criticizing the album's second half as being inferior to the first. Morgan Troper of "PopMatters" wrote that "in a bizarre, inverted way, "Some Nights" is Nate Ruess coming into his own as a singer and songwriter," but was critical of Ruess' use of pop music conventions in the album's songs.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album was listed at number 43 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the top 50 albums of 2012, saying "Ruess' emo sweetness and self-doubting humor make "Some Nights" a castle you could feel at home in."


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album debuted at number three on the "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 70,000 copies in the United States. The album has been certified Platinum and has sold over 1.6 million copies as of February 2015.


title: Some Nights (album)

text: The album's lead single "We Are Young", became the first multi-member band debut to top the "Billboard" Hot 100 since Nickelback's "How You Remind Me" in December 2001. It also earned a footnote in chart history by becoming the first, and only, tune that has ever gained more than 300,000 downloads a week for seven weeks straight, topping three million downloads in all.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Junius Spencer Morgan I (April 14, 1813 – April 8, 1890) was an American banker and financier, as well as the father of John Pierpont "J.P." Morgan and patriarch to the Morgan banking house.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In 1864, he established J. S. Morgan & Co. in London as the successor to George Peabody & Co., of which he was junior partner. With his son's aid, Morgan grew his banking house into a trans-Atlantic financial empire that included firms in London, New York City, Philadelphia, and Paris. By the time of his death in 1890, the Morgan banks were dominant forces in government and railroad finance, and his was the pre-eminent American banking house.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: At the age of 13, he was enrolled at the American Literary, Scientific, and Military Academy (now Norwich University) in Middletown, Connecticut near the home of his mother's parents. After a year, he transferred to a private academy in East Windsor, Connecticut and spent summers working on his father's farm or assisting at his father's business office in Hartford.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: As was typical for aspiring businessmen of the time, Junius did not enroll in college, but was apprenticed to Alfred Welles, a Boston merchant banker, in 1829. He remained as a clerk for five years, gaining exposure to the banking industry, as well as a number of mercantile trades in Boston and New York.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: The Morgan name is traced to Carmarthen, Wales, with his earliest known ancestor being Hyfaidd ap Bleddri, third son of Bledri ap Cydifor of Wales. Miles Morgan, ancestor to the Morgan family in America, emigrated from Bristol, England to Boston in 1636.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Junius's father Joseph was a soldier in the Revolutionary Army and farmer in West Springfield, Massachusetts. He entered business in Connecticut, operating a tavern, coffee house, and stagecoach line, and was a founding partner in the Aetna Fire Insurance Company in 1819. He made a fortune with Aetna in 1835, when Aetna covered Wall Street firms destroyed in the Great Fire of New York. Joseph personally bought the stakes of Aetna investors who hesitated to pay on the policies. These prompt payments to the banks destroyed in the fire established Aetna's reputation on Wall Street and allowed the firm to triple its premiums in later years.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In April 1833, Alfred Welles offered Morgan a partnership in his firm; he accepted against his father's wishes. Within a year, the business struggled sufficiently that Joseph Morgan had to bail his son out and dissolve the partnership.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Soon thereafter, Morgan's father secured him a new partnership at Morris Ketchum's private bank on Wall Street, renamed Morgan Ketchum & Co. The firm did a general banking and brokerage business and had a few foreign clients.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In January 1836, Morgan's father bought him a partnership in the Hartford wholesale dry goods house of Howe Mather & Co., the largest in Hartford. He remained at the firm until his father's death in 1847.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: During the Panic of 1837, Morgan traveled the South in an effort to collect the firm's debts, in specie if possible but often in payments of cotton. He continued traveling to collect debts and purchase cotton through the ongoing depression into the 1840s, continuing to grow his reputation as a businessman in Hartford. In 1845, his father invested an additional $25,000 in the firm on Junius's behalf.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Soon after inheriting a fortune from his father's estate in 1847, Morgan was named senior partner at the rechristened Mather Morgan & Co. In 1850, he took a trip to London to meet with some of that city's leading merchant bankers, in hopes that he might expand his own firm into foreign trade and banking.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In fall 1850, Morgan arranged to go into business with James M. Beebe of Boston, a young merchant with a growing import business. One of the firm's two junior partners was future Governor of New York and U.S. Vice President Levi P. Morton.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: By February 1851, Morgan sold his stake in Howe & Mather for $600,000 and moved to Boston's Pemberton Square. He was soon among the nation's financial elite. The firm gave Morgan access to global markets, exporting and financing cotton and other goods shipped from Boston harbor.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: On May 15, 1853, at the recommendation of James Beebe, Morgan visited the American banker George Peabody in London. Peabody, who was in poor health, offered Morgan to join his banking house as a junior partner, to be made the senior partner upon Peabody's retirement in ten years. Peabody pledged the bank could continue to use his name and if necessary, some capital. Morgan demurred but eventually accepted, joining the firm as junior partner in October 1854.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Morgan's initial task was to strengthen and develop the firm's principal American accounts, using his first-hand knowledge of and connections to American business which Peabody, who had moved to London in 1836, lacked. Morgan spent his first few months working for Peabody in the United States, establishing contacts with American clients like Duncan, Sherman & Company, reaching out to new potential clients, and gathering information. During this period, Morgan first met Francis M. Drexel, founder of Drexel & Company, one of Philadelphia's leading banks. Drexel allied his bank with Peabody's through Morgan, forming one of the most powerful and important banking alliances in American history.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Upon Morgan's arrival in London in 1854, Peabody & Co. was immediately in a position of strength as a leading dealer in American securities in the city; American grain, cotton, and railroad values soared during and after the Crimean War. Morgan was placed in charge of much of the firm's iron portfolio, which included the marketing of railroad bonds in both New York and London. The iron business had drawn the firm into greater involvement in financing American railway construction, including as the initial offeror of bonds for the Ohio and Mississippi Rail Road Company in 1853. Built around a core of booming American railway securities, the firm established itself in several other markets, including the New York money market and government finance.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: By 1856, Peabody was confident enough in Morgan to leave him in sole care of the business while Peabody took an extended tour of the United States.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: The railway boom ended in 1857 and prices collapsed, leading to rumors in London that Peabody & Co. was on the verge of failure. Some of Peabody's largest clients suspended business or failed entirely, and Duncan Sherman was unable to pay its remittances without assistance. Some of Peabody's own creditors, including rival Barings Bank, demanded immediate payment on their debts.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Peabody declined a conditional bailout from the major London houses which would have closed the firm, instead receiving an emergency line of credit of £800,000 from the Bank of England. After the panic and near collapse of Peabody & Co., Morgan became a more cautious investor, demanding statements from all correspondent banks, even at the risk of offending them and even from well-respected former colleagues.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Despite their own financial difficulties in this period, Peabody and Morgan were chief backers of Cyrus West Field's bedeviled transatlantic cable project throughout. Morgan personally lobbied Washington on Field's behalf in 1856 and Peabody & Co. subscribed to £10,000 of Field's original capital stock of £350,000 and later advanced Field funds to complete the project when he struggled to find American investors. In October 1858, Field's cable broke, delaying the project's completion another eight years until 1866. Throughout, Morgan and Peabody maintained their confidence in Field's project. The firm turned an eventual profit on the venture, but its major purpose was to establish Morgan as a primary backer in the growing communications industry.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Morgan became the active head of the firm in February 1859, with Peabody remaining the nominal senior partner. He took on a prominent role in London society, hosting many social gatherings at his homes on Hyde Park and at Roehampton.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Though Peabody & Co. made a significant investment in the Transatlantic cotton trade, its principal business was still with correspondent banks in the Eastern United States and with railroad companies. It was therefore not as directly reliant on American slavery as its peer banks in London, and took advantage during the American Civil War by aligning with the Union.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: After the Civil War broke out, Morgan traded Union war bonds at a tremendous profit. Working with his son John Pierpont in New York, Morgan was able to receive news of the fall of Vicksburg via telegraph before it became general knowledge in London, buying up Union bonds before their prices rose. Even so, the bank's position in London may have prevented further profits; buying Union war bonds risked alienating the English textile industry, which was closely aligned with Confederate cotton plantations. While Philadelphia banker Jay Cooke and those Wall Street banks with German ties made a bonanza during the war, Peabody & Co. had modest profits by comparison.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In 1864, Morgan's ten-year agreement with Peabody expired. Though Peabody retired as promised, he denied Morgan the use of his name and capital. Morgan's grandson later recalled this as "at that time, the bitterest disappointment of his life". Peabody also forced unfavorable terms on Morgan's lease of the bank's 22 Old Broad Street offices. Morgan succeeded Peabody as head of the firm and reluctantly changed its name to J. S. Morgan & Co. Despite his disappointment, J. S. Morgan was the largest American bank in London and had earned £444,000 in the prior ten years, leaving Morgan a powerful platform for future investments.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Still, Morgan was ambitious to place his bank on par with the Rothschilds and Barings Bank. In 1870, after the Battle of Sedan and the establishment of a provisional French Third Republic in Tours, Barings and Rothschilds were unwilling to establish a line of credit for the new government. Morgan led a syndicated bond issue of £10,000,000, which the syndicate sold at 15 points below par. After the fall of Paris in January and the establishment of the Paris Commune, the bonds dropped from 80 points to 55, nearly bankrupting J.S. Morgan & Co. Morgan sought to prop up the price by purchasing as many bonds as he could. The French prepaid the bonds in 1873, following the war, which brought their value up to par and netted Morgan £1,500,000 profit, which propelled J.S. Morgan & Co. into the upper ranks of international finance.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Another windfall arrived at Morgan's doorstep that same year when Philadelphia's Anthony Drexel proposed an affiliation with J. S. Morgan & Co. Drexel was then Philadelphia's second power in government finance after Jay Cooke. This proposal was accepted and Drexel, Morgan, & Co. became the new New York affiliate of the London bank, with Pierpont as Drexel's junior partner. Pierpont also joined Drexel's Philadelphia firm and his Paris firm, giving the Morgans footholds in four cities.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Morgan was now the wealthiest American banker in London and moved into a Knightsbridge mansion facing the south side of Hyde Park. He also purchased Dover House in Roehampton.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In 1873, Morgan’s American presence dramatically increased after the failure of Jay Cooke’s banking empire. When American grain (and consequently rail) prices fell dramatically after the resolution of the Franco-Prussian War, Cooke’s heavy investment in the Northern Pacific Railway was no longer sufficient to meet liabilities. Railroad securities were further weakened by the Credit Mobilier scandal. Cooke’s firm collapsed on September 18, triggering a wave of bank failures as part of the Panic of 1873. Despite the conditions, Pierpont turned the firm a profit of over $1,000,000, leaving Drexel Morgan at the apex of American government finance.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In 1877, Morgan began a semiretirement, cutting back on his schedule and ceding greater authority to his son. On November 8, a dinner was hosted in his honor at Delmonico's, with Samuel Tilden, John Jacob Astor, and Theodore Roosevelt Sr. among the guests. At the dinner, Morgan stated:


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: As Junius took a less active role and Pierpont continued to accrue massive profits, the balance of power within the Morgan empire shifted from London to New York City. By the 1880s, Junius's health began to fade, and he stepped back from day-to-day business. After the death of his wife Juliet in 1884, he withdrew further from business. He spent winters at the Villa Henriette in Monte Carlo.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Morgan was "tall with sloping shoulders" and a thickening midriff, a wide face, light blue eyes, a prominent nose, and a firm mouth.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Morgan was, like his son, intensely private. He had a "dry wit and genial manor and employed iron discipline." He was generally emotionless, and his friend George Smalley praised his "grave, strong beauty" and his "eyes full of light" but a face that ended in an "immovable jaw."


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In 1836, Morgan married Juliet Pierpont (1816–1884), daughter of John Pierpont (1785–1866), a poet, lawyer, merchant, and Unitarian minister. Together, they had:


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Morgan poured tremendous effort into his son and heir J. Pierpont. After Junius's move to London, Pierpont was his father's primary source of intelligence on American conditions. Their relationship, though separated by an ocean and wildly divergent personalities, was close. Each fall, Junius made an annual trip to the United States for three months, and Pierpont traveled to London each spring. They maintained a twice-weekly correspondence for thirty-one years, which Pierpont burned in 1911.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: His sister, Lucy Morgan (d. 1890) was married to Major James Goodwin, one of the founders, and a president for many years, of the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Company. Lucy was the mother of James J. Goodwin and the Rev. Francis Goodwin, chairman of the Hartford Parks Commission.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: He was not related to Edwin D. Morgan, a prominent Hartford and New York banker and merchant of the same era who became Governor of New York.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Like his father, Morgan was a strong supporter of the Whig Party. Morgan was a close friend of the Whig politician and diplomat Abbott Lawrence.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: In February 1842, his father-in-law John Pierpont was suggested as a leading candidate for the Liberty Party nomination for Governor of Massachusetts. Morgan urged Pierpont to withdraw his name from consideration, and he did.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: Though married in his father-in-law's Unitarian church, Morgan attended his own father's Episcopal church in Hartford.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: On April 3, 1890, Morgan took an afternoon carriage ride through Monte Carlo. When his horses bolted at an oncoming train, Morgan stood to see if his driver could steady the horses. The carriage hit a pile of stone and Morgan was thrown against the wall. He suffered a broken wrist and concussion and was unconscious for five days until his death on April 8, 1890.


title: Junius Spencer Morgan

text: At his funeral, the pallbearers were Roland Mather, Levi P. Morton, Anthony Joseph Drexel, Chauncey M. Depew, Cornelius Vanderbilt II, J. C. Rogers, J. Kearney Warren, and Edward John Phelps. He was interred at the family lot in Cedar Hill Cemetery in Hartford. At the Connecticut State Capitol, flags were flown at half-mast in mourning.


title: John II of Castile

text: John II of Castile (; 6 March 1405 – 20 July 1454) was King of Castile and León from 1406 to 1454. He succeeded his older sister, Maria of Castile, Queen of Aragon, as Prince of Asturias in 1405.


title: John II of Castile

text: John was the son of King Henry III and his wife, Catherine of Lancaster. His mother was the granddaughter of King Peter, who was ousted by Henry III's grandfather, King Henry II. John succeeded his father on 25 December 1406, and united in his person the claims of both Peter and Henry II. His mother and his uncle, King Ferdinand I of Aragon, were co-regents during his minority. When Ferdinand I died in 1416, his mother governed alone until her death in 1418.


title: John II of Castile

text: John II's reign, lasting 48 years, was one of the longest in Castilian history, but John himself was not a particularly capable monarch. He spent his time verse-making, hunting, and holding tournaments. His favourite, Álvaro de Luna, heavily influenced him until his second wife, Isabella of Portugal, obtained control of his feeble will. At her instigation, he dismissed and executed his faithful and able servant, an act which is said to have caused him much remorse. The relationship between Álvaro and Juan has been described as pederastic.


title: John II of Castile

text: John II's Regents declared the Valladolid laws in 1411, which restricted the social activity of Jews. Among the most notable of the provisions were outlining that Jews must wear distinctive clothes and banned them from holding administrative positions. However, once John took control of the throne for himself in 1418, he (though likely influenced politically by de Luna) reversed such ordinances, favoring instead a more tolerant attitude toward the already battered Jewish population of Castile following the mass wave of conversions between 1391 and 1415.


title: John II of Castile

text: In 1431, John placed Yusuf IV on the throne as the Sultan of Granada in the Moorish Emirate of Granada, in exchange for tribute and vassal status to Castile. This exchange is depicted in the short ballad the Romance of Abenamar.


title: John II of Castile

text: He was "[T]all and handsome, fair-skinned and slightly ruddy... his hair was the color of a very mature hazelnut, the nose a little snub, the eyes between green and blue... he had very graceful legs and feet and hands."


title: John II of Castile

text: John II was the single largest contributor to the continuing construction of the Alcázar of Segovia and built the "New Tower" known today as the "Tower of John II".


title: John II of Castile

text: In 1418, John married Maria of Aragon, the oldest daughter of his paternal uncle, Ferdinand I of Aragon. The marriage produced:


title: John II of Castile

text: Of all their children, only the future Henry IV of Castile survived infancy. John was widowed in 1445 and remarried to Isabella of Portugal, daughter of Infante John of Portugal, with whom he had two children:


title: Lutetia

text: The Gallo-Roman town of Lutetia ("Lutetia Parisiorum" in Latin, in French "Lutèce") was the predecessor of the modern-day city of Paris. It was founded in about the middle of the 3rd century BCE by the Parisii, a Gallic tribe. Traces of an earlier Neolithic settlement have also been found at the former site of the city. Lutetia was an important crossing point of the Seine, and was located at the intersection of land and water trade routes. In the 1st century BCE, it was conquered by Romans and was gradually rebuilt into a Roman city. Ruins including a forum, amphitheater, and Roman baths still remain. In the 5th century it became the capital of the Merovingian dynasty of French kings, and thereafter was known simply as Paris.


title: Lutetia

text: The settlement is attested in Ancient Greek as "Loukotokía" (Λoυκoτοκία) by Strabo and "Leukotekía" (Λευκοτεκία) by Ptolemy. Likely origins are Celtic root "Lut" meaning "a swamp or marsh", or the Latin term "lutum", or "mud". It survives today in the Scottish Gaelic "lòn" ("pool, meadow") and the Breton "loudour" ("dirty").


title: Lutetia

text: A less likely origin is the Celtic root , which means "mouse" and "-ek(t)ia", meaning "the mice" and which is contained in the Breton word "logod", the Welsh "llygod", and the Irish "luch".


title: Lutetia

text: Traces of Neolithic habitations, dating as far back as 4500 BCE, have been found along the Seine at Bercy, and close to the Louvre, The earliest inhabitants lived on the river plain, raising animals and farming. In the Bronze Age and Iron Age, they settled in villages, in houses made of wood and clay, which could be easily dismantled and moved if needed. Their life was closely attached to the river, which served as a trade route to other parts of Europe.


title: Lutetia

text: The original location of Lutetia, the early capital of the Parisii, is still disputed by historians. Traditionally, historians had placed the settlement on the Île de la Cité, where the bridges of the major trading routes of the Parisii crossed the Seine. This view was challenged after the discovery between 1994 and 2005, during the construction of a highway, of a large early Gallic settlement in Nanterre, in the suburbs of Paris. This is composed of a large area of several main streets and hundreds of houses over 15 hectares. Critics also point out the lack of archeological findings from the pre-Roman era on the Ile de la Cité.


title: Lutetia

text: Other scholars dispute the idea that Lutetia was in Nanterre. They point to the description given by Julius Caesar, who came to Lutetia to negotiate with the leaders of the Gallic tribes. He wrote that the oppidum, or fortress of Lutetia, which he visited, was on an island. In his account of the war in Gaul, "De Bello Gallico", Caesar wrote that, when the Romans later laid siege to Lutetia, "the inhabitants had burned their structures and the wooden bridges which served to cross the two branches of the river around their island fortress," which appears to describe the Île de la Cité.


title: Lutetia

text: Proponents of the Ile de Cité as the site of the Gallic settlement also address the issue of the lack of archeological evidence on the island. The original oppidum and bridges were burned by the Parisii to keep them out of the hands of the Romans. The houses of the Parisii were made of wood and clay. Since then every square meter of the island has been dug up and rebuilt, often using the same materials, multiple times, making it unlikely that traces of the Gallic settlement would remain on the island. They argue that a settlement in Nanterre did not necessarily exclude that the Île-de-la-Cité was the site of the oppidum of Lutetia; both settlements could have existed at the same time. Finally, they argue that, while Gallic settlements sometimes relocated to a new site, the new sites were usually given a new name. It would be very unusual to transfer the name of Lutetia from the Nanterre settlement to a new Roman town on the Île-de-la-Cité. They also argue that if Lutetia had not already existed where Paris is today, the new Roman city would have been given a Latin, not a Gallic name. This seems to support the argument that Lutetia was in fact located at the center of modern Paris.


title: Lutetia

text: The Parisii first agreed to submit to Caesar and Rome, but in 52 BC they joined other tribes, led by Vercingetorix, in a revolt near the end of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars, the Battle of Lutetia was fought with the local tribe. The Gallic forces were led by Vercingetorix's lieutenant Camulogenus. They burned the oppidum and the bridges to keep the Romans from crossing. The Romans, led by Titus Labienus, one of Caesar's generals, marched south to Melun, crossed the river there, marched back toward the city, and decisively defeated the Parisii. The location of the final battle, like the location of the oppidum, is disputed. It was fought near a river, which some historians interpret as the Seine, and others as the Yonne; and near a large marsh; a feature of the countryside near both the Île-de-la-Cité and Narbonne. Whatever its location was, the battle was decisive; Lutetia became a Roman town.


title: Lutetia

text: The first traces of the Roman occupation of Lutece appeared at the end of the 1st century BCE, during the reign of the Emperor Augustus. By the beginning of the 1st century AD, the construction of a Roman city was already underway.


title: Lutetia

text: The new Roman city was laid out along the "Cardo Maximus" or central axis of Lutece, which was directly perpendicular to the Seine and the bridges on Île de la Cité. It began at the heights of the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève on the left bank, went downhill along the modern Rue Saint-Jacques, across a marshy area to the bridge connecting to the Île de la Cité; across the island, and across a bridge to a smaller enclave on the right bank. The low-lying land along the river was suitable for farming; and since it was easily flooded, the road was raised.


title: Lutetia

text: Lutetia occupied an area of about 54 hectares, and had a population of about eight thousand persons. It was not the capital of the Roman province (Sens had that distinction) and it was to the west of the most important Roman north-south road between Provence and the Rhine. The importance of the city was due in large part to its position as an intersection of land and water trade routes. One of the most striking archeological finds from the early period is the Pillar of the Boatmen which was erected by the corporation of local river merchants and sailors and dedicated to Tiberius. It featured statues of both Roman and Gallic deities, Excavations along the river have turned up bronze coins minted by the Parisii, as well as amphorae of wine from Italy and ceramics from Lyon and Italy.


title: Lutetia

text: The city was constructed on the model of Rome, with a forum, baths, and an arena. The principal axis of the city was the Cardo Maximus. a roughly north-south road which ran from the heights of Mount Sainte-Genevieve on the left bank, down to the bridges over the Île de la Cité, and across to a small enclave on the north, or right bank, at the modern Rue Saint-Martin. Since the left bank was marshy and frequently flooded, the center of the city was higher up the scope, where the Cardo Maximus met the Decumanus, or east-west Main Street, located at modern rue Soufflot. Here the Romans constructed a civic basilica, containing a tribunal, and a temple. Gradually the city was furnished with a forum, and baths, all on the upper slope of Mount Sainte-Genevieve.


title: Lutetia

text: Major public works projects and monuments were built in the 2nd century AD. An aqueduct fifteen kilometres long was constructed to bring water from the plateau of Rungis, south of the city. It took the form of a bridge over the valley of Bièvre river at Arcueil-Cachan. The piers and ruined arches are still visible, and their arches give the location its name.


title: Lutetia

text: In the 3rd century, according to legend, Christianity was brought to the town by St Denis, and his companions Rusticus and


title: Lutetia

text: Eleuthere. In about 250 AD he and two companions were said to have been arrested and decapitated on the hill of "Mons Mercurius" thereafter known as "Mons Martyrum" (Martyrs' Hill, or Montmartre). According to tradition, he carried his head to Saint-Denis, where the Basilica of Saint-Denis was later built The first documented bishop of Paris was Victorinus, in 346. The first council of Bishops in Gaul convened in the city in 360. When Saint Martin visited the city in 360, there was a cathedral, near the site of Notre-Dame de Paris.


title: Lutetia

text: The mid third century brought a series of invasions of Gaul by two Germanic peoples, the Franks and the Alemanni, which threatened Lutetia. The city at the time had no fortifications. Portions of the left bank settlement, including the baths and amphitheater, were hurriedly abandoned, and the stones used to construct ramparts around the Île de la Cité. The city was reduced in size from one hundred hectares during the high Roman Empire to ten to fifteen hectares on the left bank, and ten hectares on the Île de la Cité. A new civic basilica and baths were built on the island. Their vestiges can be seen today in the archeological crypt under the Parvis in front of Notre-Dame Cathedral, Square John Paul II.


title: Lutetia

text: In the 4th century, Lutetia remained an important bulwark defending the Empire against the Germanic invaders. In 357–358 Julian II, as Caesar of the Western empire and general of the Gallic legions, moved the Roman capital of Gaul from Trier to Paris. After defeating the Franks in a major battle at Strasbourg in 357, he defended against Germanic invaders coming from the north. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 360 in Lutetia. Later Valentinian I resided in Lutetia for a brief period (365–366).


title: Lutetia

text: The end of the Roman Empire in the west, and the creation of the Merovingian dynasty in the 5th century, with its capital placed in Paris by Clovis I, confirmed the new role and name for the city. The adjective "Parisiacus" had already been used for centuries. Lutetia had gradually become Paris, the city of the Parisii.


title: Lutetia

text: Only a small part of a wall of the old forum remains above ground today, but the foundations have been extensively excavated since the 19th century. The Forum of Lutetia was modelled after that of Rome, and was in the center of the Roman city, between the modern streets of Boulevard Saint-Michel on the west, Rue Saint-Jacques on the east, rue Cujas to the north and Rue G. Lussac and rue Malbranch to the south. It was three Roman blocks down the hillside from the still-existing Roman baths of Cluny. It was two Roman blocks wide and one block long, 177.6 meters by 88.8 meters. The center of the forum was where the intersection of rue Soufflot and rue V. Cousin is today.


title: Lutetia

text: The forum was surrounded by a wall, with entrances on the north and south. Along the outer walls on the north, south sides and west sides, were arcades sheltering rows of small shops. At the west end was an underground gallery, or crypto-portico.


title: Lutetia

text: The civic basilica, essentially the town hall, occupied the east of the forum, It contained the courts where political, social and financial issues were discussed and decided. It had a central nave, higher than other parts of the building, and two lower collateral aisles, separated from the nave by rows of columns. This model was later adapted by Christian cathedrals.


title: Lutetia

text: At the west end was the temple, devoted to the official gods. Its classical facade with a portico of pillars had a triangular fronton, or pediment, faced to the east, the tradition for Roman temples and later Christian cathedrals.


title: Lutetia

text: The Amphitheater of Lutetia, or Les Arenes de Lutece, located near the meeting place of Rue Monge and Rue de Navarre, was a large outdoor amphitheater and arena. It had a stage and backdrop used for the presentation of plays, along with a larger space suitable for the combat of gladiators and of animals, and other large-scale festivities. Though there is no specific evidence to date the beginning of construction, it was probably built near the end of the 1st century AD. It was largely dismantled in the early 4th century so that the stones could be used in the construction of the fortress on the Île de a Cité, at a time when the province was threatened by barbarian invasion. Many of the remaining stones were reused in another major project, the city wall of Paris constructed by Philippe-Auguste in the 12th century.


title: Lutetia

text: The site was discovered in 1867-68 during the construction of Rue Monge by Louis-Napoleon, and excavations were begun in 1870. An omnibus depot was planned to be built on the same site, but a coalition of notable Parisans, including Victor Hugo, insisted that the remaining vestiges be saved. They were declared a monument, and partially rebuilt between beginning in 1915-16.


title: Lutetia

text: The Arena is about 100 meters by 130 meters in size, making it one of the largest in Gaul. It could accommodate as many as seventeen thousand spectators.


title: Lutetia

text: The Roman theater of Lutetia (not to be confused with the amphitheatre, or Arenes de Lutece) was located where the Lycée Saint-Louis is today, along Boulevard Saint-Michel, in the center of the grid of ancient Roman roads. It occupied one of the standard blocks of the Roman city, three hundred Roman feet on each side. It was probably built in the second part of the 1st century AD, based on coins found in the foundation; was rebuilt 2nd century, and, like many other buildings on the left bank, In the 4th century it was taken apart its stone used in the building of the wall and new buildings on the Île-de-la-Cité. In the 4th century It was discovered underneath the Lycée Saint-Louis on Boulevard Saint-Michel, and with other portions discovered under Rue Racine and the School of Medicine. It was gradually excavated and recreated by Theodore Vacquer between 1861 and 1884.


title: Lutetia

text: The slope of Mt. Genevieve was used to provide elevation for the semi-circular seating on the uphill side. The back of the stage, which no longer exists, faced onto to the Roman road, was decorated with arches and columns. The "pulpitum", or front stage, and "parascenum", or back stage, rested on a base of cement. When they were excavated in the 19th century, the columns and walls were gone but the chalk markings of the Roman architect were still visible on the floor.


title: Lutetia

text: The theater had two groups of seating; the "maenianum", or general audience seating, higher up and farther back, and the "maenianum" of the podium, for the notables, in front of the orchestra stage. It had a separate entrance, and was accessed by a covered corridor. There were also several "vomitoria", or underground passageways, to the seats of the ordinary spectators. The arena probably had some form of covering over the seats to protect spectators from rain, but no trace of one has been found.


title: Lutetia

text: The Thermes de Cluny, the grand public baths, now part of the Musée de Cluny, are the largest and best-preserved vestige of Roman Lutetia. The baths have occupied he same site, at the meeting point of the two major Roman roads, between Boulevard Saint-Michel, Boulevard Saint-Germaine, and the Rue des Ecoles, since the late 1st or early 2nd century AD. The baths originally occupied a much larger area than they do today. They were about three hundred Roman feet wide, a standard Roman city block, and about four hundred Roman feet long, covering about one hectare of land. The site today contains both the baths and the adjoining the National Museum of the Middle Ages.*


title: Lutetia

text: The clients entered the baths through a doorway near the modern Rue des Ecoles, into a large courtyard that was lined with shops.


title: Lutetia

text: They would cross the courtyard to the entrance of the baths, change their clothes, and go first into the caldarium, a very hot and steamy room with benches and a pool of heated water. The room was heated by a hypocaust, an under-floor system of tunnels filled with hot air, heated by furnaces tended by slaves. The caladium had benches and a large hot-water pool. After a period of time there, when they began to sweat, they would move to the frigidarium, which had a cold-water pool and baths, or to the tepidarium, which had the same features at room-temperature.


title: Lutetia

text: The baths were much more than a place to bathe; they played an important social and political role in Lutetia and other Roman cities. They were free of charge, or accessible for a small fee, and contained not only baths but also bars, places to rest, meeting rooms and libraries.


title: Lutetia

text: The original baths were probably destroyed during the first invasion by the Franks and Alamans in 275, then rebuilt. The frigidarium, with its vault intact, and the caldarium are the main remaining chambers. They were originally covered on the inside with mosaics, marble or frescoes. The northern side was occupied by two gymnasia and the centre of the facade monumental fountain. Beneath there are several lower chambers with vaulted galleries. The drain for emptying the frigidarium pool is still visible. Water flowed out through a drain that encircled the baths and ran into a main drain located under Boulevard Saint-Michel.


title: Lutetia

text: The vestiges of other baths have survived. The best-preserved were found in the 19th century, not far from Cluny, within and nearby the present College de France on the "Cardo" or rue Saint-Jacques. They were part of a bath complex that was even larger than Cluny, about two hectares. It had two parts; a "Paestra", or large outdoor exercise area, and the baths themselves. Vestiges of the circular hot water pool and the cold water pool have survived, along with the mains of the hypocaust heating system under the floor. Traces were also found of marble wall coverings, frescoes and bronze fixtures.


title: Lutetia

text: Beginning in 307 AD, the increasing number of invasions of Gaul by Germanic tribes forced the Lutetians to abandon a large part of the city on the left bank, and to move to the Île de la Cité. They used the stones from the abandoned forum and other buildings to construct a rampart around the island, as well as a civic basilica approximately where the flower market is located today.


title: Lutetia

text: Vestiges of the ramparts of the island were found under the parvis of Notre-Dame de Paris, when an underground parking lot was constructed in 1965. The rampart was not very high; only about two meters; suggesting that it was the base of a gallery wooden wall. The rampart, as well as most of the buildings on the island, were built top stones brought from the demolished buildings on the left bank, particularly from the amphitheater. The rampart later was a refuge for the Parisians when Lutetia was besieged by the Vikings in 886–887. Portions of the rampart can be seen today at the Parvis Notre-Dame – Place Jean-Paul-II, in the archeological crypt under the Parvis.


title: Lutetia

text: A modest headquarters or "Palace" was constructed at the west end of the island, where the Palais de Justice is today. One was the residence and headquarters of the Roman military commander, and the temporary residence of two Roman Emperors during the military campaigns. It was probably here that Julian was proclaimed emperor by his troops in 361. During the Merovingian dynasty, this site saw the construction of the palace of the Kings of France, before the construction of the Louvre palace.


title: Lutetia

text: A second important building on the island was the civic basilica, fulfilling the judicial functions transferred from the Left Bank. It stood between the modern Rue de la Cité and the Tribunal de Commerce, near where the flower market is today. It was discovered in 1906 during the construction of the Paris Metro station. It was very large, seventy meters long and thirty-five meters wide, with a central nave to two lower collatera sections. The entrance was probably on the Rue de la Cité, portion of the Cardo Maximus which crossed the island and connected the bridges It also was largely constructed of stones taken from the demolished buildings of the left bank, including some highly decorative carved stones which probably came from the Forum.


title: Lutetia

text: The new streets and squares were laid out with great precision, in blocks ("insular") of exactly 300 Roman feet (88.8 meters) square. As a result the modern Rue Saint Martin and Rue Saint-Denis, which were both laid out in Roman times, are exactly 600 Roman feet apart. To build the roads, the land was cleared, given a slight rounded slope to take away water, and covered with an aggregate of small river stones, which were tamped down. Sidewalks were constructed in the same manner, and sometimes covered with yellow clay. The roads and sidewalks were regularly maintained throughout the time of the Roman Empire. Modern excavations of the streets have uncovered the ruts in the roads from the wheels of chariots and wagons. The roads were regularly repaired with fresh stones, gradually raising their height by as much as a meter.


title: Lutetia

text: The residential streets of Lutetia, unlike the boulevards, were irregular and not as-well maintained as they were the responsibility of the home-owners, not the city. Traces of several of these early residential neighbourhoods, dating to the beginning of the 1st century AD, particularly on the Rue de l'Abbé de l'Épée, rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie, and the garden of the Êcole des Mines have been discovered.


title: Lutetia

text: The houses generally had wood frames covered with clay on the outside. The wooden beams of roof and walls were fastened held together with notches, reinforced with nails. The roof was usually thatched, or sometimes covered with tiles. The floors were covered with yellow clay or packed earth. Excavations showed that the city had an important plaster industry; plaster was used to simulate stone, as a covering, or in the form of bricks and tiles.


title: Lutetia

text: The houses of the wealthy often had an under-the-floor heating system and their own baths similar to the civic baths. Their interior walls were covered with plaster, and often painted with frescoes, some traces of which have been recovered (See gallery). They frequently had a reception room on the ground floor, and bedrooms upstairs, accessed by a stairway, as well as a cellar. which sometimes had its own well. Several houses were grouped together with a common courtyard.


title: Lutetia

text: In May 2006, a Roman road was found during expansion of the University of Pierre and Marie Curie campus. Additionally, remains of private houses dating from the reign of Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD) and containing heated floors were found. Everyday items like flowerpots, bronze chains, ceramics, and drawer handles were found. The owners were wealthy enough to own baths which was a status symbol among Roman citizens.


title: Lutetia

text: Several reservoirs were constructed in the hills outside the city at Rungis and Wissou in the present department of the Essonne along with aqueducts to compensate for the demand. Together they could deliver an estimated two thousand cubic meters of water a day. The masonry and cement conduit, about half a meter wide and three quarters of a meter deep, set into the ground and hermetically sealed, trailed a distance of twenty-six kilometres to the city. The major obstacle it faced was crossing the canyon of the river Biévre. The conduit was raised atop arches and pillars, some of which still exist in the Valley of Aecuiel-Cachan. The date of the aqueduct is not precisely known, but is believed to be after the second half of the 1st century AD. Vestiges of another aqueduct was later discovered under the Institute Curie, perhaps connected to the first, which carried water to the baths of the College de France.


title: Lutetia

text: During the early, or High Roman Empire, the major Roman necropolis, or cemetery, was located near the Cardo Maximus (Main Street), close to the exit of the city and some distance from the nearest residences. The Necropolis of Saint-Jacques was close to the modern intersection of Avenue Saint-Michel and Avenue Denfert-Rochereau. It occupied a space of about four hectares, and was in use from the beginning of the first until about the fourth century AD. About four hundred tombs, a fraction of the tombs that were once there, have been excavated. Tombs were often placed one above the other. Some remains were buried in stone sepulchres, others in wooden coffins, others simply in the ground. It was a common practice to bury the dead with some items of their belongings, usually some of their clothing and particularly their shoes, placed in vases. Sometimes items of food and silverware were placed in the burial vessel.


title: Lutetia

text: In the later years of the Empire, when the pressure of invading Germanic tribes led to the abandonment of the old monuments, a new necropolis, named for Saint-Marcel, was established near the modern Avenue des Gobelins and Boulevard du Port Royal, along the Roman main road leading to Italy. In this necropolis the tombs were mostly composed of stone taken from the monuments in the earlier necropolis of Saint-Jacques. One of the tombs there, dating from the Third Century AD, is notable for the first recorded use of the name "Paris" for the city. The tombs at Saint Marcel contain a variety of ceramic and glass objects from the workshops of the city, placed at the foot of the deceased. The first symbols of Christian burials, in the 5th century, were also found here.


title: Lutetia

text: Lutetia was both a trading center for art works, through its access to water and land routes, and, later, the home of workshops ceramics and other decorative works. Sculpture was widely used in monuments, particularly in the several necropoli, or Roman cemeteries, in the outskirts of the city.


title: Lutetia

text: The best-known work of sculpture found in the city is the Pillar of the Boatmen, dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius and donated to the city in about 14-17 AD, by the guild of boatmen, the most influential guild in the city. It depicted both Roman and Gallic deities is a series of blocks stacked into a column. It was discovered in the Île-de-la-Cité.


title: Lutetia

text: Several scientific discoveries have been named after Lutetia. The element lutetium was named in honor of its discovery in a Paris laboratory, and the characteristic building material of the city of Paris—Lutetian Limestone—derives from the ancient name. The "Lutetian" is, in the geologic timescale, a stage or age in the Eocene Epoch. The asteroid 21 Lutetia, discovered in 1852 by Hermann Goldschmidt, is named after the city.


title: Lutetia

text: Lutetia is featured in the French comic series "The Adventures of Asterix", most notably in "Asterix and the Golden Sickle", "Asterix and the Banquet" and "Asterix and the Laurel Wreath".


title: Lutetia

text: Renault uses the name Lutecia for the Japanese market Clio subcompact car, and is named after Lutetia.


title: Clitoral pump

text: A clitoral pump is a sex toy designed for sexual pleasure that is applied to the clitoris to create suction and increase blood flow and sensitivity. A clitoral pump is designed to be used on the entire external clitoris including the clitoral hood. Other designs of pump exist for the labia (both minora and majora), the entire vulva and, in some cases, the nipples.


title: Clitoral pump

text: The clitoral pump, like the penis pump, may be used for temporary effect prior to, or during, masturbation or other sexual activity. The clitoral pump is not designed to be applied to the vaginal opening nor the inside of the vagina, since it may cause injuries.


title: Clitoral pump

text: The use of a clitoral pump can also help strengthen the pelvic floor muscles and retain vaginal lubrication which can reduce with age. Their use is often recommended by physicians for treating female sexual problems connected with anorgasmia. Improved blood flow to the genitals may be achieved through regular use of the device.


title: Clitoral pump

text: A clitoral pump usually consists of the cylinder (cup) and a hand pump (hand-squeeze bulb) with a tube. The cylinder can be round or oval and is available in different sizes depending on the size of the area stimulated. The smaller variants are intended only for clitoral and clitoral hood sucking providing more focused stimulation, whereas those with a larger head produce a more diffused sensation.


title: Clitoral pump

text: To use the device, the cylinder is placed over the clitoris and a vacuum is created between the skin and device by operation of the hand pump. The sucking effect makes the clitoris throb due to increased blood and skin tension. The hand pump allows complete control of the effect.


title: Clitoral pump

text: Special variants of hand pumps exist but in most cases they consist of a rubber bulb and a tube connecting it to the cylinder.


title: Clitoral pump

text: Normally cylinders are made of soft pliable materials, such as gel, silicone, rubber or a combination of these. The cups made from more pliable materials are generally more pleasant than those made of hard plastic.


title: Nehalem (microarchitecture)

text: Nehalem is the codename for Intel's 45 nm microarchitecture released in November 2008. It was used in the first-generation of the Intel Core i5 and i7 processors, and succeeds the older Core microarchitecture used on Core 2 processors. The term "Nehalem" comes from the Nehalem River.


title: Nehalem (microarchitecture)

text: Nehalem is built on the 45 nm process, is able to run at higher clock speeds, and is more energy-efficient than Penryn microprocessors. Hyper-threading is reintroduced, along with a reduction in L2 cache size, as well as an enlarged L3 cache that is shared among all cores. Nehalem is an architecture that differs radically from Netburst, while retaining some of the latter's minor features.


title: Nehalem (microarchitecture)

text: Nehalem later received a die-shrink to 32 nm with Westmere, and was fully succeeded by "second-generation" Sandy Bridge in January 2011.


title: Nehalem (microarchitecture)

text: Overclocking is possible with Bloomfield processors and the X58 chipset. Lynnfield processors use a PCH removing the need for a northbridge.


title: Nehalem (microarchitecture)

text: Nehalem processors incorporate SSE 4.2 SIMD instructions, adding seven new instructions to the SSE 4.1 set in the Core 2 series. The Nehalem architecture reduces atomic operation latency by 50% in an attempt to eliminate overhead on atomic operations such as the codice_1 compare-and-swap instruction.


title: Pennsylvania State Senate

text: The Pennsylvania State Senate is the upper house of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, the Pennsylvania state legislature. The State Senate meets in the State Capitol building in Harrisburg. Senators are elected for four year terms, staggered every two years such that half of the seats are contested at each election. Even numbered seats and odd numbered seats are contested in separate election years. The president pro tempore of the Senate becomes the lieutenant governor of Pennsylvania in the event of the sitting lieutenant governor's removal, resignation or death. In this case the president pro tempore and lieutenant governor would be the same person. The Pennsylvania Senate has been meeting since 1791.


title: Pennsylvania State Senate

text: Senators must be at least 25 years of age. They must be a U.S. citizen and a PA resident four years, and a resident of that district one year prior to their election and must reside in that district during their term.


title: Pennsylvania State Senate

text: The Senate is made up of 50 members who are elected by district. In 2012, a State Senate district had an average population of 254,047 residents.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: An inquisitorial system is a legal system in which the court, or a part of the court, is actively involved in investigating the facts of the case. This is distinct from an adversarial system, in which the role of the court is primarily that of an impartial referee between the prosecution and the defense. Inquisitorial systems are used primarily in countries with civil legal systems, such as France and Italy, or legal systems based on Islamic law like Saudi Arabia, rather than in common law systems. It is the prevalent legal system in Continental Europe, Latin America, African countries not formerly under British rule, East Asia (except Hong Kong), Indochina, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Most countries with an inquisitorial system also have some form of civil code as their main source of law.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Countries using common law, including the United States, may use an inquisitorial system for summary hearings in the case of misdemeanors or infractions, such as minor traffic violations. The distinction between an adversarial and inquisitorial system is theoretically unrelated to the distinction between a civil legal and common-law system. Some legal scholars consider "inquisitorial" misleading, and prefer the word nonadversarial. The function is often vested in the office of the public procurator, as in China, Japan, and Germany.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In an inquisitorial system, the trial judges (mostly plural in serious crimes) are inquisitors who actively participate in fact-finding public inquiry by questioning defense lawyers, prosecutors, and witnesses. They could even order certain pieces of evidence to be examined if they find presentation by the defense or prosecution to be inadequate. Prior to the case getting to trial, magistrate judges ("juges d'instruction" in France) participate in the investigation of a case, often assessing material by police and consulting with the prosecutor.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: The inquisitorial system applies to questions of criminal procedure at trial, not substantive law; that is, it determines how criminal inquiries and trials are conducted, not the kind of crimes for which one can be prosecuted or the sentences that they carry. It is most readily used in some civil legal systems. However, some jurists do not recognize this dichotomy, and see procedure and substantive legal relationships as being interconnected and part of a theory of justice as applied differently in various legal cultures.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In an adversarial system, judges focus on the issues of law and procedure and act as a referee in the contest between the defense and the prosecutor. Juries decide matters of fact, and sometimes matters of the law. Neither judge nor jury can initiate an inquiry, and judges rarely ask witnesses questions directly during trial. In some United States jurisdictions, it is common practice for jurors to submit questions to the court that they believe were not resolved in direct or cross-examination. After testimony and other evidence are presented and summarized in arguments, the jury will declare a verdict (literally "true statement") and in some jurisdictions the reasoning behind the verdict; however, discussions among jurors cannot be made public except in extraordinary circumstances.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Appeals on the basis of factual issues, such as sufficiency of the sum total of evidence that was properly admitted, are subject to a standard of review that is in most jurisdictions deferential to the judgment of the fact-finder at trial, be that a judge or a jury. The failure of a prosecutor to disclose evidence to the defense, for example, or a violation of the defendant's constitutional rights (legal representation, right to remain silent, an open and public trial) can trigger a dismissal or re-trial. In some adversarial jurisdictions (e.g., the United States), a prosecutor cannot appeal a "not guilty" verdict (absent corruption or gross malfeasance by the court).


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In adversarial systems, the defendant may plead "guilty" or "no contest," in exchange for reduced sentences, a practice known as plea bargaining, or a plea deal, which is an extremely common practice in the United States. In theory, the defendant must allocute or "voice" his or her crimes in open court, and the judge must believe the defendant is telling the truth about his or her guilt. In an inquisitorial system, a confession of guilt would not be regarded as ground for a guilty verdict. The prosecutor is required to provide evidence supporting a guilty verdict. But this requirement is not unique to inquisitorial systems, as many or most adversarial systems impose a similar requirement under the name "corpus delicti".


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Until the development of the Catholic Medieval Inquisition in the 12th century, the legal systems used in medieval Europe generally relied on the adversarial system to determine whether someone should be tried and whether a person was guilty or innocent. Under this system, unless people were caught in the act of committing crimes, they could not be tried until they had been formally accused by their victim, the voluntary accusations of a sufficient number of witnesses, or by an inquest (an early form of grand jury) convened specifically for that purpose. A weakness of this system was that, because it relied on the voluntary accusations of witnesses, and because the penalties for making a false accusation were severe, victims and would-be witnesses could be hesitant to make accusations to the court, for fear of implicating themselves. Because of the difficulties in deciding cases, procedures such as trial by ordeal or combat were accepted.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Beginning in 1198, Pope Innocent III issued a series of decretals that reformed the ecclesiastical court system. Under the new (inquisitional procedure), an ecclesiastical magistrate no longer required a formal accusation to summon and try a defendant. Instead, an ecclesiastical court could summon and interrogate witnesses of its own initiative. If the (possibly secret) testimony of those witnesses accused a person of a crime, that person could be summoned and tried. In 1215, the Fourth Council of the Lateran affirmed the use of the inquisitional system. The council forbade clergy from conducting trials by ordeal or combat.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: As a result, in parts of continental Europe, the ecclesiastical courts operating under the inquisitional procedure became the dominant method by which disputes were adjudicated. In France, the — lay courts — also employed inquisitorial proceedings.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In England, however, King Henry II had established separate secular courts during the 1160s. While the ecclesiastical courts of England, like those on the continent, adopted the inquisitional system, the secular common law courts continued to operate under the adversarial system. The adversarial principle that a person could not be tried until formally accused continued to apply for most criminal cases. In 1215 this principle became enshrined as article 38 of the Magna Carta: "No bailiff for the future shall, upon his own unsupported complaint, put anyone to his law, without credible witnesses brought for this purposes."


title: Inquisitorial system

text: The first territory to wholly adopt the inquisitional system was the Holy Roman Empire. The new German legal process was introduced as part of the of 1498 and then the of 1507. The adoption of the ( of Charles V) in 1532 made inquisitional procedures empirical law. It was not until Napoleon introduced the (French code of criminal procedure) on 16 November 1808, that the classical procedures of inquisition were ended in all German territories.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In the development of modern legal institutions that took place in the 19th century, for the most part jurisdictions codified their private law and criminal law, and reviewed and codified the rules of civil procedure as well. It was through this development that the role of an inquisitorial system became enshrined in most European civilian legal systems. However, there exist significant differences of operating methods and procedures between 18th century courts and 19th-century courts. In particular, limits on the powers of investigators were typically added, as well as increased rights of the defense.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: It is too much of a generalization to say that the civil law is purely inquisitorial and the common law adversarial. The ancient Roman custom of arbitration has now been adapted in many common-law jurisdictions to a more inquisitorial form. In some mixed civil law systems, such as those in Scotland, Quebec, and Louisiana, while the substantive law is civil in nature and evolution, the procedural codes that have developed over the last few hundred years are based upon the English adversarial system.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: The main feature of the inquisitorial system in criminal justice in France, and other countries functioning along the same lines, is the function of the examining or investigating judge (), also called a magistrate judge. The examining judge conducts investigations into serious crimes or complex inquiries. As a member of the judiciary, he or she is independent and outside the province of the executive branch, and therefore separate from the Office of Public Prosecutions, which is supervised by the Minister of Justice.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Despite high media attention and frequent portrayals in TV series, examining judges are active in a small minority of cases. In 2005, there were 1.1 million criminal rulings in France, while only 33,000 new cases were investigated by judges. The vast majority of cases are therefore investigated directly by law enforcement agencies (police, gendarmerie) under the supervision of the Office of Public Prosecutions ("procureurs").


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Examining judges are used for serious crimes, e.g., murder and rape, and for crimes involving complexity, such as embezzlement, misuse of public funds, and corruption. The case may be brought before the examining judge either by the public prosecutor ("procureur") or, more rarely, by the victim (who may compel an "instruction" even if the public prosecutor rules the charges to be insufficient).


title: Inquisitorial system

text: The judge questions witnesses, interrogates suspects, and orders searches for other investigations. Their role is not to prosecute the accused, but to gather facts, and as such their duty is to look for any and all evidence, whether incriminating or exculpatory ("à charge et à décharge"). Both the prosecution and the defense may request the judge to act, and may appeal the judge's decisions before an appellate court. The scope of the inquiry is limited by the mandate given by the prosecutor's office: the examining judge cannot open a criminal investigation "sua sponte."


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In the past the examining judge could order committal of the accused, this power being subject to appeal. However, this is no longer authorized, and other judges have to approve a committal order.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: If the examining judge decides there is a valid case against a suspect, the accused is sent for adversarial trial by jury. The examining judge does not sit on the trial court which tries the case and is prohibited from sitting for future cases involving the same defendant. The case is tried before the court in a manner similar to that of adversarial courts: the prosecution (and on occasion a plaintiff) seeks the conviction of accused criminals, the defense attempts to rebut the prosecution claims, and the judge and jury draw their conclusions from the evidence presented at trial.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: As a result of judicial investigation and defendants being able to have judicial proceedings dismissed on procedural grounds during the examining phase, cases where the evidence is weak tend not to reach the trial stage. Conversely, the guilty plea and plea bargaining were until recently unknown to French law. They are accepted only for crimes for which the prosecution seeks a sentence not exceeding one year imprisonment. Therefore, most cases go to trial, including cases where the prosecution is almost sure to gain a conviction. In countries such as the United States, the latter cases would be settled by plea bargain.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: In administrative courts, such as the Conseil d'État, litigation proceedings are markedly more inquisitorial. Most of the procedure is conducted in writing; the plaintiff writes to the court, which asks explanations from the administration or public service concerned; when answered, the court may then ask further detail from the plaintiff, etc. When the case is sufficiently complete, the lawsuit opens in court; however, the parties are not required to attend the court appearance. This method reflects the fact that administrative lawsuits are for the most part about matters of formal procedure and technicalities.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: Certain administrative proceedings within some common-law jurisdictions in the United States may be similar to their civil law counterparts but are conducted on a more inquisitorial model. For instance tribunals dealing with minor traffic violations at the New York City Traffic Violations Bureau are held before an adjudicator, who also functions as a prosecutor. They question witnesses before rendering judgements and setting fines.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: These types of tribunals or boards function as an expedited form of justice, in which the state agents conduct an initial investigation and the adjudicator's job is to confirm these preliminary findings through a simplified form of procedure that grants some basic amount of due process or fundamental justice. The accused party has an opportunity to place his or her objections on the record.


title: Inquisitorial system

text: The specific role of the judge in legal traditions other than the Anglo-American is "an empirical fact that continues to interfere not only with the making of (...) an international criminal procedure but also with the more mundane matter of judicial cooperation among countries".


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Into the West is a 2005 miniseries produced by Steven Spielberg and DreamWorks, with six two-hour episodes (including commercials). The series was first broadcast in the U.S. on Turner Network Television (TNT) on six Fridays starting on June 10, 2005. It was also shown in the UK on BBC2 and BBC HD from November 4, 2006, and in Canada on CBC Television. The series also aired in the U.S. on AMC during the summer (June/July) and fall (autumn, September/October) of 2012.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: The miniseries begins in the 1820s and is told mainly through the third person narration of Jacob Wheeler (Matthew Settle) and Loved By the Buffalo (Joseph M. Marshall III), although episodes outside the direct observation of both protagonists are also shown. The plot follows the story of two families, one white American and one Native American, as their lives become mingled through the momentous events of American expansion. The story intertwines real and fictional characters and events spanning the period of expansion of the United States in the American frontier from 1825 to 1890.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: The show has a large cast, with about 250 speaking parts. The series features well-known performers including Josh Brolin, Gary Busey, Michael Spears, Tonantzin Carmelo, Skeet Ulrich, Garrett Wang, Steve Reevis, Rachael Leigh Cook, Wes Studi, Irene Bedard, Alan Tudyk, Christian Kane, Russell Means, Jay Tavare, Keri Russell, Graham Greene, Sean Astin, Beau Bridges, Judge Reinhold, Zahn McClarnon, Tom Berenger, Gil Birmingham, David Paymer, Raoul Trujillo, Eric Schweig, Lance Henriksen, Simon R. Baker, Tyler Christopher, Tatanka Means, Gordon Tootoosis, Sheila Tousey, Annabella Piugattuk, and Will Patton.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Growling Bear (Gordon Tootoosis), an elderly Lakota medicine man, has an apocalyptic vision that the buffalo his people rely upon will soon vanish from the prairie and the Lakota will live in square houses. His vision is controversial and his apprentice, Soaring Eagle (Gerald Auger), convinces most of the people to disregard Growling Bear's dark vision. A young boy named White Feather (Chevez Ezaneh) overhears and seeks out the now discredited Growling Bear to learn more about his vision. Before he dies, Growling Bear gives White Feather a necklace symbolizing the Lakota medicine wheel. This necklace is passed on to various characters through the miniseries.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Later, during a buffalo jump hunt led by White Feather's older brothers Running Fox (Matthew Strongeagle) and Dog Star (Pony Boy Osuniga), many people from the village are killed during the stampede, but White Feather is miraculously spared when the spirit of deceased Growling Bear appears to protect him. The tribe renames him Loved by the Buffalo and begin to regard him as a holy man healing people by taking their pain upon himself. This causes Soaring Eagle to become jealous and he tries to undermine Loved by the Buffalo (Simon Baker) by blaming him for an outbreak of pox and then leaving him for dead. Growling Bear appears to Loved by the Buffalo again, teaching him a song to cure the outbreak.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Loved by the Buffalo's sister, Thunder Heart Woman (Sarah Weston), is married off to a white trapper, Thomas Lebeck (Scott Heindl). Loved by the Buffalo gives Thunder Heart Woman the wooden medicine wheel necklace as a parting gift. Dog Star (Michael Spears) and Running Fox (Zahn McClarnon) marry two sisters and begin families, but Loved by the Buffalo realizes that his destiny lies on a different path.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: At about the same time, a young wheelwright named Jacob Wheeler (Matthew Settle) is growing discontented with his settled life in the fictional Wheelerton, Virginia, where he and his brothers work as wheelwrights for his grandfather Abraham (Ken Pogue), a veteran of the Battle of Yorktown. When a mountain man named James Fletcher (Will Patton) passes through, he tells Jacob of the wonders of the western frontier and that he will be joining an expedition to the Pacific Ocean led by the famous Jedediah Smith (Josh Brolin) leaving from St. Louis, Jacob decides to leave his family and head west. He convinces his brother Nathan (Alan Tudyk), to come west with him, but another brother, Jethro (Skeet Ulrich), cannot bring himself to leave his home and stays behind.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Once the brothers reach St. Louis, Missouri, they find Fletcher, who rebuffs them. Dejected, Nathan goes into a saloon to drink and gamble, winning a deed to a land claim in the Mexican province of Tejas. Nathan tries to convince Jacob to come with him to Tejas, but Jacob has become determined to become a mountain man and travel to the West with Jedediah Smith. The brothers part company and Jacob heads toward the Rocky Mountains.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Jacob catches up with Fletcher and trapping party captain Jedediah Smith who once again rebuffs him, but he convinces them to take him in. Jacob stitches Smith's scalp after a bear attack and prefers Smith's company rather than fraternizing with a Mojave tribe they trade with for horses in the Sierra Nevada. Eventually he becomes a trusted member of the party. Jacob accompanies Smith's party to California, where they are arrested by the Mexican Capitan de Salamanca (Francesco Quinn) for trespassing and held at the San Gabriel Mission. The party is charged with stealing the horses they bought from the Mojave (a brand is shown). The Mexicans fear that if they are freed, the party will show other Americans how to go to California. Smith negotiates their expulsion, promising they would never return to California under pain of death. On the way back, they return to the Mohave camp and are attacked; many are killed including Fletcher, who guards Smith and Jacob's narrow escape through a cave. Loved by the Buffalo undergoes a Sun Dance.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Thunder Heart Woman's (Tonantzin Carmelo) trapper husband Lebeck is killed in an attack by the Crow, her infant daughter is captured, and she is sold into slavery. Later, Jacob sees her being auctioned off at a trapper rendezvous and attempts to buy her in order to return Thunder Heart Woman to her people. Trapper Johnny Fox (Gary Busey) rifle duels Jacob for the right to purchase her. Jacob is victorious, shooting then stabbing Fox one-handed after being shot in his left forearm. Thunder Heart Woman gives Jacob the wooden medicine wheel necklace as a token of her gratitude. When they return to the tribe, Jacob marries Thunder Heart Woman and begins to live with her family as part of the Lakota tribe.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Running Fox trades for a horsecart, much to the dismay of his brothers, who see white goods as a corruption of Lakota culture. When Loved by the Buffalo sees Jacob repairing the wheel, he is reminded of a vision he had during his Sun Dance in which a wooden wheel smashes a stone wheel. Loved by the Buffalo realizes that the wooden wheel symbolizes the wagon wheels of the whites and that the stone wheel is the medicine wheel of the Lakota culture. Loved by the Buffalo takes Jacob and Thunder Heart Woman to a sacred hilltop where a stone medicine wheel has been erected and tells him about the four great powers that it symbolizes. Loved by the Buffalo leaves the tribe to try to prevent the vision of Growling Bear from coming to pass.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: After living among the Lakota people, Jacob decides to take his wife and daughter Margaret Light Shines east to Wheelerton, Virginia. Jacob's family gives Thunder Heart Woman a much colder reception than her family gave him. After living in Wheelerton for a time, Jacob decides to take his family, now including a young son Abraham High Wolf, back west.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: This time, Jacob's brother Jethro (Skeet Ulrich) decides to come along. They are also accompanied by Jacob's three young female cousins; Leah Wheeler (Emily Holmes), Rachel Wheeler (Jessica Capshaw), and Naomi Wheeler (Keri Russell). The three girls have been unlucky in love and are lured by the tales of excitement out west.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Meanwhile, Thunder Heart Woman's two oldest brothers, Dog Star and Running Fox argue over whether or not to adopt white technology. The disagreement comes to a boil and the two agree to part ways, splitting the tribe.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: After working their way west for several years, the Wheeler clan arrives at Independence, Missouri. Jacob, now with a second son Jacob Junior High Cloud, wants to go west to California or the Oregon country, but Thunder Heart Woman and some of the others wish to remain in Missouri. Jacob eventually convinces the others to go to California and they join a wagon train led by Stephen Hoxie (Beau Bridges) who is a better salesman than a leader. Among the other settlers is a German immigrant preacher named Hobbes (Derek de Lint), a free black family fleeing racial prejudice, and several former mountain men.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: The wagon train passage is filled with dangers: Leah Wheeler is thrown from the wagon during the crossing of a river and drowns, and the young son of the black pioneers is killed by stampeding cattle during a thunder storm. But life also continues: Rachel and Naomi take husbands from among the wagon trail guides. Later, while traversing a pass, a wagon breaks free, knocks Rachel down and runs over her leg, causing a severe compound fracture. The leg eventually becomes infected and must be amputated. Preacher Hobbes is the closest thing to a doctor available, but he botches the operation and Rachel dies.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Cholera breaks out, killing the wife of the black pioneer. Those exposed, including Jacob, Thunder Heart Woman, the children, and Jethro must stay behind under quarantine while the main body of the wagon train carries on. Naomi and her husband, who have not been exposed, go on with the others. Jethro is afflicted with symptoms of cholera but recovers, and no new outbreaks occur after Jacob orders that all drinking water be boiled. They rush to catch up with the main body, but find it was attacked by Cheyenne warriors, and all except Naomi were killed.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Naomi, taken into captivity, is sold to Cheyenne chief Prairie Fire (Jay Tavare), who takes her as his wife. The thought of a forced marriage to an Indian is repulsive to Naomi, who has always considered them as barely human savages. She chants nursery rhymes, which put off his amorous advances. In time, she begins to see Prairie Fire in a different light and she grows to become happy in her new life. She eventually gives birth to a son, whom he names One Horn Bull.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Jacob returns to the rest of the wagons, and they are soon attacked. The Indians are fought off, but an arrow is shot through Jacob's upper chest, and he begs to be left behind to recover on his own terms as the trail would kill him faster. After the party leaves, Jacob is rescued by a party led by Running Fox, that stumble across him half-dead. After recovering his strength, Jacob spends several months in the mountains. Haunted by the faces of the children he sent on with his wife and brother, Jacob eventually tries to find them in California. He searches several years for his family but cannot find them, and eventually gives them up for dead.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: The Mexican–American War erupts and Jacob joins John C. Frémont's militia to fight the Mexican Army. During a supply stop in one of the settlements, he sees his wife at a distance, but before he can go over to greet her, he sees her and his brother Jethro embrace and kiss. They also have a new child, Cornflower. Dejected that his wife and brother have become romantically involved but not wanting to disrupt their happiness, he decides to leave without making his presence known. Before he goes, he gives the wooden medicine wheel necklace to his young son, who does not realize the man is his father.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Meanwhile, Dog Star and Running Fox are still estranged. The other tribes that have been trading with the whites for rifles, particularly the Crow, have grown stronger, and the Lakota are now at a disadvantage. Seeking guidance, Dog Star visits the stone medicine wheel, where he meets Loved by the Buffalo. Loved by the Buffalo tells his brother that his lifetime quest is to preserve the traditional ways. The whites at the forts refuse to trade pistols to the Lakota, instead giving them whiskey, and drunkenness soon becomes a problem. Loved by the Buffalo also appears to his brother Running Fox in a vision. Running Fox and Dog Star eventually reconcile and agree to no longer trade for white goods.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Thunder Heart Woman finds the wooden medicine wheel necklace and realizes that her husband is still alive. She feels that it is best not to go after him, but their daughter Margaret Light Shines Wheeler (Sage Galesi) is determined to find him.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Jethro and Thunder Heart Woman remain together in California and a daughter, Corn Flower (Chantelle Webster), is born to them. While working at the Wheeler ranch, now dubbed Rancho Paradiso, Jethro encounters a 49er named Martin Jarrett (Sean Astin) who brings him the first news about the California gold rush. Jethro soon follows him to the nearby American River to prospect for gold, although he returns home each night.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Jethro dreams of quick riches but all he finds are a few small grains. Undeterred, he begins to spend more and more time looking for gold. Without Jethro's labor, the ranch begins to run into difficulties, with essential repairs being left undone. Jethro also takes to drinking heavily to counter the frigid waters of the river and becomes abusive towards Thunder Heart Woman and the children. After one too many arguments turn violent, Abe High Wolf Wheeler (Tyler Posey) decides to leave.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Jethro's cousin, David Wheeler (Balthazar Getty), arrives as a 49er and becomes Jethro's partner in prospecting for gold. Angered by the successes of a group of Chinese immigrant miners, Jethro and David drive them off and steal their claim. After finding a huge nugget of gold, Jethro and David argue over how they will split their new fortune. After Jethro falls asleep, David steals the nugget and heads toward San Francisco. Jethro follows him and the two exchange gun fire. As David tries to escape in a canoe, the two struggle and both are drowned. To support her family, Thunder Heart Woman starts to sell food and supplies to the miners.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Meanwhile, Margaret Light Shines Wheeler has taken a job in a guest house in San Francisco, but continues to look for her father. Jacob remained with the army, but became disillusioned at the treatment of Native Americans in Oregon and returned to trapping in the mountains in California. After spotting an army unit sporting a Bear Flag, Margaret inquires if any of them know Jacob Wheeler. A sergeant tells her that Jacob is among them and says he will lead her to him. When the two enter a barn, he tries to rape her. Margaret is saved by Ethan Biggs (Daniel Gillies), a British immigrant photographer. Margaret goes to work for Biggs and the two eventually fall in love and marry.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: While working in the photo studio, a local wheelwright tells Margaret a trapper in the mountains has fixed a broken wagon wheel for some settlers. Certain that it's her father, Margaret convinces Biggs to join her looking for the trapper's camp. When they find the camp, Jacob at first takes them for thieves and nearly shoots them. Margaret shows him the wooden medicine wheel necklace and he realizes that she is his daughter. Jacob then goes to Rancho Paradiso and is reunited with his family.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: On the plains, white encroachment has become an undeniable problem for the tribes. Running Fox and Dog Star join several other chiefs—including Conquering Bear (Graham Greene)—at the signing of the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851). All three agree that the peace is precarious but decide to give the agreement a chance.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: A little later, Loved by the Buffalo is visiting Conquering Bear's village. A cow escapes from a passing Mormon wagon train and rampages through the village, causing considerable damage. The villagers try to give the cow back to the settlers, but they become frightened at the sight of the Indians and run away. The tribe decides to keep the cow as compensation for the damage and butcher it. Soldiers soon come, demanding that the cow be returned and the "thief" be handed over. Conquering Bear tries to explain the situation to the soldiers but his efforts are thwarted by a drunken scout who intentionally mistranslates the negotiations. The soldiers then open fire on the village and the warriors fight back. Many are killed on both sides, including Conquering Bear. (Note: this event is based on the August 1854 Grattan massacre.)


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: A few years later, another Wheeler cousin, Samson Wheeler (Matthew Modine) has moved to Lawrence, Kansas with his family—his wife Susannah (Rebecca Jenkins), sons Aaron (Greyston Holt) and Jeremiah (James Kirk), and adopted daughter Clara (Rachael Leigh Cook). An anti-slavery Unionist himself, Samson allies with the abolitionist Jayhawkers during the days of "Bleeding Kansas" as tensions rise in the months leading up to the Civil War. He refuses to leave the town despite being threatened by Border Ruffian leader Bloody Bill Anderson (Christian Bocher) for hiring Henry Foster (Kwesi Ameyaw), a black worker. Lawrence is later attacked by Anderson's bushwackers and Quantrill's Raiders. In the raid, Samson, Susannah and their two sons are killed, leaving Clara as the only survivor. She then leaves Kansas to seek out her cousins in Omaha, Nebraska.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Jacob Wheeler's sons take different paths. Abe Wheeler (Christian Kane) has become a rider for the Pony Express. Despite being an excellent rider, he loses his job when the Pony Express is superseded by the telegraph. Jacob Wheeler, Jr. (Tyler Christopher) also decides to leave the family ranch to strike out on his own. Leaving California for the great plains, his knowledge of the Lakota language is valuable to the army and he is hired as a scout.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Dog Star's son, Brings Horse (Nathaniel Arcand) is shot by an army sniper when he climbs a telegraph pole to investigate the wires strung from the top and cutting them. Sleeping Bear (Nathan Lee Chasing His Horse), Dog Star's surviving son, pledges revenge against the whites for what they have done.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: In December 1863, Clara Wheeler makes her journey to Omaha and finds her cousins, Daniel Wheeler (Lance Henriksen), his wife Esther (Jane E. Goold) and his children Robert (Warren Kole), Jackson (Glen Powell Jr.), Thomas (Kurt Sorenson) and Lilly (Mia Stallard). Daniel is pursuing the family trade as a wheelwright. He is not happy to see Clara (in the previous episode Samson mentioned that he never was on good terms with Daniel, although the reason is never revealed) and intends to send her away to the war-raged East, but he is persuaded by his wife and his son Robert to take Clara in, on the condition that Robert takes the sole responsibility for Clara.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: The race is on as the Central Pacific and Union Pacific Railroads lay down tracks across the U.S., bringing East and West together. Jacob Wheeler's son Abe joins the construction crew of the Central Pacific railroad, working east from Sacramento. Working conditions are hard, and many workers leave to prospect for gold in the Californian goldfields. Chinese workers ("Coolies") are brought in from San Francisco to supplement the work crews. Abe meets and befriends Chow-Ping Yen (Garrett Wang), and they work in difficult conditions into and through the Sierra Nevada. Chow-Ping saves Abe's life when he almost falls from a bosun's chair while setting dynamite to construct a shelf along a cliff face.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: In March 1864, while photographing California Governor Frederick Low, Ethan Biggs and his wife, Margaret Light Shines (Jacob's daughter), decide to see the Indian Territory, and they take a stagecoach to Denver. In Denver, they hear Colonel John Chivington (Tom Berenger) speak against the Indians and recruit for the Third Colorado Cavalry. Ethan and Margaret's stagecoach is ambushed by Cheyenne warriors after leaving Denver. The other passengers are killed, but they are captured by Roman Nose (Rod Rondeaux) and taken to the camp of Black Kettle. Although the Cheyenne are hostile at first, Ethan and Margaret demonstrate their photographic equipment to the curious Cheyenne, and come to appreciate the Indian's hospitality.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: While Ethan photographs the people of Black Kettle's camp, Margaret works to establish peace between the Cheyenne and the local Governor and Army. On September 28, 1864, Black Kettle holds council with Colorado Territory Governor John Evans, Colonel Chivington and Major Wynkoop (Arron Shiver), to ensure peace. (Major Wynkoop's character is based on Silas Soule.) The Indians make clear their desire for peace, but the negotiations end inconclusively.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Margaret and Ethan decide to continue their journey, but, on November 29, 1864, the night before they have planned to leave, Colonel Chivington attacks Black Kettle's village at the head of the Third Colorado Cavalry. Most of the village, including Ethan, are killed at the Sand Creek Massacre. Margaret is saved by Black Kettle and flees with the survivors.


title: Into the West (miniseries)

text: Further altercations between the Indians and the American settlers leads Red Cloud (Raoul Trujillo) to begin to gather the forces that will lead to Red Cloud's War. On December 21, 1866, a large band of Cheyenne and Sioux under Crazy Horse (Tatanka Means) attack a supply train near Fort Phil Kearny. Capt. Fetterman (Dylan Kenin) leads a relief party of 80 men. Ignoring orders not to venture beyond Lodge Trail Ridge, he led his troops into an ambush. He and his entire party were killed in the attack, later called the Fetterman Massacre.