title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In 2015, Ukrainian Railways transformed through a merger of a state agency and a state-owned enterprise into a public joint stock company owned by state. Ukraine's State Administration of Railroad Transportation is subordinated to the Ministry of Infrastructure, administering the railways through the six territorial railway companies that immediately control and provide of all aspects of the railroad transportation and maintenance under the common Ukrzaliznytsia brand. The general director of the administration is appointed by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. The gauge is . The administration employs more than 403,000 people throughout the country.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Ukrainian Railways continued operating to evacuate and rescue millions of people from cities towards Europe. The rail links between Ukraine and Russia have been blown up by the Armed Forces of Ukraine to prevent their use by Russians, but the railways have continued operating within Ukraine and between Ukraine and Poland, Hungary, and Slovakia. One long-abandoned cross-border rail link with Poland was quickly reconstructed, and others which had been used only for freight have been quickly opened for passenger use. The rail service has evacuated over two million people from Ukraine on special evacuation trains. After some of the Black Sea ports became unavailable for grain export, rail became an export route to Europe. Several rail sections in the North and South became unusable.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In 2008 the Ukrainian State Railways transported around 498.5 million tonnes of domestic freight and 69.8 million tonnes of international freight through Ukrainian territory. Freight transport figures were particularly high on transport Routes 3, 5 and 9, which saw a combined total of 105 million tonnes carried in 2008. Further, Ukrzaliznytsia served around 518.8 million passengers over the course of the year. The state railways ran with an annual consolidated budget of a little more than ₴40 billion (US$5 billion) in 2008.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: By the end of 2005 the railways had produced a profit equivalent to ₴1.76 billion (US$220 million) from all their operations including freight, passenger service, associated services and the operation of subsidiaries. The total capital invested in fixed assets of the State Railways is thought to be equivalent to around ₴22 billion (US$4.4 billion). However, depreciation of these fixed assets is estimated to be around 57%, or in terms of rolling stock, closer to 66.7%.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In 2019, Ukrainian Railway confirms intention to issue new Eurobond. Ukrainian Railway (RAILUA) has the potential to increase its debt by US$1 billion, indicating a possible Eurobond issue. Recall, Ukrainian Railway's existing US$500 million Eurobond will be amortized by US$150M both in March and September 2019 and then by US$50 million semi-annually between March 2020 and September 2021. He also confirmed that Ukrainian Railway is now considering a Eurobond issue, on which he can further comment as soon as the government publishes a respective resolution (on its parameters). Kravtsov also highlighted that it's important for investors to have a clear understanding on how the borrowing will be serviced. Taking this into account, Ukrainian Railways has proposed a mechanism of automatic adjustment of freight railway rates based on Ukraine's producer price index.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Ukrainian State Railways (Ukrzaliznytsia) is the fourth company of the most profitable companies in Ukraine with a revenue of UAH ₴74 billion.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The railways are split into six territorial railway companies: Donetsk, Lviv, Odesa, Southern, South-Western and Near-Dnipro. The subdivision is purely administrative as it doesn't correspond to the particular railway lines or branches. The names of regional railways are purely historic, inherited from the Russian and Austro-Hungarian Empires (for instance the 'South-Western Railway' actually operates the north-central part of Ukraine's rail network, while the 'Southern Railway' actually operates in the east of the country).


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The six separate territorial railways each have their own directorates, located in the following cities:


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The territorial railways are further divided into several territorial administrations, usually four or five. Such division helps in the assignment of commuter railway lines depending on location.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The full extent of railways administrated by Ukrzaliznytsia is currently around 22,300 km, of which 9,752 km (44.3%) is fully electrified with the use of the overhead wire. The network is fully interconnected, central-dispatched and consists of 1,648 stations of all sizes spread throughout the country. The largest stations are Nyzhnodniprovsk-Vuzol (in the city of Dnipro) and Darnytsia (in the capital Kyiv) – both freight.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Railway stations also have five classes depending on their general performance. Some stations may be named as railway stop, platform number, passing loop ("") or simply kilometer post.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The tunnel was inaugurated in May 2018, serving as the most important rail link between Ukraine and the pan-European railway network, handling 60% of Ukraine-EU freight traffic. The project was supported by the European Union, the European Investment Bank (EIB), and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). The new tunnel more than doubles the output on the line, to 100 trains from the previous 45, and allows a speed increase from 40 km/h to 70 km/h.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In 2021 the electrification of the track section Vasylkiv 1 – Vasylkiv 2 is planned, which will enable the launch of electric suburban rail between Kyiv and Vasylkiv. The project involves the reconstruction of the Boyarka electrical substation, track works and a new passenger platform.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The project envisages the electrification of the 30 km section between Taras Shevchenko (Smila) and Cherkasy stations, which is the only non-electrified section between Cherkasy and Kyiv. The project will enable the launch of INTERCITY+ services between Kyiv and Cherkasy, reducing travel time from 3 hours 41 minutes to 2 hours and 45 minutes. Ukrainian Railways plans to carry out service using Skoda City Elephant EJ675 double decker electric multiple units.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Ukrzaliznytsia has several repair factories capable of producing locomotives and railcars. In addition there is a separate Kryukiv Railcar Engineering Factory and Dnieper Railcar Engineering that also produce railroad rolling stock for Ukrzaliznytsia and other companies for public transportation.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In November 2010, UZ agreed to buy 10 high-speed HRCS2 multiple unit interurban trainsets from Hyundai Rotem, with the prospect of a much larger order or joint venture for local production. The first two trains would be delivered in February 2012, two more in April and another two in May, when they will start operating. They will be rated as Inter City+ and will be connecting Kyiv with Kharkiv, Donetsk and Lviv, and at a later stage with Dnipro and Odesa.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In July 2011 UZ announced plans to buy 433 electric freight locomotives; 292 2EL4s from Transmashholding, and 141 locomotives (including class VL11M/6) from Elmavalmshenebeli (Tbilisi). Due to the 2014 Russian invasion of Ukraine Transmashholding was put on a sanctions list.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Because of the Russo-Ukrainian War, some factories that were producing locomotives and railcars were lost, such as Luhanskteplovoz (Luhansk Diesel Locomotive) and Stakhanov Railcar Engineering. Also because of the war debuted services were disrupted in January 2022, at the beginning of the war in February 2022,and it also has been widely reported some foreigners who were studying, working who were living Ukraine were denied service to leave the country, and stations that are used as bomb shelters.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In December 2017, UZ and GE Transportation agreed a to strategic partnership for the implementation of a 7-year rolling stock renewal program including the delivery of 30 locomotives to Ukrzaliznytsia in September 2018 with 40% manufactured in Ukraine.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The draft state budget for 2021 includes the purchasing of 100 new passenger cars from the Kryukiv Railway Car Building Works. In 2021 Ukrzaliznytsia will also launch its first disabled-friendly trains with dedicated wheelchair space.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: In 2018 Ukrainian Railways purchased 30 General Electric TE33AC Trident freight diesel locomotives. The 30 locomotives were planned to be the first stage of wider cooperation, including a 15-year partnership, and the replacement and modernization of additional Ukrainian rolling stock. Later in 2020, Ukrainian Railways CEO Volodymyr Zhmak stated that he does not see the need for further GE diesel locomotives, as the company will focus on electric traction due to its higher efficiency.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Following the appointment of Volodymyr Zhmak as CEO, UAH ₴400 million was reallocated within the company for urgent locomotive repairs until the end of 2020. As a part of this measure, the Lviv Locomotive Repair Plant has already received an order for the repair of 6 electric locomotives until the end of 2020.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: As of 2020, Alstom is interested in the renewal of the Ukrainian Railways locomotive fleet through partial localization of production. Volodymyr Zhmak stated that Ukrainian Railways is initially interested in the purchase of 50 two-system electric freight locomotives. The purchase of Alstom locomotives would be financed by the French government.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Ukrainian Railways suffer from a variety of issues mostly inherited from Soviet times. The reforms aim to address these issues in order to improve quality of service, transparency and governance.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The law seeks to harmonize Ukrainian rail-related legislation with European Union law. It sets out the basic requirements, responsibilities and rights of the infrastructure operator, the carrier and the owners of access tracks, rules for infrastructure management, basic requirements for railway rolling stock, and basic activities of railway rolling stock operators. The bill also provides for the creation of a system of public administration in the field of railway safety in accordance with the requirements of European Union legislation, the implementation of which is provided by the Association Agreement, which will increase transport safety in conditions of competition in the railway market. According to the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, the law, supported by European experts, serves as a starting point for real reforms in the industry.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The company is to be separated into verticals in accordance with modern practices. This involves the creation of separate freight, passenger, production and infrastructure operators within Ukrainian Railways by the end of 2021. According to the Ministry of Infrastructure of Ukraine, the project will ensure the transparency of financial flows within the company, and improve the quality of management of each activity. This will allow Ukrainian Railways to prepare for the emergence of private competitors in the railway market.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: Railway lines are classified into commuter, regional, Intercity and EuroCity. Daytime trains are also distinguished into a separate class from those that run at night. Intercity lines are coded with single, double and triple digits. while commuter lines are coded with quadruple digits.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: On 27 April 2011 in accordance with order No. 504/2011 rail industry specialists developed a new classification system of passenger trains for Ukrainian Railways.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The development of a new classification system for passenger trains in Ukraine was made necessary by the need to inform customers (passengers) about the level of service quality they could expect to find in various passenger trains. The new system is based on the class of train and carriages.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The advantages of the new classification system include full compliance with the classification of the European Union, compliance with Ukrainian and English names and abbreviations, linguistic and semantic consistency and clarity for customers in Ukraine and compatibility with existing and future tariff policy. The system is also not far displaced from the previous classification system used for passenger trains on the territory of Ukraine.


title: Ukrainian Railways

text: The National Railway University in Dnipro currently has 10 faculties as well as a technical school, a business school and branches in Odesa and Lviv, 450 professors and 39 separate fields of study related to railway transport.


title: Manny Puig

text: Manny Puig (born January 25, 1955) is a Cuban-born wildlife entertainer who is known for his direct approach when dealing with dangerous animals such as sharks, black bears and American alligators. He has made frequent appearances on the television shows "Jackass" and "Wildboyz" and also on the Animal Planet show Gator Boys. He was also known for hosting Outdoor Channel's "Savage Wild". Puig has appeared in numerous documentaries as an animal expert and even appeared on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" and on Shark Week.


title: Manny Puig

text: Manny Puig was born in Cuba and immigrated to Florida with his mother, where he became interested in wildlife. Living so close to the Florida Keys only increased his interest in animals. In his youth, Puig traveled into the Everglades with only a frying pan and a shotgun. He learned to hunt deer at an early age and started hand-catching small American alligators underwater in his teens.


title: Manny Puig

text: In the late 1990s, Puig worked with Mehgan Heaney-Grier and Mark Rackley, both in training Grier as a free diver and in filming underwater encounters with animals such as alligators and sharks. Rackley worked as a spearfisherman and underwater videographer. Puig had experience as an animal handler on movie sets and had learned how to ride and handle alligators in their environment. The trio formed a company named "Extreme Encounters", and the footage they produced led to the Animal Planet series titled "Extreme Contact". The 20 episode series featured the trio in cage-free encounters with sharks, alligators and other aquatic wildlife.


title: Manny Puig

text: Puig advocates a basic approach to wildlife and denounces the use of safety gear such as cages, protective clothing and diving apparatus. He states that he has a great respect for the Native Americans because of their interaction with the land and their survival skills. His interests also include history, art and geography documentaries. He spends his free time working on sculpting, hand-crafting medieval weapons and hunting tools.


title: Manny Puig

text: Puig has appeared on the television program "Jackass", in "", "Jackass Number Two", "Jackass 2.5", "Jackass 3D", and "Jackass 3.5". In these projects, he is credited as an expert on predatory animals. One of Puig's stunts is featured in the second film, where he dives with Steve-O around hammerhead and other dangerous sharks. Steve-O recalled the segment in his autobiography, stating: "The following day, Chris Pontius and I were scheduled to swim with great hammerhead sharks, accompanied by Manny...with the butt piercing wound still fresh, swimming with sharks might not have been very smart, but Manny wasn't worried about it...In retrospect, the fact that Manny was the arbiter of what was safe and reasonable is hilarious. He hatched and okayed plenty of ideas that were clearly "not okay." So you knew if he said no to something, that meant "FUCK NO!" As it happened, Manny had no problem sending us swimming with great hammerheads."


title: Manny Puig

text: Puig is also featured on the MTV program "Wildboyz", where he resumes the role of a predatory-animal expert. Some of Puig's stunts on "Wildboyz" include having a snapping turtle lock onto his hand. According to Chris Pontius on the special features of one of the "Wildboyz" DVDs, he heard Puig scream for the first time in his life when he had the snapping turtle bite his hand in the Deep South, United States.


title: Manny Puig

text: After finishing the second "Jackass" movie and with the final season of "Wildboyz" having completed, Puig produced his own film entitled "Ultimate Predator". The film shows him interacting particularly with sharks. The film also features adventures with Johnny Knoxville, Steve-O, Chris Pontius and Jeff Tremaine. Towards the end of filming Manny left the set due to a confrontation with fellow wildlife expert "David Weathers", Manny was quoted as telling him to “treat animals with the respect they deserve”, they eventually settled the dispute.


title: Manny Puig

text: Puig was featured on the Outdoor Channel show called "Savage Wild". The episodes of "Savage Wild" take place in the Everglades and surrounding environs near Miami, Florida and range from Puig hunting a wild boar with only a rudimentary spear, or carefully maneuvering through the water with a monster alligator, or handling highly venomous wild snakes, such as water moccasins, in their natural environment.


title: Returns to scale

text: In economics, returns to scale describe what happens to long-run returns as the scale of production increases, when all input levels including physical capital usage are variable (able to be set by the firm). The concept of returns to scale arises in the context of a firm's production function. It explains the long-run linkage of the rate of increase in output (production) relative to associated increases in the inputs (factors of production). In the long run, all factors of production are variable and subject to change in response to a given increase in production scale. While economies of scale show the effect of an increased output level on unit costs, returns to scale focus only on the relation between input and output quantities.


title: Returns to scale

text: There are three possible types of returns to scale: increasing returns to scale, constant returns to scale, and diminishing (or decreasing) returns to scale.


title: Returns to scale

text: If output increases by the same proportional change as all inputs change then there are constant returns to scale (CRS). If output increases by less than the proportional change in all inputs, there are decreasing returns to scale (DRS). If output increases by more than the proportional change in all inputs, there are increasing returns to scale (IRS). A firm's production function could exhibit different types of returns to scale in different ranges of output. Typically, there could be increasing returns at relatively low output levels, decreasing returns at relatively high output levels, and constant returns at some range of output levels between those extremes.


title: Returns to scale

text: In mainstream microeconomics, the returns to scale faced by a firm are purely technologically imposed and are not influenced by economic decisions or by market conditions (i.e., conclusions about returns to scale are derived from the specific mathematical structure of the production function "in isolation").


title: Returns to scale

text: Assuming that the factor costs are constant (that is, that the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets) and the production function is homothetic, a firm experiencing constant returns will have constant long-run average costs, a firm experiencing decreasing returns will have increasing long-run average costs, and a firm experiencing increasing returns will have decreasing long-run average costs. However, this relationship breaks down if the firm does not face perfectly competitive factor markets (i.e., in this context, the price one pays for a good does depend on the amount purchased). For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.


title: Returns to scale

text: In a more general set-up, for a multi-input-multi-output production processes, one may assume technology can be represented via some technology set, call it formula_5, which must satisfy some regularity conditions of production theory. In this case, the property of constant returns to scale is equivalent to saying that technology set formula_5 is a cone, i.e., satisfies the property formula_7. In turn, if there is a production function that will describe the technology set formula_5 it will have to be homogeneous of degree 1.


title: Returns to scale

text: Here as input usages all scale by the multiplicative factor "a", output also scales by "a" and so there are constant returns to scale.


title: Returns to scale

text: with formula_14 then there are increasing returns if "b" + "c" > 1 but decreasing returns if "b" + "c" < 1, since


title: Checklist

text: A checklist is a type of job aid used in repetitive tasks to reduce failure by compensating for potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task. A basic example is the "to do list". A more advanced checklist would be a schedule, which lays out tasks to be done according to time of day or other factors. A primary task in checklist is documentation of the task and auditing against the documentation.


title: Checklist

text: Use of a written checklist can reduce any tendency to avoid, omit or neglect important steps in any task.


title: Checklist

text: Checklists have been used in healthcare practice to ensure that clinical practice guidelines are followed. An example is the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist developed for the World Health Organization and found to have a large effect on improving patient safety and subsequently found to have a nil effect in a cohort of hospitals in the Province of Ontario in Canada. According to a meta-analysis after introduction of the checklist mortality dropped by 23% and all complications by 40%, higher-quality studies are required to make the meta-analysis more robust. However, checklist use in healthcare has not always met with success and the transferability between settings has been questioned. In the UK, a study on the implementation of a checklist for provision of medical care to elderly patients admitting to hospital found that the checklist highlighted limitations with frailty assessment in acute care and motivated teams to review routine practices, but that work is needed to understand whether and how checklists can be embedded in complex multidisciplinary care.


title: Checklist

text: A checklist may be used to identify the action, after which it is done, then checked off as complete and the next item identified, known as the "Read–Do" process, or the tasks may be done, and then the checklist consulted to ensure that nothing has been left out, the "Do–Confirm process, in which the status of tasks must be remembered until checked off, which may result in more errors.


title: Checklist

text: Checklists are often presented as lists with small checkboxes down the left hand side of the page. A small tick or checkmark is drawn in the box after the item has been completed.


title: Checklist

text: Other formats are also sometimes used. Aviation checklists generally consist of a system and an action divided by a dashed line, and lack a checkbox as they are often read aloud and are usually intended to be reused.


title: Checklist

text: The design of a checklist should fit the purpose of the list. If a checklist is perceived as a top-down means to control behaviour by the organisational hierarchy it is more likely to be rejected and fail in its purpose. A checklist perceived as helping the operator to save time and reduce error is likely to be better accepted. This is more likely to happen when the user is involved in the development of the checklist.


title: Checklist

text: Rae et al.(2018) define "safety clutter" as "the accumulation and persistence of 'safety' work that does not contribute to operational safety", and state that "when 'safety' rules impose a significant and unnecessary burden on the performance of everyday activities, both work and safety suffer".


title: Checklist

text: Excessive dependence of checklists may hinder performance when dealing with a time-critical situation, for example a medical emergency or an in-flight emergency. Checklists should not be used as a replacement for common sense. Intensive training including rote-learning of checklists can help integrate use of checklists with more adaptive and flexible problem solving techniques.


title: Checklist

text: Experimental work has shown that memorised checklists are less effective than written checklists in identifying unsafe conditions when time is not critical.


title: Chief Economic Advisor to the Government of India

text: The Chief Economic Adviser (CEA) is a post in Government of India and is equivalent to rank of Secretary to the Government of India.


text: The CEA is the ex-officio cadre controlling authority of the Indian Economic Service. The CEA is head of Economic Division of the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India.


text: Until 2009, the CEA’s position was a Union Public Service Commission appointment and until the 1970s almost all CEAs were members of the Indian Economic Service.


text: The extent to which the Government takes into account the advice of the Chief Economic Adviser has generally been considered to be open-ended.


text: In his 2018 book titled "Of Counsel: The Challenges of the Modi-Jaitley Economy," former CEA Arvind Subramanian stated that the job of the CEA carried no executive responsibility. According to him, the only clearly defined job of the CEA was to produce the Economic Survey of India preceding the Union Budget.


text: Below is a list of Chief Economic Advisers that have been appointed by the Government of India since Independence in 1947.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Aaron Temkin Beck (July 18, 1921 – November 1, 2021) was an American psychiatrist who was a professor in the department of psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania. He is regarded as the father of cognitive therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). His pioneering methods are widely used in the treatment of clinical depression and various anxiety disorders. Beck also developed self-report measures for depression and anxiety, notably the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), which became one of the most widely used instruments for measuring the severity of depression. In 1994 he and his daughter, psychologist Judith S. Beck, founded the nonprofit Beck Institute for Cognitive Behavior Therapy, which provides CBT treatment and training, as well as research. Beck served as President Emeritus of the organization up until his death.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck was noted for his writings on psychotherapy, psychopathology, suicide, and psychometrics. He published more than 600 professional journal articles, and authored or co-authored 25 books. He was named one of the "Americans in history who shaped the face of American psychiatry", and one of the "five most influential psychotherapists of all time" by "The American Psychologist" in July 1989. His work at the University of Pennsylvania inspired Martin Seligman to refine his own cognitive techniques and later work on learned helplessness.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Aaron Temkin Beck was born in Providence, Rhode Island on July 18, 1921. He was the youngest of four children born to Elizabeth Temkin and Harry Beck, Jewish immigrants from Ukraine. Harry worked as a printer and Elizabeth's family found financial success in tobacco wholesaling; the family belonged to the upwardly-mobile vanguard of Providence's Eastern European-Jewish immigrant community. At the time of Aaron's birth, the Temkin-Becks lived a "comfortable, lower-middle class lifestyle" and were in the process of putting down roots on Providence's East Side. In 1923, when Aaron was two years old, the family purchased a house at 43/41 Sessions Street in the city's Blackstone neighborhood.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck attended John Howland Grammar School, Nathan Bishop Junior High, and Hope Street High School, where he graduated as valedictorian in 1938. As an adolescent, Beck dreamed of becoming a journalist. Beck matriculated at Brown University, where he graduated "magna cum laude" in 1942. At Brown, he was elected a member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society, was an associate editor of "The Brown Daily Herald", and received the Francis Wayland Scholarship, William Gaston Prize for Excellence in Oratory, and Philo Sherman Bennett Essay Award. Beck attended Yale Medical School, planning to become an internist and work in private practice in Providence. He graduated from Yale with a Doctor of Medicine in 1946.


title: Aaron Beck

text: After receiving his M.D., Beck completed a six-month junior residency in pathology at Rhode Island Hospital and a three-year residency in neurology at Cushing Veterans Administration Hospital in Framingham, Massachusetts. During this time, Beck began to specialize in neurology, reportedly liking the precision of its procedures. However, due to a shortage of psychiatry residents, he was instructed to do a six-month rotation in that field, and he became absorbed in psychoanalysis, despite initial wariness.


title: Aaron Beck

text: After completing his medical internships and residencies from 1946 to 1950, Beck became a fellow in psychiatry at the Austen Riggs Center, a private mental hospital in the mountains of Stockbridge, Massachusetts, until 1952. At that time, it was a center of ego psychology with an unusual degree of collaboration between psychiatrists and psychologists, including David Rapaport.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck then completed military service as assistant chief of neuropsychiatry at Valley Forge Army Hospital in the United States Military.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck then joined the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Pennsylvania in 1954. The department chair was Kenneth Ellmaker Appel, a psychoanalyst who was president of the American Psychiatric Association, whose efforts to expand the presence and relatedness of psychiatry had a big influence on Beck's career. At the same time, Beck began formal training in psychoanalysis at the Philadelphia Institute of the American Psychoanalytic Association.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck's closest colleague was Marvin Stein, a friend since their army hospital days to whom Beck looked up to for his scientific rigor in psychoneuroimmunology. Beck's first research was with Leon J. Saul, a psychoanalyst known for unusual methods such as therapy by telephone or setting homework, who had developed inventory questionnaires to quantify ego processes in the manifest content of dreams (that which can be directly reported by the dreamer). Beck and a graduate student developed a new inventory they used to assess "masochistic" hostility in manifest dreams, published in 1959. This study found themes of loss and rejection related to depression, rather than inverted hostility as predicted by psychoanalysis. Developing the work with funding from the National Institute of Mental Health, Beck came up with what he would call the Beck Depression Inventory, which he published in 1961 and soon started to market, unsupported by Appel. In another experiment, he found that depressed patients sought encouragement or improvement following disapproval, rather than seeking out suffering and failure as predicted by the Freudian anger-turned-inwards theory.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Through the 1950s, Beck adhered to the department's psychoanalytic theories while pursuing experimentation and harboring private doubts. In 1961, however, controversy over whom to appoint the new chair of psychiatry—specifically, fierce psychoanalytic opposition to the favored choice of biomedical researcher Eli Robins—brought matters to a head, an early skirmish in a power shift away from psychoanalysis nationally. Beck tried to remain neutral and, with Albert J. Stunkard, opposed a petition to block Robins. Stunkard, a behaviorist who specialized in obesity and who had dropped out of psychoanalytic training, was eventually appointed department head in the face of sustained opposition which again Beck would not engage in, putting him at bitter odds with his friend Stein.


title: Aaron Beck

text: On top of this, despite having graduated from his Philadelphia training, the American Psychoanalytic Institute rejected (deferred) Beck's membership application in 1960, skeptical of his claims of success from relatively brief therapy and advising he conduct further supervised therapy on the more advanced or termination phases of a case, and again in 1961 when he had not done so but outlined his clinical and research work. Such deferments were a tactic used by the institute to maintain the orthodoxy in teaching, but Beck did not know this at the time and has described the decision as stupid and dumb.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck usually explained his increasing belief in his cognitive model by reference to a patient he had been listening to for a year at the Penn clinic. When he suggested she was anxious due to her ego being confronted by her sexual impulses, and asked her whether she believed this when she did not seem convinced, she said she was actually worried that she was being boring, and that she thought this often and with everyone.


title: Aaron Beck

text: In 1962, he was already making notes about patterns of thoughts in depression, emphasizing what can be observed and tested by anyone and treated in the present. He was engaged by George Kelly's personal construct theory and Jean Piaget's schemas. Beck's first articles on the cognitive theory of depression, in 1963 and 1964 in the "Archives of General Psychiatry", maintained the psychiatric context of ego psychology but then turned to concepts of realistic and scientific thinking in the terms of the new cognitive psychology, extended to become a therapeutic need.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck's notebooks were also filled with self-analysis, where at least twice a day for several years he wrote out his own "negative" (later "automatic") thoughts, rated with a percentile belief score, classified and restructured.


title: Aaron Beck

text: The psychologist who would become most important for Beck was Albert Ellis, whose own faith in psychoanalysis had crumbled by the 1950s. He had begun presenting his "rational therapy" by the mid-1950s. Beck recalled that Ellis contacted him in the mid-1960s after his two articles in the "Archives of General Psychiatry", and therefore he discovered Ellis had developed a rich theory and pragmatic therapy that he was able to use to some extent as a framework blended with his own, though he disliked Ellis's technique of telling patients what he thought was going on rather than helping the client to learn for themselves empirically. Psychoanalyst Gerald E. Kochansky remarked in 1975 in a review of one of Beck's books that he could no longer tell if Beck was a psychoanalyst or a devotee of Ellis. Beck highlighted the classical philosophical Socratic method as an inspiration, while Ellis highlighted disputation which he stated was not anti-empirical and taught people how to dispute internally. Both Beck and Ellis cited aspects of the ancient philosophical system of Stoicism as a forerunner of their ideas, though Ellis wrote more about this; both mistakenly cited Cicero as a stoic.


title: Aaron Beck

text: In 1967, becoming active again at University of Pennsylvania, Beck still described himself and his new therapy (as he always would quietly) as neo-Freudian in the ego psychology school, albeit focused on interactions with the environment rather than internal drives. He offered cognitive therapy work as a relatively "neutral" space and a bridge to psychology. With a monograph on depression that Beck published in 1967, according to historian Rachael Rosner: "Cognitive Therapy entered the marketplace as a corrective experimentalist psychological framework both for himself and his patients and for his fellow psychiatrists."


title: Aaron Beck

text: Working with depressed patients, Beck found that they experienced streams of negative thoughts that seemed to arise spontaneously. He termed these cognitions "automatic thoughts", and discovered that their content fell into three categories: negative ideas about oneself, the world, and the future. He stated that such cognitions were interrelated as the cognitive triad. Limited time spent reflecting on automatic thoughts would lead patients to treat them as valid.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck began helping patients identify and evaluate these thoughts and found that by doing so, patients were able to think more realistically, which led them to feel better emotionally and behave more functionally. He developed key ideas in CBT, explaining that different disorders were associated with different types of distorted thinking. Distorted thinking has a negative effect on a person's behaviour no matter what type of disorder they had, he found. Beck explained that successful interventions will educate a person to understand and become aware of their distorted thinking, and how to challenge its effects. He discovered that frequent negative automatic thoughts reveal a person's core beliefs. He explained that core beliefs are formed over lifelong experiences; we "feel" these beliefs to be true.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Since that time, Beck and his colleagues worldwide have researched the efficacy of this form of psychotherapy in treating a wide variety of disorders including depression, bipolar disorder, eating disorders, drug abuse, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and many other medical conditions with psychological components. Cognitive therapy has also been applied with success to individuals with schizophrenia. He also focused on cognitive therapy for schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and for patients who have had recurrent suicide attempts.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck's recent research on the treatment of schizophrenia has suggested that patients once believed to be non-responsive to treatment are amenable to positive change. Even the most severe presentations of the illness, such as those involving long periods of hospitalization, bizarre behavior, poor personal hygiene, self-injury, and aggressiveness, can respond positively to a modified version of cognitive behavioural treatment.


title: Aaron Beck

text: However, some mental health professionals have opposed Beck's cognitive models and resulting therapies as very mechanistic or too limited in which parts of mental activity they will consider. Beck's work was presented as a far more scientific and experimentally-based development than psychoanalysis (while being less reductive than behaviourism), Beck's key principles were not necessarily based on the general findings and models of cognitive psychology or neuroscience developing at that time but were derived from personal clinical observations and interpretations in his therapy office. And although there have been many cognitive models developed for different mental disorders and hundreds of outcome studies on the effectiveness of CBT—relatively easy because of the narrow, time-limited and manual-based nature of the treatment—there has been much less focus on experimentally proving the supposedly active mechanisms; in some cases the predicted causal relationships have not been found, such as between dysfunctional attitudes and outcomes.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck was involved in research studies at the University of Pennsylvania, and conducted biweekly Case Conferences at Beck Institute for area psychiatric residents, graduate students, and mental health professionals. He met every two weeks with conference participants and generally did two to three role plays. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2007.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck was the founder and President Emeritus of the non-profit Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy, and the director of the Psychopathology Research Center (PRC), which is the parent organization of the Center for the Treatment and Prevention of Suicide. In 1986, he was a visiting scientist at Oxford University.


title: Aaron Beck

text: He was a professor emeritus at Penn since 1992, and an adjunct professor at both Temple University and University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck was married in 1950 to Phyllis W. Beck (* October 7, 1927), and they had four children together: Roy, Judy, Dan, and Alice. Phyllis was the first woman judge on the appellate court of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Her youngest daughter, Alice Beck Dubow, is a judge on the same court, while the older daughter Judith is a prominent CBT educator and clinician, who wrote the basic text in the field and is a co-founder of the non-profit Beck Institute. He turned 100 on July 18, 2021, and died later in the year on November 1 in his sleep at his home in Philadelphia.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Along with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck developed the Beck Hopelessness Scale, Beck Scale for Suicidal Ideation (BSS), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Youth Inventories, Clark-Beck Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (CBOCI), and BDI–Fast Screen for Medical Patients.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck collaborated with psychologist Maria Kovacs in the development of the Children's Depression Inventory, which used the BDI as a template.


title: Aaron Beck

text: Beck received honorary degrees from Yale University, University of Pennsylvania, Brown University, Assumption College, and Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Marjory Stoneman Douglas (April 7, 1890 – May 14, 1998) was an American journalist, author, women's suffrage advocate, and conservationist known for her staunch defense of the Everglades against efforts to drain it and reclaim land for development. Moving to Miami as a young woman to work for "The Miami Herald", she became a freelance writer, producing over one hundred short stories that were published in popular magazines. Her most influential work was the book "" (1947), which redefined the popular conception of the Everglades as a treasured river instead of a worthless swamp. Its impact has been compared to that of Rachel Carson's influential book "Silent Spring" (1962). Her books, stories, and journalism career brought her influence in Miami, enabling her to advance her causes.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: As a young woman, Douglas was outspoken and politically conscious of the women's suffrage and civil rights movements. She was called upon to take a central role in the protection of the Everglades when she was 79 years old. For the remaining 29 years of her life she was "a relentless reporter and fearless crusader" for the natural preservation and restoration of South Florida. Her tireless efforts earned her several variations of the nickname "Grande Dame of the Everglades" as well as the hostility of agricultural and business interests looking to benefit from land development in Florida. She received numerous awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and was inducted into several halls of fame.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas lived to 108, working until nearly the end of her life for Everglades restoration. Upon her death, an obituary in "The Independent" in London stated, "In the history of the American environmental movement, there have been few more remarkable figures than Marjory Stoneman Douglas."


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Marjory Stoneman was born on April 7, 1890 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the only child of concert violinist Florence Lillian Trefethen (1859-1912) and Frank Bryant Stoneman (1857–1941). One of her earliest memories was her father reading to her "The Song of Hiawatha", at which she burst into sobs upon hearing that the tree had to give its life in order to provide Hiawatha the wood for a canoe. She was an early and voracious reader. Her first book was "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", which she kept well into adulthood until "some fiend in human form must have borrowed it and not brought it back". She visited Florida when she was four, and her most vivid memory of the trip was picking an orange from a tree at the Tampa Bay Hotel. From there she and her parents embarked on a cruise from Tampa to Havana.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Marjory's parents separated when she was six. Her father endured a series of failed entrepreneurial ventures and the instability caused her mother to move them abruptly to the Trefethen family house in Taunton, Massachusetts. She lived there with her mother, aunt, and grandparents, who did not get along well and consistently spoke ill of her father, to her dismay. Her mother, whom Marjory characterized as "high-strung", was committed to a mental sanitarium in Providence several times. Her parents' separation and the contentiousness of her mother's family caused her to suffer from night terrors. She credited her tenuous upbringing with making her "a skeptic and a dissenter" for the rest of her life.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: As a youth, Marjory found solace in reading, and eventually, she began to write. At sixteen she contributed to the most popular children's publication of the day, "St. Nicholas Magazine"—also the first publisher of 20th-century writers F. Scott Fitzgerald, Rachel Carson, and William Faulkner—with a puzzle titled "Double Beheadings and Double Curtailings". In 1907, she was awarded a prize by the "Boston Herald" for "An Early Morning Paddle", a story about a boy who watches a sunrise from a canoe. As her mother's mental health deteriorated, Marjory took on more responsibilities, eventually managing some of the family finances and gaining a maturity imposed upon her by circumstance.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Marjory left for college in 1908, despite grave misgivings about her mother's mental state. Her aunt and grandmother shared her concerns, but recognized that she needed to leave in order to begin her own life. She was a straight-A student at Wellesley College, graduating with a BA in English in 1912. She found particular success in a class on elocution, and joined the first suffrage club with six of her classmates. She was elected Class Orator but was unable to fulfill the office since she was already involved in other activities. During her senior year while visiting home, her mother showed her a lump on her breast. Marjory arranged the surgery to have it removed. After the graduation ceremony, her aunt informed her it had metastasized, and within months her mother was dead. The family left the funeral arrangements up to Marjory.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: After drifting with college friends through a few jobs to which she did not feel well-suited, Marjory Stoneman met Kenneth Douglas in 1914. She was so impressed with his manners and surprised at the attention he showed her that she married him within three months. He portrayed himself as a newspaper editor, and was 30 years her senior, but the marriage quickly failed when it became apparent he was a con artist. The true extent of his duplicity Marjory did not entirely reveal, despite her honesty in all other matters. Douglas was married to Marjory while already married to another woman. While he spent six months in jail for passing a bad check, she remained faithful to him. His scheme to scam her absent father out of money worked in Marjory's favor when it attracted Frank Stoneman's attention. Marjory's uncle persuaded her to move to Miami and end the marriage. In the fall of 1915, Marjory Stoneman Douglas left New England to be reunited with her father, whom she had not seen since her parents' separation. Shortly before that, her father had married Lillius ("Lilla") Eleanor Shine, a great-great-granddaughter of Thomas Jefferson (her grandfather was Francis W. Eppes). Marjory later wrote that Shine "remained my first and best friend all my life in Florida." After moving to Florida in 1915, Marjory rarely returned to Massachusetts, but she retained affection for it; her 1987 memoir "Voice of the River," is dedicated "To Massachusetts, with love."


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas arrived in South Florida when fewer than 5,000 people lived in Miami and it was "no more than a glorified railroad terminal". Her father, Frank Stoneman, was the first publisher of the paper that later became "The Miami Herald". Stoneman passionately opposed the governor of Florida, Napoleon Bonaparte Broward, and his attempts to drain the Everglades. He infuriated Broward so much that when Stoneman won an election for circuit judge, Broward refused to validate the election, so Stoneman was referred to as "Judge" for the rest of his life without performing the duties of one.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas joined the newspaper's staff in 1915. She began as a society columnist writing about tea parties and society events, but news was so slow she later admitted to making up some of her stories: "Somebody would say, 'Who's that Mrs. T.Y. Washrag you've got in your column?' And I would say, 'Oh, you know, I don't think she's been here very long'". When her father went on vacation less than a year after her arrival in Miami, he left her the responsibility of the editorial page. She developed a rivalry with an editor at "The Miami Metropolis" whose greater familiarity with Miami history gave her cause to make fun of Douglas in writing. Her father scolded her to check her facts better.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas was given an assignment in 1916 to write a story on the first woman from Miami to join the US Naval Reserve. When the woman did not show up for the interview, Douglas herself joined the Navy as a Yeoman (F) first class. It did not suit her; she disliked rising early and her superiors did not appreciate her correcting their grammar, so she requested a discharge and joined the American Red Cross, which stationed her in Paris. She witnessed the tumultuous celebrations on the Rue de Rivoli when the Armistice was signed and cared for war refugees; seeing them displaced and in a state of shock, she wrote, "helped me understand the plight of refugees in Miami sixty years later".


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: After the war, Douglas served as assistant editor at "The Miami Herald". She gained some renown for her daily column, "The Galley", becoming something of a local celebrity. She amassed a devoted readership and attempted to begin each column with a poem. "The Galley" was topical and went in any direction Douglas chose. She promoted responsible urban planning when Miami saw a population boom of 100,000 people in a decade. She wrote supporting women's suffrage, civil rights, and better sanitation while opposing Prohibition and foreign trade tariffs.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Some of the stories she wrote spoke of the region's wealth as being in its "inevitable development", and she supplemented her income with $100 a week from writing copy advertisements that praised the development of South Florida, something she would reconsider later in her life. In the early 1920s she wrote "Martin Tabert of North Dakota is Walking Florida Now", a ballad lamenting the death of a 22-year-old vagrant who was beaten to death in a labor camp. It was printed in "The Miami Herald", and read aloud during a session of the Florida Legislature, which passed a law banning convict leasing in large part due to her writing. "I think that's the single most important thing I was ever able to accomplish as a result of something I've written", she wrote in her autobiography.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: After quitting the newspaper in 1923, Douglas worked as a freelance writer. From 1920 to 1990, Douglas published 109 fiction articles and stories. One of her first stories was sold to the pulp fiction magazine "Black Mask" for $600 (equivalent to $ in 2021). Forty of her stories were published in "The Saturday Evening Post"; one, "Story of a Homely Woman", was reprinted in 1937 in the "Post's" best short stories compilation. Recurring settings in her fiction were South Florida, the Caribbean, and Europe during World War I. Her protagonists were often independent, quirky women or youthful underdogs who encountered social or natural injustices. The people and animals of the Everglades served as subjects for some of her earliest writings. "Plumes", originally published in the "Saturday Evening Post" in 1930, was based on the murder of Guy Bradley, an Audubon Society game warden, by poachers. "Wings" was a nonfiction story, also first appearing in the "Post" in 1931, that addressed the slaughter of Everglades wading birds for their feathers. Her story "Peculiar Treasure of a King" was a second-place finalist in the O. Henry Award competition in 1928.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: During the 1930s, she was commissioned to write a pamphlet supporting a botanical garden called "An argument for the establishment of a tropical botanical garden in South Florida." Its success caused her to be in demand at garden clubs where she delivered speeches throughout the area, then to serve on the board to support the Fairchild Garden. She called the garden "one of the greatest achievements for the entire area".


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas became involved with the Miami Theater, and wrote some one-act plays that were fashionable in the 1930s. One, "The Gallows Gate", was about an argument between a mother and father regarding the character of their son who is sentenced to hang. She got the idea from her father, who had witnessed hangings when he lived in the West and was unnerved by the creaking sound of the rope bearing the weight of the hanging body. The play won a state competition, and eventually $500 in a national competition after it was written into three acts. With William W. Muir, husband of reporter Helen Muir, she authored "Storm Warnings", a play loosely based on the life of mobster Al Capone. Some of Capone's henchmen showed up at the theater, "add[ing] an extra tingle for the audience that night", though no actual problems arose. Douglas wrote the foreword to the Work Projects Administration's guide to Miami and environs, published in 1941 as part of the Federal Writers' Project's American Guide Series.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas served as the book review editor of "The Miami Herald" from 1942 to 1949, and as editor for the University of Miami Press from 1960 to 1963. She released her first novel, "Road to the Sun", in 1952. She wrote four novels, and several nonfiction books on regional topics including Florida birdwatching and David Fairchild, a biologist who imagined a botanical park in Miami. Her autobiography, "Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River", was written with John Rothchild in 1987. She had been working on a book about W. H. Hudson for years, traveling to Argentina and England several times. It was incomplete when she died in 1998.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Early in the 1940s, Douglas was approached by a publisher to contribute to the Rivers of America Series by writing about the Miami River. Unimpressed with it, she called the Miami River about "an inch long”, but in researching it she became more interested in the Everglades and persuaded the publisher to allow her to write about the Everglades instead. She spent five years researching what little was known about the ecology and history of the Everglades and South Florida. Douglas spent time with geologist Garald Parker, who discovered that South Florida's sole freshwater source was the Biscayne Aquifer, and it was filled by the Everglades. Parker confirmed the name of the book that has since become the nickname for the Everglades when Douglas, trying to capture the Everglades' essence, asked if she could safely call the fresh water flowing from Lake Okeechobee a river of grass.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: "" was published in 1947 and sold out of its first printing in a month. The book's first line, "There are no other Everglades in the world", has been called the "most famous passage ever written about the Everglades", and the line once welcomed visitors to the Everglades National Park website. Douglas characterized the Everglades as an ecosystem surrounding a river worthy of protection, inescapably connected to South Florida's people and cultures. She outlined its imminent disappearance in the last chapter, "The Eleventh Hour":


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Cattlemen's grass fires roared uncontrolled. Cane-field fires spread crackling and hissing in the saw grass in vast waves and pillars and billowing mountains of heavy, cream-colored, purple-shadowed smoke. Training planes flying over the Glades dropped bombs or cigarette butts, and the fires exploded in the hearts of the drying hammocks and raced on before every wind leaving only blackness ... There was no water in the canals with which to fight [the fires] ... The sweet water the rock had held was gone or had shrunk far down into its strange holes and cleavages.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: "The Everglades: River of Grass" galvanized people to protect the Everglades and has been compared to Rachel Carson's 1962 exposé of the harmful effects of DDT, "Silent Spring"; both books are "groundbreaking calls to action that made citizens and politicians take notice". Its impact is still felt as it is claimed to be a major reason Florida receives so many tourists, and "remains the definitive reference on the plight of the Florida Everglades". It has gone through numerous editions, selling 500,000 copies since its original publication. The "Christian Science Monitor" wrote of it in 1997, "Today her book is not only a classic of environmental literature, it also reads like a blueprint for what conservationists are hailing as the most extensive environmental restoration project ever undertaken anywhere in the world". The downside of the book's impact, according to one writer addressing restoration of the Everglades, is that her metaphor of a River of Grass is so predominant that the complex web of ecosystems within the Everglades is oversimplified. David McCally wrote that despite Douglas's "appreciation of the complexity of the environmental system" she described, popular conception of the Everglades shared by people who have not read the book overshadows her detailed explanations.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Women's suffrage was an early interest of Douglas, and although she tended to shy away from polemics in her early work at "The Miami Herald", on her third day as a society columnist, she chose suffrage and began to focus on writing about women in leadership positions. In 1917, she traveled with Mary Baird Bryan, William Jennings Bryan's wife, and two other women to Tallahassee to speak in support of women's right to vote. Douglas was not impressed with the reception the group got from the Florida Legislature. She wrote about her experience later: "All four of us spoke to a joint committee wearing our best hats. Talking to them was like talking to graven images. They never paid attention to us at all." Douglas was able to vote for the first time after she returned from Europe in 1920.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: You can have the most beautiful city in the world as appearance goes, the streets may be clean and shining, the avenues broad and tree lined, the public buildings dignified, adequate and well kept ... but if you have a weak or inadequate health department, or a public opinion lax on the subject, all the splendors of your city will have not value.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: In 1948 Douglas served on the Coconut Grove Slum Clearance Committee, with a friend of hers named Elizabeth Virrick, who was horrified to learn that no running water or sewers were connected to the racially segregated part of Coconut Grove. They helped pass a law requiring all homes in Miami to have toilets and bathtubs. In the two years it took them to get the referendum passed, they worked to set up a loan operation for the black residents of Coconut Grove, who borrowed the money interest-free to pay for the plumbing work. Douglas noted that all of the money loaned was repaid.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Stoneman Douglas became involved in the Everglades in the 1920s, when she joined the board of the Everglades Tropical National Park Committee, a group led by Ernest F. Coe and dedicated to the idea of making a national park in the Everglades. By the 1960s, the Everglades were in imminent danger of disappearing forever because of gross mismanagement in the name of progress and real estate and agricultural development. Encouraged to get involved by the leaders of environmental groups, in 1969—at the age of 79—Douglas founded Friends of the Everglades to protest the construction of a jetport in the Big Cypress portion of the Everglades. She justified her involvement saying, "It is a woman's business to be interested in the environment. It's an extended form of housekeeping."


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: She toured the state giving "hundreds of ringing denunciations" of the airport project, and increased membership of Friends of the Everglades to 3,000 within three years. She ran the public information operation full-time from her home and encountered hostility from the jetport's developers and backers, who called her a "damn butterfly chaser". President Richard Nixon, however, scrapped funding for the project due to the efforts of many Everglades watchdog groups.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas continued her activism and focused her efforts on restoring the Everglades after declaring that "Conservation is now a dead word ... You can't conserve what you haven't got." Her criticism was directed at two entities she considered were doing the most damage to the Everglades. A coalition of sugarcane growers, named Big Sugar, she accused of polluting Lake Okeechobee by pumping water tainted with chemicals, human waste, and garbage back into the lake, which served as the fresh water source for the Miami metropolitan area. She compared Florida sugarcane agriculture to sugarcane grown in the West Indies, which, she claimed, was more environmentally sound, had a longer harvest cycle less harmful to soil nutrients, and was less expensive for consumers due to the higher sugar content.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Besides Big Sugar, Douglas spoke about the damage the Army Corps of Engineers was doing to the Everglades by diverting the natural flow of water. The Corps was responsible for constructing more than of canals to divert water away from the Everglades after 1947. When the Central & South Florida Project (C&SF), run by former members of the Corps of Engineers, was proposed to assist the Everglades, Douglas initially gave it her approval, as it promised to deliver much-needed water to the shrinking Everglades. However, in application, the project instead diverted more water away from the Everglades, changed water schedules to meet sugarcane farmers' irrigation needs, and flat-out refused to release water to Everglades National Park, until much of the land was unrecognizable. "What a liar I turned out to be!" remarked Douglas, then suggested the motivation behind all the digging and diversion in saying, "Their mommies obviously never let them play with mud pies, so now they take it out on us by playing with cement".


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas was giving a speech addressing the harmful practices of the Army Corps of Engineers when the colonel in attendance dropped his pen on the floor. As he was stooping to pick it up, Douglas stopped her speech and said to him, "Colonel! You can crawl under that table and hide, but you can't get away from me!"


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: In 1973, Douglas attended a meeting addressing conservation of the Everglades in Everglades City, and was observed by John Rothchild:


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Mrs. Douglas was half the size of her fellow speakers and she wore huge dark glasses, which along with the huge floppy hat made her look like Scarlett O'Hara as played by Igor Stravinsky. When she spoke, everybody stopped slapping mosquitoes and more or less came to order. She reminded us all of our responsibility to nature and I don't remember what else. Her voice had the sobering effect of a one-room schoolmarm's. The tone itself seemed to tame the rowdiest of the local stone crabbers, plus the developers, and the lawyers on both sides. I wonder if it didn't also intimidate the mosquitoes ... The request for a Corps of Engineers permit was eventually turned down. This was no surprise to those of us who'd heard her speak.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas was not well received by some audiences. She opposed the drainage of a suburb in Dade County named East Everglades. After the county approved building permits in the Everglades, the land flooded as it had for centuries. When homeowners demanded the Army Corps of Engineers drain their neighborhoods, she was the only opposing voice. At the hearing in 1983, she was booed, jeered, and shouted at by the audience of residents. "Can't you boo any louder than that?" she chided, eventually making them laugh. "Look. I'm an old lady. I've been here since eight o'clock. It's now eleven. I've got all night, and I'm used to the heat," she told them. Later, she wrote, "They're all good souls—they just shouldn't be out there." Dade County commissioners eventually decided not to drain.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Florida Governor Lawton Chiles explained her impact, saying, "Marjory was the first voice to really wake a lot of us up to what we were doing to our quality of life. She was not just a pioneer of the environmental movement, she was a prophet, calling out to us to save the environment for our children and our grandchildren."


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas also served as a charter member of the first American Civil Liberties Union chapter organized in the South in the 1950s. She lent her support to the Equal Rights Amendment, speaking to the legislature in Tallahassee urging them to ratify it. In the 1980s Douglas lent her support to the Florida Rural Legal Services, a group that worked to protect migrant farm workers who were centered on Belle Glade, and who were primarily employed by the sugarcane industry. She wrote to Governor Bob Graham in 1985 to encourage him to assess the conditions the migrant workers endured. The same year, Douglas approached the Dade County School Board and insisted that the Biscayne Nature Center, which had been housed in hot dog stands, needed a building of its own. The center received a portable building until 1991 when the Florida Department of Education endowed $1.8 million for the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Biscayne Nature Center in Crandon Park. Douglas co-founded the Friends of the Miami-Dade Public Libraries with her longtime friend Helen Muir, and served as its first president.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Although Douglas grew up in an Episcopal household, she described herself as agnostic throughout her life, and forbade any religious ceremony at her memorial. Douglas tied her agnosticism to her unanswered prayers when her mother was dying. However, she credited the motivation for her support of women's suffrage to her Quaker paternal grandparents whose dedication to the abolition of slavery she admired, and proudly claimed Levi Coffin, an organizer of the Underground Railroad, was her great-great-uncle. She wrote that his wife was a friend of Harriet Beecher Stowe, and had provided Stowe with the story of Eliza in "Uncle Tom's Cabin" fleeing slavery because Douglas's great-great-aunt took care of Eliza and her infant after their escape. Frank Stoneman grew up in a Quaker colony, and Douglas maintained he kept touches of his upbringing throughout his life, even after converting to Episcopalianism. Writer Jack Davis and neighbor Helen Muir suggest this Quaker influence was behind Douglas's use of "Friends" in naming the organizations Friends of the Everglades and Friends of the Miami-Dade Public Libraries.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: As a child, Douglas was very close with her mother after her parents' separation. She witnessed her mother's emotional unraveling that caused her to be institutionalized, and even long after her mother returned to live with her, she exhibited bizarre, childlike behaviors. Following her mother's death, her relocation to Miami, and her displeasure in working as the assistant editor at "The Miami Herald", in the 1920s, she suffered the first of three nervous breakdowns.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas suggested she had what she referred to as "blank periods" before and during her marriage, but they were brief. She connected these lapses to her mother's insanity. She eventually quit the newspaper, but after her father's death in 1941 she suffered a third and final breakdown, when her neighbors found her roaming the neighborhood one night screaming. She realized she had a "father complex", explaining it by saying, "Having been brought up without him all those years, and then coming back and finding him so sympathetic had a powerful effect".


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Regardless of her dedication to the preservation of the Everglades, Douglas admitted the time she spent actually there was sporadic, driving there for occasional picnics. "To be a friend of the Everglades is not necessarily to spend time wandering around out there ... It's too buggy, too wet, too generally inhospitable", she wrote. Instead, she understood that the health of the environment indicated the general well-being of humanity.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Despite Douglas's demure appearance—she stood at and weighed , and was always immaculately dressed in pearls, a floppy straw hat and gloves—she had an uncanny ability to get her point across. She was known for speaking in perfect, precise paragraphs, and was respected for her dedication and knowledge of her subjects; even her critics admitted her authority on the Everglades. Jeff Klinkenberg, a reporter for the "St. Petersburg Times" who interviewed and wrote several stories about Douglas, wrote of her, "She had a tongue like a switchblade and the moral authority to embarrass bureaucrats and politicians and make things happen." Douglas was known for haughtily dismissing reporters who had not read her books and asked uninformed questions.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: She enjoyed drinking Scotch and sherry; as friend and neighbor Helen Muir remembered her, "She would come up and have a sherry, and then I would walk her home, and then she'd walk me back, and we would have another sherry. What fun she was." Novelist Hervey Allen called Marjory Stoneman Douglas and Muir "the Stewart Avenue Gang". The two were fond of having sherry together and gossiping, but those moments were followed by serious talk of the future of libraries, and the role of women in South Florida. They were confidants, and often shared their work with one another. Douglas never learned to drive and never owned a car. Her house also had no air conditioning, electric stove, or dishwasher.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: She was attached to several men after her divorce, counting one of them as the reason she enlisted in the Red Cross, as he had already gone to France as a soldier. However, she said she did not believe in extramarital sex and would not have dishonored her father by being promiscuous. She told Klinkenberg in 1992, frankly, that she had not had sex since her divorce, saying "I wasn't a wild woman". However, she was fond of saying she used the emotion and energy instead on her work. "People don't seem to realize that the energy that goes into sex, all the emotion that surrounds it, can be well employed in other ways", she wrote in her autobiography.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas began accruing honors in her early days writing for "The Miami Herald". In the 1980s, the awards became more prestigious, and her reactions to them mixed. The Florida Department of Natural Resources (now the Florida Department of Environmental Protection) named its headquarters in Tallahassee after her in 1980, which she considered a dubious honor. She told a friend she would have rather seen the Everglades restored than her name on a building. During her polite acceptance speech, she railed against Ronald Reagan and the then-Secretary of the Interior James Watt for their lackluster approach to environmental conservation. In 1986 the National Parks Conservation Association established the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Award, which "honor(s) individuals who often must go to great lengths to advocate and fight for the protection of the National Park System". Despite blindness and diminished hearing, Douglas continued to be active into her second century, and was honored with a visit from Queen Elizabeth II, to whom Douglas gave a signed copy of "The Everglades: River of Grass" in 1991. Instead of gifts and celebrations, Douglas asked that trees be planted on her birthday, resulting in over 100,000 planted trees across the state and a bald cypress on the lawn of the governor's mansion. The South Florida Water Management District began removing exotic plants that had taken hold in the Everglades when Douglas turned 102.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: In 1993, when she was 103, President Bill Clinton awarded Douglas the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor granted by the United States of America. The citation for the medal read,


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Marjory Stoneman Douglas personifies passionate commitment. Her crusade to preserve and restore the Everglades has enhanced our Nation's respect for our precious environment, reminding all of us of nature's delicate balance. Grateful Americans honor the 'Grandmother of the Glades' by following her splendid example in safeguarding America's beauty and splendor for generations to come.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas donated her medal to Wellesley College. Most of the others she received she stored at her home.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas was posthumously inducted into the National Wildlife Federation Hall of Fame in 1999, and the National Women's Hall of Fame in 2000. Upon hearing that she was to be inducted, she questioned, "Why should they have a Women's Hall of Fame, as I heard they wanted to put me in the other day? Why not a Citizens' Hall of Fame?"


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas was included in a tribute to pioneering women when television character Lisa Simpson made a papier-mâché bust of her with Georgia O'Keeffe and Susan B. Anthony in an early episode of "The Simpsons". She appears as a major supporting character in the 2014 point-and-click adventure "A Golden Wake".


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Some of Douglas's stories were collected by University of Florida professor Kevin McCarthy in two edited collections: "Nine Florida Stories" in 1990 and "A River In Flood" in 1998. McCarthy wrote that he collected Douglas's short stories because most people in the 1990s were well aware of her as an environmentalist but did not know about her career as a freelance writer. "Probably no other person has been as important to the environmental well-being of Florida than this little lady from Coconut Grove", McCarthy wrote in the introduction to "A River in Flood".


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Marjory Stoneman Douglas died at the age of 108 on May 14, 1998. John Rothchild, who helped write her autobiography, said that her death was the only thing that could "shut her up" and added, "The silence is terrible." Carl Hiaasen eulogized her in "The Miami Herald", writing that "The Everglades: River of Grass" was "monumental", and praised her passion and her resolve; even when politicians finally found value in the Everglades and visited her for a photo opportunity, she still provoked them to do more and do it faster.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: The National Wildlife Federation described her as "a passionate, articulate, and tireless voice for the environment". Chairman of the Florida Audubon Society Ed Davison remembered her, saying, "She kept a clear vision of the way things ought to be, and she didn't give a lot of credibility to excuses about why they're not like that. She would give these wonderful, curmudgeonly speeches to which there was no response. You can't holler back to grandmotherly scolding. All you can do is shuffle your feet and say, 'Yes, Ma'am.'" She was aware of it, once saying, "People can't be rude to me, this poor little old woman. But I can be rude to them, poor darlings, and nobody can stop me." Her ashes were scattered in the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Wilderness Area in Everglades National Park, which was named for her in 1997.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: In 2000, the Naples, Florida-based composer Steve Heitzeg wrote a 15-minute orchestra piece entitled "Voice of the Everglades (Epitaph for Marjory Stoneman Douglas)" for the Naples Philharmonic. Heitzeg said, "She was outspoken, she was direct, she had the energy and belief to make the world a better place."


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Two South Florida public schools are named in her honor: Broward County Public Schools' Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School (opened in 1990, the year of her 100th birthday) and Miami-Dade County Public Schools' Marjory Stoneman Douglas Elementary School.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: Douglas's cottage in Coconut Grove at 3744–3754 Stewart Avenue, was built in 1924. She wrote all of her major books and stories there, and the City of Miami designated it an historic site in 1995, not only for its famous owner but also for its unique Masonry Vernacular architecture. After Douglas's death, Friends of the Everglades proposed making the house part of an education center about Douglas and her life, but neighbors protested, citing issues with parking, traffic, and an influx of visitors to the quiet neighborhood. The house, which had an exterior floodwater line from the 1926 Miami Hurricane and some damage from an infestation of bees, had fallen further into disrepair. For a while, the idea of moving the house to Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables, which Douglas helped to develop and where there is a life-size bronze statue to commemorate her efforts, was considered. The State of Florida owns Douglas's house and in April 2007 placed it in the care of the Florida Park Service, a division of the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Restoration of the floors and counters took place in the following months. Water service was reconnected to the house and the electrical system was updated for safety purposes. All work was approved by the Department of Historic Resources. A park ranger was placed as a resident in the Douglas house to help maintain the structure and property.


title: Marjory Stoneman Douglas

text: On April 22, 2015, while giving an Earth Day speech in the Everglades, President Barack Obama announced that Interior Secretary Sally Jewell had designated the house a National Historic Landmark.


title: American Greed

text: American Greed (also known as American Greed: Scams, Scoundrels and Scandals and as American Greed: Scams, Schemes and Broken Dreams) is an American documentary television series on CNBC. The series focuses on cases of Ponzi schemes, embezzlement and other white collar crimes and features interviews with police investigators, fraud victims and sometimes fraudsters.


title: American Greed

text: It was initially created by Mark Hoffman, the President, CEO and Chairman of the Board of Trustees and Directors of CNBC, and it is produced by Bill Kurtis' Kurtis Productions. The program is narrated by Stacy Keach Jr., who was recruited because Kurtis himself was unavailable for that purpose. It premiered on June 21, 2007.


title: American Greed

text: The business-reality program focuses on the stories behind high-profile corporate and white-collar crimes, betrayals, and scams in American history, including the financial scandals involving WorldCom, HealthSouth, Tyco International, and CyberNET. Besides these high-profile cases, stories have featured lower-profile financial crimes that have affected individual investors and smaller companies, including various Ponzi schemes, real estate and other investment frauds, bank robbery, identity theft, medical fraud, embezzlement, insurance fraud, murder-for-hire, art theft, credit card fraud, money laundering, and political corruption.


title: American Greed

text: In addition, there have been three "American Greed" special presentations: "American Greed Special: Bernie Madoff Behind Bars"; "American Greed: Special Presentation: 9/11 Fraud – "A Contractor Capitalizes on Disaster""; and "Mob Money: An American Greed Special Presentation".


title: American Greed

text: In April 2022, "American Greed" and CNBC partnered with AMC to deliver a special episode detailing the life and crimes of fictional lawyer Jimmy McGill in promotion for the 6th season of "Better Call Saul".


title: American Greed

text: "American Greed" has had at least three companion programs, all of which have also been narrated by Stacy Keach Jr.


title: American Greed

text: In August 2012, CNBC aired the series "American Greed: The Fugitives," which focused on active cases of alleged white-collar crime. The show documented stories of suspects who were still at large and had continued to evade authorities. It lasted 2 seasons, covering 13 cases of financial crimes. After the November 14, 2013, airing of "American Greed: The Fugitives" #12, viewer tips led to the successful November 26, 2013, arrest of FBI Most Wanted fugitive David Kaup, who had been a fugitive since December 17, 2012, when he failed to appear for sentencing in Los Angeles.


title: American Greed

text: In early 2019, CNBC aired another companion series, "American Greed: Deadly Rich," which focused on high-profile murder cases involving the wealthy.


title: American Greed

text: On July 15, 2020, it was announced that another companion series titled "American Greed: Biggest Cons" would premiere on July 20, 2020. When "American Greed: Biggest Cons" did so premiere, it updated some of the stories the main program had previously featured, such as its profiles of Madoff and Martin Shkreli and its study of William "Rick" Singer's college-admission scheme.


title: American Greed

text: A few weeks before the "Better Call Saul" season 6 premiere in April 2022, the CNBC Prime YouTube account uploaded "American Greed: James McGill". The ten-minute short is a faux documentary done in the same style as the popular series with the same name, and recaps the events of both "Breaking Bad" and "Better Call Saul". Narrated by Stacey Keach, the mockumentary features in-character interviews from several recurring cast members from "Better Call Saul", including DA Suzanne Ericsen (Julie Pearl), Deputy DA Bill Oakley (Peter Diseth) and Kim Wexler’s former boss Rich Schweikart (Dennis Boutsikaris), as they recounted their memories of Jimmy McGill and Kim Wexler. Also making their reappearances are Craig and Betsy Kettleman (Jeremy Shamos and Julie Ann Emery, respectively), who had not appeared on the series since the first season, but made their last canonical appearance in the short film "No Picnic", which was released after the third season.


title: Steve Hytner

text: Steve Hytner (; born September 28, 1959) is an American actor. He is perhaps best known for his role as Kenny Bania on the NBC series "Seinfeld".


title: Steve Hytner

text: Hytner is a native of Long Island, New York. He appeared as a regular in "The 100 Lives of Black Jack Savage", "Hardball", and "Working", in several episodes of "Roswell", and also in occasional episodes of "", "Friends", "The King of Queens", "Two and a Half Men", "Dharma & Greg", "The X-Files", "", "That's So Raven", "George Lopez", "The Bill Engvall Show", "The Jeff Foxworthy Show" as Craig Lesko, and "Mike & Molly". He portrays Ty Parsec in two episodes of "The Adventures of Buzz Lightyear of Star Command" (2000).


title: Steve Hytner

text: He performed in the Disney Channel Original Series "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" as Herman Spatz, in "Good Luck Charlie" as Marvin the bellman, and in "Sonny with a Chance" as Murphy the troublesome security guard. He plays a motivational workshop instructor in the HBO series "Hung".


title: Steve Hytner

text: As Joseph the coroner, Hytner is one of two actors (the other being Christopher Walken) to appear in each of the first three films of "The Prophecy" series.


title: Steve Hytner

text: He appears in the 2006 comedy film "Bachelor Party Vegas" and reprised his role as Kenny Bania on the fictional "Seinfeld" reunion table read on "Curb Your Enthusiasm" in 2009. He was the Camp Superior counselor in the 2012 comedy film "Fred 3: Camp Fred", and plays the role of client Roger Bodder in the comedy/thriller film "Bad Vegan and the Teleportation Machine".


title: Sun gun

text: The sun gun or heliobeam is a theoretical orbital weapon, which makes use of a concave mirror mounted on a satellite, to concentrate sunlight onto a small area at the Earth's surface, destroying targets or killing through heat.


title: Sun gun

text: In 1929, the German physicist Hermann Oberth developed plans for a space station from which a 100-metre-wide concave mirror could be used to reflect sunlight onto a concentrated point on the earth.


title: Sun gun

text: Later during World War II, a group of German scientists at the German Army Artillery proving grounds at Hillersleben began to expand on Oberth's idea of creating a superweapon that could utilize the sun's energy. This so-called "sun gun" ("Sonnengewehr") would be part of a space station above Earth. The scientists calculated that a huge reflector, made of metallic sodium and with an area of , could produce enough focused heat to make an ocean boil or burn a city. After being questioned by officers of the United States, the Germans claimed that the sun gun could be completed within 50 or 100 years.


title: Sun gun

text: With the deployment and validation of satellite mega-constellations, their use as a sun gun has also been proposed. Instead of a vast individual mirror, hundreds of low cost reflectors could in theory be synchronized to concentrate solar irradiance and aim it at a target.


title: Sun gun

text: The Matt Helm film "Murderers' Row", and the James Bond films "Diamonds are Forever" and "Die Another Day", all feature orbital weapons that focus sunlight to destructive effect on Earth.


title: Sun gun

text: The "" video game depicts a satellite used to provide a city with clean energy but can, at full capacity, destroy the city or other targets.


title: Sun gun

text: In the TV series "Scorpion" episode "Sun of a Gun", Walter O'Brien and his team go to an African dictator's country to investigate a Nazi World War II sun gun project.


title: Sun gun

text: In the "Star Wars Legends" book "", Rogue Squadron commandeers an orbital solar reflector (used for power generation) to boil ocean water and generate a dangerous storm.


title: Sun gun

text: In the science fiction novel by René Barjavel "The Ice People (French: la Nuit des temps)" the doomsday device built by the gondas looks mostly inspired by the concept of the sun gun.


title: Sun gun

text: In "Futurama" episode "Crimes of the Hot", a large solar reflector meant to reduce global warming is accidentally directed at Earth.


title: Sun gun

text: In the "Fringe" episode "Brave New World", a column of concentrated sunlight is directed at Beacon Hill, Boston.


title: Sun gun

text: In Neal Asher’s second Ian Cormac novel, The Line of Polity, Cormac uses the smelting mirrors of the space habitat Elysium to create a solar beam weapon.


title: Sun gun

text: In "", a newspaper reports a new Nazi "sun gun" ("Sonnengewehr"). In "" DLC "Freedom Chronicles", a Nazi commander proposes to use it to suppress the American Revolution.


title: Tamara Smart

text: Tamara Valerie Smart (born 14 June 2005) is an English actress. She made her debut in the CBBC series "The Worst Witch". Her other work includes the 2019 series revival of "Are You Afraid of the Dark?," "Artemis Fowl," "A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting" and "Resident Evil".


title: Tamara Smart

text: Smart was born in the North London Borough of Barnet to parents Fiona and Cornelius Smart. Tamara took classes at Dance Crazy Studios and Razzamataz Theatre School Barnet.


title: Tamara Smart

text: In 2017, Smart made her acting debut as Enid Nightshade in the CBBC series The Worst Witch. In 2018, she had a starring role as Hailey Hicks in drama series Hard sun. In 2019, she starred as Louise Fulci in the third revival of children's anthology series Are You Afraid of the Dark?. In 2020, Smart was cast to play Juliet Butler In the science fantasy adventure film Artemis fowl . Also In 2020, Smart played a major role as Kelly Ferguson in the dark fantasy comedy film A Babysitter's Guide to Monster Hunting. In 2022, Smart starred as Jade Wesker in the action horror series Resident Evil. She voiced the character Siobhan in the stop-motion animated film "Wendell & Wild."


title: Obverse and reverse

text: Obverse and its opposite, reverse, refer to the two flat faces of coins and some other two-sided objects, including paper money, flags, seals, medals, drawings, old master prints and other works of art, and printed fabrics. In this usage, "obverse" means the front face of the object and "reverse" means the back face. The obverse of a coin is commonly called "heads", because it often depicts the head of a prominent person, and the reverse "tails".


title: Obverse and reverse

text: In numismatics, the abbreviation "obv." is used for "obverse", while ℞, )( and rev. are used for reverse.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: In fields of scholarship outside numismatics, the term "front" is more commonly used than "obverse", while usage of "reverse" is widespread.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: The equivalent terms used in codicology, manuscript studies, print studies and publishing are "recto" and "verso".


title: Obverse and reverse

text: Generally, the side of a coin with the larger-scale image will be called the obverse (especially if the image is a single head) and, if that does not serve to distinguish them, the side that is more typical of a wide range of coins from that location will be called the obverse. Following this principle, in the most famous of ancient Greek coins, the tetradrachm of Athens, the obverse is the head of Athena and the reverse is her owl. Similar versions of these two images, both symbols of the state, were used on the Athenian coins for more than two centuries.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: In the many republics of ancient Greece, such as Athens or Corinth, one side of their coins would have a symbol of the state, usually their patron goddess or her symbol, which remained constant through all of the coins minted by that state, which is regarded as the obverse of those coins. The opposite side may have varied from time to time. In ancient Greek monarchical coinage, the situation continued whereby a larger image of a deity, is called the obverse, but a smaller image of a monarch appears on the other side which is called the reverse.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: In a Western monarchy, it has been customary, following the tradition of the Hellenistic monarchs and then the Roman emperors, for the currency to bear the head of the monarch on one side, which is almost always regarded as the obverse. This change happened in the coinage of Alexander the Great, which continued to be minted long after his death. After his conquest of ancient Egypt, he allowed himself to be depicted on the obverse of coins as a god-king, at least partly because he thought this would help secure the allegiance of the Egyptians, who had regarded their previous monarchs, the pharaohs, as divine. The various Hellenistic rulers who were his successors followed his tradition and kept their images on the obverse of coins.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: A movement back to the earlier tradition of a deity being placed on the obverse occurred in Byzantine coinage, where a head of Christ became the obverse and a head or portrait (half or full-length) of the emperor became considered the reverse. The introduction of this style in the gold coins of Justinian II from the year 695 provoked the Islamic Caliph, Abd al-Malik, who previously had copied Byzantine designs, replacing Christian symbols with Islamic equivalents, finally to develop a distinctive "Islamic style", with just lettering on both sides of their coins. This script alone style then was used on nearly all Islamic coinage until the modern period. The type of Justinian II was revived after the end of the Byzantine Iconoclasm, and with variations remained the norm until the end of the Empire. Without images, therefore, it is not always easy to tell which side will be regarded as the obverse without some knowledge.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: After 695 Islamic coins avoided all images of persons and usually contained script alone. The side expressing the Six Kalimas (the Islamic profession of faith) is usually defined as the obverse.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: A convention exists typically to display the obverse to the left (or above) and the reverse to the right (or below) in photographs and museum displays, but this is not invariably observed.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: The form of currency follows its function, which is to serve as a readily accepted medium of exchange of value. Normally, this function rests on a state as guarantor of the value: either as "trustworthy" guarantor of the kind and amount of metal in a coin, or as "powerful" guarantor of the continuing acceptance of token coins.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: Traditionally, most states have been monarchies where the person of the monarch and the state were equivalent for most purposes. For this reason, the "obverse" side of a modern piece of currency is the one that evokes that reaction by invoking the strength of the state, and that side almost always depicts a symbol of the state, whether it be the monarch or otherwise.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: If not provided for on the obverse, the reverse side usually contains information relating to a coin's role as a medium of exchange (such as the value of the coin). Additional space typically reflects the issuing country's culture or government, or evokes some aspect of the state's territory.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: Regarding the euro, some confusion regarding the obverse and reverse of the euro coins exists. Officially, as agreed by the informal Economic and Finance Ministers Council of Verona in April 1996, and despite the fact that a number of countries have a different design for each coin, the distinctive national side for the circulation coins is the "obverse" and the common European side (which includes the coin value) is the "reverse". This rule does not apply to the collector coins as they do not have a common side.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: A number of the designs used for obverse national sides of euro coins were taken from the reverse of the nations' former pre-euro coins. Several countries (such as Spain and Belgium) continue to use portraits of the reigning monarch, while the Republic of Ireland continues to use the State Arms, as on its earlier issues.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: Following ancient tradition, the obverse of coins of the United Kingdom (and predecessor kingdoms going back to the middle ages) almost always feature the head of the monarch.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: By tradition, each British monarch faces in the opposite direction of his or her predecessor; this is said to date from 1661, with Charles II turning his back on Oliver Cromwell. Hence, George VI faced left and Elizabeth II faced right. The only break in this tradition almost occurred in 1936 when Edward VIII, believing his left side to be superior to his right, insisted on his image facing left, as his father's image had. No official legislation prevented his wishes being granted, so left-facing obverses were prepared for minting. Very few examples were struck before he abdicated later that year, and none bearing this portrait were ever issued officially. When George VI acceded to the throne, his image was placed to face left, implying that, had any coins been minted with Edward's portrait the obverses would have depicted Edward facing right and maintained the tradition.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: Current UK coinage features the following abbreviated Latin inscription: ('By the Grace of God Queen, Defender of the Faith'). Earlier issues, before 1954, included ('of all the Britains'that is, Britain and its dominions) and, before 1949, ('Emperor of India').


title: Obverse and reverse

text: The United States specifies what appears on the obverse and reverse of its currency. The specifications mentioned here imply the use of all upper-case letters, although they appear here in upper and lower case letters for the legibility of the article.


title: Obverse and reverse

text: The ten-year series of Statehood Quarters, whose issue began in 1999, was seen as calling for more space and more flexibility in the design of the reverse. A law specific to this series and the corresponding time period permits the following: