title: Right to property

text: When the text of the UDHR was negotiated, other states in the Americas argued that the right to property should be limited to the protection of private property necessary for subsistence. Their suggestion was opposed, but was enshrined in the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, which was negotiated at the same time and adopted one year before the UDHR in 1948. Article 23 of the declaration states:


title: Right to property

text: The definition of the right to property is heavily influenced by Western concepts of property rights, but because property rights vary considerably in different legal systems it has not been possible to establish international standards on property rights. The regional human rights instruments of Europe, Africa and the Americas recognise the right to protection of property to varying degrees.


title: Right to property

text: The American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) recognises the right to protection of property, including the right to "just compensation". The ACHR also prohibits usury and other exploitation, which is unique amongst human rights instruments. Article 21 of the ACHR states:


title: Right to property

text: After failed attempts to include the right to protection of property in the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), European states enshrined the right to protection of property in Article 1 of Protocol I to the ECHR as the "right to peaceful enjoyment of possessions", where the right to protection of property is defined as such:


title: Right to property

text: Therefore, European human rights law recognises the right to peaceful enjoyment of property, makes deprivation of possessions subject to certain conditions and recognises that states can balance the right to peaceful possession of property against the public interest. The European Court of Human Rights has interpreted "possessions" to include not only tangible property, but also economic interests, contractual agreements with economic value, compensation claims against the state and public law related claims such as pensions. The European Court of Human Rights has held that the right to property is not absolute and states have a wide degree of discretion to limit the rights. As such, the right to property is regarded as a more flexible right than other human rights. States' degree of discretion is defined in "Handyside v. United Kingdom", heard by the European Court of Human Rights in 1976. Notable cases where the European Court of Human Rights has found the right to property having been violated include "Sporrong and Lonnroth v. Sweden", heard in 1982, where Swedish law kept property under the threat of expropriation for an extended period of time. The highest economic compensation following a judgment of the Strasbourg Court on this matter was given (1,3 million euro) in case "Beyeler v. Italy".


title: Right to property

text: In India property rights (Article 31) was one of the fundamental rights of citizens until 1978, and it became a legal right through the 44th Amendment to the Constitution in 1978. The amendment was introduced by the Morarji Desai government as part of land reform policies. In 2020, the Supreme Court of India has stated that, even though property rights are not part of a citizen's fundamental right, it should be considers as one of the human rights promised by the Constitution. The Supreme Court also ruled that the states cannot acquire individual land unless there is a clear legal framework.


title: Right to property

text: Property rights are also recognised in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination which states in Article 5 that everyone has the right to equality before the law without distinction as to race, colour and national or ethnic origin, including the "right to own property alone as well as in association with others" and "the right to inherit". The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women recognises the property rights in Article 16, which establishes the same right for both spouses to ownership, acquisition, management, administration, enjoyment and disposition of property and Article 15, which establishes women's right to conclude contracts.rights


title: Right to property

text: Property rights are also enshrined in the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. These international human rights instruments for minorities do not establish a separate right to property, but prohibit discrimination in relation to property rights where such rights are guaranteed.


title: Right to property

text: The right to private property was a crucial demand in early quests for political freedom and equality and against feudal control of property. Property can serve as the basis for the entitlements that ensure the realisation of the right to an adequate standard of living and it was only property owners which were initially granted civil and political rights, such as the right to vote. Because not everybody is a property owner, the right to work was enshrined to allow everybody to attain an adequate standard of living. Today, discrimination on the basis of property ownership is commonly seen as a serious threat to the equal enjoyment of human rights by all and non-discrimination clauses in international human rights instruments frequently include property as a ground on the basis of which discrimination is prohibited (see the right to equality before the law). The protection of private property may come into conflict with economic, social and cultural rights and civil and political rights, such as the right to freedom of expression. To mitigate this, the right to property is commonly limited to protect the public interest. Many states also maintain systems of communal and collective ownership. Property rights have frequently been regarded as preventing the realisation of human rights for all, through for example slavery and the exploitation of others. Unequal distribution of wealth often follows line of sex, race and minorities, therefore property rights may appear to be part of the problem, rather than as an interest that merits protection. Property rights have been at the centre of recent human rights debates on land reform, the return of cultural artifacts by collectors and museums to indigenous peoples and the popular sovereignty of peoples over natural resources.


title: Right to property

text: In Europe, The Roman law defined property as "the right to use and abuse one’s own within the limits of the law" — "jus utendi et abutendi re suâ, guatenus juris ratio patitur." Second, "salus populi suprema lex esto", or “the safety of the people shall be the supreme law,” was stipulated as early as the Law of the Twelve Tables. The notion of private property and property rights was elaborated further in the Renaissance as international trade by merchants gave rise to mercantilist ideas. In 16th-century Europe, Lutheranism and the Protestant Reformation advanced property rights using biblical terminology. The Protestant work ethic and views on man's destiny came to underline social views in emerging capitalist economies in early modern Europe. The right to private property emerged as a radical demand for human rights "vis-a-vis" the state in 17th-century revolutionary Europe, but in the 18th and 19th centuries the right to property as a human right became subject of intense controversy.


title: Right to property

text: The arguments advanced by the Levellers during the English Civil War on property and civil and political rights, such as the right to vote, informed subsequent debates in other countries. The Levellers emerged as a political movement in mid-17th century England in the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation. They believed that property which had been earned as the fruit of one's labour was sacred under the Bible's commandment "thou shall not steal". As such, they believed that the right to acquire property from one's work was sacred. Levellers' views on the right to property and the right not to be deprived of property as a civil and political right were developed by the pamphleteer Richard Overton. In "An Arrow against all Tyrants" (1646), Overton argued: To every individual in nature is given an individual property by nature not to be invaded or usurped by any. For everyone, as he is himself, so he has a self propertiety, else he could not be himself; and of this no second may presume to deprive of without manifest violation and affront to the very principles of nature of the rules of equity and justice between man and man. Mine and thine cannot be, except this. No man has power over my rights and liberties, and I over no man.


title: Right to property

text: The views of the Levellers, who enjoyed support amongst small-scale property-owners and craftsmen, were not shared by all revolutionary parties of the English Civil War. At the 1647 General Council, Oliver Cromwell and Henry Ireton argued against equating the right to life with the right to property. They argued that doing so would establish the right to take anything that one may want, irrespective of the rights of others. The Leveller Thomas Rainsborough responded, relying on Overton's arguments, that the Levellers required respect for others' natural rights. The definition of property and whether it was acquired as the fruit of one's labour and as such a natural right was subject to intense debate because the right to vote depended on property ownership. Political freedom was at the time associated with property ownership and individual independence. Cromwell and Ireton maintained that only property in freehold land or chartered trading rights gave a man the right to vote. They argued that this type of property ownership constituted a "stake in society", which entitles men to political power. In contrast, Levellers argued that all men who are not servants, alms-recipients or beggars should be considered as property owners and be given voting rights. They believed that political freedom could only be secured by individuals, such as craftsmen, engaging in independent economic activity.


title: Right to property

text: Levellers were primarily concerned with the civil and political rights of small-scale property owners and workers, whereas the Diggers, a smaller revolutionary group led by Gerrard Winstanley, focused on the rights of the rural poor who worked on landed property. The Diggers argued that private property was not consistent with justice and that the land that had been confiscated from the Crown and Church should be turned into communal land to be cultivated by the poor. According to the Diggers, the right to vote should be extended to all and everybody had the right to an adequate standard of living. With the Restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, all confiscated land returned to the Crown and Church. Some property rights were recognised and limited voting rights were established. The ideas of the Levellers on property and civil and political rights remained influential and were advanced in the subsequent 1688 Glorious Revolution, but restrictions on the right to vote based on property meant that only a fraction of the British population had the suffrage. In 1780 only 214,000 property-owning men were entitled to vote in England and Wales, less than 3 percent of the population of 8 million. The Reform Act 1832 restricted the right to vote to men who owned property with an annual value of £10, giving approximately 4 percent of the adult male population the right to vote. The reforms of 1867 extended the right to vote to approximately 8 percent. The working class (which increased dramatically with the Industrial Revolution) and industrialists remained effectively excluded from the political system.


title: Right to property

text: The English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) developed the ideas of property, civil and political rights further. In his "Second Treatise on Civil Government" (1689), Locke proclaimed that "everyman has a property in his person; this nobody has a right to but himself. The labor of his body and the work of his hand, we may say, are properly his". He argued that property ownership derives from one's labor, though those who do not own property and only have their labor to sell should not be given the same political power as those who owned property. Labourers, small-scale property owners and large-scale property owners should have civil and political rights in proportion to the property they owned. According to Locke, the right to property and the right to life were inalienable rights and that it was the duty of the state to secure these rights for individuals. Locke argued that the safeguarding of natural rights, such as the right to property, along with the separation of powers and other checks and balances, would help to curtail political abuses by the state.


title: Right to property

text: Locke's labor theory of property and the separation of powers greatly influenced the American Revolution and the French Revolution. The entitlement to civil and political rights, such as the right to vote, was tied to the question of property in both revolutions. American revolutionaries, such as Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, opposed universal suffrage, advocating votes only for those who owned a "stake" in society. James Madison argued that extending the right to vote to all could lead in the right to property and justice being "overruled by a majority without property". While it was initially suggested to establish the right to vote for all men, eventually the right to vote in the nascent United States was extended to white men who owned a specified amount of real estate and personal property.


title: Right to property

text: French revolutionaries recognised property rights in Article 17 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1791), which stated that no one "may be deprived of property rights unless a legally established public necessity required it and upon condition of a just and previous indemnity". Articles 3 and 6 declared that "all citizens have the right to contribute personally or through their representatives" in the political system and that "all citizens being equal before [the law], are equally admissible to all public offices, positions and employment according to their capacity, and without other distinction than that of virtues and talents". However, in practice the French revolutionaries did not extend civil and political rights to all, although the property qualification required for such rights was lower than that established by the American revolutionaries.


title: Right to property

text: According to the French revolutionary Abbé Sieyès, "all the inhabitants of a country should enjoy the right of a passive citizen... but those alone who contribute to the public establishment are like the true shareholders in the great social enterprise. They alone are the true active citizens, the true members of the association". Three months after the Declaration had been adopted, domestic servants, women and those who did not pay taxes equal to three days of labor were declared "passive citizens". Sieyes wanted to see the rapid expansion of commercial activities and favoured the unrestricted accumulation of property. In contrast, Maximilien Robespierre warned that the free accumulation of wealth ought to be limited and that the right to property should not be permitted to violate the rights of others, particularly poorer citizens, including the working poor and peasants. Robespierre's views were eventually excluded from the French Constitution of 1793 and a property qualification for civil and political rights was maintained.


title: Goya Foods

text: Goya Foods, Inc. is an American producer of a brand of foods sold in the United States and many Spanish-speaking countries. It has facilities in the United States, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and Spain. It is under third-generation ownership of the Spanish-American Unanue family, and is headquartered in Jersey City, New Jersey.


title: Goya Foods

text: Goya Foods was founded in 1933 (some sources claim 1936), by Prudencio Unanue Ortiz (1886–1976) from Valle de Mena, Spain. Prudencio immigrated to Puerto Rico, where he met and married Carolina Casal (1890–1984), also a Spanish immigrant; they later moved to New York City. The family had originally opened a small store called "Unanue and Sons" in 1922; however, it was converted to wholesale in the mid 1930s. Prudencio purchased the "Goya" name from a Moroccan sardine company because he believed that his last name was too difficult to pronounce for American customers and also liked the association to Spanish artist Francisco Goya.


title: Goya Foods

text: When Prudencio Unanue died in 1976, he left Goya to his sons, Joseph, Charles, Francisco and Anthony. Upon his father's death, Joseph A. Unanue became chief executive of Goya, then a fairly small, $8.5 million company. As president and chief executive of the company, Joseph shared control with his brother Francisco, who served as president of Goya de Puerto Rico Inc., responsible for much of the company's manufacturing operations. Joseph A. Unanue's son, Joseph F. Unanue, was general manager and vice president of Goya de Puerto Rico from 1989 to 1996, when he became executive vice president at the company's New Jersey, assuming the No. 2 position in the company; he died two years later.


title: Goya Foods

text: During Joseph A. Unanue's decades at the head of the company, Goya grew to become a major corporation. By 1998, the company produced about 800 food items (including rice, beans, sauces, and spices), had 2,000 employees, and about $700 million in revenue. Joseph A. Unanue was ousted from his position as Goya chairman and CEO in 2004, amid an feud in the Unanue family about the direction of the company. At the time of Joseph A. Unanue's ouster, Goya was generating from $750 million, to more than $1 billion in revenue. Joseph's son Andy Unanue, the chief operating officer of the company, also left Goya amid the disagreement, prompting litigation. Robert Unanue and his cousin Francisco Unanue made the decision to remove Andy, who had previously been considered the "heir apparent" to Goya. Joseph Unanue retained a significant stake in the company, and retained a seat on its board; he died in 2013. Robert Unanue has been the chief executive since 2004. The fracturing of Goya's ownership among its founders' descendants has frequently led to disputes about the company's strategy.


title: Goya Foods

text: In 2012, the company began construction on a $127 million distribution center in the industrial Meadowlands area of Jersey City, backed by state tax incentives that aided the company in its move from Secaucus to the Jersey City site.


title: Goya Foods

text: In 2019, Goya had talks with The Carlyle Group about a possible buyout; the company ultimately decided not to sell itself to The Carlyle Group.


title: Goya Foods

text: Goya manufactures and distributes products from the Spanish, Puerto Rican, Caribbean, Mexican, Cuban and Central and South American cuisine. Their products are sold in stores and supermarket chains throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, and international markets. In 2006, "Forbes" ranked Goya 355th on its list of the largest private companies in the United States.


title: Goya Foods

text: Between 2014 and 2016 Goya opened five new facilities including manufacturing and distribution centers located in New Jersey, Texas, California, and Georgia to meet rising consumer demand. Currently, Goya Foods is headquartered on a lot in Jersey City, New Jersey. Goya also operates a manufacturing facility in San Cristóbal, Dominican Republic, and a distribution center in Bayamón, Puerto Rico.


title: Goya Foods

text: "Goya Gives" is a program to support various charities, scholarships, and events, and includes donations of products to food shelters and food banks during times of crisis, such as Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico. In March and April 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Goya donated over of food, or about 270,000 meals, to food banks and other organizations in the United States, and also donated more than 20,000 protective masks.


title: Goya Foods

text: On July 9, 2020, at a White House roundtable discussion of the Hispanic Prosperity Initiative with President Donald Trump, Goya Foods co-owner and CEO Robert Unanue praised Trump, saying the country was "truly blessed [...] to have a leader like President Trump, who is a builder" and adding, "we have an incredible builder and we pray, we pray for our leadership, our president and for our country, that we continue to prosper and to grow."


title: Goya Foods

text: Unanue's comments prompted a call for a public boycott on social media, which was supported by various Latino public figures, including Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Julian Castro and Lin-Manuel Miranda. In response, Unanue stated the next day that this was a "suppression of speech" and declined to apologize for his comments. Supporters called for an anti-boycott "buycott" in support of the company. Goya used its corporate Twitter account to call attention to its pledge made at the White House event to donate cans of food for those affected by COVID-19, and a Goya supporter launched a GoFundMe campaign that raised money to buy Goya products and donate them to food pantries.


title: Goya Foods

text: On December 7, 2020, Unanue stated that Ocasio-Cortez was named 'employee of the month' after her boycott call led to a 1000% sales spike. On January 26, 2021, Goya's board of directors voted to censure Unanue following statements disputing the 2020 United States presidential election, banning him from speaking to the media. An anonymous CNN source familiar with the board’s actions claimed that Unanue's statements "imperiled the future of the company and endangered the lives of some of the shareholders," and that the controversy following Unanue's White House appearance had not been good for the company. The majority of the company's board favored removing Unanue from his position, but the family-owned business regulations did not allow for that.


title: Goya Foods

text: During CPAC 2021, Goya Foods CEO Unanue claimed the 2020 election was illegitimate, and that Donald Trump is 'the real, the legitimate, and the still actual president'.


title: Goya Foods

text: Goya Foods logo and imagery has been "appropriated" by multiple contemporary fine artists who use the images in their paintings, prints and sculptures, most notably Cuban-American artist Ric Garcia, sculptor Alexander Mijares, painter John Kilduff, and others.


title: 128-bit computing

text: While there are currently no mainstream general-purpose processors built to operate on 128-bit "integers" or addresses, a number of processors do have specialized ways to operate on 128-bit chunks of data.


title: 128-bit computing

text: 128-bit processors could be used for addressing directly up to 2 (over ) bytes, which would greatly exceed the total data captured, created, or replicated on Earth as of 2018, which has been estimated to be around 33 zettabytes (over 2 bytes).


title: 128-bit computing

text: A 128-bit register can store 2 (over 3.40 × 10) different values. The range of integer values that can be stored in 128 bits depends on the integer representation used. With the two most common representations, the range is 0 through 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,455 (2 − 1) for representation as an (unsigned) binary number, and −170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,728 (−2) through 170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727 (2 − 1) for representation as two's complement.


title: 128-bit computing

text: Quadruple precision (128-bit) floating-point numbers can store 113-bit fixed-point numbers or integers accurately without losing precision (thus 64-bit integers in particular). Quadruple precision floats can also represent any position in the observable universe with at least micrometer precision.


title: 128-bit computing

text: The IBM System/360 Model 85, and IBM System/370 and its successors, support 128-bit floating-point arithmetic.


title: 128-bit computing

text: The Siemens 7.700 and 7.500 series mainframes and their successors support 128-bit floating-point arithmetic.


title: 128-bit computing

text: Most modern CPUs feature single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) instruction sets (Streaming SIMD Extensions, AltiVec etc.) where 128-bit vector registers are used to store several smaller numbers, such as four 32-bit floating-point numbers. A single instruction can then operate on all these values in parallel. However, these processors do not operate on individual numbers that are 128 binary digits in length; only their vector registers have the size of 128 bits.


title: 128-bit computing

text: The DEC VAX supported operations on 128-bit integer ('O' or octaword) and 128-bit floating-point ('H-float' or HFLOAT) datatypes. Support for such operations was an upgrade option rather than being a standard feature. Since the VAX's registers were 32 bits wide, a 128-bit operation used four consecutive registers or four longwords in memory.


title: 128-bit computing

text: The ICL 2900 Series provided a 128-bit accumulator, and its instruction set included 128-bit floating-point and packed decimal arithmetic.


title: 128-bit computing

text: The Dreamcast and the PlayStation 2 among the Sixth generation of video game consoles used the term "128-bit" in their marketing to describe their capability. The Playstation 2's CPU had 128-bit SIMD capabilities. Neither console supported 128-bit addressing or 128-bit integer arithmetic.


title: 128-bit computing

text: The RISC-V ISA specification from 2016 includes a reservation for a 128-bit version of the architecture, but the details remain undefined intentionally, because there is yet so little practical experience with such large word size.


title: 128-bit computing

text: In the same way that compilers emulate e.g. 64-bit integer arithmetic on architectures with register sizes less than 64 bits, some compilers also support 128-bit integer arithmetic. For example, the GCC C compiler 4.6 and later has a 128-bit integer type codice_1 for some architectures. GCC and compatible compilers signal the presence of 128-bit arithmetic when the macro codice_2 is defined. For the C programming language, 128-bit support is optional, e.g. via the codice_3 type, or it can be implemented by a compiler-specific extension. The Rust programming language has built-in support for 128-bit integers (originally via LLVM), which is implemented on all platforms. A 128-bit type provided by a C compiler can be available in Perl via the codice_4 module.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: The Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM; in English) is the dominant ruling party in Tanzania and the second longest-ruling party in Africa, only after the True Whig Party of Liberia. It was formed in 1977, following the merger of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP), which were the sole operating parties in mainland Tanzania and the semi-autonomous islands of Zanzibar respectively.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: TANU and its successor CCM have ruled Tanzania uninterruptedly since independence. The party has been described as authoritarian. Since the creation of a multi-party system, CCM has won the past six general elections in 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020. Jakaya Kikwete, its presidential candidate in 2005, won by a landslide, receiving more than 80% of the popular vote. In the 2010 election, it won 186 of the 239 constituencies, continuing to hold an outright majority in the National Assembly.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: The party was created on February 5, 1977, under the leadership of Julius Nyerere, through the merger of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), the ruling party in Tanganyika, and the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP), the ruling party in Zanzibar.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: TANU/CCM has dominated the politics of Tanzania since the independence of Tanganyika in 1961. Due to the merger with the ASP, from 1977 it has also been the ruling party in Zanzibar, though there its grip on power has been more contested by the Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (CHADEMA).


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: From its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. Every five years, its national chairman was automatically elected to a five-year term as president; he was confirmed in office via a referendum. At the same time, voters were presented with two CCM candidates for the National Assembly or Bunge. This changed on July 1, 1992, when amendments to the Constitution and a number of laws permitting and regulating the formation and operations of more than one political party were enacted by the National Assembly.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: Originally a champion of African socialism, upholder of the system of collectivized agriculture known as "Ujamaa" and firmly oriented to the left, today the CCM espouses a more mixed economic approach. CCM hopes to continue to modernize in order to ensure:


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: Similarly, the CCM's major foreign policy focus is economic diplomacy within the international system, and peaceful coexistence with neighbors.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: The CCM has a leading role in society, despite having multiparty democracy in Tanzania since 1995, the CCM has kept to power ever since. Empirical analysis has shown that a sense of nostalgia for a party which brought independence, and which has maintained relative peace is a major cause of the CCM's support base; age had no significant determinant on loyalty to the CCM. The party has strong support from subsistence farmers.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: The party has won all presidential elections at both the national level and in Zanzibar at the autonomous level under the multi-party system: 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. It also dominates the legislature.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: In the elections for Zanzibar's presidency and House of Representatives, held on 30 October 2005, incumbent president and CCM candidate Amani Abeid Karume won with 53% of the vote, while the party won 30 seats out of 50.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: In the national elections for Tanzania's presidency and National Assembly, held on 14 December 2005, Foreign Minister and CCM candidate Jakaya Kikwete won with 80.28% of the vote. Out of the 232 seats filled through direct election, the CCM won 206.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: On 31 October 2010, Jakaya Kikwete was reelected president with 61% of the vote, while CCM obtained 186 out of the 239 directly elected seats.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: CCM was admitted into the Socialist International as a full member at the SI's spring congress on 4–5 February 2013.


title: Chama Cha Mapinduzi

text: Samia Suluhu Hassan is the current Chairperson of the Chama Cha Mapinduzi following the death of John Pombe Magufuli, the former Chairman and President of United Republic of Tanzania.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Publius Horatius Cocles was an officer in the army of the early Roman Republic who famously defended the Pons Sublicius from the invading army of Etruscan King Lars Porsena of Clusium in the late 6th century BC, during the war between Rome and Clusium. By defending the narrow end of the bridge, he and his companions were able to hold off the attacking army long enough to allow other Romans to destroy the bridge behind him, blocking the Etruscans' advance and saving the city.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Horatius was a member of the ancient patrician house of the Horatii, celebrated in legend since the combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii in the time of Tullus Hostilius, the third Roman king. He was a nephew of the consul, Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, and is said to have obtained his agnomen, "Cocles", meaning "one-eyed", because he lost an eye in the Battle of the Sublician Bridge. However, this may be a later elaboration, as the famous statue of Horatius, lame and one-eyed, which was still visible, though heavily weathered, in the time of Pliny the Elder, was probably intended as a depiction of the god Vulcan, and only became identified with Horatius when its original subject was no longer recognizable.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: In 509 BC, King Lars Porsena was at the head of an army that marched on Rome. Concentrating his forces on the Etruscan (west) side of the Tiber, Porsena assaulted Janiculum hill and seized it and all its materiel from the terrified Roman guard. Porsena left an Etruscan garrison to hold it, then proceeded towards the Pons Sublicius, the only regional bridge across the Tiber. The Romans awaited in the Naevian Meadow between Porsena and the bridge. The Tarquins commanded the Etruscan left wing facing the Roman troops of Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius. Octavius Mamilius commanded the Etruscan right wing consisting of rebel Latins; they faced Romans under Marcus Valerius Volusus and Titus Lucretius Tricipitinus. Porsena commanded the center, facing the two Roman consuls. Porsena had the Romans outnumbered and intended to intimidate them into retreat.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Battle ensued. The Etruscan right wing was successful in wounding Valerius and Lucretius, the commanders of the Roman left wing. After both were carried off the field, the Romans began to panic and ran for the bridge. The enemy pursued.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Three Romans now defended the Pons Sublicius; the right wing's commanders Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius Aquilinus, plus Publius Horatius Cocles, a junior officer "on guard at the bridge when he saw the Janiculum taken by a sudden assault and the enemy rushing down from it to the river ..."


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Livy's briefer and more skeptical account tells of no battle, only that Horatius' "own men, a panic-struck mob, were deserting their posts and throwing away their arms"; however, Horatius' courage manages to shame the two veteran commanders, Herminius and Lartius, to assist him momentarily with his defense of the bridge.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Dionysius' account explains, "Herminius and Lartius, their defensive arms being now rendered useless by the continual blows they received, began to retreat gradually." They order Horatius to retreat with them, but he stood his ground. Understanding the threat to Rome if the enemy were to cross the river, he ordered his men to destroy the bridge. The enemy was shocked not only by Horatius' suicidal last stand, but also by his decision to use a pile of bodies as a shield wall. Horatius was struck by enemy missiles many times including a spear in the buttocks. Hearing word from his men they'd torn up the bridge, he "leaped fully armed into the river and swimming across ... he emerged upon the shore without having lost any of his weapons."


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Livy's version has him uttering this prayer to Father Tiber: "Tiberinus, holy father, I pray thee to receive into thy propitious stream these arms and this thy warrior."


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Horatius was awarded a crown for his valor (akin to a modern military decoration) and conducted into the city by a singing crowd joined by a grateful city. Horatius was now disabled and so could no longer serve in the army or hold public office, but he was provided "as much of the public land as he himself could plow around in one day with a yoke of oxen," and each citizen of Rome was obligated to give him one day's ration of food. He would also be honoured with a bronze statue in the comitium.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Polybius' account uses Horatius as an example of the men who have "devoted themselves to inevitable death...to save the lives of other citizens...[H]e threw himself into the river with his armor, and there lost his life as he had designed."


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Horatius' defense stymied Lars Porsena's direct assault on the city walls, forcing him into a siege. The siege would conclude with a peace treaty, leaving Rome intact.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: The story of Horatius at the Bridge appears in many ancient sources, including Plutarch, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Livy. Florus tacitly acknowledges the extraordinary nature of the story: "It was on this occasion that those three prodigies and marvels of Rome made their appearance, Horatius, Mucius and Cloelia, who, were they not recorded in our annals, would seem fabulous characters at the present day." Tacitus notes in passing that "when [Rome] was surrendered, [Lars Porsena] did not violate the seat of Jupiter" (Rome's most important temple). This could be understood to mean that Rome surrendered during or after this battle.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Livy viewed the story as legendary, dubious of Horatius' fully armed swim, noting "though many missiles fell over him he swam across in safety to his friends, an act of daring more famous than credible with posterity."


title: Horatius Cocles

text: T.J. Cornell deems these various accounts invented by "unscrupulous annalists" as "face-saving victories in the immediate aftermath of these defeats", insisting "The annalists of the first century BC are thus seen principally as entertainers..."


title: Horatius Cocles

text: The story of the redoubtable Horatius at the Bridge began to be depicted in art during the Renaissance, but was never an especially popular theme. It tended to be shown by artists who favored recondite classical stories, and appear in the minor arts, such as plaquettes and maiolica.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Napoleon, after the battle of Klausen, nicknamed General Thomas-Alexandre Dumas "The Horatius Cocles of Tyrol" for his solo defense of a bridge over the River Eisack.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: The story of "Horatius at the Bridge" is retold in verse in the poem "" in "Lays of Ancient Rome" by Thomas Babington Macaulay, which enjoyed great popularity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The details of the poem often vary from the traditional tale by poetic license. Winston Churchill wrote that while he "stagnated in the lowest form" at Harrow, he gained a prize open to the whole school by reciting the whole "twelve hundred lines" of "Horatius". A biographical film about Churchill, "Into the Storm" (2009), begins with the much older Churchill reciting from "Horatius": "And how can man die better, than facing fearful odds, for the ashes of his fathers, and the temples of his gods." Later in the film, the same verses feature prominently in a nostalgic and morose address Churchill delivers to his war cabinet. Churchill also recites from "Horatius" in a scene from the biographical film "Darkest Hour", and these lines occur in numerous works of fiction.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: "A Nation Once Again" was a popular Irish rebel song, written in the early to mid-1840s by Thomas Osborne Davis (1814–1845) in furtherance of Irish nationalism. First published in "The Nation" on 13 July 1844 (two years after Macaulay's "Horatius"), the first verse refers to the heroism of "ancient freemen, For Greece and Rome who bravely stood, three hundred men and three men", references the three hundred Spartans at Thermopylae, and the three defenders at the Pons Sublicius.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: Horatius figures prominently in Jessie Pope's 1915 poem "The Longest Odds" about the exploits of a highlander who single-handedly clears an entire German trench before being killed. His actions are likewise compared to both the Spartans and the Roman defenders.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: The story of Horatius is echoed in a poem about Sven Dufva, "The Tales of Ensign Stål," recounting the story of a simple-minded but honest and dutiful soldier in the Finnish War who heroically holds back an attack by Russian forces at a bridge by himself, but dies in the effort.


title: Horatius Cocles

text: In the 2013 film "Oblivion", the protagonist paraphrases Macaulay's "Horatius", and quotes many parts of the poem before confronting an overwhelming enemy.


title: Jon Davison

text: Jon Davison (born January 16, 1971) is an American singer, musician and songwriter who has been the lead vocalist of progressive rock band Yes since 2012.


title: Jon Davison

text: He is also known as the former lead singer of progressive rock band Glass Hammer from 2009 to 2014, and the former bass guitarist of Sky Cries Mary from 1993 to 2016, in which he was credited under his nickname of "Juano" Davison. In 2020, he and fellow Yes member Billy Sherwood created a new band, Arc of Life, which released its eponymous first studio album the following year and its second album in 2022.


title: Jon Davison

text: Davison's earliest involvement with music began when he sang in the church youth choir led by his mother. From an early age, she instilled in him an appreciation for music and love for singing. Soon after he took up guitar and bass, which eventually led him during High School to perform in various original and cover bands with his childhood best friend, Taylor Hawkins (who was later the drummer for Foo Fighters). It was Hawkins who gave Jon the nickname "Juano" that has stuck to this day.


title: Jon Davison

text: Davison then attended the Art Institute of Seattle to study audio and video production where he landed the gig of bassist for Northwest group Sky Cries Mary. Throughout the 1990s, he continued recording and touring with the band. Some highlights of this period were traveling to Japan, and appearing on late night talk shows including "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" and "The Daily Show".


title: Jon Davison

text: In 2001, Davison and his then wife moved for a year to Maewe's home of Brazil. While living there, Davison played bass with Ronald Augusto.


title: Jon Davison

text: Davison remained a member of Sky Cries Mary, but also joined the now-disbanded Yes tribute band Roundabout. In 2009, Glass Hammer discovered Davison singing Yes music online and asked him to join the band as "the voice we were always writing music for", according to founding members Steve Babb and Fred Schendel. He has since recorded five albums with them, "If", "Cor Cordium", "Perilous", a new version of "The Inconsolable Secret" and "Ode to Echo". He was the lead vocalist on the first three, and sharing that role on "Ode to Echo" given his engagements with Yes; he subsequently left the band to focus on Yes.


title: Jon Davison

text: On the 2018 Cruise to the Edge festival, Davison performed live with Glass Hammer as a guest; as Glass Hammer was mainly a studio project when he was a member, it marked the first time he performed with them live.


title: Jon Davison

text: In February 2012, Davison was announced as the new lead singer of Yes, replacing Benoît David, who left the group because of illness. "Strangely enough, Jon's name came up when we started working with Benoit," Yes bassist Chris Squire recalled. "In fact, my friend, Taylor Hawkins, had been telling me for years: 'If you ever need a replacement (singer), I know exactly the guy.'" Davison has described how the band had a tour booked when David dropped out, "so there was sort of this frantic race to resolve this matter [...] because they weren't going to back out of the tour. So in the same moment, perhaps even the same hour, of the same day, Chris is calling Taylor to get my phone number, because he's gonna give me a call, and then the manager is also working on contacting me, so I got contacted by both of them."


title: Jon Davison

text: Davison has toured with Yes since joining the band, and sang lead on 2014's "Heaven & Earth". He wrote or co-wrote seven out of the eight tracks.


title: Jon Davison

text: In July 2020, Davison said the band were at work writing their next album, stating that it was still in the early stages of compiling demos, but the band has half an album of material ready. "The Quest", Yes's 22nd studio album and the second to feature lead vocals by Davison, was released in October 2021.


title: Jon Davison

text: In 2015, Davison appeared at a Foo Fighters concert, and joined his childhood friend Taylor Hawkins, to perform the Rush song "Tom Sawyer" with them.


title: Jon Davison

text: In February 2019, during ‘Cruise to the Edge’ Davison became friends on board with John Lodge of the Moody Blues when Davison began dating John's daughter Emily. Davison has since toured with John as ‘guest vocalist', appearing on the 'Rock and Romance Cruise' in February 2020, and subsequent dates in Florida and NE USA.


title: Jon Davison

text: In August 2019, Davison joined the Foo Fighters in concert in Dublin, Ireland to sing Queen song "Under Pressure" with Taylor Hawkins while Dave Grohl took over on drums.


title: Jon Davison

text: During lockdown Davison providing backing vocals on the John Lodge 'isolation' single, "In These Crazy Times". Lodge wrote and recorded the song in his home studio, and Jon appears alongside John's son, Kristian, his wife, Kirsten, and John's daughter (and Jon's girlfriend) Emily managed the project.


title: Jon Davison

text: In July 2020, Davison described a new side project with fellow Yes member Billy Sherwood and Yes touring drummer Jay Schellen called Arc of Life. Their self-titled debut album was released the following year on February 12, 2021. Featuring vocalist Jon Davison, bassist/vocalist Billy Sherwood, drummer Jay Schellen, keyboardist Dave Kerzner, and guitarist Jimmy Haun, their sophomore album "Don't Look Down" was released on 18 November 2022.


title: Francine Diaz

text: Francine Carrel Saenz Diaz (; born January 27, 2004) is a Filipino actress, model and endorser. She rose to prominence and became a household name as Cassandra Mondragon in the highly successful TV series "Kadenang Ginto" (2018).


title: Francine Diaz

text: Diaz first appeared in 2015’s Pasión de Amor, where she played as the young Sari Elizondo. She has then played guest roles in Be My Lady, The Greatest Love, Ikaw Lang Ang Iibigin and The Generals Daughter. After her big break in 2018's Kadenang Ginto, she was heralded as one of the "Teen Drama Queens" and since become one of the most promising stars of her generation.


title: Francine Diaz

text: Diaz grew up in Manila, Philippines but they moved out to Cavite, Philippines because of struggles of living.


title: Francine Diaz

text: Francine Diaz is the third out of the six children of Jesus Michael Diaz and Merdick Saenz-Diaz. Her siblings are Chantal, Cameron, Carmela, Courtney, and Eisa. At a very young age, she became the breadwinner of the family.


title: Francine Diaz

text: Diaz was spotted by her talent manager and tried to invite her into a VTR, where she kicked off in commercials and guest roles. By age 10, Diaz pushed herself to work and pursue showbiz for her family's future. At first, Francine had a hard time pursuing showbiz but she never backs down. Francine took minor roles on television and portrayed younger roles of characters in several teleseryes in ABS-CBN. She debuted in 2014 as she took the role of Young Ana Mauricio in Ipaglaban Mo " Episode: "Pagkilala sa Ama" " played by Jennica Garcia with Mylene Dizon. In 2015 she took the role of Young Sari in the drama series "Pasión de Amor (Philippine TV series)".


title: Francine Diaz

text: In 2016, she got the young role of Pinang in the noontime drama series, "Be My Lady" and the role of Anya in the comedy-drama series "We Will Survive". The latter was nearly known for portraying the young role of Kim Chiu in the noontime drama "Ikaw Lang ang Iibigin". She also got the role of Ginny in the drama series "The Blood Sisters" in which some has noticed her great acting skills.


title: Francine Diaz

text: In 2018, Diaz rose to fame when she was tapped to portray the protagonist, Cassie Mondragon, of ABS-CBN's top-rated afternoon television series "Kadenang Ginto". Kadenang Ginto proved to be a huge hit in the Philippine Television, it is one of a few daytime television dramas to last for more than a year. Because of her portrayal to the "sweet" but "feisty" Cassie Mondragon on the said show, most people known her and even calling her as Cassie in real life. Her role in the show as Cassie became a subject of memes and hilarity. Her character had a love interest named Kristoff Tejada, who was played by Kyle Echarri. Their tandem, with the portmanteau nickname of "KyCine" became the viewers' favorite. It was awarded as the "Best Loveteam of the Year for 2020" in the LionHeart TV Rawr Award.


title: Francine Diaz

text: The success of "Kadenang Ginto" also led to the founding of the phenomenal group called "The Gold Squad", a teenage quartet made up by "Francine, Kyle, Andrea" and "Seth". The phenomenal quartet starred in several films and series. The Gold Squad channel gained 3M subscribers and due to their success, it also led to the formation of a sub-group called the Squad Plus and more rising stars had been added to the group.


title: Francine Diaz

text: In 2020, Diaz and Echarri starred in an iWantTFC movie, "Silly Red Shoes". The duo were also cast in "" (now on Netflix with an English title "Her Rules, Her No's"), which was inspired by a viral statement made by the leading actress Kim Chiu regarding the ABS-CBN shutdown.


title: Francine Diaz

text: In 2021, she became a main character in a new teleserye, "Huwag Kang Mangamba", where she starred along with her fellow Gold Squad members Brillantes, Echarri, and Fedelin. The quartet also became lead cast members in another show—a surreal four-part digital anthology series "Click, Like, Share" with 4 different episodes. Francine's episode was "Cancelled" with Renshi de Guzman in Season 1. She also starred in the film "Tenement 66" alongside Francis Magundayao and Noel Comia Jr. directed by Rae Red and co-produced by Dreamscape Entertainment. Her first ever suspense thriller film with Magundayao and Comia with Direk Rae Red competed in the 25th Bucheon International Fantastic Film Festival (BIFAN), under the Bucheon Choice category in South Korea.


title: Francine Diaz

text: She also reached a new milestone as she made her runway debut at "Michael Leyva's Enchanted Fashion Show" held at Hilton Manila in Pasay City, together with Andrea Brillantes. Diaz opens the show with her gorgeous lilac gown with dainty floral accents that made her look like a royalty. Michael Leyva chose Diaz and Brillantes to be his youngest muses for his first fashion show since the pandemic hit the Philippines.


title: Francine Diaz

text: In late 2021, her on-screen loveteam partner Echarri joined and was criticized by the netizens online for his actions and closeness to a girl fellow housemate despite his loveteam with Diaz. After Echarri's eviction, their loveteam silently dissipated as they both went solo.


title: Francine Diaz

text: In 2022 as she turned 18, she became a cover girl for the Top Magazines in the Philippines : Metro Magazine : "The Debutante of the Hour is this Season's Breakthrough Leading Lady" - where she made her grand debut in a Metro digital cover, modeling fashion designer Michael Leyva's dreamy and sparkly creations, Preview Ph , Candy Mag - as their First Digital Cover Girl of the Year, Stylish Magazine , Mega Magazine and lastly, Village Pipol Magazine : ""The Rising Princess of Modern Media"" and Village Pipol Finale Cover of the Year.


title: Francine Diaz

text: She obtained numerous endorsements as soon as she went solo. She has earned the trust of multiple well-known brands and businesses. She is an endorser and an ambassadress, one of her generation's most sought-after endorsers.


title: Francine Diaz

text: "Blessings after blessings" , she secured another lead role in a limited web series entitled "Bola-Bola": "Cook. Feed. Love. Repeat", starring alongside BGYO member KD Estrada, and Ashton Salvador that landed on Top 2 Most-watched series on iWant despite having 6 episodes that aired for three weeks, but still managed to remain on top 10 most-watched after the release date of the series.


title: Francine Diaz

text: After the success of the series, Diaz now has an upcoming TV series with fellow former Gold Squad member Seth Fedelin called "Dirty Linen" that will premiere on Philippine Television in the year 2023. She also starred in Zack Tabudlo's latest single "As You Are (AYA)" music video as a lover of the singer, they're actually friends in real life and have known each other for a years now. This marks as their first time to worked with each other professionally.


title: Francine Diaz

text: Before the end of 2022, her "Simply Francine" YouTube channel joined the top YouTube creators and was ranked "9th" when YouTube revealed the country's top trending videos, top music videos, and creators for 2022.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany ( ; ) is a port city in the Great Southern region in the Australian state of Western Australia, southeast of Perth, the state capital. The city centre is at the northern edge of Princess Royal Harbour, which is a part of King George Sound. The central business district is bounded by Mount Clarence to the east and Mount Melville to the west. The city is in the local government area of the City of Albany. While it is the oldest colonial, although not European, settlement in Western Australia - predating Perth and Fremantle by over two years - it was a semi-exclave of New South Wales for over four years until it was made part of the Swan River Colony.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: The settlement was founded on 26 December 1826 as a military outpost of New South Wales for the purpose of forestalling French ambitions in the region. To that end, on 21 January 1827, the commander of the outpost, Major Edmund Lockyer, formally took possession for the British Crown of the portion of New Holland not yet claimed by the British Crown; that is, the portion west of the 129th meridian east, with the portion east already being claimed collectively by the British Crown as New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. During the last decade of the 19th century, the town served as a gateway to the Eastern Goldfields. For many years, it was the colony's only deep-water port, having a place of eminence on shipping services between Britain and its Australian colonies. The opening of the Fremantle Inner Harbour in 1897, however, saw its importance as a port decline, after which the town's industries turned primarily to agriculture, timber and later, whaling.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Contemporary Albany is the southern terminus for tourism in the region, and the state's south west, which is known for its natural environment and preservation of its heritage. The town has a role in the ANZAC legend, being the last port of call for troopships departing Australia in the First World War. On 1 November 2014, the Australian and New Zealand Prime Ministers opened the National Anzac Centre in Mount Clarence, Albany, to commemorate 100 years since the first ANZAC troops departed from King George Sound. Approximately 40,000 people attended the commemoration events held between 30 October and 2 November 2014.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: An auxiliary submarine base for the US Navy's 7th Fleet was developed during the Second World War in the event the submarine base at Fremantle was lost. Also in the harbour was a Royal Australian Navy naval installation which provided for refuelling from four fuel tanks.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Upon its establishment in 1826, the settlement was named Frederick Town in honour of Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. In 1831, the settlement was transferred to the control of the Swan River Colony and renamed Albany by Lieutenant-Governor James Stirling.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: The name of the area in the Nyungar language of the Menang people is "Kinjarling", which has been said to mean "place of plenty" and "place of rain". In 2020, the City of Albany began, as part of an official dual-naming project, to give prominence to “Kinjarling” as the city's Aboriginal name.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Kinjarling was home to Menang Noongar tribes during the summer season. Early British explorers recorded evidence of fish traps located on Emu Point and on the French, now the Kalgan, River. Vancouver made attempts to find the inhabitants of the area but only found bark dwellings that were unoccupied. Later explorers made contact and were told to leave, but were accepted when they did not. Most of the British exploration was undertaken to survey the land and sea to assess the profitability of resources. The explorers occasionally noted encounters with Noongars. Native treatment laws and programs have affected the tribes since settlement.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: There are a number of heritage buildings in Albany; see List of heritage places in the City of Albany and . These include:


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Some of the above information is derived from the State Heritage Register where these places are registered. The assessment criteria contain more details.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: In June 2018, the urban population of Albany was 34,205 making it the state's sixth-largest population centre.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: The city centre of Albany is located between the hills of Mount Melville and Mount Clarence, which look down into Princess Royal Harbour. Many beaches surround Albany, with Middleton Beach being the closest to the town centre. Other popular beaches include Frenchman Bay and Muttonbird Island.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: The Albany coastline is notorious for deaths due to king waves washing people off rocks. The Torndirrup National Park features some of the more rugged coastline in the area. However, there are many beaches that are safe and usable.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Betty's Beach was named after Betty Jones, who used to go camping there with her family, and was initially called Betty's Bay.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Frenchman Bay Beach is adjacent to the Torndirrup National Park, and was originally called Quarantine Bay, owing to the quarantine station set up by the British in 1826 on Mistaken Island at the northern end of Goode Beach


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Misery Beach, located south of Albany, was so named owing to the location of the whaling station at Albany that operated until 1978, causing offal to be washed ashore at Misery Beach and its sand and waters to be stained red. However, the beach was named Tourism Australia Best Beach 2022 by Tourism Australia, described a "[ticking] all the boxes of what the typical beachgoer is looking for — uncrowded, crystal-white sand, turquoise waters and a very dramatic granite backdrop".


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csb") with dry, warm summers, mild, wet winters, and pleasant springs and autumns. Summers have short spells of very hot weather, but cool ocean breeze brings relief, especially during evenings and nights. The city is situated on what is promoted as the "Rainbow Coast", an appropriate title given the frequency of days with both sun and drizzle or showers. Albany has 44.8 clear days annually.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: July is the wettest month, with a long-term average of . Rain in excess of occurs on two days out of every three during an average winter. The driest month is February with a mean of .


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany received a record amount of rain on 20 November 2008 when violent storms swept across the Great Southern region. The town was flooded after of rain fell in a 24-hour period, the highest amount recorded since rainfall records began in 1877. The wettest month on record was June 1920 when fell, while February 1877 and February 1879 remain the only rainless months.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany's main industries are tourism, fishing, timber (wood chips) and agriculture. From 1952 to 1978 whaling was a major source of income and employment for the local population.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: The Whaling Station, which closed operations in 1978, has been converted to a museum of whaling and features one of the 'Cheynes' whale chasers that were used for whaling in Albany. The station was the last operating whaling station in the southern hemisphere and the English-speaking world at the time of closure.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: The Western Power Wind Farm is located at Sand Patch, to the west of Albany. The wind farm, originally commissioned in 2001 with 12 turbines, now has 18 turbines, driven by strong southerly winds, and can generate up to 80% of the city's electricity usage.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany has a number of historical sites including the Museum, Albany Convict Gaol, The Princess Royal Fortress (commonly known as The Forts) and Patrick Taylor Cottage, one of the oldest dwellings in Western Australia, . Albany has a great deal of historical significance to Western Australia.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Natural sights along the rugged coastline include the 'Natural Bridge' and the 'Gap'. The beaches have pristine white sand. The destroyer was sunk in King George Sound in 2001 as a dive wreck. Albany is also close to two low mountain ranges, the Porongurups and Stirling Ranges.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany is home to HMAS "Albany" (based in Darwin) and the adopted home port of the Royal Australian Navy frigate . Albany is frequently visited by other warships.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany has a city bus service run by Swan Transit with five town routes. Albany is connected to Perth with road-coach services via Walpole and Bunbury; via Katanning and Northam; via Kojonup and Williams. Transwa coaches also serve Jerramungup, Ravensthorpe and Hopetoun.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Regional Express Airlines, a national independent regional airline, provides 23 services a week between Perth and Albany Airport using 34-passenger turboprop Saab 340 aircraft.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany was served by the "Albany Progress" passenger train from Perth until 1978. The railway station reopened as a tourist information centre in 1994.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany radio stations include 783 Triple M (formerly 6VA and RadioWest), GOLD MX, Rete Italia, Vision FM, Fly FM Albany, HitFM (formerly HOT FM), ABC South Coast, ABC News, ABC Radio National, ABC Classic FM, Triple J, Racing Radio & Great Southern FM.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Localised television stations available in Albany include GWN7, WIN Television Western Australia, West Digital Television, SBS and ABC Television Western Australia. GWN7 broadcasts a half-hour news program for regional WA, "GWN7 News", at 5:30pm on weeknights with a district newsroom covering Albany and surrounding areas based in the city.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: These services are broadcast from Mount Clarence and cover the majority of the geographic area with some areas requiring a signal to be received from the Southern Agricultural site at Mount Barker. Both these transmission sites employ vertical polarity. Furthermore, a number of residents rely on receiving these services via satellite using the Viewer Access Satellite Television system.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Local newspapers are the "Albany Advertiser" (established 1888) and "The Extra" (owned by Seven West Media Limited, publishers of The West Australian), and "The Great Southern Weekender" (independently owned by Beaconwood Holdings Pty Ltd). "The Great Southern Weekender" also owns local radio stations GOLD MX and Fly FM.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Two of Albany's major sports facilities are Collingwood Park Stadium in Collingwood Park and Centennial Oval in Centennial Park. Collingwood Park is home to North Albany Football Club while Centennial Oval is home to Royals Football Club.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: Albany Leisure and Aquatic Centre is the home of Albany Basketball Association. The Rainbow Coast Raiders of the State Basketball League played at the Albany Sports Centre (33 Barker Road) between 1989 and 1999. 33 Barker Road is now the home of Albany Indoor Beach Volleyball.


title: Albany, Western Australia

text: There are currently several primary schools, eight high schools and one university campus in the Albany area.


title: Martyn Ford

text: Martyn Ford (born 28 April 1944) is an English musician, best known for his orchestral contributions to rock music albums of the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Martyn Ford

text: Born in Rugby, Warwickshire,Lebanon, Ford was originally classically trained; he studied French horn at the Royal Academy of Music. While in his senior year there, he formed his own orchestra, which debuted at the Royal Albert Hall a few months after he graduated. He then found work as an arranger and conductor for releases by Caravan, Barclay James Harvest, Bryan Ferry, Ginger Baker, Johnny Nash, Three Man Army, Japan and Elton John, as well as for the soundtrack for the film "Tommy". He also played horn for the Spencer Davis Group early in the decade. He also recorded on his own as the Martyn Ford Orchestra; his 1976 album "Smoovin" featured Mike Moran, Ann Odell, Simon Phillips, Morris Pert, John Gustafson and Mel Collins. It also spawned a hit in the UK Singles Chart, "Let Your Body Go Downtown", which peaked at No. 38 in 1977. The song was written by Lynsey de Paul and Moran, who also wrote the follow-up single "Going to a Disco", which failed to reach the UK chart in the summer of 1977.


title: Dental floss

text: Dental floss is a cord of thin filaments used in interdental cleaning to remove food and dental plaque from between teeth or places a toothbrush has difficulty reaching or is unable to reach. Its regular use as part of oral cleaning is designed to maintain oral health.


title: Dental floss

text: Use of floss is recommended to prevent gingivitis and the build-up of plaque. The American Dental Association claims that up to 80% of plaque can be removed by flossing, and it may confer a particular benefit in individuals with orthodontic devices. However, empirical scientific evidence demonstrating the clinical benefit of flossing as an adjunct to routine tooth brushing alone remains limited.


title: Dental floss

text: A Japanese macaque and long-tailed macaques have been observed in the wild and in captivity flossing with human hair and feathers.


title: Dental floss

text: Levi Spear Parmly (1790-1859), a dentist from New Orleans, is credited with inventing the first form of dental floss. In 1819, he recommended running a waxen silk thread "through the interstices of the teeth, between their necks and the arches of the gum, to dislodge that irritating matter which no brush can remove and which is the real source of disease." He considered this the most important part of oral care. Floss was not commercially available until 1882, when the Codman and Shurtleft company started producing unwaxed silk floss. In 1898, the Johnson & Johnson Corporation received the first patent for dental floss that was made from the same silk material used by doctors for silk stitches.


title: Dental floss

text: One of the earliest depictions of the use of dental floss in literary fiction is found in James Joyce's famous novel "Ulysses" (serialized 1918–1920), but the adoption of floss was low before World War II. During the war, nylon floss was developed by physician Charles C. Bass. Nylon floss was found to be better than silk because of its greater abrasion resistance and ability to be produced in great lengths and at various sizes.


title: Dental floss

text: Dental professionals recommend that a person floss once per day before or after brushing to reach the areas that the brush will not and allow the fluoride from the toothpaste to reach between the teeth. Floss is commonly supplied in plastic dispensers that contain 10 to 100 meters of floss. After pulling out approximately 40 cm of floss, the user pulls it against a blade in the dispenser to cut it off. The user then strings the piece of floss on a fork-like instrument or holds it between their fingers using both hands with about 1–2 cm of floss exposed. The user guides the floss between each pair of teeth and gently curves it against the side of the tooth in a 'C' shape and guides it under the gumline. This removes particles of food stuck between teeth and dental plaque that adhere to dental surfaces below the gumline.


title: Dental floss

text: A variety of dental flosses are commonly available. Floss is available in many forms including waxed, unwaxed monofilaments and multifilaments. Dental floss that is made of monofilaments coated in wax slides easily between teeth, does not fray and is generally higher in cost than its uncoated counterparts. The most important difference between available dental flosses is thickness. Waxed and unwaxed floss are available in varying widths. Studies have shown that there is no difference in the effectiveness of waxed and unwaxed dental floss, but some waxed types of dental floss are said to contain antibacterial agents and/or sodium fluoride. Factors to consider in choosing a floss include the amount of space between teeth and user preference. Dental tape is a type of floss that is wider and flatter than conventional floss. Dental tape is recommended for people with larger tooth surface area.


title: Dental floss

text: The ability of different types of dental floss to remove dental plaque does not vary significantly; the least expensive floss has essentially the same impact on oral hygiene as the most expensive.


title: Dental floss

text: Factors to be considered when choosing the right floss or whether the use of floss as an interdental cleaning device is appropriate may be based on:


title: Dental floss

text: Specialized plastic wands, or floss picks, have been produced to hold the floss. These may be attached to or separate from a floss dispenser. While wands do not pinch fingers like regular floss can, using a wand may be awkward and can also make it difficult to floss at all the angles possible with regular floss. These types of flossers also run the risk of missing the area under the gum line that needs to be flossed. On the other hand, the enhanced reach of a wand can make flossing the back teeth easier.


title: Dental floss

text: Dental floss is the most frequently recommended cleaning aid for teeth sides with a normal gingiva contour in which the spaces between teeth are tight and small. The dental term ‘embrasure space’ describes the size of the triangular-shaped space immediately under the contact point of two teeth. The size of the embrasure space is useful in selecting the most appropriate interdental cleaning aid. There are three interproximal embrasure types or classes as described below:


title: Dental floss

text: The American Dental Association has stated that flossing in combination with tooth brushing can help prevent gum disease and halitosis.


title: Dental floss

text: However, evidence favoring commonplace use of floss remains limited. A 2008 systematic review concluded that adjunct flossing was no more effective than tooth brushing alone in reducing plaque or gingivitis. The authors concluded that routine instruction of flossing in gingivitis patients as helpful adjunct therapy is not supported by scientific evidence, and that flossing recommendations should be made by dental professionals on an individual basis.


title: Dental floss

text: A 2011 Cochrane Database systematic review identified "some evidence from 12 studies that flossing in addition to tooth brushing reduces gingivitis compared to tooth brushing alone", and "weak, very unreliable evidence from 10 studies that flossing plus tooth brushing may be associated with a small reduction in plaque at 1 and 3 months." Studies of flossing behavior are based on self-report and many people do not floss properly. A 2006 review of 6 studies in which professionals flossed the teeth of school children over a period of 1.7 years showed a 40% reduction in the risk of tooth decay.


title: Dental floss

text: More recently, a 2019 Cochrane Database systematic review compared toothbrushing alone to interdental cleaning devices, and also compared flossing to other interdental cleaning methods. In all, 35 randomized control trials met the criteria for inclusion, with all but 2 studies at high risk for performance bias. The authors concluded that “overall, the evidence was low to very low certainty, and the effect sizes observed may not be clinically important.”


title: Dental floss

text: As many authors note, the efficacy of flossing may be highly variable based on individual preference, technique, and motivation. Moreover, flossing may be a relatively more difficult and tedious method of interdental cleaning compared to an interdental brush.


title: Dental floss

text: There was a controversy when the 2015 United States Dietary Guidelines for Americans did not include a recommendation about flossing. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the U.S. Department of Agriculture publish Dietary Guidelines for Americans every five years. Guidelines published in 2000, 2005 and 2010 recommended flossing as part of a combined approach to preventing dental diseases. The 2010 Guidelines mention flossing once in 95 pages, in 2005 the word also appears once in 71 pages and it appears twice in the 38-page 2000 document.


title: Dental floss

text: In August 2016, an Associated Press (AP) article titled "Medical benefits of dental floss unproven" reported on the omission of flossing from the 2015 document. The article tied the omission to the AP's Freedom of Information Request to the departments of Health and Human Services and Agriculture where it asked for the scientific evidence behind the Guidelines’ flossing recommendation noting that “The guidelines must be based on scientific evidence, under the law.” The story was picked up by other news organizations including "The New York Times" in an article entitled "Feeling Guilty About Not Flossing? Maybe There’s No Need".


title: Dental floss

text: The American Dental Association contacted the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services about the omission and reported that the omission of the flossing recommendation was due to the fact that the Dietary Guidelines chose to focus on diet and that the omission was not because the Department questions the efficacy of flossing. As reported by Medscape


title: Dental floss

text: Orthodontic appliances, such as brackets, wires, and bands, can harbor plaque with more virulent changes in bacterial composition, which can ultimately cause a reduction in periodontal health as indicated by increased gingival recession, bleeding on probing, and plaque retention measurements. Furthermore, fixed appliances makes plaque control more challenging and restricts the natural cleaning action of the tongue, lips, and cheek to remove food and bacterial debris from tooth surfaces, and also creates new plaque stagnation areas that stimulate the colonisation of pathogenic bacteria.Patients undergoing orthodontic treatment may be recommended to maintain a high level of plaque control through not only conscientious toothbrushing, but also proximal surface cleaning via interdental aids, with dental floss being the most recommended by dental professionals. Notably, small-scale clinical studies have demonstrated that dental floss, when used correctly, may lead to clinically significant improvements in proximal gingival health.


title: Dental floss

text: A floss threader is loop of fiber that is shaped in order to produce better handling characteristics. It is (similar to fishing line) used to thread floss into small, hard to reach sites around teeth. Threaders are sometimes required to floss with dental braces, fix retainers, and bridge.


title: Dental floss

text: A floss pick is a disposable oral hygiene device generally made of plastic and dental floss. The instrument is composed of two prongs extending from a thin plastic body of high-impact polystyrene material. A single piece of floss runs between the two prongs. The body of the floss pick generally tapers at its end in the shape of a toothpick.


title: Dental floss

text: There are two types of angled floss picks in the oral care industry, the Y-shaped angle and the F-shaped angle floss pick. At the base of the arch where the "Y" begins to branch there is a handle for gripping and maneuvering before it tapers off into a pick.


title: Dental floss

text: Floss picks are manufactured in a variety of shapes, colors and sizes for adults and children. The floss can be coated in fluoride, flavor or wax.


title: Dental floss

text: In 1888, B.T. Mason wrapped a fibrous material around a toothpick and dubbed it the "combination tooth pick." In 1916, J.P. De L'eau invented a dental floss holder between two vertical poles. In 1935, F.H. Doner invented what today's consumer knows as the Y-shaped angled dental appliance. In 1963, James B. Kirby invented a tooth-cleaning device that resembles an archaic version of today's F-shaped floss pick.


title: Dental floss

text: In 1972, an inventor named Richard L. Wells found a way to attach floss to a single pick end. In the same year, another inventor named Harry Selig Katz came up with a method of making a disposable dental floss tooth pick.


title: Dental floss

text: It’s estimated that the yearly production of almost 5 billion single-use flossers for North America emits about 10,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents per year. This results in 10 million pounds of plastic trash entering the North American environment every year.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 10)

text: The episodes for the tenth season of the anime series "" are based on Part II for Masashi Kishimoto's manga series. The episodes are directed by Hayato Date, and produced by Pierrot and TV Tokyo. Released on DVD under the name , the season follows the assemblance of the Kage, the five village leaders attempting to stop Sasuke Uchiha and the remaining members of the Akatsuki. The season aired from February to July 2011. Its first Japanese DVD volume was released by Aniplex on September 7, 2011.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 10)

text: The season's English dubbed version aired on Neon Alley from July 13 to December 21, 2013. The season would make its English television debut on Adult Swim's Toonami programming block and premiere from April 8 to October 6, 2018. The season's first episode ran on Adult Swim in its original Japanese audio with English subtitles on April 1, 2018, as part of an annual April Fools stunt by the network, and proceeded to play the same episode in its normal English dub format the following week.


title: Naruto: Shippuden (season 10)

text: The season contains five musical themes: two openings and three endings. The first opening theme, "Diver" by NICO Touches the Walls is used from episodes 197 to 205. The second opening theme, by 7!! is used from episodes 206 to 221. The first ending theme, by Aqua Timez is used from episodes 197 to 205. The second ending theme, "FREEDOM" by HOME MADE Kazoku is used from episodes 206 to 218. The third ending theme, by OKAMOTO'S is used from episodes 218 to 221.


title: Project A119

text: Project A119, also known as A Study of Lunar Research Flights, was a top-secret plan developed in 1958 by the United States Air Force. The aim of the project was to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon, which would help in answering some of the mysteries in planetary astronomy and astrogeology. If the explosive device detonated on the surface, and not in a lunar crater, the flash of explosive light would have been faintly visible to people on Earth with their naked eye. This was meant as a show of force resulting in a possible boosting of domestic morale in the capabilities of the United States, a boost that was needed after the Soviet Union took an early lead in the Space Race and was also working on a similar project.


title: Project A119

text: The project was never carried out, being cancelled after "Air Force officials decided its risks outweighed its benefits", and because a Moon landing would undoubtedly be a more popular achievement in the eyes of the American and international public alike. If executed, the plan might have led to a potential militarization of space. A similar project by the Soviet Union (Project E-4) also never came to fruition.


title: Project A119

text: The existence of the US project was revealed in 2000 by a former executive at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Leonard Reiffel, who had led the project in 1958. A young Carl Sagan was part of the team responsible for predicting the effects of a nuclear explosion in vacuum and low gravity, and evaluating the scientific value of the project. The relevant documents remained secret for nearly 45 years and, despite Reiffel's revelations, the United States government has never officially acknowledged its involvement in the study.


title: Project A119

text: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union took the lead in the Space Race with the launch of Sputnik 1 on 4October 1957. "Sputnik" was the first artificial satellite in orbit around the Earth, and the surprise of its successful launch, compounded by the resounding failure of Project Vanguard to launch an American satellite after two attempts, had been dubbed the "Sputnik crisis" by the media and was the impetus for the beginning of the Space Race. Trying to reclaim lost ground, the United States embarked on a series of new studies and projects, which eventually included the launch of Explorer 1, the creation of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and NASA.


title: Project A119

text: In 1949, the Armour Research Foundation (ARF), based at the Illinois Institute of Technology, began studying the effects of nuclear explosions on the environment. Those studies continued until 1962. In May 1958, ARF began covertly researching the potential consequences of a nuclear explosion on the Moon. The main objective of the program, running under the auspices of the United States Air Force which had initially proposed it, was to cause a nuclear explosion that would be visible from Earth. It was hoped that such a display would boost the morale of the American people.


title: Project A119

text: At the time of the project's conception, newspapers were reporting a rumor that the Soviet Union was planning to detonate a hydrogen bomb on the Moon. According to press reports in late 1957, an anonymous source had divulged to a United States Secret Service agent that the Soviets planned to commemorate the anniversary of the October Revolution by causing a nuclear explosion on the Moon to coincide with a lunar eclipse on 7 November. News reports of the rumored launch included mention of targeting the dark side of the terminator—Project A119 would also consider this boundary as the target for an explosion. It was also reported that a failure to hit the Moon would likely result in the missile returning to Earth.


title: Project A119

text: A similar idea had been put forward by Edward Teller, the "father of the H-bomb", who, in February 1957, proposed the detonation of nuclear devices both on and some distance from the lunar surface to analyze the effects of the explosion.


title: Project A119

text: A ten-member team, led by Leonard Reiffel, was assembled at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago to study the potential visibility of the explosion, the benefits to science, and the implications for the lunar surface. Among the members of the research team were astronomer Gerard Kuiper and his doctoral student Carl Sagan. Sagan was responsible for the mathematical projection of the expansion of a dust cloud in space around the Moon, an essential element in determining its visibility from Earth.


title: Project A119

text: Scientists initially considered using a hydrogen bomb for the project, but the United States Air Force vetoed that idea due to the weight of such a device, because it would be too heavy to be propelled by the missile which would have been used. It was then decided to use a W25 warhead, a small, lightweight warhead with a relatively low 1.7 kiloton yield. By contrast, the Little Boy bomb dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945 had a yield of 13–18 kilotons. The W25 would be carried by a rocket toward the shadowed side of the Moon where it would detonate on impact. The dust cloud resulting from the explosion would be lit by the Sun and therefore visible from Earth. According to Reiffel, the Air Force's progress in the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles would have made such a launch feasible by 1959.


title: Project A119

text: The project was canceled by the Air Force in January 1959, seemingly out of fear of the risk to the population if anything went wrong with the launch. Another factor, cited by project leader Leonard Reiffel, was the possible problem of nuclear fallout which would affect future lunar research projects and Moon colonization.


title: Project A119

text: Later reports in the 2010s showed that a corresponding Soviet project did indeed exist, although the only official documents on the project found so far began in 1958, not the 1957 date of the "anonymous" source whose rumors initiated the US project. The official Soviet plan also differs from the scenario reported in the press. Started in January 1958, it was part of a series of proposals under the codename "E". Project E-1 entailed plans to reach the Moon, while projects E-2 and E-3 involved sending a probe around the far side of the Moon to take a series of photographs of its surface. The final stage of the project, E-4, was to be a nuclear strike on the Moon, as a display of force. As with the American plan, the E series of projects was canceled while still in its planning stages, due to concerns regarding the safety and reliability of the launch vehicle.


title: Project A119

text: The signing of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963 and the Outer Space Treaty in 1967 prevented future investigation of the concept of detonating a nuclear device on the Moon. By that time, both the United States and the Soviet Union had performed several high-altitude nuclear explosions, including the American Operation Hardtack I, Operation Argus, Operation Fishbowl, and the Soviet Project K.


title: Project A119

text: By 1969, the United States had achieved a clear victory in the Space Race with the success of the Apollo 11 Moon mission. In December of that year, Apollo scientist Gary Latham suggested detonating a "smallish" nuclear device on the Moon in order to facilitate research into its geological make-up. The idea was dismissed because it would interfere with plans to measure the Moon's natural background radiation.


title: Project A119

text: The existence of Project A119 remained largely secret until the mid-1990s, when writer Keay Davidson discovered the story while researching the life of Carl Sagan for a biography. Sagan's involvement with the project was apparent from his application for an academic scholarship at the Miller Institute of the University of California, Berkeley, in 1959. In the application, Sagan gave details of the project research, which Davidson felt constituted a violation of national security. The leak consisted of Sagan revealing the titles of two classified papers from the A119 project — the 1958 paper "Possible Contribution of Lunar Nuclear Weapons Detonations to the Solution of Some Problems in Planetary Astronomy", and the 1959 paper "Radiological Contamination of the Moon by Nuclear Weapons Detonations". A 1958 paper titled "Cosmic Radiation and Lunar Radioactivity", credited to I. Filosofo, was also named by Sagan in a 1961 paper written for the United States National Research Council. These were among the eight reports created by the project, all of which were destroyed in 1987.


title: Project A119

text: The resulting biography, "Carl Sagan: A Life", was published in 1999. Shortly after, a review published in "Nature" highlighted the discovery of the leaked information. That led Reiffel to break his anonymity and write a letter to the journal confirming that Sagan's activity had at the time been considered a breach of the confidentiality of the project. Reiffel took the opportunity to reveal details of the studies, and his statements were widely reported in the media. Reiffel's revelation of the project was accompanied by his denunciation of the work carried out, with the scientist noting that he was "horrified that such a gesture to sway public opinion was ever considered".


title: Project A119

text: As a result of the publicity the correspondence created, a freedom of information request was lodged concerning Project A119. It was only then that "A Study of Lunar Research Flights – Volume I" was made public, over 40 years after its inception. A search for the other volumes of documentation revealed that other reports were destroyed in the 1980s by the Illinois Institute of Technology.


title: Project A119

text: David Lowry, a nuclear historian from the United Kingdom, has called the project's proposals "obscene", adding, "had they gone ahead, we would never have had the romantic image of Neil Armstrong taking 'one giant leap for mankind.


title: Bony-eared assfish

text: The bony-eared assfish ("Acanthonus armatus") is a bathypelagic species of cusk-eel found in tropical and sub-tropical oceans at depths of from . It has been found as far north as Queen Charlotte Sound off British Columbia's coast. This species grows to a length of SL. It is the only known member of its genus "Acanthonus".


title: Bony-eared assfish

text: Like many other creatures that dwell in the depths of the sea, assfish are soft and flabby with a light skeleton. This is likely to have resulted from a lack of food and the high pressures which accompany living at such a depth, making it difficult to generate muscle and bone.


title: Bony-eared assfish

text: The type specimen was an individual taken by the Challenger expedition (1872–1876) north of New Guinea at a depth of . It was described in 1878 by German ichthyologist Albert Günther, who gave the species its scientific name. means "armed" in Latin, likely chosen because the fish sports spines off the tip of the nose and the gills. This also perhaps accounts for the "bony-eared" part, according to Gavin Hanke, curator of vertebrate zoology at the Royal British Columbia Museum. is Ancient Greek for "prickly", and "onus" could either mean "hake, a relative of cod", Hanke says, "or a donkey". Adam Summers, associate director at the Friday Harbor Laboratories at the University of Washington, concurs, saying "onus" could easily read "as a homonym of the Greek word for ass".


title: Oswestry

text: Oswestry ( ; ) is a market town, civil parish and historic railway town in Shropshire, England, close to the Welsh border. It is at the junction of the A5, A483 and A495 roads.


title: Oswestry

text: The town was the administrative headquarters of the Borough of Oswestry until that was abolished in 2009. Oswestry is the third-largest town in Shropshire, following Telford and Shrewsbury. At the 2011 Census, the population was 17,105. The town is five miles (8 km) from the Welsh border and has a mixed English and Welsh heritage.


title: Oswestry

text: Oswestry is the largest settlement within the Oswestry Uplands, a designated natural area and national character area.


title: Oswestry

text: The name "Oswestry" is first attested in 1191, as "Oswaldestroe". This Middle English name transparently derives from the Old English personal name Ōswald and the word "trēow" ('tree'). Thus the name seems once to have meant 'tree of a man called Ōswald'. However, the traditional Welsh name for the town, (first attested in 1254), means 'Oswald's cross', and 'cross' is a possible meaning of Old English "trēow". Thus the town's name may have meant 'Oswald's cross' in both English and Welsh.


title: Oswestry

text: The Oswald mentioned is widely imagined to have been Oswald of Northumbria, who died at the Battle of Maserfield in 641/642. The location of the battle is debated among scholars, but for much of the twentieth century was assumed to be at Oswestry. However, A. D. Mills's "Dictionary of English Place Names" concluded that 'the traditional connection with St Oswald, 7th-century king of Northumbria, is uncertain'.


title: Oswestry

text: The name and the association with King Oswald have attracted more fanciful interpretations. According to legend, one of the dismembered Oswald's arms was carried to an ash tree by a raven. Miracles were subsequently attributed to the tree, and the legend has it that this was "Oswald's Tree", and gave its name to the town. A spring called 'Oswald's Well' is supposed to have originated where the bird dropped the arm from the tree, though one historian has suggested that it was likely to have had sacred associations long before Oswald's time. The water from the well was believed to have healing properties, particularly for curing eye trouble. Offa's Dyke runs near the well, to the west.


title: Oswestry

text: There is an alternative view that Oswestry was named after Oswy, Oswald's brother, who fought a battle here against King Penda in 655 AD. Oswy became King of Northumbria after Oswald's death in 642 AD. The battle of 655 AD was fought near to a river called the Winwead, which it is believed, was the nearby River Vyrnwy. Welsh folklore has it that this battle was called the battle of Pengwern and in it their leader Cynddylan was also killed.


title: Oswestry

text: The earliest known human settlement in Oswestry is Old Oswestry, one of the best-preserved Iron Age hill forts in Britain, with evidence of construction and occupation between 800BC and 43AD. The site is known in Welsh as "Caer Ogyrfan", meaning 'City of Gogyrfan', referring to the father of Guinevere in Arthurian legend.


title: Oswestry

text: The Battle of Maserfield is widely thought to have been fought at Oswestry in 641 or 642, between the Anglo-Saxon kings Penda of Mercia and Oswald of Northumbria. However, the location of the battle is debated among scholars.


title: Oswestry

text: The Domesday Book (1086) records the castle being built by Rainald, a Norman Sheriff of Shropshire: ().


title: Oswestry

text: Alan fitz Flaad (died c.1120), a Breton knight, was granted the feudal barony of Oswestry by King Henry I who, soon after his accession, invited Alan to England with other Breton friends, and gave him forfeited lands in Norfolk and Shropshire, including some which had previously belonged to Ernulf de Hesdin (killed at Antioch while on crusade) and Robert of Bellême.


title: Oswestry

text: Alan's duties to the Crown included supervision of the Welsh border. He also founded Sporle Priory in Norfolk. He married Ada or Adeline, daughter of Ernulf de Hesdin. Their eldest son William FitzAlan was made High Sheriff of Shropshire by King Stephen in 1137. He married a niece of Robert of Gloucester. Alan's younger son, Walter, travelled to Scotland in the train of King David I, Walter becoming the first hereditary Steward of Scotland and ancestor of the Stewart Royal family.


title: Oswestry

text: The town changed hands between the English and the Welsh a number of times during the Middle Ages and still retains some Welsh-language street and place names. In 1972, ITV broadcast a television report asking residents if they thought the town should be English or Welsh, with mixed responses.


title: Oswestry

text: In 1149 the castle was captured by Madog ap Maredudd during 'The Anarchy', and it remained in Welsh hands until 1157. Occasionally in the 13th century it is referred to in official records as "Blancmuster" (1233) or "Blancmostre" (1272), meaning "White Minster". Later, Oswestry was attacked by the forces of Welsh rebel leader Owain Glyndŵr during the early years of his rebellion against the English King Henry IV in 1400; it became known as "Pentrepoeth" or "hot village" as it was burned and nearly totally destroyed by the Welsh. The castle was reduced to a pile of rocks during the English Civil War.


title: Oswestry

text: In 1190 the town was granted the right to hold a market each Wednesday. The town built walls for protection, but these were torn down in the English Civil War by the Parliamentarians after they took the town from the Royalists after a brief siege on 22 June 1644, leaving only the Newgate Pillar visible today.


title: Oswestry

text: After the foot and mouth outbreak in the late 1960s the animal market was moved out of the town centre. In the 1990s, a statue of a shepherd and sheep was installed in the market square as a memorial to the history of the market site.


title: Oswestry

text: Park Hall, a mile east of the town, was taken over by the Army during World War I in 1915 and used as a training camp and military hospital. On 26 December 1918 it burnt to the ground following an electrical fault. The ruined hall and camp remained derelict between the wars, the camp hospital, however, was still in use; the Baschurch Convalescent and Surgical Home moved there in February 1921 and it became known as the Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital.


title: Oswestry

text: One of the main uses of the land from the 1920s was for motorcycle racing and it became quite a well-known circuit.


title: Oswestry

text: The camp was reactivated in July 1939 for Royal Artillery training and the Plotting Officers' School. Following World War II, Oswestry was a prominent military centre for Canadian troops, then for the British Royal Artillery, and finally a training centre for 15 to 17-year-old Infantry Junior Leaders. The camp closed in 1975. During the 1970s some local licensed wildfowlers discharged their shotguns at some passing ducks and were shot themselves by a young military guard, who had mistaken them for an attacking IRA force.


title: Oswestry

text: The area previously occupied by the Park Hall military camp is now mainly residential and agricultural land, with a small number of light industrial units. Park Hall Farm became a visitor attraction in 1998, it is home to the Museum of the Welsh Guards. The Park Hall Football Stadium (home of The New Saints FC) and The Venue is now closed.