title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Nurgle: the Chaos God of decay, plague, despair, disease, nature, endurance, tolerance, joy, acceptance, compassion, empathy, entropy, death, life and rebirth. Nurgle's followers draw most of their power in combat from the deadly, putrid diseases they carry and their blights given by these diseases which quite literally energise the followers and even "blessed" sorcerous technologies they use. Nurgle is also the god of life and rebirth, but these traits are buried under decay and blight due to the War in Heaven and the horrific state of the galaxy's peoples. Nurgle gifts his followers with poxes, boils, rashes, sores and other blights and assorted diseases, but unlike his brethren, he takes pride and happiness in any who follow in his blighted footsteps. His Dark Tongue name, "Nurghleth", means the Lord of Decay. His power comes from the inevitability of death and decay, and Nurgle is often referred to as 'Grandfather Nurgle', as entropy is the most ancient of forces, and he is the only one who cares for his followers. Nurgle thrives in death and decay, growing more powerful as great plagues spread, and his servants seek only to spread disease. Nurgle takes pride in their achievements, "gifting" them with hideous diseases while sheltering them from pain, fear, disgust, and horror and his followers rejoice in their blessings, shrugging off lethality and disfigurement in a state of rapturous undeath without dying. People in sickness might pray to Nurgle for relief, but rather than heal the sick, Nurgle helps them endure their illness by removing their pain and misery, all the while exacerbating their physical degeneration (though with the best intentions as they were not specific in their prayers). His physical form is a bloated, horned figure with a swollen and putrid body, and a large tongue protruding from a cavernous maw. His holy number is 7 and his main enemy god is Tzeentch. Those who worship Nurgle are those suffering and wanting freedom from sickness and pain, unaware that they are rapidly becoming more sick yet feeling less pain. His main daemons are the Plaguebearers (his soldiers), his Nurglings (smaller, minuscule versions of himself), his Beasts, and his Rot Flies (his flying, disgusting beasts). They are led by Greater Daemons known as Great Unclean Ones, which are physical manifestations of himself in the material world and are so horrific that most mortals experience terror in the mere presence of one. His realm is described to be a massive rotting garden, filled with death and decay. It is said that he has captured the Eldar (Elven) goddess Isha, who whispers the cures of Nurgle's plagues to those in the material realm.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Slaanesh: the Chaos God of excess, pleasure, pain, extremes, hedonism, desire, beauty, perfection, excellence, and love. In both settings, they are the youngest of the four gods; they are typically considered androgynous, and while they are often referred to as being male, in the "Warhammer 40,000 universe", the Eldar races consider them to be female. Their Dark Tongue name, "Slaaneth", means the Prince of Pleasure. Their followers seek only to indulge in whatever fleeting whims and desires they feel, and they tend to become graceful, beautiful warriors who harbor selfish, cruel souls. In the "Warhammer 40,000" background, Slaanesh was birthed from the excesses and hedonism of the Eldar society. Its birth created a psychic shockwave that spread across the galaxy, killing most of the Eldar population and their gods; the survivors split into the various Eldar factions. It also created the largest warp storm in the Milky Way, the Eye of Terror, which later became the main residence of the scattered Chaos Space Marines. The fall of the Eldar empire paved the way for the rise of the Imperium of Man. In "Warhammer Fantasy", Slaanesh's followers are partly responsible for the corruption of an important Elven leader named Malekith, and the subsequent schism that led to the formation of the Dark and High Elf races. Slaanesh's physical form is an androgynous being of the most physical beauty. Their holy number is 6, and main enemy god is Khorne. Those who worship Slaanesh are those who either wish to achieve the most popularity amongst their peers or the most ecstatic pleasure, pleasure beyond the imaginable. Their main daemons are the Daemonettes (soldiers), the Fiends (beasts), and the Steeds (serpentine mounts). The forces of Slaanesh are led by Greater Daemons called the Keepers of Secrets, lithe creatures with unholy beauty. Slaanesh's realm is described to be a massive castle in the middle of seven circles, each representing one of the classical seven deadly sins. People cannot make it through without succumbing to some type of flaw.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: In addition to these Chaos Gods, "Warhammer: Age of Sigmar" (the sequel game to "Warhammer Fantasy") features a number of new members who have ascended to the Chaos Pantheon:


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: In the table-top wargame "Warhammer 40,000", the Chaos Space Marines or Chaos Marines, are Space Marines who serve the Chaos Gods. They are also referred to as the "Traitor Legions", primarily in background material written from the perspective of the Imperium.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: The background shown in both "Codex: Space Marines" (Haines and McNeill, 2004) and "Codex: Chaos Space Marines" (Chambers et al., 2002) states that the Chaos Marine Legions were nine of the twenty Legions of Space Marines who fought in the Great Crusade for the Imperium of Man. At this time the Warmaster Horus, first among the Primarchs, and the "Luna Wolves" Legion (later the "Sons of Horus") were corrupted by Chaos and instigated the galaxy-wide civil war known as the Horus Heresy.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Further background to the Chaos Space Marines is explored in detail in the 'Horus Heresy' series of novels. After the death of Horus and the end of the Heresy, the remnants of the nine Legions along with the other Imperial forces that had joined Horus escaped to a warp-infested area of the galaxy connected directly to the Immaterium that is known as the Eye of Terror. Due to the nature of Chaos, and the temporal instability of the Warp, the very same Chaos Marines who revolted against the Emperor continue to fight against the Imperium.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: The Legions have kept their old names, with the exception of the Sons of Horus who were renamed the "Black Legion" by their new leader, Abaddon the Despoiler. Besides Horus, two other Chaos Primarchs were believed to have been killed during or shortly after the Heresy (Konrad Curze of the Night Lords and Alpharius of the Alpha Legion.) The six surviving Primarchs have since become Daemon Princes. These daemonic Primarchs rarely take part in the affairs of their Legions or any part of the "Warhammer 40,000" universe. For example, Magnus the Red, Primarch of the Thousand Sons is the most powerful of all the Daemon Prince sorcerers. Yet he rarely enters the battlefield, even though prior to the Horus Heresy he always took part in his Legion's battles and was a determined warrior. Angron however, Primarch of the World Eaters, led an invasion force in what was to become the First War of Armageddon. Some of the Legions have pledged a particular loyalty to one of the four Great Chaos powers but the eight Blood Lords are loyal to Angron alone. The same is the case with the Death Guard, where the Primarch Mortarion's war council is known as the Lords of Decay. Abaddon the Despoiler has taken charge of the Sons of Horus, now known as the Black Legion. Abaddon is the only Chaos Marine since Horus to be able to command the loyalty of all nine Traitor Legions (albeit, temporarily after intense bargaining), and has led thirteen Black Crusades against the Imperium of Man.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: A Black Crusade comprises a large number of Chaos-aligned forces, from traitor space marine legions to treasonous imperial citizens. A Black Crusade can be dedicated to a particular Chaos God in order to invoke their blessing and appease the Warmaster's or the heretics' patron. However, one should be careful in dedicating a Black Crusade to a particular Chaos God or multiple Chaos Gods, as the Gods are jealous of each other. Since the 32nd Millennium, there have been a total of 13 Black Crusades.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Each of the Chaos Space Marine Legions specialises in a different type of warfare; each of the major Chaos Gods has a legion dedicated to them. The rules for the Chaos Space Marines are currently in their 8th edition, previously being one of the few codices that had not been updated during 7th edition (although both the Black Legion supplements and the Crimson Slaughter supplements have been updated).


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Alongside the Traitor Legions, there have been many Space Marine Successor Chapters who have also fallen under the sway of Chaos. Some of the most notable ones are as follows:


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: The legions are often featured in short stories and novels published by Games Workshop's publishing arm, The Black Library.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Since the Horus Heresy, many Space Marine Chapters have been corrupted in one way or another by Chaos. No specific rules exist for renegade chapters, allowing players to adapt other rules to represent their forces. According to the records of the Ordo Malleus (the Inquisition branch body responsible for protecting the Imperium from Chaos and daemons), approximately 50 chapters have turned renegade after the Horus Heresy; however, the accuracy of this number is doubtful. Examples of given Space Marine chapters include the Sons of Malice, the Damned Company of Lord Caustos, the Violators, the Steel Cobras, the Thunder Barons, the Sons of Vengeance, the Silver Guards, etc. Beside those chapters the forces of chaos are also strengthened by individual corrupted companies or detachments from loyalist Space Marine chapters; forming smaller warbands or joining other renegade chapters.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: The Chaos Space Marines have the same origins as the Space Marines. Due to their allegiance to Chaos, Chaos Marines can be mutated or willingly possessed (except for the Thousand Sons Rubric Marines), thus making themselves into monsters, faster or otherwise superior to the Space Marines and other inhabitants of the Warhammer 40k universe. Chaos Marines have extended lifespans due to the time-warping effects of the Eye of Terror, and the fact that space marines as a whole are unable to die of old age, and their millennia of experience gives them levels of mastery with more advanced skills and tactics that Loyalist Space Marines do not have. However, they are inhibited by their own anarchic nature, limited numbers, and constant infighting. If they were to organise and form an army equivalent to the tactical army of the Imperium, they would be a greater threat than they are now. Abaddon of the Black Legion seeks to unite all of the Chaos forces and lead them to a last Black Crusade against the Imperium.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: However, due to the hostility of chaos space marines toward each other, other legions and warbands, it took Abaddon 13 Black Crusades to finally cause significant damage towards the Imperium by launching a full-scale attack and occupation of Cadia.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Chaos Marines are equipped with the power armour and weapons they had when they initially betrayed the Imperium, which are broadly the same as those used by Space Marines (although some differences now exist). The current setting of the "Warhammer 40,000" game is about 10,000 years after the Horus Heresy, and, while the Imperium has made some technological advancements, Chaos Marines have far more limited access to the handful of new inventions that have appeared on the galactic scene. For example, Iron Warriors are known for capturing and using Imperial tanks. This is not a strong differentiating factor though, as the Imperium merely replicates or rediscovers technology designed during the "Golden Age of Technology" (also known as the "Dark Age of Technology") and has very little understanding of it; thus there have been very few developments during the last 10,000 years.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Parallel to realspace, where mortal creatures live, is the Warp, a realm of pure psychic energy. This realm is influenced by the thoughts, emotions, and urges of all sentient beings. The psychic energies sometimes coalesce into sentient entities. The most powerful of these entities are the four Chaos Gods. They are served by a host of daemons and constantly seek to expand their influence over humanity. In essence, the mortals of the galaxy are molested by monsters spawned by their own collective id. Though they are often at odds with each other, the Chaos Gods' common goal is to crush the worship of the God-Emperor and convert and consume the sentient inhabitants of the material universe (although ironically this would mean the end of the Chaos gods).


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Chaos is a malevolent force that twists the bodies and minds of mortals exposed to it. Followers of Chaos are often lunatics who sport hideous mutations. Many humans worship the Chaos Gods in the hopes of alleviating their misery, advancing their ambitions, or gaining access to magical power, perhaps not understanding the terrible price they will ultimately pay. By far the people most vulnerable to Chaos influence are those with psychic ability. Unless they are carefully trained to resist daemonic possession, psykers can become living conduits by which daemons can enter the mortal world and wreak havoc.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: There are no "good" gods in "Warhammer 40,000", or at the least the good ones are greatly weakened, if not completely destroyed. The God-Emperor barely survives in a persistent vegetative state after a terrible battle with his son Horus who was corrupted by Chaos, and he is powerless to remedy the brutality, corruption, and ignorance that plagues his empire. After the Eldar gave birth to Slaanesh, their pantheon are all either dead or can do little to help their beleaguered people: most were killed by Slaanesh shortly after its birth, Cegorach (the Laughing God, an archetypical trickster) and Khaine (god of war and bloodshed) both fled, Isha (The Eldar Goddess of Fertility, Life, Healing and Growth) is captured by Slaanesh, and later "rescued" by Nurgle. Since she is captured by Nurgle and fed the diseases he concocts, the best she can do is whisper the cures for his diseases into the material universe. The Necrons were cursed to undeath by their gods, and eventually rebelled against them. The Ork deities are as anarchic, violent and cruel as they are, while the Tau and Tyranids have none at all.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Positive human feelings like love, altruism, valor, and invention are perverted by the Chaos Gods. For instance, Nurgle might represent acceptance and mercy, as he genuinely adores his worshippers and considers his plagues to be blessings. Tzeentch represents innovation and change, and a human who delves in science, invention, or social change risks becoming corrupted and mutated by his influence. Khorne thrives on violence of any sort, including that used by the Imperium to fight his own cultists.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Chaos is the root cause of most of the galaxy's problems. While Slaanesh gestated in the Warp, widespread warp storms cut off interstellar travel, leading to the collapse of the glorious human civilizations of old. When Slaanesh was finally born, the psychic shockwave slaughtered most of the Eldar race, leaving a tiny fraction of nomadic survivors. The Emperor of Mankind tried to reunite humanity, to bring it into a new golden age, but the Chaos Gods seduced and corrupted roughly half his Space Marine followers in an event known as the Horus Heresy and he was felled in battle, and his empire plunged into a dark age that has endured for 10,000 years.


title: Chaos (Warhammer)

text: Chaos stems from the Realm of Chaos, a mysterious dimension of raw magical energy and the home of the four Chaos Gods. Long ago, massive amounts of raw Chaos energy spilled forth into the world, its mutating power giving rise to many monsters such as trolls and the Skaven. Most forms of magic practiced by wizards use some form of refined Chaos energy, which are classified as the Winds of Magic. For instance, when Chaos energy filters through the natural world, it transforms into the Green Wind of Magic, which Jade Wizards and Druids can use for healing spells. Jade Wizards are at their most powerful wherever life is most abundant, and at their weakest where life is sparse (deserts, winter, etc.). Dark Magic makes use of unrefined Chaos energy and is thus the most dangerous.


title: Structure of the United States Air Force

text: The structure of the United States Air Force refers to the unit designators and organizational hierarchy of the United States Air Force, which starts at the most senior commands.


text: The senior headquarters of the Department of the Air Force, Headquarters Air Force (HAF) consists of two staffs in the Pentagon: the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force and the Air Staff. These are headed by the United States secretary of the Air Force and the chief of staff of the United States Air Force.


text: A Direct Reporting Unit (DRU) is an agency of the United States Department of the Air Force that is outside the bounds of the standard organizational hierarchy by being exclusively and uniquely under the control of Air Force headquarters alone, rather than reporting through a major command. The term "direct reporting unit" comes from the fact that the unit reports directly to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force or to a designated representative on the Air staff.


text: A DRU has a specialized and restricted mission, meaning that it is a single purpose unit, usually to the exclusion of other duties, reporting to Air Force Air Staff alone. It is separate and independent from any organization structure or supervision: major command, numbered air force, operational command, division, wing, group, squadron, or field operating agency. It is a DRU because the unit's specific and focused duties, legal issues that necessitate the unit's independence, or other factors such as national security concerns.


text: The field operating agency (FOA) is a subdivision of the Air Force, directly subordinate to an HQ USAF functional manager. A FOA performs field activities beyond the scope of any of the major commands. The activities are specialized or associated with an Air Force-wide mission, and do not include functions performed in management headquarters, unless specifically directed by a DoD authority.


text: A major subdivision of the Air Force, the major command (MAJCOM) is directly subordinate to HQ USAF or the Air Staff. MAJCOM headquarters are "management" headquarters for a major segment of the AF and thus have the full range of functional staff. MAJCOMs are commanded by a general (O-10).


text: The numbered air force (NAF) is a "tactical" echelon directly under an operational MAJCOM that provide operational leadership and supervision. NAFs are structured to perform an operational or warfighting mission, often oriented to a specific geographic region. A NAF is directly assigned operational units, such as wings, groups, and squadrons. NAFs are commanded by either a major general (O-8) or lieutenant general (O-9).


text: Wings have a distinct mission with a specific scope, reporting to the NAF or HQ USAF. Wings are made up of one or more groups, consisting of several squadrons, and usually commanded by a colonel (O-6), but high visibility wings can have a brigadier general (O-7) in command. Second in command to the Wing Commander is the Deputy Wing Commander who is and only can be a colonel. The senior enlisted personnel of a wing can be known as the Command Chief who holds the rank of command chief master sergeant (E-9). Wings now encompass both operations and support activities (maintenance groups, mission support groups), and are usually one of three major types: operational wing, air base wing, and specialized mission wing. As of 30 September 2006 USAF had 120 wings, including 57 flying (manned aircraft) wings.


text: Made up of several squadrons and typically commanded by a colonel (O-6). Second in command to the Group Commander is the Deputy Group Commander who is also a colonel or lieutenant colonel (O-5). The senior enlisted personnel of a group is known as the Group Senior Enlisted Leader (formerly Group Superintendent). This position can only be held by a chief master sergeant (E-9). The group was of less visibility for some decades but came back to prominence during a transition to the "objective wing" organization in the 1990s. This reorganization changed the base command structure from the "wing commander/base commander" scheme to a single wing commander ("one base-one boss") with multiple groups under his command. There are two general types of groups: dependent (operations, logistics, support, medical, or large functional unit); and independent (a group with wing-like functions and responsibilities whose scope and size does not warrant wing-level designation). As of 30 September 2006, USAF had 17 independent groups, nine of them flying establishments.


text: The squadron is considered to be the basic unit in the USAF. Squadrons are usually made up of two to six flights and may contain from a few dozen up to a few hundred people, depending upon type. (An operational, or "flying," squadron will typically contain aircrew, organized in three or four flights, sufficient to man from eight to 24 aircraft, dependent upon the type/model/series of aircraft operated. The aircraft are "owned" by the squadron's parent wing's maintenance group, while the operational squadrons and their aircrews belong to the wing's operations group.)


text: A squadron is usually commanded by a major (O-4) or lieutenant colonel (O-5), however lieutenant colonel is the most common grade of rank for the "squadron commander" (SQ/CC) of most types of squadrons. Second in command to the squadron commander (SQ/CC) is the squadron "operations officer" or director of operations (DO), who is usually a senior major. The DO is assisted by one or two "assistant operations officers," who are normally majors or senior captains. The squadron's flights are commanded by officers (majors and below) who have the title of "flight commander" (Flt/CC).


text: The remaining captains and lieutenants in operational squadrons (who are also aircraft pilots, combat systems officers, and air battle managers) are assigned as heads or assistant heads of various "functional areas" (often referred to as "shops") within either the "operations" (reporting to the squadron DO) or the "administrative" functional areas (reporting to the SQ/CC of the squadron). "Administrative" functional areas may include: "administration" (personnel records and manpower management), "secretary" (often a civilian employee), "executive officer" (officer personal assistant to the SQ/CC); and "awards and decorations." While under "Operations" there are usually: "command, control, communications, and computers" (C4), "schedules," "training," "weapons/tactics," "mobility/plans," and "Aviation Resources Management" (i.e., flight records). In addition, there are "safety" and "standardization/evaluation" functional areas that report directly to the SQ/CC.


text: Air Force squadrons also contain noncommissioned officer (NCO)/senior NCO (SNCO) leadership who directly supervise the squadron's enlisted Airmen. The SQ/CC is assisted by a "first sergeant" (i.e., a specially selected and trained master, senior, or chief master sergeant in pay grades "E-7," "E-8," or "E-9," respectively). The first sergeant serves as the SQ/CCs "senior enlisted advisor" for enlisted morale, welfare, and conduct matters. Officers serving as Flt/CCs may be assisted by NCOs/SNCOs (technical and master sergeants, "E-6" and "E-7," respectively) with the title of "flight chief," who are second-line supervisors over more junior NCOs and Airmen within the flight. Flights are then further sub-divided into a number of elements with NCOs (staff sergeants, pay grade "E-5") assigned as "element leaders" functioning as first-line supervisors to the Airmen in their elements. Some squadrons (typically in the wing's maintenance group or mission support group) have functional areas led by SNCOs with the title of "superintendents" (this title is changing to "senior enlisted leaders" on 10/01/2121). These are senior and chief master sergeants (E-8s and E-9s) serving as "subject matter experts" in various technical areas who also provide SNCO leadership to NCOs and Airmen under their supervision.


text: A flight is the smallest official capacity in the Air Force and usually ranges from a dozen people to over a hundred, or typically four aircraft. The flight commander or OIC is a company-grade officer which can be described as a 2nd lieutenant (O-1), 1st lieutenant (O-2), or captain (O-3). Second in command to the flight commander is a SNCO typically being a master sergeant (E-7). Phonetic letter designations can be used to distinguish each flight, such as alpha flight, bravo flight, etc.


text: Although not officially recognized, an element is generally understood to be the smallest unit in the Air Force. Typically, a flight is broken up into 3–4 evenly distributed elements. The element leader is an NCO which can be described as a staff sergeant (E-5) or technical sergeant (E-6).


text: Separate operating agencies (SOA) were major Air Force subdivisions directly subordinate to HQ USAF and has all the "procedural (administrative and logistical) responsibilities" of a MAJCOM. In 1991, most active SOAs changed in status to DRUs or FOAs.


text: Air divisions have existed since World War II when many of the Numbered Air Divisions began as wings. There were both named and numbered divisions, mostly air divisions. Recently HQ USAF gradually inactivated or redesignated divisions in an effort to encourage rapid decision-making and to create a more flat organizational structure without "middle management" units, and as such air divisions are rarely used.


text: The Air National Guard, often referred to as the Air Guard, is the air force militia organized by each of the fifty U.S. states, the commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia of the United States. Established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U.S. Code, the Air National Guard is part of a state's National Guard and is divided up into units stationed in each of the 50 states and U.S. territories and operates under their respective state governor or territorial government. The Air National Guard may be called up for active duty by the state governors or territorial commanding generals to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as those caused by hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes.


text: With the consent of state governors, members or units of the Air National Guard may be appointed, temporarily or indefinitely, to be federally recognized members of the armed forces, in the active or inactive service of the United States. If federally recognized, the member or unit becomes part of the Air National Guard of the United States, which is one of two reserve components of the United States Air Force, and part of the National Guard of the United States. Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency.


text: CONUS based AFRC units are assigned to AFRC. This assignment governs command relationships within the Air Force chain of command. 10 USC § 10174 states:


text: (a) Establishment of Command.— The Secretary of the Air Force, with the advice and assistance of the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, shall establish an Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve Command shall be operated as a separate command of the Air Force.


text: (b) Commander.— The Chief of Air Force Reserve is the Commander of the Air Force Reserve Command. The commander of the Air Force Reserve Command reports directly to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force.


text: (1) shall assign to the Air Force Reserve Command all forces of the Air Force Reserve stationed in the continental United States other than forces assigned to the unified combatant command for special operations forces established pursuant to section 167 of this title; and


text: (2) except as otherwise directed by the Secretary of Defense in the case of forces assigned to carry out functions of the Secretary of the Air Force specified in section 8013 of this title, shall assign to the combatant commands all such forces assigned to the Air Force Reserve Command under paragraph (1) in the manner specified by the Secretary of Defense.


text: Civil Air Patrol (CAP) is a congressionally chartered, federally supported, non-profit corporation that serves as the official auxiliary of the USAF. It performs three congressionally assigned key missions: emergency services, which includes search and rescue (by air and ground) and disaster relief operations; aerospace education for youth and the general public; and cadet programs for teenage youth. In addition, CAP has recently been tasked with homeland security and courier service missions. CAP also performs non-auxiliary missions for various governmental and private agencies, such as local law enforcement and the American Red Cross. The program is established as an organization by Title 10 of the United States Code and its purposes defined by Title 36. When conducting missions for the Air Force as the official Air Force auxiliary, CAP is now included in the Air Force's definition of the total force.


text: In addition to the aforementioned unit structures, the USAF has used, and still uses, a variety of other designations to identify organizations. These organization designations include:


title: Opioid receptor

text: Opioid receptors are a group of inhibitory G protein-coupled receptors with opioids as ligands. The endogenous opioids are dynorphins, enkephalins, endorphins, endomorphins and nociceptin. The opioid receptors are ~40% identical to somatostatin receptors (SSTRs). Opioid receptors are distributed widely in the brain, in the spinal cord, on peripheral neurons, and digestive tract.


title: Opioid receptor

text: By the mid-1960s, it had become apparent from pharmacologic studies that opiate drugs were likely to exert their actions at specific receptor sites, and that there were likely to be multiple such sites. Early studies had indicated that opiates appeared to accumulate in the brain. The receptors were first identified as specific molecules through the use of binding studies, in which opiates that had been labeled with radioisotopes were found to bind to brain membrane homogenates. The first such study was published in 1971, using H-levorphanol. In 1973, Candace Pert and Solomon H. Snyder published the first detailed binding study of what would turn out to be the μ opioid receptor, using H-naloxone. That study has been widely credited as the first definitive finding of an opioid receptor, although two other studies followed shortly after.


title: Opioid receptor

text: Purification of the receptor further verified its existence. The first attempt to purify the receptor involved the use of a novel opioid receptor antagonist called chlornaltrexamine that was demonstrated to bind to the opioid receptor. Caruso later purified the detergent-extracted component of rat brain membrane that eluted with the specifically bound H-chlornaltrexamine.


title: Opioid receptor

text: There are four major subtypes of opioid receptors. OGFr was originally discovered and named as a new opioid receptor zeta (ζ). However it was subsequently found that it shares little sequence similarity with the other opioid receptors, and has quite different function.


title: Opioid receptor

text: The opioid receptor (OR) family originated from two duplication events of a single ancestral opioid receptor early in vertebrate evolution. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrates that the family of opioid receptors was already present at the origin of jawed vertebrates over 450 million years ago. In humans, this paralogon resulting from a double tetraploidization event resulted in the receptor genes being located on chromosomes 1, 6, 8, and 20. Tetraploidization events often result in the loss of one or more of the duplicated genes, but in this case, nearly all species retain all four opioid receptors, indicating biological significance of these systems. Stefano traced the co-evolution of OR and the immune system underlying the fact that these receptors helped earlier animals to survive pain and inflammation shock in aggressive environments.


title: Opioid receptor

text: The receptor families delta, kappa, and mu demonstrate 55–58% identity to one another, and a 48–49% homology to the nociceptin receptor. Taken together, this indicates that the NOP receptor gene, OPRL1, has equal evolutionary origin, but a higher mutation rate, than the other receptor genes.


title: Opioid receptor

text: Even though opioid receptor families are similar to each other in many ways, their structural differences lead to differences in functionality. Thus, mu-opioid receptors induce relaxation, trust, satisfaction and have a strong analgesic effect. This system is also thought to be important in mediating complex social behaviors involved in the formation of stable, emotionally committed relationships. Social attachment was demonstrated to be mediated by the opioid system through experiments administering morphine and naltrexone, an opioid agonist and antagonist, to juvenile guinea pigs. The agonist decreased the preference of the juvenile to be near the mother and reduced distress vocalization whereas the antagonist had the opposite effects. Experiments were corroborated in dogs, chicks, and rats confirming the evolutionary importance of opioid signaling in these behaviors. Researchers have also found that systemic naltrexone treatment of female prairie voles during initial exposure to a male reduced subsequent mating bouts and nonsexual socialization with this familiar partner, when a choice test including a novel male was performed afterwards. This points to a role for opioid receptors in mating behaviors. However, mu-opioid receptors don't have specificity for regulating social behaviour as they induce a relaxing effect in a wide spectrum of non-social contexts.


title: Opioid receptor

text: The functionality of kappa- and delta-opioid receptors, might be less associated with relaxation and analgesic effects as kappa-OR often suppress activation of mu-opioid receptors, and delta-OR differ from mu-OR in its interaction with agonists and antagonists. Kappa-opioid receptors were implicated in perceptual mobilization seen in chronic anxiety whereas delta-opioid receptors were found to induce initiation of actions, impulsivity and behavioural mobilization. These differences led some researches to suggest that up- or down-regulations within three opioid receptors families are the basis of different dispositional emotionality seen in psychiatric disorders.


title: Opioid receptor

text: There is evidence that human-specific opioid-modulated cognitive traits rely not on coding differences for the receptors or ligands, which display 99% homology with primates, but instead are due to regulatory changes in expression levels that are specifically selected for.


title: Opioid receptor

text: The receptors were named using the first letter of the first ligand that was found to bind to them. Morphine was the first chemical shown to bind to "mu" receptors. The first letter of the drug morphine is m, rendered as the corresponding Greek letter μ. In similar manner, a drug known as ketocyclazocine was first shown to attach itself to "κ" (kappa) receptors, while the "δ" (delta) receptor was named after the mouse vas deferens tissue in which the receptor was first characterised. An additional opioid receptor was later identified and cloned based on homology with the cDNA. This receptor is known as the nociceptin receptor or ORL1 (opiate receptor-like 1).


title: Opioid receptor

text: The opioid receptor types are nearly 70% identical, with the differences located at the N and C termini. The μ receptor is perhaps the most important. It is thought that the G protein binds to the third intracellular loop of all opioid receptors. Both in mice and humans, the genes for the various receptor subtypes are located on separate chromosomes.


title: Opioid receptor

text: Separate opioid receptor subtypes have been identified in human tissue. Research has so far failed to identify the genetic evidence of the subtypes, and it is thought that they arise from post-translational modification of cloned receptor types.


title: Opioid receptor

text: An IUPHAR subcommittee has recommended that appropriate terminology for the 3 classical (μ, δ, κ) receptors, and the non-classical (nociceptin) receptor, should be MOP ("Mu OPiate receptor"), DOP, KOP and NOP respectively.


title: Opioid receptor

text: Sigma (σ) receptors were once considered to be opioid receptors due to the antitussive actions of many opioid drugs' being mediated via σ receptors, and the first selective σ agonists being derivatives of opioid drugs (e.g., allylnormetazocine). However, σ receptors were found to not be activated by endogenous opioid peptides, and are quite different from the other opioid receptors in both function and gene sequence, so they are now not usually classified with the opioid receptors.


title: Opioid receptor

text: The existence of further opioid receptors (or receptor subtypes) has also been suggested because of pharmacological evidence of actions produced by endogenous opioid peptides, but shown not to be mediated through any of the four known opioid receptor subtypes. The existence of receptor subtypes or additional receptors other than the classical opioid receptors (μ, δ, κ) has been based on limited evidence, since only three genes for the three main receptors have been identified. The only one of these additional receptors to have been definitively identified is the zeta (ζ) opioid receptor, which has been shown to be a cellular growth factor modulator with met-enkephalin being the endogenous ligand. This receptor is now most commonly referred to as the opioid growth factor receptor (OGFr).


title: Opioid receptor

text: Another postulated opioid receptor is the ε opioid receptor. The existence of this receptor was suspected after the endogenous opioid peptide beta-endorphin was shown to produce additional actions that did not seem to be mediated through any of the known opioid receptors. Activation of this receptor produces strong analgesia and release of met-enkephalin; a number of widely used opioid agonists, such as the μ agonist etorphine and the κ agonist bremazocine, have been shown to act as agonists for this effect (even in the presence of antagonists to their more well known targets), while buprenorphine has been shown to act as an epsilon antagonist. Several selective agonists and antagonists are now available for the putative epsilon receptor; however, efforts to locate a gene for this receptor have been unsuccessful, and epsilon-mediated effects were absent in μ/δ/κ "triple knockout" mice, suggesting the epsilon receptor is likely to be either a splice variant derived from alternate post-translational modification, or a heteromer derived from hybridization of two or more of the known opioid receptors.


title: Opioid receptor

text: Opioid receptors are a type of G protein–coupled receptor (GPCR). These receptors are distributed throughout the central nervous system and within the peripheral tissue of neural and non-neural origin. They are also located in high concentrations in the Periaqueductal gray, Locus coeruleus, and the Rostral ventromedial medulla. The receptors are responsible for analgesia, and consist of an extracellular amino acid N-terminus, seven trans-membrane helical loops, three extracellular loops, three intracellular loops, and an intracellular carboxyl C-terminus. The three extracellular loops of the GPCR form parts of the pocket in which signalling molecules can bind, to initiate a response. G proteins are specialised proteins whereby the nucleotides Guanosine diphosphate (GDP), and Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) bind to. They are classified as heterotrimeric, meaning they contain three different sub-units, which include an alpha (α) subunit, a beta (β) subunit, and a gamma (γ) sub-unit. The gamma and beta sub-units are permanently bound together, producing a single Gβγ sub-unit. Heterotrimeric G proteins act as ‘molecular switches’, which play a key role in signal transduction, because they relay information from activated receptors to appropriate effector proteins. All G protein α sub-units contain palmitate, which is a 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, that is attached near the N-terminus through a labile, reversible thioester linkage to a cysteine amino acid. It is this palmitoylation that allows the G protein to interact with membrane phospholipids due to the hydrophobic nature of the alpha sub-units. The gamma sub-unit is also lipid modified and can attach to the plasma membrane as well. These properties of the two sub-units, allow the opioid receptor's G protein to permanently interact with the membrane via lipid anchors.


title: Opioid receptor

text: When an agonistic ligand binds to the opioid receptor, a conformational change occurs, and the GDP molecule is released from the Gα sub-unit. This mechanism is complex, and is a major stage of the signal transduction pathway. When the GDP molecule is attached, the Gα sub-unit is in its inactive state, and the nucleotide-binding pocket is closed off inside the protein complex. However, upon ligand binding, the receptor switches to an active conformation, and this is driven by intermolecular rearrangement between the trans-membrane helices. The receptor activation releases an ‘ionic lock’ which holds together the cytoplasmic sides of transmembrane helices three and six, causing them to rotate. This conformational change exposes the intracellular receptor domains at the cytosolic side, which further leads to the activation of the G protein. When the GDP molecule dissociates from the Gα sub-unit, a GTP molecule binds to the free nucleotide-binding pocket, and the G protein becomes active. A Gα(GTP) complex is formed, which has a weaker affinity for the Gβγ sub-unit than the Gα(GDP) complex, causing the Gα sub-unit to separate from the Gβγ sub-unit, forming two sections of the G protein. The sub-units are now free to interact with effector proteins; however, they are still attached to the plasma membrane by lipid anchors. After binding, the active G protein sub-units diffuses within the membrane and acts on various intracellular effector pathways. This includes inhibiting neuronal adenylate cyclase activity, as well as increasing membrane hyper-polarisation. When the adenylyl cyclase enzyme complex is stimulated, it results in the formation of Cyclic Adenosine 3', 5'-Monophosphate (cAMP), from Adenosine 5' Triphosphate (ATP). cAMP acts as a secondary messenger, as it moves from the plasma membrane into the cell and relays the signal.


title: Opioid receptor

text: cAMP binds to, and activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), which is located intracellularly in the neuron. The PKA consists of a holoenzyme - it is a compound which becomes active due to the combination of an enzyme with a coenzyme. The PKA enzyme also contains two catalytic PKS-Cα subunits, and a regulator PKA-R subunit dimer. The PKA holoenzyme is inactive under normal conditions, however, when cAMP molecules that are produced earlier in the signal transduction mechanism combine with the enzyme, PKA undergoes a conformational change. This activates it, giving it the ability to catalyse substrate phosphorylation. CREB (cAMP response element binding protein) belongs to a family of transcription factors and is positioned in the nucleus of the neuron. When the PKA is activated, it phosphorylates the CREB protein (adds a high energy phosphate group) and activates it. The CREB protein binds to cAMP response elements CRE, and can either increase or decrease the transcription of certain genes. The cAMP/PKA/CREB signalling pathway described above is crucial in memory formation and pain modulation. It is also significant in the induction and maintenance of long-term potentiation, which is a phenomenon that underlies synaptic plasticity - the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time.


title: Opioid receptor

text: Voltage-gated dependent calcium channel, (VDCCs), are key in the depolarisation of neurons, and play a major role in promoting the release of neurotransmitters. When agonists bind to opioid receptors, G proteins activate and dissociate into their constituent Gα and Gβγ sub-units. The Gβγ sub-unit binds to the intracellular loop between the two trans-membrane helices of the VDCC. When the sub-unit binds to the voltage-dependent calcium channel, it produces a voltage-dependent block, which inhibits the channel, preventing the flow of calcium ions into the neuron. Embedded in the cell membrane is also the G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channel. When a Gβγ or Gα(GTP) molecule binds to the C-terminus of the potassium channel, it becomes active, and potassium ions are pumped out of the neuron. The activation of the potassium channel and subsequent deactivation of the calcium channel causes membrane hyperpolarization. This is when there is a change in the membrane's potential, so that it becomes more negative. The reduction in calcium ions causes a reduction neurotransmitter release because calcium is essential for this event to occur. This means that neurotransmitters such as glutamate and substance P cannot be released from the presynaptic terminal of the neurons. These neurotransmitters are vital in the transmission of pain, so opioid receptor activation reduces the release of these substances, thus creating a strong analgesic effect.


title: The Boondocks (cancelled TV series)

text: The Boondocks was an unproduced American adult animated sitcom created by Aaron McGruder in 2005 and loosely based upon his comic strip of the same name. Produced by Sony Pictures Animation, it was originally created to serve as the second television series based on the comic, following the 2005–2014 TV series that aired on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim programming block for four seasons. The series was set to premiere on HBO Max before development failed to get off the ground.


title: The Boondocks (cancelled TV series)

text: The show was originally set to begin with a black family, the Freemans, settling into the fictional, friendly and overall white suburb of Woodcrest and follows them as they fight the regime of Uncle Ruckus, who rules over the community government. The perspective offered by this mixture of cultures, lifestyles, social classes, stereotypes, viewpoints, and racialized identities would have provided for much of the series' satire, comedy, and conflict.


title: The Boondocks (cancelled TV series)

text: The original "Boondocks" television series premiered on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim on November 6, 2005 and ran for four seasons and 55 episodes until its conclusion on June 23, 2014. During its first season, McGruder put the strip on a 6-month hiatus beginning in March 2006. He did not return to the strip the following November, and the strip's syndicate, Universal Press Syndicate, announced that it had been canceled. McGruder was not involved in the show's fourth season. Adult Swim stated, "a mutually agreeable production schedule could not be determined."


title: The Boondocks (cancelled TV series)

text: On February 6, 2019, McGruder revived the comic strip on Instagram, with the help of former supervising director Seung Eun Kim. A series of one-shots were posted to Charlamagne tha God's Instagram page. On May 29, 2019, voice actor John Witherspoon announced on Joe Rogan's 1305th episode of "The Joe Rogan Experience" that the series would return. Witherspoon died on October 29, 2019, with producers questioning how the show will continue. At Annecy 2019, on June 12, 2019, Sony Pictures Animation announced it would be producing a "reimagining" of "The Boondocks" to be co-produced with Sony Pictures Television.


title: The Boondocks (cancelled TV series)

text: On September 18, 2019, it was announced that the reboot had been picked up with a two-season order for WarnerMedia's then-upcoming streaming service HBO Max. It was also announced that McGruder would have returned as showrunner and would have serve as executive producer along with Norm Aladjem for Mainstay Entertainment as well as Seung Kim and Meghann Collins Robertson. The series would have premiered with a 50-minute special. Each season was set to consist of twelve episodes.


title: The Boondocks (cancelled TV series)

text: On February 3, 2022, it was revealed that the development of the series had been cancelled. However, it was reported that Sony was looking at alternative options. It is unknown if the death of Witherspoon had anything to do with the cancellation of the project.


title: On the Third Day

text: On the Third Day is the third studio album by Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), and the first to be recorded without input from Roy Wood. It was released in the United States in November 1973 by United Artists Records, and in the United Kingdom on 14 December 1973 by Warner Bros. Records. From this album on, the word "The" was dropped from the band's name. The album was reissued on 12 September 2006.


title: On the Third Day

text: "On the Third Day" was released in 1973 and failed to enter the UK charts at the time, although it did reach the US charts at number 52. Side two of the album was recorded during or shortly after the sessions for ELO's second album "ELO 2". "On The Third Day" contains shorter tracks than its predecessor, but the four songs on side one of the album were linked into a continuous suite. Violinist Mik Kaminski made his debut on side one of this album, replacing Wilfred Gibson, although Gibson plays on side two (plus the bonus tracks). Also, cellist Colin Walker left the line up around the same time, leaving Mike Edwards as lone cellist.


title: On the Third Day

text: "Showdown" was originally intended to be released only as a single, and, because it was on a different label (Harvest) than the UK album, "Showdown" did not appear on the Warner Bros. Records issue. It was, however, included on the U.S. version of the album, because the band remained on United Artists Records in the U.S. Some copies of "On the Third Day" from this period had "Showdown" as the last track on side one. Although he didn't record on the album, Hugh McDowell did appear on this front cover of the U.S. album seen at right, which was an unusual photograph taken by photographer Richard Avedon that had ELO displaying their navels.


title: Kelly Thiebaud

text: Kelly Hager Thiebaud (born on August 28, 1982) is an American actress and model best known for her portrayal of Dr. Britt Westbourne on ABC daytime soap opera, "General Hospital", for which she won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2022.


title: Kelly Thiebaud

text: Thiebaud was born in El Campo, Texas and made her screen debut in 2002, in the independent film "Journey of Redemption". Apart from her acting work, she also modeled and appeared in four music videos for French disc jockey David Guetta in 2000s. On television, she guest-starred in "Chuck", "Castle", "Criminal Minds", and had the recurring role on the CBS Family series "The Secret Life of the American Teenager" from 2010 to 2011 and NBC soap opera "Days of Our Lives" in 2011. In 2011, Thiebaud appeared in the horror film "". In 2013, She appeared in the Christian drama film "Grace Unplugged", playing according to "Variety" a "superstar pop tart" who uses her body as her path to success.


title: Kelly Thiebaud

text: In 2012, Thiebaud was cast as Dr. Britt Westbourne in the ABC daytime soap opera, "General Hospital". In February 2013, "Soap Opera Digest" confirmed that the actress had been upgraded to a contract status. On November 10, 2014, it was announced that Thiebaud had been placed on recurring status following the conclusion of her two-year contract, in order to pursue other acting opportunities. She reprised the role on several occasions, between 2015 to 2018, for limited-run guest appearances. In March 2020, Thiebaud returned for another guest stint; by September of the same year, she returned to the role once more. In August 2022, it was announced that she will leave the role again. Thiebaud's performance has been met with critical acclaim, winning the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2022.


title: Kelly Thiebaud

text: Thiebaud played the leading roles in the Lifetime television films "The Surrogate" (2018) and "A Mother on the Edge" (2019). In 2020, Thiebaud was cast in the ABC drama series "Station 19" playing the recurring role as Eva Vasquez. She returned to series in 2022.


title: Kelly Thiebaud

text: Thiebaud became engaged to her former "General Hospital" co-star Bryan Craig in June 2015. They had been together since 2013. As of 2016, they have broken up.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Paperboy is an arcade action game developed and published by Atari Games and Midway Games, and released in 1985. The player takes the role of a paperboy who delivers a fictional newspaper called "The Daily Sun" along a suburban street on his bicycle. The arcade version of the game featured bike handlebars as the controller.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The game was ported to many home systems beginning in 1986. A sequel for home computers and consoles, "Paperboy 2", was released in 1991.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The player controls a paperboy on a bicycle delivering newspapers along a suburban street which is displayed in a cabinet perspective (or oblique projection) view. The player attempts to deliver a week of daily newspapers to subscribing customers, attempts to vandalize non-subscribers' homes and must avoid hazards along the street. Subscribers are lost by missing a delivery or damaging a subscriber's house. If the player loses all of their lives, or runs out of subscribers, the game ends.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The game begins with a choice of difficulty levels: Easy Street, Middle Road and Hard Way. The object of the game is to perfectly deliver papers to subscribers for an entire week and avoid crashing (which counts as one of the player's lives) before the week ends. The game lasts for seven in-game days, Monday through Sunday.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Controlling the paperboy with the handlebar controls, the player attempts to deliver newspapers to subscribers. Each day begins by showing an overview of the street indicating subscribers and non-subscribers. Subscribers and non-subscribers' homes are also easy to discern in the level itself, with subscribers living in brightly colored houses, and non-subscribers living in dark houses.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The player scores points for each paper delivered successfully (either at a subscriber's doorstep or inside their mailbox, the latter of which awards more points), as well as breakage points by damaging the houses of non-subscribers. A perfect delivery (all subscribers get their papers, and none of their houses are damaged) results in all the points being worth double for that day, and an extra subscriber is added. At the end of each stage is a training course with various obstacles to throw papers at (which gives bonus points) and to jump over, and the player scores a bonus for finishing the course. Crashing on the course ends the round, but does not cost the player a life.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: When a player fails to deliver a paper to a house, or damages a subscriber's house by breaking their windows, the resident will cancel their subscription, and the house turns dark. The player can regain subscribers by getting a perfect delivery, which adds one extra subscriber.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The paperboy can hold no more than ten papers at once, although refills can be found throughout the level. The papers can also be used to stun enemies (with the exception of cars).


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The cabinet of this game is a standard upright but with custom controls. The controls consist of a bicycle handlebar (a modified "Star Wars" yoke) with one button on each side, used to throw papers. The handlebars can be pushed forward to accelerate and pulled back to brake.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The game runs on the Atari System 2 hardware. The CPU is a 10 MHz Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) T-11. For sound and coin inputs, it uses a 2.2 MHz MOS Technology 6502. The sound chips are two POKEYs for digital sound, a Yamaha YM2151 for music, and a Texas Instruments TMS5220 for speech. The protection chip is a Slapstic model 137412-105.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Home ports started appearing in 1986. In some of these versions the player can assume the role of a papergirl instead of a paperboy. Elite Systems produced versions for the ZX Spectrum and the Commodore 64 which were released in the United Kingdom in October 1986, Elite went on to release versions for the BBC Micro, Acorn Electron, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 16 and Commodore Plus/4 over the following months.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: A version for the Apple IIGS was released in 1988. In the United States, a Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) version was developed by Eastridge Technology and published by Mindscape in December 1988. Coverage of the NES version abruptly began at the Summer CES 1988 as a last-minute replacement for a port of the computer title "Bad Street Brawler", which is about to be ported to the NES. In October 1989, Elite released versions for the Atari ST and PC in the United Kingdom, followed by an Amiga version later that month. The game was released for the Famicom by Altron in January 1991.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: In the United Kingdom, a Game Boy version by Mindscape was released in October or November 1990. A Master System version, by Sega and U.S. Gold, was released in the United Kingdom in November 1990. Atari released a version of "Paperboy" for the Atari Lynx in 1990. By March 1991, an NES version by Mindscape had been released in the United Kingdom. Tengen however released versions for the Sega Genesis and Sega Game Gear in 1992.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: In Japan, "Game Machine" listed "Paperboy" on their November 1, 1985 issue as being the fifth most-successful upright arcade unit of the month. In the United States, it was the top-grossing arcade software conversion kit in December 1985.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Upon its debut at London's Amusement Trades Exhibition International (ATEI) show in early 1985, "Computer and Video Games" magazine gave the arcade game a mixed review, praising the controls but criticizing the difficulty. The arcade game was runner-up for "Computer Gamer" magazine's best coin-op game award, which was won by Capcom's "Commando". In 2007, Spanner Spencer of "Eurogamer" rated the arcade version 9 out of 10 and praised its gameplay, graphics, and music.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The home computer ports topped the UK monthly sales chart in September 1986, and again in November. It went on to become the seventh best-selling computer game of 1986 in the UK.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: "Advanced Computer Entertainment" ("ACE") offered praise for the Atari ST version, awarding it a score of 850 out of 1,000, while "Zero" gave it a score of 86 out of 100. "ACE" and "Zero" noted that the Atari ST version looked and played like the arcade version. "Computer Gamer" gave the ZX Spectrum version a rating of 16 out of 20, considering it to be a faithful conversion of the arcade game, while noting that some people may find the gameplay to be repetitive. For the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64 and Amstrad CPC versions, "ACE" gave the game a rating of 5 out of 5, noting the "extremely well executed" graphics and referring to the game as a "budget classic." UK magazine "Computer and Video Games" ("CVG") gave the Commodore 64 version a 52 percent rating, criticizing its music and "blocky and ill-proportioned" sprites; the magazine gave the ZX Spectrum version an 83 percent rating. Ken McMahon of "Commodore User" reviewed the Commodore 16 and Commodore Plus/4 version and rated it 6 out of 10, noting that it was too easy.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: "Crash" gave the ZX Spectrum version an 88% rating with the general rating "Another slick, playable conversion from Elite", while Zzap!64 was less enthusiastic for the Commodore 64 version giving it 44%. In 1993, "Zzap!64" rated the Commodore 64 version a 60 percent score, calling it repetitive. Richard Leadbetter of "CVG" reviewed the Lynx version and stated, "Looks good, but simply isn't enough fun to play." "STart"s Clayton Walnum similarly praised the Lynx version's graphics and sound effects but deemed the game "just another shoot-em-up without the shooting." "Raze" offered praise for the clear and colorful graphics of the Lynx version, but stated that the game "is too old and tired for the exciting and new Lynx." AllGame's Kyle Knight criticized the Lynx version for its simple sound effects and music, as well as its repetitive gameplay.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Leadbetter praised the Master System version, calling it "one of the best arcade conversions" available for the system, while noting that the game's only "slight downer" was the music. "Mean Machines" praised the Master System version for its graphics and similarities to the arcade game, while "Raze" wrote a mixed review for the Master System version. "Mean Machines" was critical of the NES version for its graphics, sound, and controls, and concluded that it was, "A highly offensive product which weighs in as a sadly derisive conversion of a classic coin-op." Brett Alan Weiss of AllGame stated that Mindscape did a good job of porting the game to the NES. Weiss praised the controls and sound effects of the NES version, but criticized the music. "Raze" considered the Game Boy version to be "Excellent", while "Mean Machines" criticized its controls, blurry scrolling, and the lack of colorful graphics, which could not be produced by the system. "ACE" noted slightly difficult controls and poor sound effects for the Game Boy version.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: "The One" gave the Amiga version 80% stating that "it's an almost flawless conversion" of the arcade game. "ACE" gave the Amiga version a rating of 878, calling it a perfect conversion of the arcade game. Tony Dillon of "Commodore User" gave the Amiga version an 83 percent rating and considered it to be nearly identical to the arcade version. Gordon Houghton of "CVG" gave the Amiga version a 69 percent rating, stating that the sound was "arguably better" than the arcade version, but noting that the graphics were "jerky" and that the gameplay had been altered from the arcade version. Houghton concluded that it was "not a bad game, but it's too old and too expensive to deserve greater praise." "Compute!" praised the music and graphics of the Amiga version, but considered the gameplay to be outdated and repetitive. Robert A. Jung of IGN reviewed the Lynx version in 1999, and considered it to be a "decent" adaptation of the arcade game. Jung noted the game's "average-quality" graphics and sound, and concluded, "Not a bad game, though not one of the Lynx's best."


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: IGN's Craig Harris reviewed a Game Boy Color version and stated that it "is definitely the worst rendition of the game, even beating out the Atari Lynx's waterdown port of the arcade game." Harris criticized the game's music, the lack of speech audio from the original game, poor collision detection, and a lack of fun. Scott Alan Marriott of AllGame praised the Game Boy Color version for its colorful graphics, but noted that the game did not introduce any new changes from the original arcade version, writing, "Those expecting a lot of changes or additions will be disappointed."


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Versions of "Paperboy" were re-released for the Nintendo 64, Xbox 360 and iPhone and iPod Touch. Dean Austin of IGN criticized the retro 3D look of the Nintendo 64 version, but praised the gameplay and considered it to be a "great game." Daniel Erickson of "Daily Radar" criticized the "bland" and "repetitive" gameplay of the Nintendo 64 version. Robert Amsbury of Game Revolution praised the sound effects in the Nintendo 64 version, but considered the music to be repetitive, while noting that the game "isn't really all that fun." Weiss criticized the Nintendo 64 version for its music and sound effects, as well as poor controls, and wrote that the game had "some of the ugliest graphics you'll find in a Nintendo 64 cartridge." Ben Stahl of GameSpot noted the outdated sound effects used in the Nintendo 64 version, and stated, "While a decent game on its own, Paper Boy 64 doesn't capture the magic of the original arcade game." IGN's Levi Buchanan, reviewing a cell phone version, praised the controls and stated that the game looked and played like the original arcade game.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: According to Metacritic, the Xbox 360 version received "Mixed or average reviews." TeamXbox gave the Xbox 360 version an overall score of 8.2, stating that "Paperboy "delivers" as advertised in the classifieds." Greg Sewart of GamesRadar considered the Xbox 360 version to be an "authentic recreation" of the arcade version, but noted that the game, like previous versions, suffers from imprecise controls due to the absence of the arcade game's handlebar controller. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot reviewed the Xbox 360 re-release and was disappointed by the lack of new sound effects and music, as well as the lack of graphical updates. Gerstmann stated that the game would most likely appeal to people who "have fond memories" of the original arcade game. IGN's Erik Brudvig, reviewing the Xbox 360 version, considered the game to be a limited amount of fun. Brudvig noted the lack of a handlebar controller and stated that, "Thanks to the isometric view, this version of Paperboy suffers from the same wonky controls that every home version of the game has." Kristan Reed of "Eurogamer" praised the Xbox 360 re-release for its controls and noted that the game "stands up pretty well" despite its age, although he stated that the game quickly becomes repetitive. Corey Cohen of "Official Xbox Magazine" praised the Xbox 360 version for its music and controls, and noted that it was as appealing as the arcade version.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: Tarryn van der Byl of "Pocket Gamer" criticized the iPhone version for its poor controls, and stated that the game's optional 3D graphics mode was "ugly and feels clumsy and inaccurate." Slide to Play considered the iPhone/iPod version a "mixed bag", but praised the gameplay. Mark Langshaw of "Digital Spy" reviewed the iPhone version and stated that it would likely appeal most to fans of the original game. Langshaw concluded, "As far as nostalgic remakes go, Paperboy delivers but doesn't quite do enough to make the front page."


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: According to Metacritic, "Paperboy: Special Delivery" has a score of 55 out of 100, indicating "Mixed or average reviews." Blake Patterson of "TouchArcade" considered "Paperboy: Special Delivery" to be an improvement over Elite's iPhone version, praising the improved controls and graphics. Jon Mundy of "Pocket Gamer" rated the game 5 out of 10, criticizing the gameplay and controls, and writing that the biggest flaw "is the game's technical shortcomings. The graphics are extremely basic and yet the game paused and stuttered repeatedly on my second-generation iPod touch." Andrew Nesvadba of AppSpy rated the game 3 out of 5, praising the updated graphics while criticizing the controls. Nesvadba also praised the addition of a story mode, but criticized its short length. Jeremiah Leif Johnson of Gamezebo gave the game three stars out of five, praising the story mode and the 1980s-style graphics, but criticizing the poor controls.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: "Paperboy", in its original arcade form, is included in the 1998 PlayStation video game "". The Game Boy Color version, developed by Digital Eclipse Software and published by Midway Games, was released in the United States on May 30, 1999. By July 1997, developer High Voltage Software had begun conceptual development of the Nintendo 64 version and was searching for a game publisher, with a possible release in 1998. In August 1998, Midway Games announced that it would be publishing the Nintendo 64 game, which was still in conceptual stages and was expected for release in late 1999. The game was developed using a 3D polygonal game engine, and was released in the United States on October 26, 1999.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: In May 2000, Midway announced plans to release "Paperboy" for the PlayStation later that year, although the game was never released. "Paperboy" was later included in the 2003 video game "Midway Arcade Treasures", a compilation of arcade games for the Nintendo GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Microsoft Windows. In 2005, "Paperboy" was included in the compilation "" for the PlayStation Portable. In May 2005, Sega Mobile announced that it would release "Paperboy" for mobile phones. The game was released in May 2006. The Xbox 360 version of "Paperboy" was released on February 14, 2007, on Xbox Live Arcade; however, the game was removed by 2010.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: The iPhone/iPod Touch version was released through the App Store on December 18, 2009. The game was developed by Vivid Games and published by Elite Systems. Elite removed the game from the App Store in March 2010, because of a licensing conflict. Glu Mobile developed and published a new iPhone/iPod Touch version, titled "Paperboy: Special Delivery", on November 4, 2010. The game included a 20-level story mode in which the paperboy is saving money from his job to buy a new game console, but he later falls in love and throws roses instead of newspapers. The game also featured an optional tilt-based control mode in which the iPhone is tilted to control the paperboy.


title: Paperboy (video game)

text: A port of "Paperboy" can be accessed in the 2015 video game "Lego Dimensions" by using the Arcade Dock in the level "Painting the Town Black". It is also an included title on the Midway Legacy Edition Arcade1Up cabinet.


title: Languages of Germany

text: The official language of Germany is German, with over 95 percent of the country speaking Standard German or a dialect of German as their first language. This figure includes speakers of Northern Low Saxon, a recognized minority or regional language that is not considered separately from Standard German in statistics. Recognized minority languages have official status as well, usually in their respective regions.


title: Languages of Germany

text: Neither the 1987 West German census nor the 2011 census inquired about language. Starting with the 2017 microcensus (a survey with a sampling fraction of 1% of the persons and households in Germany that supplies basic sociodemographic data and facilitates ongoing monitoring of the labor market), a question asking, "Which language is spoken predominantly in your household?" was added, nearly eighty years since the 1939 Census asked for the mother tongue of the population.


title: Languages of Germany

text: The German language area is characterized by a range of different dialects. There is a written and spoken standard language but there are also large differences in the usage of the standard and the local dialects. The flight and expulsion of Germans broke down the isolation of dialect areas. In 1959, 20% of West Germans were expellees or refugees. The colloquial speech is a compromise between Standard German and the dialect. Northern Germany (the Low German area) is characterized by a loss of dialects: standard German is the vernacular, with very few regional features even in informal situations. In Central Germany (the Middle German area) there is a tendency towards dialect loss. In Southern Germany (the Upper German area) dialects are still in use. Dialects are declining in all regions except for Bavaria. In 2008, 45% of Bavarians claimed to use only Bavarian in everyday communication.


title: Languages of Germany

text: Germany ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages on 16 September 1998 for the following languages in respect of specific Länder:


title: Languages of Germany

text: Immigrant languages spoken by sizable communities of first and second-generation (dominant origin of the speakers in brackets):


title: Languages of Germany

text: Most Germans learn English as their first foreign language at school. However, in some cases, French or Latin are taught first; French and Latin are also common second or third foreign languages. Russian, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Dutch, Classical Greek, and other languages are also offered in schools, depending on the school's geographic location and available resources.


title: Languages of Germany

text: During the existence of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), the most common second language taught there was Russian, while English and French were the preferred second languages taught in schools in the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany).


title: Languages of Germany

text: However, the English of German schoolchildren is generally not as good as that of their peers in Scandinavian countries.


title: Languages of Germany

text: Several bilingual kindergartens and schools exist in Germany offering education in German and English, French, Spanish, Japanese, Turkish, and other languages.


title: QuizUp

text: QuizUp is a discontinued mobile game originally developed and published by Iceland-based Plain Vanilla Games and later operated by Glu Mobile. The game was a mobile trivia app similar to the game "Trivial Pursuit". "QuizUp" was a multiplayer game where one user competes against another in seven rounds of timed multiple-choice questions of various topics. There were over 1,200 total topics available to users to choose from, and all the questions were voluntarily submitted by content contributors. Most topics were available in several different languages.


title: QuizUp

text: "QuizUp" was initially released for iOS in November 2013. Plain Vanilla Games released an Android version in March 2014.


title: QuizUp

text: As of May 2014, "QuizUp" had 20 million users and had raised over $26 million from venture capital investments. Over a billion matches had been played in over 197 countries by March 2014. The company claims that users play an average of 40 minutes each day. On 30 September 2015, Plain Vanilla Games announced that they had reached a deal with Universal Television, the production arm of NBC, for a 10-episode television game show based on the app. Five days later, on 5 October 2015, it was announced that British channel ITV had also acquired the rights to their own game show version. Production began on the game show and the first episode was to air on 5 March 2017. However, the television show was scuttled by NBC in August 2016.


title: QuizUp

text: In September 2016, as a result of NBC cancelling their show, "QuizUp"s creator, Plain Vanilla, laid off all of their employees and announced a plan to sell the app before the end of 2016. "QuizUp" was acquired by mobile game developer Glu Mobile for $7.5 million USD, and the phrase "["QuizUp" is] alive and kicking" was relayed to its community of players through the separate topic QuizUp: Feedback as well as through social media.


title: QuizUp

text: On 20 January 2021, "QuizUp" was removed from the App Store, and on 21 January 2021, it was announced on the "QuizUp" app that the game is being discontinued on 22 March 2021. On 24 March 2021, "QuizUp"s servers were taken offline and the application and web service became inaccessible, after several hours of delay.


title: QuizUp

text: Users started a game by choosing a topic of interest from over 1000 available official categories in addition to custom topics created by users.


title: QuizUp

text: After the user picked a topic, they had the ability to either challenge a friend to a match or be paired against a random player. Users had the option of signing into the app through a social media platform such as Facebook, Twitter, or Google+ which allowed the user to see current friends who are using the app, invite friends to join them on the app, or challenge their friends to a game. Users also could choose to sign into "QuizUp" with an email address and not connect with a social media site. Players had the option of choosing to play with a friend or with a random stranger who may be in another country. When the user challenged someone, and the opposing user agreed to play, the match began. Each match consisted of six normal rounds and one bonus round that concluded the game. In each of the six normal rounds, the same question was given to each player with ten seconds to choose an answer out of the four responses provided. Users were awarded for the accuracy and speed of their answer, with a maximum of 20 points awarded per round. Point totals were doubled during the bonus round. Answering slowly or not giving an answer at all resulted in reduced points or no points respectively. The user earned one point fewer per second that they waited, with a minimum of 11 points if they answered correctly. Incorrect answers earned zero.


title: QuizUp

text: The maximum points possible to be scored in a single game was 160 [(6 rounds x 20 points)+(1 bonus round x 40 points)]; the player with the most points won the match.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: Spider is a type of patience game, and is one of the more popular two-deck solitaire games. The game originates in 1949, and its name comes from a spider's eight legs, referencing the eight foundation piles that must be filled to win the game.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: The main purpose of the game is to remove all cards from the table, assembling them in the tableau before removing them. Initially, 54 cards are dealt to the tableau in ten piles, face down except for the top cards. The tableau piles build down by rank, and in-suit sequences can be moved together. The 50 remaining cards can be dealt to the tableau ten at a time when none of the piles are empty.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: A typical Spider layout requires the use of two decks. The Tableau consists of 10 stacks, with 6 cards in the first 4 stacks, with the 6th card face up, and 5 cards in the remaining 6 stacks, with the 5th card face up. Each time the stock is used it deals out one card to each stack.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: Common software versions of Spider are included with versions of Microsoft Windows 7, Vista, ME and XP as Spider Solitaire. Spider Solitaire was introduced in the Microsoft Plus! 98 addition pack for Windows 98. The game comes in three versions: Easy or Beginner (with 8 Spade packs), Medium or Intermediate (with four packs each of Spades and Hearts), and Hard or Advanced (with two each of all four suits).


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: An earlier version was written for Windows 3.x in 1991 by John A. Junod, the original developer of WS_FTP. The final version was Windows Spider Solitaire version 92.01.04. He also wrote a DOS version called EGA-Spider with version up to 93.07.05. A similar game called Arachnid, was also written for Windows 3.x in 1991 by Ian Heath, a computer science professor at the University of Southampton in the UK. The latest known version is 1.2 and is quite well polished. This game was also re-written for 32-bit operating systems and is referred to as Arachnid 32.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: On Unix operating systems, an early version was developed around 1989 at Sun Microsystems. A version of Spider Solitaire typically comes bundled with both the KDE and GNOME desktop environments on other Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and BSD, under the names KPatience and AisleRiot Solitaire, respectively. Versions for Macintosh and most other operating systems are also available.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: The newer Windows versions offer three levels of difficulty, with one, two, or four suits. These play modes are equivalent to disregarding suit difference, either within the colors or altogether, and thus can be simulated in the physical card game, though the computer version aids visibility by representing all cards as spades and/or hearts.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: Different software implementations of spider offer alternative scoring rules. The version from Sun Microsystems from 1989 defines the following rules in the manual: 10 points for each initially face down card that gets turned over; 15 additional points for each column where all the face-down cards have been turned over (even if you don't manage to get a space); 2 points for each card that is sitting atop the next higher card of the same suit; 50 points for each completed suit removed from the tableau (in which case you do not also score for the 12 cards sitting atop next higher cards). This yields a maximum score of 990. If you win the game with 4 or more completed suits still in the tableau, add 2 points for each suit after the first three. Thus winning with all eight suits still in the tableau yields a score of 1000.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: In the Windows versions of Spider Solitaire, the scoring is calculated with a starting score of 500. One point is subtracted for each move (including any use of an undo); 100 points are added for each in-suit stack completed. This allows for a theoretical maximum score of 1254.


title: Spider (solitaire)

text: A detailed study has been done on the solvability of Spider solitaire games using software. Winning chances in a normal game with good play are considered to be about 1 in 3 games.


title: Trawniki men

text: During World War II, Trawniki men (; ) were Central and Eastern European Nazi collaborators, consisting of either volunteers or recruits from prisoner-of-war camps set up by Nazi Germany for Soviet Red Army soldiers captured in the border regions during Operation Barbarossa launched in June 1941. Thousands of these volunteers served in the General Government territory of German-occupied Poland until the end of World War II. Trawnikis belonged to a category of "Hiwi"s (German abbreviation for "Hilfswilliger", literally "those willing to help"), Nazi auxiliary forces recruited from native subjects serving in various jobs such as concentration camp guards.


title: Trawniki men

text: Between September 1941 and September 1942, the German "SS" and police trained 2,500 Trawniki men known as "Hiwi Wachmänner" (guards) at the special training camp at Trawniki outside of Lublin; by the end of 1944, 5,082 men were on active duty. "Trawnikimänner" were organized by Streibel into two "SS Sonderdienst" battalions. Some 1,000 "Hiwis" are known to have run away during field operations. Although the majority of Trawniki men or "Hiwis" came from among the prisoners of war, there were also "Volksdeutsche" from Eastern Europe among them, valued because of their ability to speak Russian, Ukrainian and other languages of the occupied territories. All the officers at the Trawniki camp were "Reichsdeutsche" (citizens of the German Reich), and most of the squad commanders were "Volksdeutsche" (people whose language and culture had German origins but who did not hold German citizenship). The conscripted civilians and former Soviet POWs included Armenians, Azerbaijanis, Belarusians, Estonians, Georgians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Russians, Tatars, and Ukrainians. The "Trawnikis" took a major part in Operation Reinhard, the Nazi plan to exterminate . They also served at extermination camps and played an important role in the annihilation of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising (see the Stroop Report), among others.


title: Trawniki men

text: In 1941 Himmler instructed Globocnik to start recruiting mainly Ukrainian auxiliaries among the Soviet POWs, due to ongoing close relations with the local Ukrainian "Hilfsverwaltung". Globocnik had selected Karl Streibel from Operation Reinhard as the key person for this new secret project. Streibel, with the assistance of his officers, visited all POW camps for the Soviets behind the lines of the advancing Wehrmacht, and after individual screening recruited Ukrainian as well as Latvian and Lithuanian volunteers as ordered.


title: Trawniki men

text: Petro Mirchuk, who himself was a political prisoner in the Auschwitz camp, relates in his memoirs that he engaged in conversation with members of an auxiliary guard detachment in the second half of 1943: "To the extent of that I could determine, it was a unit representatives of various so called "Eastern peoples"-primarily Russians, Belorussians, Caucasians and others, and least of all Ukrainians, although for some reason the unit was officially called 'Ukrainian'"


title: Trawniki men

text: Also very interesting are the remarks of the French publicist Louis Saurel. In an analogous book about the death camps he writes: "Part of the SS soldiers were not Germans. There were many Romanians, Slovaks, Hungarians, Croats and so on… Interpreters were required to convey explanations between the Germans and the foreign SS troops". In Saurel's account Ukrainians are not mentioned at all, and probably fall under the category of "and so on".


title: Trawniki men

text: The Trawniki-men were assembled at a training facility adjacent to the Trawniki concentration camp built for the Jews deported from the Warsaw Ghetto. The complex (serving dual purpose in 1941–43) was set up in the industrialized village of Trawniki about southeast of Lublin with rail lines in all directions in the occupied territory. From there, the "Hiwi" shooters were deployed to all major killing sites of the Final Solution. It was their primary purpose of training. They took an active role in the extermination of Jews at Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka II, Warsaw (three times), Częstochowa, Lublin, Lvov, Radom, Kraków, Białystok (twice), Majdanek as well as Auschwitz, not to mention Trawniki concentration camp itself, and the remaining subcamps of KL Lublin/Majdanek camp complex including Poniatowa, Budzyn, Kraśnik, Puławy, Lipowa, and also during massacres in Łomazy, Międzyrzec, Łuków, Radzyń, Parczew, Końskowola, Komarówka and all other locations, augmented by the SS and Schupo, as well as the Reserve Police Battalion 101, part of over two dozen Order Police battalions deployed to the occupied territories. The German Order Police performed roundups inside the Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland shooting everyone unable to move or attempting to flee, while the Trawnikis conducted large-scale civilian massacres in the same locations.


title: Trawniki men

text: Auxiliaries were not allowed to wear German uniforms or insignia, carry German weapons, or use German ranks. This was mostly for political reasons. The racial policies of Nazi Germany regarded Slavs as subhuman and not deserving to be treated as German soldiers. There was also a real fear of mutiny or desertion by foreigners in German uniform. To reinforce the social levels between them, guards were therefore referred to as "Wachmannen" ("watchmen") rather than "Schützen" ("riflemen") and given different uniforms and rank insignia. A practical reason for this policy was that there was a dearth of German equipment to be spared, yet piles of captured war materiel that would otherwise be unused.


title: Trawniki men

text: The German officers and senior NCOs were issued the obsolete black M32 SS tunic or field-grey M37 tunic with blue facings. This was to mark them out from the men they commanded, but at the same time denoted them as auxiliaries rather than regular troops.


title: Trawniki men

text: Units were initially organized in "Gruppen" ("Gruppe" ["Group"] > "squad") of about 50 men and "Züge" ("Zug" ["Procession"] > "platoon") of around 90 to 120 men. These were further assigned to companies and battalions, under German officers and higher-level NCOs. After they abandoned Trawniki in 1944 ahead of the Soviet advance, they were reorganized into combat units. This is when they introduced the "Rotten" ("Rotte" ["Chain"] > "File" or "Fire Team") level of organization at a time when the depleted German Army was consolidating into "Halbzüge" ("half-platoons" or "Sections"). This was perhaps adopted to deter desertion, a big problem towards the end of the war.


title: Trawniki men

text: The guards initially wore their Soviet Army uniforms. In the autumn of 1941 they were given the dyed-black Polish Army uniforms worn by the former "Selbstschutz" forces. In the summer of 1942 they were issued brown Belgian Army uniforms for warm weather wear. The guardsmen tended to wear a mixture of the two. They were usually issued captured enemy weapons but sometimes received German Mauser Kar-98 carbines. Automatic rifles and pistols were issued when on special assignment.


title: Trawniki men

text: At each of the Operation Reinhard extermination camps Trawniki "Hiwi" men served as the "Sonderkommando" guard units (between 70 and 120 depending on location) and were selected to act as the gas chambers operators. They came under the jurisdiction of the relevant camp commandant. Almost all of the Trawniki guards were involved in shooting, beating, and terrorizing Jews. The Russian historian Sergei Kudryashov, who made a study of the Trawniki men serving at death camps, claimed that there was little sign of any attraction to National Socialism among them. He claimed that most of the guards volunteered in order to leave the POW camps and/or because of self-interest. On the other hand, the Holocaust historian Christopher R. Browning wrote that "Hiwis" "were screened on the basis of their anti-Communist and hence almost invariably anti-Semitic sentiments." Despite the generally apathetic views of the Trawniki guards, the vast majority faithfully carried out the "SS" expectations in the mistreatment of Jews. Most Trawniki men had executed Jews already as part of their job training. Similarly to Christopher Browning's 1992 book "Ordinary Men", Kudryashov argued that the Trawniki men were examples of how ordinary people could become willing killers.


title: Trawniki men

text: The Trawniki shooters were assigned to the worst of the "on-the-spot dirty work" by "Hauptsturmführer" Karl Streibel (wrote Browning), so the Germans from the parallel Reserve Police Battalion 101 of the Order Police from Hamburg "would not go crazy" from the horror of hands-on killing for hours or days on end. The Trawnikis used to arrive in squads numbering around 50 at the killing site, and start by sitting down to a sandwich and bottles of vodka from their knapsacks behaving like guests, while the Germans dealt with unruly crowds of thousands of ghetto inhabitants: as in Międzyrzec, Łuków, Radzyń, Parczew, Końskowola, Komarówka and all other locations.


title: Trawniki men

text: The Trawniki men shot so fast and so wildly that the German policemen "frequently had to take cover to avoid being hit." Ukrainian "Hiwis" were perceived as indispensable. In Łomazy, the Germans were "overjoyed" to see them coming after the messy Józefów massacre which permanently traumatized the untrained executioners. The wave of mass killings of Jews from the Międzyrzec Podlaski Ghetto lasting non-stop for several days were conducted by the Trawniki battalion of about 350 to 400 men, same as in Parczew, or the Izbica Ghetto. Some German police officers felt uneasy about killing non-Jewish Poles. Their unit shot 4,600 Jews by September 1942, but disproportionately only 78 ethnic Poles. In contrast, the "Hiwis", saw the Christian Poles as equal opportunity offenders. When they got too drunk to show up in Aleksandrów, Major Wilhelm Trapp ordered the release of prisoners rounded up for mass execution.


title: Trawniki men

text: The "SS-Gruppenführer" Jürgen Stroop who was in charge of the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the methodical destruction of the Ghetto itself – responsible for the massacre of over 50,000 Polish Jews – later remarked in a prison interview with Kazimierz Moczarski, published in his original Polish edition of the Conversations with an Executioner:<ref name="Podgórski/scribd">Andrzej Szczypiorski (1977), Moczarski Kazimierz, "Rozmowy z katem" text with "Notes" and "Biography" by Andrzej Krzysztof Kunert (PDF 1.86 MB, available from Scribd.com). Page 103. Retrieved </ref>


title: Trawniki men

text: Trawniki personnel was also used in the August 1943 suppression of the Białystok Ghetto Uprising, as well as the lesser-known Mizocz Ghetto uprising of October 1942 among similar others. In other locations, the lists compiled by the local Ukrainian "Hilfsverwaltung" enabled them to quickly and precisely identify their Jewish targets.


title: Trawniki men

text: The Trawniki training camp was dismantled in July 1944 because of the approaching frontline. The last 1,000 "Hiwis" forming the "SS Battalion Streibel" led by Karl Streibel himself, were transported west to continue their deeds at the still functioning death camps. The Jews of the adjacent Trawniki labor camp were massacred in November 1943 during "Aktion Erntefest". Their exhumed bodies were incinerated in "Sonderaktion 1005" by "Sonderkommandos" from Milejów who in turn were executed on site upon the completion of their task by the end of 1943. The Soviets entered the completely empty training facility on July 23, 1944. After the war, the Soviet authorities arrested and prosecuted hundreds, possibly as many as one thousand "Hiwis" who returned home to USSR. The more conservative number of trials given by Kudryashov is over 140 between 1944 and 1987. Those brought to trial in the Soviet Union were tried before both civilian courts and military tribunals. Almost all of those tried in the Soviet Union were convicted and some were executed. Most were sentenced to a Gulag, and released under the Khrushchev amnesty of 1955.


title: Trawniki men

text: The number of "Hiwis" tried in the West was very small by comparison. Six defendants were acquitted on all charges and set free by a West German court in Hamburg in 1976 including commandant Streibel.<ref name="ushmm.org/chronology"></ref> The main difference between them and the Trawnikis apprehended in the Soviet Union was that the former claimed lack of awareness and left no live witnesses who could testify against them, while the latter were charged with treason and therefore were doomed from the start. In the U.S. some 16 former "Hiwi" guards were denaturalized.


title: Trawniki men

text: The notoriety of crimes committed by Trawnikis at the extermination camps of Belzec "", Sobibor "", and Treblinka "" during Operation Reinhard have led to many specific names being publicized in postwar literature and by museums of the Holocaust, based on Jewish and Polish survivor-testimonies, memoirs, and archives. The long list of at least 234 names of camp guards written out phonetically can be attributed to more than a dozen sources in which they appear. They often feature arbitrary spellings in English and Polish translation (or transliteration from Cyrillic) based on memory alone, by which the perpetrators could not be legally identified. The following are the most notable of them, confirmed by the courts, and arranged in alphabetical order.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: The effects of tropical cyclones include heavy rain, strong wind, large storm surges near landfall, and tornadoes. The destruction from a tropical cyclone, such as a hurricane or tropical storm, depends mainly on its intensity, its size, and its location. Tropical cyclones remove forest canopy as well as change the landscape near coastal areas, by moving and reshaping sand dunes and causing extensive erosion along the coast. Even well inland, heavy rainfall can lead to landslides in mountainous areas. Their effects can be sensed over time by studying the concentration of the Oxygen-18 isotope within caves.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: After the cyclone has passed, devastation often continues. Fallen trees can block roads and delay rescues, with medical supplies, or slow the repairs to electrical lines, telephone towers or water pipes, which could put other lives at risk for days or months. Stagnant water can cause the spread of disease, and transportation or communication infrastructure may have been destroyed, hampering clean-up and rescue efforts. Nearly 2 million people have died globally due to tropical cyclones. Despite their devastating effects, tropical cyclones are also beneficial, by potentially bringing rain to dry areas and moving heat from the tropics poleward. Out at sea, ships take advantage of their known characteristics by navigating through their weaker, western half.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Hazards are often characterized as primary, secondary or tertiary. A primary hazard involves destructive winds, debris and storm surge. Secondary hazards include flooding and fires. Tertiary hazards include spikes in prices of food and other necessities, as well as long term hazards like water-borne diseases.