title: Takata Corporation

text: On 4 April 2018, the New Zealand government, having decided "they present the highest safety risk to drivers and passengers," announced a compulsory recall of 50,000 vehicles fitted with Alpha-type Takata airbags. This compulsory recall is said to be only the second in New Zealand's history and the largest vehicle recall of its kind. The Ministry of Commerce and Consumer Affairs stated that it will also block the importation of any vehicles whose faulty airbags have not been replaced.


title: Takata Corporation

text: On 28 June 2018, Transport Canada announced the recall of 222,336 Honda vehicles manufactured between 2001 and 2007 that previously had their front passenger airbags modified under the original Takata airbag recall of 23 June 2014. The modifications done to the original airbags feature a non-desiccated inflator, which could rupture upon deployment, causing metal inflator fragments to pass through the cushion material, causing injury or death. Honda did not replace the airbag in the original recall. Honda is replacing these airbags with units that feature a desiccated inflator.


title: Takata Corporation

text: On 4 December 2019, Takata recalled another 1.4 million front driver inflators in the U.S., according to government documents.


title: Takata Corporation

text: On 17 December 2019, The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) issued a new warning affecting around 78,000 cars manufactured between 1996 and 2000 of the following makes; Audi, BMW, Ford, Honda, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Suzuki and Toyota.


title: Takata Corporation

text: As of 2017, car manufacturers affected by this recall include Acura, Audi, BMW, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Chrysler, Daimler Trucks North America, Daimler Vans USA LLC, Dodge/Ram, Ferrari, Ford, GMC, Honda, Infiniti, Jaguar, Jeep, Land Rover, Lexus, Lincoln, Mazda, McLaren, Mercedes-Benz, Mercury, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Pontiac, Saab, Saturn, Scion, Subaru, and Toyota.


title: Takata Corporation

text: In 2014, BMW, Chrysler, Ford, Honda, Mazda, Nissan, and Toyota notified the NHTSA that they were conducting limited regional recalls to address a possible safety defect involving Takata brand air bag inflators.


title: Takata Corporation

text: In May 2014, General Motors expanded their earlier recall of their 2012 Chevrolet Cruze sedan and other models because of an electrical problem with the Takata airbags. The recall also included the Buick Verano, the Chevrolet Sonic and the Chevrolet Camaro.


title: Takata Corporation

text: On June 25, 2014, General Motors told their North American dealers to stop selling their 2013 and 2014 model Chevrolet Cruze sedans. GM stated, "Certain vehicles may be equipped with a suspect driver's air bag inflator module that may have been assembled with an incorrect part." The airbags involved were made by Takata Corporation. On June 11, 2014, Toyota recalled 2.3 million vehicles, many for the second time.


title: Takata Corporation

text: On July 17, 2015, Ferrari issued a recall for their lineup from the 2014-15 model years due to the driver's side airbags being improperly installed and the leather covering them improperly glued. This was discovered when the company was conducting tests on a 458 Italia and the airbags would deploy at a rotated orientation, potentially causing injuries.


title: Takata Corporation

text: Ford added certain models to the list after the 10th death occurred when the airbag in a 2006 Ford Ranger pickup driven by a Georgia man ruptured violently in South Carolina, in late December 2015.


title: Takata Corporation

text: On January 4, 2019, Ford issued a recall for an additional 953,000 vehicles, including 782,384 in the United States and federalized territories and 149,652 in Canada. Affected vehicles included 2010 Ford Edge and Lincoln MKX, the 2010 and 2011 Ford Ranger, the 2010 to 2012 Ford Fusion and Lincoln MKZ, the 2010 and 2011 Mercury Milan, and the 2010 to 2014 Ford Mustang. This was a planned expansion of previously recalled vehicles as identified earlier by the NHTSA.


title: Takata Corporation

text: Takata claimed that the issue has only been shown to affect vehicles in hot and humid locations. However, all potentially affected vehicles have been recalled as a precaution. No evidence of the issue has been seen in the UK or Europe.


title: Takata Corporation

text: Nearly all reported injuries (both fatal and minor) had been recorded in Honda vehicles, something which is undergoing investigation.


title: Takata Corporation

text: In June 2021, Joyson announced that they had discovered over a thousand cases where Takata had falsified seat belt safety test data.


title: Gnomon

text: A gnomon (; ) is the part of a sundial that casts a shadow. The term is used for a variety of purposes in mathematics and other fields.


title: Gnomon

text: A painted stick dating from 2300 BC that was excavated at the astronomical site of Taosi is the oldest gnomon known in China. The gnomon was widely used in ancient China from the second century BC onward in order to determine the changes in seasons, orientation, and geographical latitude. The ancient Chinese used shadow measurements for creating calendars that are mentioned in several ancient texts. According to the collection of Zhou Chinese poetic anthologies "Classic of Poetry", one of the distant ancestors of King Wen of the Zhou dynasty used to measure gnomon shadow lengths to determine the orientation around the 14th century BC.


title: Gnomon

text: The ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander (610–546 BC) is credited with introducing this Babylonian instrument to the Ancient Greeks. The ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Oenopides used the phrase "drawn gnomon-wise" to describe a line drawn perpendicular to another. Later, the term was used for an L-shaped instrument like a steel square used to draw right angles. This shape may explain its use to describe a shape formed by cutting a smaller square from a larger one. Euclid extended the term to the plane figure formed by removing a similar parallelogram from a corner of a larger parallelogram. Indeed, the gnomon is the increment between two successive figurate numbers, including square and triangular numbers.


title: Gnomon

text: The ancient Greek mathematician and engineer Hero of Alexandria defined a gnomon as that which, when added or subtracted to an entity (number or shape), makes a new entity similar to the starting entity. In this sense Theon of Smyrna used it to describe a number which added to a polygonal number produces the next one of the same type. The most common use in this sense is an odd integer especially when seen as a figurate number between square numbers.


title: Gnomon

text: Vitruvius mentions the gnomon as "" in the first sentence of chapter 3 in volume 1 of his famous book De Architectura. That Latin term "" leaves room for interpretation. Despite its similarity to "" (or its feminine form ""), it appears unlikely that Vitruvius refers to judgement on the one hand or to the design of sundials on the other. It appears to be more appropriate to assume that he refers to geometry, a science upon which gnomons rely heavily. In those days, calculations were carried out geometrically, in stark contrast to the algebraic methods in use today. Thus, it seems that he indirectly refers to mathematics and geodesy.


title: Gnomon

text: Perforated gnomons projecting a pinhole image of the Sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings (1046 BCE—256 BC with material added until circa 220 AD). The location of the bright circle can be measured to tell the time of day and year. In Arab and European cultures its invention was much later attributed to Egyptian astronomer and mathematician Ibn Yunus around 1000 AD.


title: Gnomon

text: Italian astronomer, mathematician and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli is associated with the 1475 placement of a bronze plate with a round hole in the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence to project an image of the Sun on the cathedral's floor. With markings on the floor it tells the exact time of each midday (reportedly to within half a second) as well as the date of the summer solstice. Italian mathematician, engineer, astronomer and geographer Leonardo Ximenes reconstructed the gnomon according to his new measurements in 1756.


title: Gnomon

text: In the Northern Hemisphere, the shadow-casting edge of a sundial gnomon is normally oriented so that it points due northward and is parallel to the rotational axis of Earth. That is, it is inclined to the northern horizon at an angle that equals the latitude of the sundial's location. At present, such a gnomon should thus point almost precisely at Polaris, as this is within 1° of the north celestial pole.


title: Gnomon

text: On some sundials, the gnomon is vertical. These were usually used in former times for observing the altitude of the Sun, especially when on the meridian. The "style" is the part of the gnomon that casts the shadow. This can change as the Sun moves. For example, the upper west edge of the gnomon might be the style in the morning and the upper east edge might be the style in the afternoon.


title: Gnomon

text: A three-dimensional gnomon is commonly used in CAD and computer graphics as an aid to positioning objects in the virtual world. By convention, the "x"-axis direction is colored red, the "y"-axis green and the "z"-axis blue. NASA astronauts used a gnomon as a photographic tool to indicate local vertical and to display a color chart when they were working on the Moon's surface.


title: Kevin Godley

text: Kevin Michael Godley (born 7 October 1945) is an English singer, songwriter, musician and music video director. He is known as the singer and drummer of the art rock band 10cc and later as part of collaboration duo Godley & Creme with Lol Creme.


title: Kevin Godley

text: Kevin Michael Godley was born on 7 October 1945 in Prestwich, Lancashire, England, to a Jewish family, and went to North Cestrian Grammar School in Altrincham. He formed first band named Group 17, which had its origins in the Jewish Lads' Brigade.


title: Kevin Godley

text: While attending art college in Manchester Godley met future creative partner Lol Creme. Godley and Creme joined the R&B combo The Sabres. They became involved in a number of bands such as The Mockingbirds, Hotlegs and later 10cc. As part of the bands Godley was a songwriter, lead singer, played drums, percussion and keyboards. Godley and Creme recorded four albums with 10cc. In 1977, early in the recording of the album "Deceptive Bends", unimpressed with the songs by bandmates Eric Stewart and Graham Gouldman and eager to work on other projects outside of the band, Godley and Creme left.


title: Kevin Godley

text: After leaving 10cc the two became known as Godley & Creme, both as musicians and film directors. They were jointly nominated for a Grammy Award for 'Best Music Video, Long Form', for "The Police: Synchronicity Concert" in 1986. The duo split in 1988 after their album "Goodbye Blue Sky".


title: Kevin Godley

text: In 1990, Godley's charity production "One World One Voice" was released on CD in the UK. It was a CD that focused on environmental and ecological crises.


title: Kevin Godley

text: Both Godley and Creme briefly 'reunited' with their former 10cc bandmates Stewart and Gouldman on the 1992 album "...Meanwhile". However, Godley claims that their involvement with the project was very limited, as the album was dominated by studio musicians. He performed the lead vocal on "The Stars Didn't Show", the band's tribute to the late Roy Orbison. It was the only song on the album not sung by Stewart. Following "...Meanwhile", Godley and Creme went their separate ways again, having experienced difficulties together as early as 1988.


title: Kevin Godley

text: Godley later again reunited with Gouldman to form the band GG/06. Together they recorded a self-titled EP, which was made available for free via their website. Since then Godley has several times joined Gouldman's iteration of 10cc in concert, and was featured on the live album "Clever Clogs".


title: Kevin Godley

text: More recently Godley moved into developing a music platform for the iPad, one that combines audio and video to create a global recording studio in the cloud called "WholeWorldBand". The company was nominated for the "SXSW Music Accelerator Award" in 2013, and was one of eight finalists selected from a pool of over 500.


title: Kevin Godley

text: In 2017, Godley publicly invited musicians to send him music to work on his first solo album, titled "Muscle Memory" with the idea being that he would take the rough ideas and turn them into a finished song. The album was originally supposed to be released in 2018 through campaign on pledgemusic.com, but due to its closure the release was postponed. In 2021, Kevin Godley's album "Muscle Memory" was completed and released by The state51 Conspiracy after the project stalled as a PledgeMusic campaign.


title: Kevin Godley

text: He currently lives in Dublin, Ireland, and hopes to direct a film based on Orson Welles' time in Ireland.


title: Kevin Godley

text: After splitting from his long-time working partner Creme, Godley forged a career directing music videos and films on his own.


title: Trans–Haryana Expressway

text: The Trans–Haryana Expressway or the Ambala–Narnaul Expressway (NH-152D) is a 227-km long, 6-lane wide access-controlled expressway, connecting the cities of Ambala and Narnaul in the state of Haryana. The expressway connects Gangheri village (on NH-152) in Kurukshetra district (near Ismailabad) with Surana village on Narnaul Bypass (NH-148B) in Mahendragarh district. It passes via Kaul, Pundri, Assandh, Dhatrath, Kalanaur, Charkhi Dadri and Kanina. It will reduce the distance from Chandigarh to Delhi, Narnaul, and Jaipur, thus decongesting NH-44 and NH-48.


title: Trans–Haryana Expressway

text: The alignment intersects with 15 National Highways, including NH-9, and several State Highways, including SH6, SH9, SH8, SH11, SH12, SH14, SH10, SH16A, SH20, SH24 and SH26. The area around the expressway is being developed as an industrial corridor, named as the Ambala-Kotputli Economic Corridor. Construction was started in July 2020, and was completed and opened for traffic on 1 August 2022. The industrial corridor consists of four road projects, which have:


title: Trans–Haryana Expressway

text: Costing ₹5,108 crore, it will have 70 metre right of way, 122 bridges and underpasses and 1,36,000 trees would be planted on either sides is being developed by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) under Bharatmala project. Grenfield alignment will reduce the Ismailabad to Narnaul distance by 35 km from the existing 265 km route to 230 km new route. Construction will create 1,500 full-time jobs for 3 years and 120 ongoing jobs will be created for the Toll Plaza staff. To reduce the environmental impact the fly ash will be used from the Tau Devilal Thermal Power Plant at Panipat, Indira Gandhi Super Thermal Power Project at Jhajjar and Rajiv Gandhi Thermal Power Station at Hisar.


title: Trans–Haryana Expressway

text: Paniyala–Barodameo Expressway, 86.5 km long 6-lane access-controlled greenfield expressway from Paniyala (south of Narnaul) to Mator, Alwar and Barodameo, will connect the southern end of the Trans-Haryana Expressway to the Delhi-Mumbai Expressway at Barodameo. In October 2022, 29 bids were received for the construction of expressway, tender will be awarded by 31st December 2022, after which construction will take 2 years by end of 2024). There are plans to extend the expressway from Barodameo through the following:


title: Trans–Haryana Expressway

text: Regional Circular Expressway-3 (CRE3) will intersect with Trans-Haryana Expressway in two places, between Mahendragarh-Kanina and between Rajound-Assandh.


title: Trans–Haryana Expressway

text: The NHAI has divided the construction work of 227 km long Ambala–Narnaul Expressway into 8 packages. Package-1 is a Joint Venture (JV) of JiangXi Construction Engineering, Ceigall India and Shiv Build India; Package-4 is a JV of JiangXi Construction Engineering and Shiv Build India and Package-7 is a JV of Gawar Construction and Shivalaya Construction Company. The list of contractors is as follows:


title: Cost

text: In production, research, retail, and accounting, a cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something or deliver a service, and hence is not available for use anymore. In business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in which case the amount of money expended to acquire it is counted as cost. In this case, money is the input that is gone in order to acquire the thing. This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of production as incurred by the original producer, and further costs of transaction as incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer. Usually, the price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production.


title: Cost

text: More generalized in the field of economics, cost is a metric that is totaling up as a result of a process or as a differential for the result of a decision. Hence cost is the metric used in the standard modeling paradigm applied to economic processes.


title: Cost

text: In accounting, costs are the monetary value of expenditures for supplies, services, labor, products, equipment and other items purchased for use by a business or other accounting entity. It is the amount denoted on invoices as the price and recorded in book keeping records as an expense or asset cost basis.


title: Cost

text: Opportunity cost, also referred to as "economic cost" is the value of the best alternative that was not chosen in order to pursue the current endeavor—i.e., what could have been accomplished with the resources expended in the undertaking. It represents opportunities forgone.


title: Cost

text: The cost concept depicts that an asset must be recorded on the purchase value. Economic and operational factors should not lead to changes in the value of cost recorded for the business.


title: Cost

text: For instance, if the company opts to follow the cost concept, the PPE purchase in the past must remain on the cost. For instance, land purchase by the company remains the same without applying depreciation and revaluation. However, if the company opts to follow the revaluation method, it can update the cost by passing a journal entry. Further, this journal entry impacts the OCI and assets in the balance sheet.


title: Cost

text: For instance, if the revaluation is made, the following journal entry is posted in the accounting system.


title: Cost

text: The debit impact of the transaction is recording an increase in the asset value. On the other hand, credit impact is recording unrealized gains in equity. As we keep on charging depreciation, the unrealized gain keeps on decreasing and being realized. However, it's limited to additional depreciation due to revaluation.


title: Cost

text: On the other hand, if the business opts to follow the cost concept, it's not allowed to record revaluation. The cost concept comes with the following pros and cons.


title: Cost

text: 1- It's easy to locate the purchase price of an asset. There is no revaluation, and there is no change in the amount/balance of the asset.


title: Cost

text: 2- It's easy to locate the cost of the assets as there is no judgment. Instead, there is objectivity. For instance, you record assets at the purchased price.


title: Cost

text: 3- A higher degree of judgment is involved in the process of revaluation. Hence, it's logical to follow cost concept.


title: Cost

text: 4- It’s often difficult to trace the movement in revalued assets. Hence, its logical to follow cost concept.


title: Cost

text: 5- Organizations following the revaluation concept need to apply technical accounting rules regarding unrealized gain, and depreciation.


title: Cost

text: 1- .Books do not reflect present/fair value. Hence, financial statement may not present true picture of the business.


title: Cost

text: Private costs are the costs that the buyer of a good or service pays the seller. This can also be described as the costs internal to the firm's production function.


title: Cost

text: External costs (also called externalities), in contrast, are the costs that people other than the buyer are forced to pay as a result of the transaction. The bearers of such costs can be either particular individuals or society at large. Note that external costs are often both non-monetary and problematic to quantify for comparison with monetary values. They include things like pollution, things that society will likely have to pay for in some way or at some time in the future, even so that are not included in transaction prices.


title: Cost

text: For example, the manufacturing cost of a car (i.e., the costs of buying inputs, land tax rates for the car plant, overhead costs of running the plant and labor costs) reflects the "private cost" for the manufacturer (in some ways, normal profit can also be seen as a cost of production; see, e.g., Ison and Wall, 2007, p. 181). The polluted waters or polluted air also created as part of the process of producing the car is an "external cost" borne by those who are affected by the pollution or who value unpolluted air or water. Because the manufacturer does not pay for this external cost (the cost of emitting undesirable waste into the commons), and does not include this cost in the price of the car (a Kaldor-Hicks compensation), they are said to be external to the market pricing mechanism. The air pollution from driving the car is also an externality produced by the car user in the process of using his good. The driver does not compensate for the environmental damage caused by using the car.


title: Cost

text: When developing a business plan for a new or existing company, product or project, planners typically make cost estimates in order to assess whether revenues/benefits will cover costs (see cost-benefit analysis). This is done in both business and government. Costs are often underestimated, resulting in cost overrun during execution.


title: Cost

text: Manufacturing costs are those costs that are directly involved in manufacturing of products. Examples of manufacturing costs include raw materials costs and charges related to workers. Manufacturing cost is divided into three broad categories:


title: Cost

text: Non-manufacturing costs are those costs that are not directly incurred in manufacturing a product. Examples of such costs are salary of sales personnel and advertising expenses. Generally, non-manufacturing costs are further classified into two categories:


title: Cost

text: A defensive cost is an environmental expenditure to eliminate or prevent environmental damage. Defensive costs form part of the genuine progress indicator (GPI) calculations.


title: Cost

text: Labour costs would include travel time, holiday pay, training costs, working clothes, social insurance, taxes on employment &c.


title: Coverture

text: Coverture (sometimes spelled couverture) was a legal doctrine in the English common law in which a married woman's legal existence was considered to be merged with that of her husband, so that she had no independent legal existence of her own. Upon marriage, coverture provided that a woman became a , whose legal rights and obligations were mostly subsumed by those of her husband. An unmarried woman, or , had the right to own property and make contracts in her own name.


title: Coverture

text: Coverture was well established in the common law for several centuries and was inherited by many other common law jurisdictions, including the United States. According to historian Arianne Chernock, coverture did not apply in Scotland, but whether it applied in Wales is unclear.


title: Coverture

text: After the rise of the women's rights movement in the mid-19th century, coverture was increasingly criticised as oppressive, hindering women from exercising ordinary property rights and entering professions. Coverture was first substantially modified by late-19th-century Married Women's Property Acts passed in various common-law jurisdictions, and was weakened and eventually eliminated by later reforms. Certain aspects of coverture (mainly concerned with preventing a wife from unilaterally incurring major financial obligations for which her husband would be liable) survived as late as the 1960s in some states of the United States.


title: Coverture

text: Under traditional English common law, an adult unmarried woman was considered to have the legal status of "feme sole", while a married woman had the status of "feme covert". These terms are English spellings of medieval Anglo-Norman phrases (the modern standard French spellings would be "femme seule" "single woman" and "femme couverte", literally "covered woman").


title: Coverture

text: The principle of coverture was described in William Blackstone's "Commentaries on the Laws of England" in the late 18th century:


title: Coverture

text: A "feme sole" had the right to own property and make contracts in her own name, while a "feme covert" was not recognized as having legal rights and obligations distinct from those of her husband in most respects. Instead, through marriage a woman's existence was incorporated into that of her husband, so that she had very few recognized individual rights of her own. As expressed in Hugo Black's dissent in "United States v. Yazell", "This rule [coverture] has worked out in reality to mean that though the husband and wife are one, the one is the husband." A married woman could not own property, sign legal documents or enter into a contract, obtain an education against her husband's wishes, or keep a salary for herself. If a wife was permitted to work, under the laws of coverture, she was required to relinquish her wages to her husband. On the other hand, a "feme couvert" could not be sued or sue in her own name. In certain cases, a wife did not have individual legal liability for her misdeeds since it was legally assumed that she was acting under the orders of her husband, and generally a husband and a wife were not allowed to testify either for or against each other.


title: Coverture

text: A queen of England, whether she was a queen consort or a queen regnant, was generally exempted from the legal requirements of coverture, as understood by Blackstone.


title: Coverture

text: The system of "feme sole" and "feme covert" developed in England in the High and Late Middle Ages as part of the common law system, which had its origins in the legal reforms of Henry II and other medieval English kings. Medieval legal treatises, such as that famously known as Bracton, described the nature of coverture and its impact on married women's legal actions. Bracton states that husband and wife were a single person, being one flesh and one blood, a principle known as 'unity of person'. Husbands also wielded power over their wives, being their rulers and custodians of their property.


title: Coverture

text: While it was once assumed that married women had little or no access to legal recourse, as a result of coverture, historians have more recently complicated our knowledge of coverture in the Middle Ages through various studies of married women's legal status across different courts and jurisdictions. Collectively, many of these studies have argued that 'there has been a tendency to overplay the extent to which coverture applied', as legal records reveal that married women could possess rights over property, could take part in business transactions, and interact with the courts. In medieval post-conquest Wales, it has been suggested that coverture only applied in certain situations. Married women were responsible for their own actions in criminal presentments and defamation, but their husbands represented them in litigation for abduction and in interpersonal pleas.


title: Coverture

text: The extent of coverture in medieval England has also been qualified by the existence of "femme sole" customs that existed in some medieval English towns. This granted them independent commercial and legal rights as if they were single. This practice is outlined in the custumal of Henry Darcy, Lord Mayor of London in the 1330s, allowing married women working independently of their husband to act as a single woman in all matters concerning her craft, such as renting a shop and suing and being sued for debt. The custom is known to have been adopted in a number of other towns, including Bristol, Lincoln, York, Sandwich, Rye, Carlisle, Chester and Exeter. Some North American British colonies also adopted this custom in the eighteenth century. However, it is unclear how many women took up this status, the extent to which it was legally enforced, or whether the legal and commercial independence it offered were advantageous.


title: Coverture

text: According to Chernock, "coverture, ... [a 1777] author ... concluded, was the product of foreign Norman invasion in the eleventh century—not, as Blackstone would have it, a time-tested 'English' legal practice. This was a reading of British history, then, that put a decidedly feminist twist on the idea of the 'Norman yoke. Also according to Chernock, "the Saxons, ... [Calidore] boasted, had encouraged women to 'retain separate property'— ... a clear blow to coverture." Chernock claims that "as the historical accounts of the laws regarding women had indicated, coverture was a policy not just foreign in its origins but also suited to particular and now remote historical conditions." Coverture may not have existed in "the Anglo-Saxon constitution".


title: Coverture

text: Coverture also held sway in English-speaking colonies because of the influence of the English common law there. The way in which coverture operated across the common law world has been the subject of recent studies examining the subordinating effects of marriage for women across medieval and early modern England and North America, in a variety of legal contexts. It has been argued that in practice, most of the rules of coverture "served not to guide every transaction but rather to provide clarity and direction in times of crisis or death." Despite this flexibility, coverture remained a powerful tool of marital inequality for many centuries.


title: Coverture

text: Early feminist historian Mary Ritter Beard held the view that much of the severity of the doctrine of coverture was actually due to Blackstone and other late systematizers rather than due to a genuine old common-law tradition.


title: Coverture

text: In March 1776, Abigail Adams saw an opportunity in the language of natural rights, and wrote to her husband, John Adams:


title: Coverture

text: She was not writing generally about women's rights, or specifically about the right to vote. She was asking for relief from coverture. John responded, "I cannot but laugh."


title: Coverture

text: According to Chernock, "late Enlightenment radicals ... argued ... [that "coverture" and other "principles"] did not reflect the 'advancements' of a modern, civilized society. Rather, they were markers of past human errors and inconsistencies, and thus in need of further revision." Chernock claimed that "as the editor of Blackstone's "Commentaries", [Edward] Christian used his popular thirteenth edition, published in 1800, to highlight the ways in which the practice of coverture might be modified." Chernock wrote that "Christian ... proceeded to recommend that a husband cease to be 'absolutely master of the profits of the wife's lands during the coverture. Chernock reported that other men sought for coverture to be modified or eliminated.


title: Coverture

text: According to Ellen Carol DuBois, "the initial target of women's rights protest was the legal doctrine of 'coverture... The earliest American women's right lecturer, John Neal attacked coverture in speeches and public debates as early as 1823, but most prominently in the 1840s, asking "how long [women] shall be rendered by law incapable of acquiring, holding, or transmitting property, except under special conditions, like the slave?" In the 1850s, according to DuBois, Lucy Stone criticized "the common law of marriage because it 'gives the "custody" of the wife's person to her husband, so that he has a right to her even against herself. Stone kept her premarital family name after marriage as a protest "against all manifestations of coverture". DuBois continued, "in the 1850s, ... primarily legal goal [of "the American women's rights movement"] was the establishment of basic property rights for women once they were married, which went to the core of the deprivations of coverture." Chernock continued, "for those who determined that legal reforms were the key to achieving a more enlightened relationship between the sexes, coverture was a primary object of attention."


title: Coverture

text: DuBois wrote that coverture, because of property restrictions with the vote, "played a major role in" influencing the effort to secure women's right to vote in the U.S., because one view was that the right should be limited to women who owned property when coverture excluded most women (relatively few were unmarried or widowed), while another view was for the right to be available for all women.


title: Coverture

text: In the mid-19th century, according to Melissa J. Homestead, coverture was criticized as depriving married women authors of the financial benefits of their copyrights, including analogizing to slavery; one woman poet "explicitly analogized her legal status as a married woman author to that of an American slave." According to Homestead, feminists also criticized the effect of coverture on rights under patents held by married women.


title: Coverture

text: Hendrik Hartog counter-criticized that coverture was only a legal fiction and not descriptive of social reality and that courts applying equity jurisdiction had developed many exceptions to coverture, but, according to Norma Basch, the exceptions themselves still required that the woman be dependent on someone and not all agreements between spouses to let wives control their property were enforceable in court.


title: Coverture

text: In 1869, coverture was criticized when Myra Bradwell was refused permission to practice as a lawyer in Illinois specifically because of coverture. In 1871, Bradwell argued to the Supreme Court that coverture violated the Constitution's 14th Amendment. According to Margot Canaday, "coverture's main purpose ... was the legal subordination of women." Canaday continued, "women's legal subordination through marriage ... was maintained in fact across [coverture]".


title: Coverture

text: According to Canaday, "coverture was diminished ... in the 1970s, as part of a broader feminist revolution in law that further weakened the principle that a husband owned a wife's labor (including her person)... The regime of coverture ... was coming undone [in the mid-20th century]". In 1966, the U.S. Supreme Court said "the institution of coverture is ... obsolete" even while acknowledging coverture's existence in 1–11 states. In a separate opinion in the same case, Hugo Black and two others of the nine justices said the "fiction that the husband and wife are one... in reality ... that though the husband and wife are one, the one is the husband...[,] rested on ... a ... notion that a married woman, being a female, is without capacity to make her own contracts and do her own business", a notion that Black "had supposed is ... completely discredited". Black described modern (as of 1966) coverture as an "archaic remnant of a primitive caste system". Canaday wrote, "the application of equal protection law to marital relations finally eviscerated the law of coverture" and "coverture unraveled with accelerating speed [in the late 20th century]". "Coverture's demise blunted (even if it did not eliminate) male privilege within marriage", according to Canaday.


title: Coverture

text: This situation continued until the mid-to-late 19th century, when married women's property acts started to be passed in many English-speaking jurisdictions, setting the stage for further reforms.


title: Coverture

text: In the United States, many states passed Married Women's Property Acts to eliminate or reduce the effects of coverture. Nineteenth-century courts in the United States also enforced state privy examination laws. A privy examination was an American legal practice in which a married woman who wished to sell her property had to be separately examined by a judge or justice of the peace outside of the presence of her husband and asked if her husband was pressuring her into signing the document. This practice was seen as a means to protect married women's property from overbearing husbands. Other states abolished the concept through court cases, for example: California in "Follansbee v. Benzenberg" (1954). The abolition of coverture has been seen as "one of the greatest extensions of property rights in human history", and one that led to a number of positive financial and economic impacts. Specifically, it led to shifts in household portfolios, a positive shock to the supply of credit, and a reallocation of labor towards non-agriculture and capital intensive industries.


title: Coverture

text: As recently as 1972, two US states allowed a wife accused in criminal court to offer as a legal defense that she was obeying her husband's orders.


title: Coverture

text: In the Roman-Dutch law, the marital power was a doctrine very similar to the doctrine of coverture in the English common law. Under the marital power doctrine, a wife was legally a minor under the guardianship of her husband.


title: Coverture

text: Under the Napoleonic Code – which was very influential both inside and outside of Europe – married women and children were subordinated to the husband's/father's authority. Married French women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965. In France, the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property. Neighboring Switzerland was one of the last European countries to establish gender equality in marriage: married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, came into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a referendum, who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).


title: Coverture

text: In 1979, Louisiana became the last of the states of the U.S. to have its Head and Master law struck down. An appeal made it to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1980, and in the following year the high court's decision in "Kirchberg v. Feenstra" effectively declared the practice of male-rule in marriage unconstitutional, generally favoring instead a co-administration model.


title: Coverture

text: The doctrine of coverture carried over into British heraldry, in which there were established traditional methods of displaying the coat of arms of an unmarried woman, displaying the coat of arms of a widow, or displaying the combined coat of arms of a couple jointly, but no accepted method of displaying the coat of arms of a married woman separately as an individual.


title: Coverture

text: The practice by which a woman relinquishes her name and adopts her husband's name (e.g., "Mrs. John Smith") is similarly a representation of coverture, although usually symbolic rather than legal in form.


title: Coverture

text: In some cultures, particularly in the Anglophone West, wives often change their surnames to that of their husbands upon getting married. Although this procedure is today optional, for some it remains a controversial practice due to its tie to the historical doctrine of coverture or to other similar doctrines in civil law systems, and to the historically subordinated roles of wives; while others argue that today this is merely a harmless tradition that should be accepted as a free choice. Some jurisdictions consider this practice as discriminatory and contrary to women's rights, and have restricted or banned it; for example, since 1983, when Greece adopted a new marriage law which guaranteed gender equality between the spouses, women in Greece are "required" to keep their birth names for their whole life.


title: Coverture

text: The phrase "the law is an ass" was popularized by Charles Dickens' "Oliver Twist", when the character Mr. Bumble is informed that "the law supposes that your wife acts under your direction". Mr. Bumble replies, "if the law supposes that ... the law is a ass – a idiot. If that's the eye of the law, the law is a bachelor; and the worst I wish the law is that his eye may be opened by experience – by experience."


title: Coverture

text: The German television show "Black Forest House" follows three families who are trying to survive six months in the Montana countryside, including growing their own crops and surviving the winter. It takes place during presidency of Abraham Lincoln, who was president when the Homestead Act of 1862 became law. During the show it is noted that coverture was still in effect, so only single women could claim land under the Homestead Act, because married women lost most of their rights.


title: High Flying Bird

text: High Flying Bird is a 2019 American sports drama film directed by Steven Soderbergh, from a story suggested by André Holland, with the screenplay by Tarell Alvin McCraney. The film stars Holland, Zazie Beetz, Melvin Gregg, Sonja Sohn, Zachary Quinto, Glenn Fleshler, Jeryl Prescott, Justin Hurtt-Dunkley, Caleb McLaughlin, Bobbi Bordley, Kyle MacLachlan and Bill Duke, with additional appearances of basketball players Reggie Jackson, Karl-Anthony Towns and Donovan Mitchell. The film follows a sports agent who must pull off a plan in 72 hours, pitching a controversial opportunity to his client, a rookie basketball player during the company’s lockout. The film was shot entirely on the iPhone 8, becoming Soderbergh's second film to be shot on an iPhone, after "Unsane".


title: High Flying Bird

text: The film had its world premiere at the Slamdance Film Festival on January 27, 2019, and was released on February 8, 2019, by Netflix. The film received positive reviews from critics, which praised its performances, Soderbergh's direction, themes, editing, shooting style and screenplay.


title: High Flying Bird

text: Ray Burke is an agent working for a New York sports agency that finds itself in the middle of a lockout. After his credit card is declined at an upscale restaurant, his boss David Starr tells him that the company is losing clients, the bank accounts and credit cards of the employees are frozen, and that he could be fired along with other employees. This forces Ray to look for a plan that could save the company from the lockout as well as give his client, Erick Scott, new opportunities. He recruits the help of his former assistant, Sam.


title: High Flying Bird

text: The next day, Ray visits newly drafted Jamero Umber's mother, Emera, with an offer. She refuses and reaffirms that she is the only agent and lawyer that her son will ever need. Ray's ex-wife, Myra, tells him that the company is in a lockout and will need to renegotiate new terms with agents and players. However, they will need to wait over a month to settle, as the team owners are at a standstill with the TV networks over millions of dollars. Ray asks her to cancel the deal, convinced that the players won’t be paid well during the lockout, which could last up to six months. Meanwhile, future teammates Erick Scott and Jamero Umber have an argument on Twitter, heavily publicized by media outlets.


title: High Flying Bird

text: Ray heads to Back Court Day, an annual event at a community center featuring a basketball camp for local kids and appearances by star athletes. While Erick is signing autographs and answering questions, Jamero arrives with his mother in tow. Erick and Jamero confront each other about their Twitter argument; tensions rise as they trade insults. They end up playing a one-on-one basketball game, which is recorded by the kids on their phones. A video is posted on social media and goes viral, garnering 24 million views. Ray gets the idea to stream games on streaming services and social media sites like Snapchat, YouTube, and Netflix, thus enabling the players to make money during the lockout. Erick is not convinced and feels he could put his place in the NBA at risk. Nevertheless, he accepts.


title: High Flying Bird

text: The next day Sam meets with Ray to discuss their careers going forward. Sam mentions to Ray that Erick might fire him, as he's looking to "move laterally" within the company. Erick fires Ray for lying to him about the fact that everything was for money. However, Ray’s plan succeeds and the players who signed with the company remained signed, meaning that Erick was never in danger and will be able to play in the league once the lockout is over. Ray reveals to Starr that the entire plan to take players to pay-per-view/streaming platforms was all a ruse to force the end of the lockout. It is implied that, through his actions, Ray has taken over Starr's position at the agency. Sam goes to work for the Players’ Association as she and Erick begin a relationship. Sam opens the package Ray gave Erick earlier, which he called a "Bible". The package contains Harry Edwards's book "The Revolt of the Black Athlete". Sam begins to read it as Erick showers. Back at the agency, Ray is shown entering a meeting with Edwards. After Erick exits the shower and asks about the package, Sam replies: "You need to read this."


title: High Flying Bird

text: Additionally, Skip Bayless, Shannon Sharpe, Joy Taylor, Evan Rosenblum, Van Lathan, and Kristina Pink, appear as themselves. Basketball players Reggie Jackson, Karl-Anthony Towns, and Donovan Mitchell make appearances as themselves in individual interview scenes.


title: High Flying Bird

text: In October 2017, it was announced André Holland had been cast in the film, with Steven Soderbergh directing from a screenplay written by Tarell Alvin McCraney, with Extension 765 producing. In March 2018, Zazie Beetz and Kyle MacLachlan joined the cast of the film. In April 2018, Melvin Gregg joined the cast of the film.


title: High Flying Bird

text: Principal photography began in February 2018, in New York City and the film wrapped on March 15, 2018. The film was shot using an iPhone 8 smartphone, equipped with an anamorphic lens produced by Moondog Labs, while utilizing the FiLMic Pro video app.


title: High Flying Bird

text: In September 2018, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. Speaking about how Netflix got involved with the film, director Steven Soderbergh explained:


title: High Flying Bird

text: It had its world premiere at the Slamdance Film Festival on January 27, 2019. It was released on February 8, 2019.


title: High Flying Bird

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average of . The website's critics consensus reads: ""High Flying Bird" takes a thoughtful and engrossing look at professional sports that sees Steven Soderbergh continuing to test the limits of new filmmaking technology." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 78 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Catholic Church in the Philippines or the Filipino Catholic Church () is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual direction of the Pope and the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (CBCP). The Philippines is one of the two nations in Asia having a substantial portion of the population professing the Catholic faith, along with East Timor, and has the third largest Catholic population in the world after Brazil and Mexico. The episcopal conference responsible in governing the faith is the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Christianity was first brought to the Philippine islands by Spanish missionaries and settlers, who arrived in waves beginning in the early 16th century in Cebu. Compared to the Spanish colonial period, when Christianity was recognized as the state religion, the faith today is practiced in the context of a secular state. In 2015, it was estimated that 84 million Filipinos, or roughly 82.9% to 85% of the population, profess the Catholic faith.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Starting in the 16th century Spanish explorers and settlers arrived in the Philippines with two major goals: to participate in the spice trade which was previously dominated by Portugal, and to evangelize to nearby civilizations, such as China. While many historians claim that the first Mass in the islands was held on Easter Sunday of 1521 on a small island near the present day Bukidnon Province, the exact location is disputed. A verified Mass was held at the island-port of Mazaua on Easter Sunday, March 31, 1521, as recorded by the Venetian diarist Antonio Pigafetta, who travelled to the islands in 1521 on the Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Later, the Legazpi expedition of 1565 that was organized from Mexico City marked the beginning of the Hispanisation of the Philippines, beginning with Cebu. This expedition was an effort to occupy the islands with as little conflict as possible, ordered by Phillip II. Lieutenant Legazpi set up colonies in an effort to make peace with the natives and achieve swift conquest.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Christianity expanded from Cebu when the remaining Spanish missionaries were forced westwards due to conflict with the Portuguese, and laid the foundations of the Christian community in the Panay between around 1560 to 1571. A year later the second batch of missionaries reached Cebu. The island became the ecclesiastical "seat" and the center for evangelization. Missionary Fray Alfonso Jimenez traveled into the Camarines region through the islands of Masbate, Leyte, Samar, and Burias and centered the church on Naga City. He was named the first apostle of the region. By 1571 Fray Herrera, who was assigned as chaplain of Legazpi, advanced further north from Panay and founded the local Church community in Manila. Herrera travelled further in the Espiritu Santo and shipwrecked in Catanduanes, where he died attempting to convert the natives. In 1572, the Spaniards led by Juan de Salcedo marched north from Manila with the second batch of Augustinian missionaries and pioneered the evangelization in the Ilocos (starting with Vigan) and the Cagayan regions.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Under the "encomienda" system, Filipinos had to pay tribute to the "encomendero" of the area, and in return the "encomendero" taught them the Christian faith and protected them from enemies. Although Spain had used this system in America, it did not work as effectively in the Philippines, and the missionaries were not as successful in converting the natives as they had hoped. In 1579, Bishop Salazar and clergymen were outraged because the "encomenderos" had abused their powers. Although the natives were resistant, they could not organize into a unified resistance towards the Spaniards, partly due to geography, ethno-linguistic differences.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Spaniards were disapproving of the lifestyle they observed in the natives. They blamed the influence of the Devil and desired to "liberate the natives from their evil ways". Over time, geographical limitations had shifted the natives into "barangays", small kinship units consisting of about 30 to 100 families.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Each barangay had a mutable caste system, with any sub-classes varying from one barangay to the next. Generally, patriarchal lords and kings were called datus and rajas, while the "mahárlika" were the knight-like freedmen and the "timawa" were freedmen. The "alipin" or servile class were dependent on the upper classes, an arrangement regarded as slavery by the Spaniards. Intermarriage between the "timawa" and the "alipin" was permitted, which created a more or less flexible system of privileges and labor services. The Spaniards attempted to suppress this class system based on their interpretation that the dependent, servile class was an oppressed group. They failed at completely abolishing the system, but instead eventually worked to use it to their own advantage.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Religion and marriage were also issues that the Spanish missionaries wanted to reform. Polygyny was not uncommon, but was mostly confined to wealthier chieftains. Divorce and remarriage were also common as long as the reasons were justified. Accepted reasons for divorce included illness, infertility, or finding better potential to take as a spouse. The missionaries also disagreed with the practices of paying dowries, the "bride price" where the groom paid his father-in-law in gold, and "bride-service", in which the groom performed manual labor for the bride's family, a custom which persisted until the late 20th century. Missionaries disapproved of these because they felt bride-price was an act of selling one's daughter, and labor services in the household of the father allowed premarital sex between the bride and groom, which contradicted Christian beliefs.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Pre-conquest, the natives had followed a variety of monotheistic and polytheistic faiths, often localized forms of Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam or Tantrism mixed with Animism. "Bathala" (Tagalog – Central Luzon) or "Laon" (Visayan) was the ultimate creator deity above subordinate gods and goddesses. Natives Filipinos also worshiped nature and venerated the spirits of their ancestors, whom they propitiated with sacrifices. There was ritualistic drinking and many rituals aimed to cure certain illnesses. Magic and superstition were also practiced. The Spaniards saw themselves as liberating the natives from sinful practices and showing them the correct path to God.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: In 1599, negotiation began between a number of lords and their freemen and the Spaniards. The native rulers agreed to submit to the rule of the Castilian king and convert to Christianity, and allow missionaries to spread the faith. In return, the Spaniards agreed to protect the natives from their enemies, mostly Japanese, Chinese, and Muslim pirates.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Several factors slowed the Spaniards' attempts to spread Christianity throughout the archipelago. The low number of missionaries on the island made it difficult to reach all the people and harder to convert them. This was also due to the fact that the route to the Philippines was a rigorous journey, and some clergy fell ill or waited years for an opportunity to travel there. For others, the climate difference once they arrived was unbearable. Other missionaries desired to go to Japan or China instead and some who remained were more interested in mercantilism. The Spaniards also came into conflict with the Chinese population in the Philippines. The Chinese had set up shops in the Parian (or bazaar) during the 1580s to trade silk and other goods for Mexican silver. The Spaniards anticipated revolts from the Chinese and were constantly suspicious of them. The Spanish government was highly dependent on the influx of silver from Mexico and Peru, since it supported the government in Manila, to continue the Christianization of the archipelago.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The most difficult challenges for the missionaries were the dispersion of the Filipinos and the wide variety of languages and dialects. The geographical isolation forced the Filipino population into numerous small villages, and every other province supported a different language. Furthermore, frequent privateering from Japanese Wokou pirates and slave-raiding by Muslims blocked Spanish attempts to Christianize the archipelago, and to offset the disruption of continuous warfare with them, the Spanish militarized the local populations, importing soldiers from Latin America, and constructed networks of fortresses across the islands. As the Spanish and their local allies were in a state of constant war against pirates and slavers, the Philippines became a drain on the Vice-royalty of New Spain in Mexico City, which paid to maintaining control of Las Islas Filipinas in lieu of the Spanish crown.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Philippines is home to many of the world's major religious congregations, these include the Redemptorists, Augustinians, Recollects, Jesuits, Dominicans, Benedictines, Franciscans, Carmelites, Divine Word Missionaries, De La Salle Christian Brothers, Salesians of Don Bosco, the indigenous Religious of the Virgin Mary, and Clerics Regular of St. Paul are known as Barnabites.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: During the Spanish colonial period, the five earliest regular orders assigned to Christianize the natives were the Augustinians, who came with Legazpi, the Discalced Franciscans (1578), the Jesuits (1581), the Dominican friars (1587) and the Augustinian Recollects (simply called the Recoletos, 1606). In 1594, all had agreed to cover a specific area of the archipelago to deal with the vast dispersion of the natives. The Augustinians and Franciscans mainly covered the Tagalog country while the Jesuits had a small area. The Dominicans encompassed the Parian. The provinces of Pampanga and Ilocos were assigned to the Augustinians. The province of Camarines went to the Franciscans. The Augustinians and Jesuits were also assigned the Visayan Islands. The Christian conquest had not reached Mindanao due to a highly resistant Muslim community that existed pre-conquest.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The task of the Spanish missionaries, however, was far from complete. By the seventeenth century, the Spaniards had created about 20 large villages and almost completely transformed the native lifestyle. For their Christian efforts, the Spaniards justified their actions by claiming that the small villages were a sign of barbarism and only bigger, more compact communities allowed for a richer understanding of Christianity. The Filipinos faced much coercion; the Spaniards knew little of native rituals. The layout of these villages was in gridiron form that allowed for easier navigation and more order. They were also spread far enough to allow for one cabecera or capital parish, and small visita chapels located throughout the villages in which clergy only stayed temporarily for Mass, rituals, or nuptials.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Philippines served as a base for sending missions to other Asian and Pacific countries such as China, Japan, Formosa, Indochina, and Siam.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Filipinos to an extent resisted Christianisation because they felt an agricultural obligation and connection with their rice fields: large villages took away their resources and they feared the compact environment. This also took away from the encomienda system that depended on land, therefore, the encomenderos lost tributes. However, the missionaries continued their proselytising efforts, one strategy being targeting noble children. These scions of now-tributary monarchs and rulers were subjected to intense education in religious doctrine and the Spanish language, with the theory that they in turn could convert their elders, and eventually the nobleman's subjects.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Despite the progress of the Spaniards, it took many years for the natives to truly grasp key concepts of Christianity. In Catholicism, four main sacraments attracted the natives but only for ritualistic reasons, and they did not fully alter their lifestyle as the Spaniards had hoped. Baptism was believed to simply cure ailments, while Matrimony was a concept many natives could not understand and thus they violated the sanctity of monogamy. They were, however, allowed to keep the tradition of dowry, which was accepted into law; "bride-price" and "bride-service" were practiced by natives despite labels of heresy. Confession was required of everyone once a year, and the clergy used the "confessionario", a bilingual text aid, to help natives understand the rite's meaning and what they had to confess. Locals were initially apprehensive, but gradually used the rite to excuse excesses throughout the year. Communion was given out selectively, for this was one of the most important sacraments that the missionaries did not want to risk having the natives violate. To help their cause, evangelism was done in the native language.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The "Doctrina Christiana" is a book of catechism, the alphabet, and basic prayers in Tagalog (both in the Latin alphabet and Baybayin) and Spanish published in the 16th century.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: When the Spanish clergy were driven out in 1898, there were so few indigenous clergy that the Catholic Church in the Philippines was in imminent danger of complete ruin. Under American administration, the situation was saved and the proper training of Filipino clergy was undertaken. In 1906, Jorge Barlin was consecrated as the Bishop of Nueva Caceres, making him the first Filipino bishop of the Catholic Church.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: During the sovereignty of the United States, the American government implemented the separation of church and state, which reduced the significant political power exerted by the Church, which led to the establishment of other faiths (particularly Protestantism) within the country. A provision of the 1935 Philippine Constitution mimicked the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and added the sentences: ""The exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall be forever allowed. No religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil political rights."" But the Philippine experience has shown that this theoretical "wall of separation" has been crossed several times by secular authorities.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: It was during the American Period when new religious orders arrived in the Philippines. The Spanish friars fled by the hundreds and left parishes without pastors. This prompted Bishops to ask for non-Spanish Religious Congregations to set up foundations in the Philippines and help augment the lack of pastors.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: When the Philippines was placed under Martial Law by dictator Ferdinand Marcos, relations between Church and State changed dramatically, as some bishops expressly and openly opposed Martial Law. The turning point came in 1986 when the CBCP President then-Archbishop of Cebu Ricardo Cardinal Vidal appealed to the Filipinos and the bishops against the government and the fraudulent result of the snap election; with him was then-Archbishop of Manila Jaimé Cardinal Sin, who broadcast over Church-owned Radio Veritas a call for people to support anti-regime rebels. The people's response became what is now known as the People Power Revolution, which ousted Marcos.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Church and State today maintain generally cordial relations despite differing opinions over specific issues. With the guarantee of religious freedom in the Philippines, the Catholic clergy subsequently remained in the political background as a source of moral influence, especially during elections. Political candidates continue to court the clergy and religious leaders for support.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: In the 21st century, Catholic practice ranges from traditional orthodoxy, to Folk Catholicism and Charismatic Catholicism. Of the roughly 84 million Filipino Catholics today, 37 percent are estimated to hear Mass regularly, 29 percent consider themselves very religious, and less than 10 percent ever think of leaving the church.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Amid the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, in response to the prohibition of mass gatherings during the "enhanced community quarantine" throughout Luzon, the CBCP through its President, Archbishop Romulo Valles, said that the celebration of the Eucharist, other liturgical services and spiritual activities from every diocese under their jurisdiction have to be broadcast live through the internet, television or radio. All activities for the Lenten season are also cancelled. Earlier during the Metro Manila partial lockdown, the Archdiocese of Manila through its Apostolic Administrator, Bishop Broderick Pabillo, already cancelled the celebration of the Holy Mass and dispensed the faithful from attending it.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: A number of Catholic Charismatic Renewal movements emerged "vis-a-vis" the "Born-again" movement during the 70s. The charismatic movement offered "In-the-Spirit" seminars in the early days, which have now evolved and have different names; they focus on the charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit. Some of the charismatic movements were the Ang Ligaya ng Panginoon, Assumption Prayer Group, Couples for Christ, the Brotherhood of Christian Businessmen and Professionals, El Shaddai, Elim Communities, Kerygma, the Light of Jesus Family, Shalom, and Soldiers of Christ.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Catholic Church's Neocatechumenal Way in the Philippines has been established for more than 40 years. Membership in the Philippines now exceeds 35,000 persons in more than 1000 communities, with concentrations in Manila and Iloilo province. A neocatechumenal diocesan seminary, Redemptoris Mater, is located in Parañaque, while many families in mission are all over the islands. The Way has been mostly concentrated on evangelization initiatives under the authority of the local bishops.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Catholic Church is involved in education at all levels. It has founded and continues to sponsor hundreds of secondary and primary schools as well as a number of colleges and internationally known universities. The Jesuit Ateneo de Manila University, La Salle Brothers De La Salle University, and the Dominican University of Santo Tomas are listed in the "World's Best Colleges and Universities" in the Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Other prominent educational institutions in the country are Ateneo de Manila University, St. Scholastica's College Manila, Angeles University Foundation, Holy Angel University, Vincentian's Adamson University, Colegio de San Juan de Letran, University of San Carlos, University of San Jose – Recoletos, San Beda University, Saint Louis University, Saint Mary's University, St. Paul University System, Canossa School, San Pedro College, San Sebastian College – Recoletos de Manila, Ateneo de Davao University, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, University of St. La Salle, University of the Immaculate Conception, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame of Marbel University, Notre Dame of Dadiangas University, Salesians of Don Bosco in the Philippines, Saint Mary's Academy of Nagcarlan, Sanctuario de San Antonio Children's Learning Center, and the University of San Agustin, La Consolacion College, Universidad de Santa Isabel, Ateneo de Naga University, University of Santo Tomas - Legazpi.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Catholic Church wields great influence on Philippine society and politics. Then-Archbishop of Cebu Ricardo Cardinal Vidal and then-Archbishop of Manila Jaime Cardinal Sin were influential during the People Power Revolution of 1986 against dictator Ferdinand E. Marcos. The Cebu Archbishop, who was president of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines at that time, led the rest of the Philippine bishops and made a joint declaration against Marcos and the results of the snap election, while the Manila Archbishop appealed to the public via radio to march along Epifanio delos Santos Avenue in support of rebel forces. Some seven million people responded in what became known as the 1986 People Power Revolution, which lasted from February 22–25. The non-violent revolution drove Marcos out of power and into exile in Hawaii.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: In 1989, President Corazon Aquino asked Cardinal Vidal to convince General Jose Comendador, who was sympathetic to the rebel forces fighting her government, to peacefully surrender. Cardinal Vidal's efforts averted what could have been a bloody coup.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: In October 2000, Cardinal Sin expressed his dismay over the allegations of corruption against President Joseph Estrada. His call sparked the second EDSA Revolution, dubbed as "EDSA Dos". Cardinal Vidal personally asked Estrada to step down, to which he agreed at around 12:20 p.m. of January 20, 2001, after five continuous days of protest at the EDSA Shrine, and various parts of the Philippines and the world. Estrada's Vice-President, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, succeeded him and was sworn in on the terrace of the Shrine in front of Cardinal Sin.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: On the death of Pope John Paul II in 2005, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo declared three days of national mourning and was one of many dignitaries at his funeral in Vatican City. Political turmoil in the Philippines widened the rift between the State and the Church. Arroyo's press secretary Ignacio Bunye called the bishops and priests who attended an anti-Arroyo protest as hypocrites and "people who hide their true plans".


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: In 2017, a USA Today reporter remarked that the Church reached its political peak in 1986 when it was instrumental in replacing the Marcos dictatorship.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Church in the Philippines strongly opposed the Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012, commonly known as the RH Bill. The country's populace – 80% of which self-identify as Catholic – was deeply divided in its opinions over the issue.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Members of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) vehemently denounced and repeatedly attempted to block President Benigno Aquino III's plan to push for the passage of the reproductive health bill. The bill, which was popular among the public, was signed into law by Aquino, and was seen as a point of waning moral and political influence of the Catholic Church in the country.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: During the Duterte administration, the Church in the Philippines has been vocally critical of extrajudicial killings taking place during the war on drugs, in what the Church sees as the administration's approval of the bloodshed. Efforts by the Church to rally public support against the administration's war on drugs were less effective due to Duterte's popularity and high trust rating. Some churches reportedly offered sanctuary to those who fear death due to the drug war violence.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: During the 2022 presidential elections campaign, the church supported and endorsed the candidacy of vice president Leni Robredo in an effort to prevent Bongbong Marcos, son of dictator Ferdinand Marcos, from winning the election. Robredo won in 18 of the 86 dioceses in the country.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Philippines has shown a strong devotion to Mary, evidenced by her patronage of various towns and locales nationwide. Particularly, there are pilgrimage sites where each town venerates a specific title of Mary. With Spanish regalia, indigenous miracle stories, and Asian facial features, Filipino Catholics have created hybridized, localized images, the popular devotions to which have been recognized by various Popes.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Filipino Marian images with an established devotion have generally received a Canonical Coronation, with the icon's principal shrine being customarily elevated to the status of minor basilica. Below are some pilgrimage sites and the year they received a canonical blessing:


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Catholic holy days, such as Christmas and Good Friday, are observed as national holidays, with local saints' days being observed as holidays in different towns and cities. The Hispanic-influenced custom of holding fiestas in honor of patron saints have become an integral part of Filipino culture, as it allows for communal celebration while serving as a celebration of the town's existence. A nationwide fiesta occurs on the third Sunday of January, on the country-specific Feast of the Santo Niño de Cebú. Major festivals include the Sinulog Festival in Cebu City, the Ati-Atihan in Kalibo, Aklan, and the Dinagyang in Iloilo City.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: With regard to most holy days of obligation, the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) granted dispensation for all the faithful who cannot attend Masses on these days, except for the following yuletide observances:


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: In 2001, the CBCP also approved a reform in the liturgical calendar, which added to its list of obligatory memorials the Feasts of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Maximilian Kolbe, Rita of Cascia, Ezequiel Moreno and many others.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Philippines has been active in sending Catholic missionaries around the world and has been a training center for foreign priests and nuns.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: To spread the Christian religion and the teachings of Jesus Christ, missionaries enter local communities. Depending on where a missionary or group of missionaries are travelling, their work will vary (international or local communities).


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: Overseas Filipinos have spread Filipino culture worldwide, bringing Filipino Catholicism with them. Filipinos have established two shrines in the Chicago Metropolitan Area: one at St. Wenceslaus Church dedicated to Santo Niño de Cebú and another at St. Hedwig's with its statue to Our Lady of Manaoag. The Filipino community in the Archdiocese of New York has the San Lorenzo Ruiz Chapel (New York City) for its apostolate.


title: Catholic Church in the Philippines

text: The Catholic Church in the Philippines is organized into 72 dioceses in 16 Ecclesiastical Provinces, as well as 7 Apostolic Vicariates and a Military Ordinariate.


title: Titus (film)

text: Titus is a 1999 film adaptation of William Shakespeare's revenge tragedy "Titus Andronicus", about the downfall of a Roman general, the first theatrically-released feature film adaptation of the play. Starring Anthony Hopkins and Jessica Lange, it was the directorial debut of Julie Taymor, who co-produced with Jody Patton and Conchita Airoldi, and wrote the screenplay. The film was a co-production of the United States, the United Kingdom, and Italy; produced by Overseas Filmgroup and Clear Blue Sky Productions and released by Fox Searchlight Pictures.


title: Titus (film)

text: A boy eating lunch in a 1950s-style kitchen plays war with his surrounding toys. A bomb blast outside the window frightens him under the table from where he is rescued and taken to an Amphitheatre, where an invisible audience cheers. An army resembling the Terracotta Army enters; Romans under the command of Titus Andronicus, the general at the center of the play, return victorious from war. They bring back as spoils Tamora, Queen of the Goths, her sons, and Aaron the Moor. Titus sacrifices Tamora's eldest son, Alarbus, so the spirits of his 21 dead sons might be appeased. Tamora eloquently begs for the life of Alarbus, but Titus refuses her plea.


title: Titus (film)

text: Caesar, the Emperor of Rome, dies. His sons Saturninus and Bassianus squabble over who will succeed him. The Tribune of the People, Marcus Andronicus, announces the people's choice for new emperor is his brother, Titus. He refuses the throne and hands it to the late emperor's eldest son Saturninus, much to the latter's delight. The new emperor states he will take Lavinia, Titus' daughter, as his bride, to honor and elevate the family. She is already betrothed to Saturninus' brother, Bassianus, who steals her away. Titus' surviving sons aid in the couple's run for the Pantheon, where they are to marry. Titus, angry with his sons because in his eyes they're being disloyal to Rome, kills his son Mutius as he defends the escape. The new emperor, Saturninus, dishonors Titus and marries Tamora instead. Tamora persuades the Emperor to feign forgiveness to Bassianus, Titus and his family and postpone punishment to a later day, thereby revealing her intention to avenge herself on all the Andronici.


title: Titus (film)

text: During a hunting party the next day, Tamora's lover, Aaron the Moor, meets Tamora's sons Chiron and Demetrius. The two argue over which should take sexual advantage of the newly-wed Lavinia. Aaron easily persuades them to ambush Bassianus and kill him in the presence of Tamora and Lavinia, in order to have their way with her. Lavinia begs Tamora to stop her sons, but Tamora refuses. Chiron and Demetrius throw Bassianus' body in a pit, as Aaron directed them, then take Lavinia away and rape her. To keep her from revealing what she saw and endured, they cut out her tongue as well as her hands, replacing them with tree branches. When Marcus discovers her, he begs her to reveal the identity of her assailants; Lavinia leans towards the camera and opens her bloodied mouth in a silent scream.


title: Titus (film)

text: Aaron frames Titus' sons Martius and Quintus and for the murder of Bassianus with a forged letter outlining their plan to kill him. Angry, the Emperor arrests them. Later on, Marcus takes Lavinia to her father, who's overcome with grief. He and his remaining son Lucius begged for the lives of Martius and Quintus, but the two are found guilty and are marched off to execution. Aaron enters, and tells Titus, Lucius, and Marcus the emperor will spare the prisoners if one of the three sacrifices a hand. Each demands the right to do so. Titus has Aaron cut off his (Titus's) left hand and take it to the emperor. Aaron's story is revealed to have been false, as a messenger brings Titus the heads of his sons and his own severed hand. In Renaissance semiotics, the hand is a representation of political and personal agency. With his hand chopped off, Titus has truly lost power. Desperate for revenge, Titus orders Lucius to flee Rome and raise an army among their former enemy, the Goths.


title: Titus (film)

text: Titus' grandson (Lucius' son and the boy from the opening), who helped Titus read to Lavinia, complains she will not leave his books alone. In the book, she indicates to Titus and Marcus the story of Philomela, in which a similarly mute victim "wrote" the name of her wrongdoer. Marcus gives her a stick to hold with her mouth and stumps. She writes the names of her attackers on the ground. Titus vows revenge. Feigning madness, he ties written prayers for justice to arrows and commands his kinsmen to aim them at the sky so they may reach the gods. Understanding the method in Titus' "madness", Marcus directs the arrows to land inside the palace of Saturninus, who is enraged by this added to the fact Lucius is at the gates of Rome with an army of Goths.


title: Titus (film)

text: Tamora delivers a mixed-race child, fathered by Aaron. To hide his affair from the Emperor, Aaron kills the nurse and flees with the baby. Lucius, marching on Rome with an army of Goths, captures Aaron and threatens to hang the infant. To save the baby, Aaron reveals the entire plot to Lucius, relishing every murder, rape and dismemberment.


title: Titus (film)

text: Tamora, convinced of Titus' madness, approaches him along with her two sons, dressed as the spirits of Revenge, Murder, and Rape. She tells Titus she (as a supernatural spirit) will grant him revenge if he will convince Lucius to stop attacking Rome. Titus agrees, sending Marcus to invite Lucius to a feast. "Revenge" offers to invite the Emperor and Tamora and is about to leave, but Titus insists "Rape" and "Murder" stay with him. She agrees. When she leaves, Titus' servants bind Chiron and Demetrius. Titus cuts their throats, while Lavinia holds a basin with her stumps to catch their blood. He plans to cook them into a pie for their mother.


title: Titus (film)

text: The next day, during the feast at his house, Lavinia enters the dining room. Titus asks Saturninus whether a father should kill his daughter if she is raped. When the Emperor agrees, Titus snaps Lavinia's neck, to the horror of the dinner guests, and tells Saturninus what Tamora's sons did. When Saturninus demands Chiron and Demetrius be brought before him, Titus reveals they were in the pie Tamora enjoyed, and kills Tamora. Saturninus kills Titus after which Lucius kills Saturninus to avenge his father's death.


title: Titus (film)

text: Back in the Roman Arena, Lucius tells his family's story to the people and is proclaimed Emperor. He orders his father Titus and sister Lavinia to be buried in the family monuments, Saturninus be given a proper burial, Tamora's body to be thrown to the wild beasts, and Aaron be buried chest-deep and left to die of thirst and starvation. Aaron is unrepentant to the end. Young Lucius picks up Aaron's child and carries him away into the sunrise.


title: Titus (film)

text: Apart from the deliberate anachronisms, the film follows the play quite closely. One of the experimental concepts in the film was that the character of Young Lucius (Titus' grandson) is initially introduced as a boy from the present who finds himself transported to the fantastical reality of the film. At the beginning of the film, his toy soldiers turn into Titus' Roman army. At the end, when Titus' son Lucius avenges his father by condemning the villainous Aaron to a painful death, the boy takes pity on Aaron's infant son, carrying him away from the violence as he walks slowly into the sunrise. This ending is perhaps more positive than the ending of other productions of the play, including Taymor's stage production, in which Young Lucius is fixated upon the "tiny black coffin" holding the dead infant.


title: Titus (film)

text: Julie Taymor took Shakespeare's script, added various linking scenes without dialogue (while cutting some of the text) and set the play in an anachronistic fantasy world that uses locations, costumes and imagery from many periods of history, including Ancient Rome and Mussolini's Italy, to give the impression of a Roman Empire that survived into the modern era. The opening scenes commence with a heavily choreographed triumphal march of the Roman troops, complete with motorcycle outriders. The selection of music is similarly diverse.


title: Titus (film)

text: Principal photography took place at the Cinecittà studios in Rome and on location at various historic monuments. The arena that appears at the beginning and ending of the film is the Arena in Pula, Croatia. The Emperor's palace is represented by the Fascist Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in Rome. Some shots of tunnels and ruins were filmed at Hadrian's Villa in Rome. The forest scenes were shot at Manziana, near Rome. Titus' house is represented by an old house near an aqueduct in Rome, and the streets where he rounds up his conspirators are the Roman Ghetto.


title: Titus (film)

text: The score to the film was created by Taymor's long-time friend and partner Elliot Goldenthal and is a typical Goldenthal soundtrack with an epic, inventive and dissonant feel.


title: Titus (film)

text: The film was a box office bomb, earning only $22,313 on its opening weekend due to its limited release in only two theaters, ranking number 57 in the box office. Its widest release in the US was only in 35 theaters, causing the film to earn only $2,007,290 in North America. Overseas, the film grossed $252,390 in Chile, Mexico, and Spain, culminating in a worldwide total of $2,920,616.


title: Titus (film)

text: "Titus" received a mixed response from critics. It holds a 57% score on Metacritic based on reviews from 29 critics indicating "Mixed or average reviews". Rotten Tomatoes reports a 68% approval rating based on 75 reviews with a weighted average of 6.54/10. The site's consensus reads: "The movie stretches too long to be entertaining despite a strong cast."


title: Titus (film)

text: Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" gave the film a positive review, making it a "Critic's Pick". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" also praised "Titus" and gave it three and a half out of four stars, referring to the source material as "the least of Shakespeare's tragedies" and concluding, "Anyone who doesn't enjoy this film for what it is must explain: How could it be more? This is the film Shakespeare's play deserves, and perhaps even a little more." Scott Tobias of "The A.V. Club" wrote that ""Titus" strikes a near-impossible balance between magnificently cracked high camp and a more serious statement about corruption and the cycle of violence" and that "[Taymor's] forceful adaptation builds to a glorious payoff and Cumming's flamboyant performance alone—he's a sort of fascist Pee-wee Herman—seems enough to ensure "Titus" lasting cult status." Robin Askew wrote in a 2016 article for "Bristol24-7" that the film is "brilliant and daring if under-appreciated."


title: Titus (film)

text: The film received one nomination at the 72nd Academy Awards for Best Costume Design, but lost to "Topsy-Turvy".


title: Reappropriation

text: In linguistics, reappropriation, reclamation, or resignification is the cultural process by which a group reclaims words or artifacts that were previously used in a way disparaging of that group. It is a specific form of a semantic change (i.e. change in a word's meaning). Linguistic reclamation can have wider implications in the fields of discourse and has been described in terms of personal or sociopolitical empowerment.


title: Reappropriation

text: A "reclaimed" or "reappropriated" word is a word that was at one time pejorative but has been brought back into acceptable usage, usually starting within its original target, i.e. the communities that were pejoratively described by that word, and later spreading to the general populace as well. Some of the terms being reclaimed have originated as non-pejorative terms that over time became pejorative. Reclaiming them can be seen as restoring their original intent. This, however, does not apply to all such words as some were used in a derogatory fashion from the very beginning.


title: Reappropriation

text: In terms of linguistic theory, reappropriation can be seen as a specific case of a type of a semantic change, namely, of "amelioration" - a process through which a word's meaning becomes more positive over time.


title: Reappropriation

text: The value reversal refers to changing the meaning from pejorative to neutral or positive. Neutralization refers to denying the term to those who want to use it, or words in general, to oppress and hurt another group. Stigma exploitation, finally, refers to the use of such terms as a reminder that a given group has been subject to unfair treatment. Those goals can be mutually exclusive; in particular, stigma exploitation is incompatible with the other two goals.


title: Reappropriation

text: Reclamation can be seen as both a psychological, individual process and as a sociological, society-wide process. In terms of a personal process, it has been discussed in the context of empowerment that comes from "disarming the power of a dominant group to control one’s own and others’ views of oneself", and gaining control over the way one is described, and hence, one's self-image, self-control and self-understanding. Brontsema wrote that "At the heart of linguistic reclamation is the right of self-definition, of forging and naming one’s own existence." Other scholars have connected this concept to that of self-labelling. The empowerment process, and the denial of language as a tool of oppression as abuse of power, has also been stressed by scholars such as Judith Butler and Michel Foucault, the latter who also referred to it as a "reverse discourse".


title: Reappropriation

text: In terms of the wider sociopolitical empowerment process, reclamation process has also been credited with promoting social justice, and building group solidarity; activists groups that engage in this process have been argued to be more likely to be seen as representative of their groups and see those groups as raising in power and status in their society. Scholars have argued that those who use such terms to describe themselves in the act of reappropriation "will feel powerful and therefore see his or her group label as less stigmatizing. Observers will infer that the group has power and will therefore see the label as less saturated in negativity".


title: Reappropriation

text: Although those terms are most often used in the context of language, this concept has also been used in relation to other cultural concepts, for example in the discussion of reappropriation of stereotypes, reappropriation of popular culture (e.g., the reappropriation of science fiction literature into elite, high literature), or reappropriation of traditions.


title: Reappropriation

text: Reclaimed words often remain controversial for a time, due to their original pejorative nature. For some terms, even "reclaimed" usage by members of the community concerned is a subject of controversy. Often, not all members of a given community support the idea that a particular slur should be reclaimed at all. In other cases, a word can be seen as acceptable when used by the members of the community that has reclaimed it (in-group usage), but its use by outside parties (out-group usage) can still be seen as derogatory and thus controversial. For example, Brontsema noted in 2003 in his discussion of the reclaimed terms that while "[the term nigger] may be acceptable for [African Americans] to use it freely, it is off-limits to whites, whose usage of nigger cannot be the same, given its history and the general history of racial oppression and racial relations in the United States." Similar argument has been made in 2009 for words associated with the LGBT movement like queer or dyke. A related discourse occurred with regards to the Washington Redskins name controversy, with the American Indians community divided on whether the term has been reclaimed or not.


title: Reappropriation

text: Those opposed to the reclamation of terms have argued that such terms are irredeemable and are forever connected to their derogatory meaning, and their usage will continue to hurt those who remember its original intent and even reinforce the existing stigma. The supporters of reclamation argue, in turn, that many such words had non-derogatory meanings that are simply being restored and that in either case, reclaiming such a word denies it to those who would want to use it to oppress others and represents a form of moral victory for the group that reclaimed it.


title: Reappropriation

text: In 2017, the US Supreme Court, heard arguments for "Matal v. Tam". In that case, the US Patent and Trademark Office refused a trademark registration for an Asian American band, The Slants, because it deemed the term disparaging. However, the court ruled unanimously in its favor. Washington University in St. Louis conducted an extensive study on reappropriation based on the band name and found that reclaimed words could be an effective tool for neutralizing disparaging words: "Reappropriation does seem to work in the sense of defusing insults, rendering them less disparaging and harmful."


title: Reappropriation

text: There are many recent examples of linguistic reappropriation in the areas of human sexuality, gender roles, sexual orientation, etc. Among these are:


title: Reappropriation

text: In England, Cavalier was a derogatory nickname reappropriated as self-identification, in contrast to the term Roundhead which, despite being used by the Royalists for the supporters of the Parliamentary cause, remained a derisory word up to the point of it being a punishable offense if used to refer to a soldier of the New Model Army. "Tory" (originally from the Middle Irish word for 'pursued man' ), "Whig" (from "whiggamore"; see the Whiggamore Raid) and "Suffragette" are other British examples.


title: Reappropriation

text: In the American colonies, British officers used Yankee, a term originated in reference to Dutch settlers, as a derogatory term against the colonists. British officers created the early versions of the song "Yankee Doodle", as a criticism of the uncultured colonists, but during the Revolution, as the colonists began to reappropriate the label "yankee" as a point of pride, they likewise reappropriated the song, altering verses, and turning it into a patriotic anthem. The term is now widely used as an affectionate nickname for Americans in general.


title: Reappropriation

text: In the 1850s in the United States, a secretive political party was derisively dubbed the Know Nothing party, based on their penchant for saying "I know nothing" when asked for details by outsiders; this became the common name for the party. It eventually became a popular name, sufficiently so that consumer products like tea, candy, and even a freighter were branded with the name.


title: Reappropriation

text: During the 2016 United States presidential election, Hillary Clinton referred to some Trump supporters as a "Basket of deplorables". Many Trump supporters endorsed the phrase. Donald Trump also played the song "Do You Hear the People Sing?" from the musical "Les Misérables" as an introduction to one of his rallies, using a graphic captioned "Les Deplorables". Subsequently, Trump called Clinton a "nasty woman" during the final presidential debate, resulting in that expression being described as a "rallying cry" for women. It was soon featured on merchandise and used by Clinton's campaign surrogates.


title: Reappropriation

text: One of the older examples of successful reclaiming is the term "Jesuit" to refer to members of the Society of Jesus. This was originally a derogatory term referring to people who too readily invoked the name of Jesus in their politics, but which members of the Society adopted over time for themselves, so that the word came to refer exclusively to them, and generally in a positive or neutral sense, even though the term "Jesuitical" is derived from the Society of Jesus and is used to mean things like: manipulative, conspiring, treacherous, capable of intellectually justifying anything by convoluted reasoning.


title: Reappropriation

text: Other examples can be found in the origins of Methodism; early members were originally mocked for their "methodical" and rule-driven religious devotion, founder John Wesley embraced the term for his movement. Members of the Religious Society of Friends were termed "Quakers" as an epithet, but took up the term themselves. Similarly, the term Protestant was originally a derogatory term, and more recently the term pagan has been subject to a similar change in meaning.


title: Reappropriation

text: To a lesser extent, and more controversially among the groups referred to, many racial, ethnic, and class terms have been reappropriated:


title: Survivor Series (1998)

text: The 1998 Survivor Series (subtitled Deadly Game) was the 12th annual Survivor Series professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF; WWE as of 2002). It took place on November 15, 1998, at the Kiel Center in St. Louis, Missouri.


title: Survivor Series (1998)

text: Fourteen professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event's card, a noticeably higher number than most pay-per-view events because the main focus of the card was a tournament for the vacant WWF Championship. It was the first tournament held with the WWF Championship on the line in ten years, the last being at WrestleMania IV. Both tournaments were 14-man tournaments instead of the regular 8 or 16-man tournaments. Aside from the tournament, two other championship matches occurred: the first defense of the WWF Women's Championship since it had been reactivated and a triple threat tag team match for the WWF Tag Team Championship.


title: Survivor Series (1998)

text: This event was also the first Survivor Series not to include any Survivor Series elimination matches, although the notion of survival is apparent in the knockout tournament. The only other two Survivor Series events without any Survivor Series elimination matches were in 2002 and 2022, which saw the debut of the Elimination Chamber match, and the main roster debut of WarGames, two match types also based on survival.


title: Survivor Series (1998)

text: Survivor Series is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV), produced every November by the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) since 1987. In what has become the second longest running pay-per-view event in history (behind WWE's WrestleMania), it is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Royal Rumble, and was considered one of the "Big Five" PPVs, along with King of the Ring. The event is traditionally characterized by having Survivor Series matches, which are tag team elimination matches that typically pits teams of four or five wrestlers against each other. The 1998 event, however, did not feature such match, and was the first of only three times a Survivor Series match did not occur at the titular event—the second in 2002, and the third in 2022. In place of the traditional Survivor Series match, for this event, was a 14-man single elimination tournament for the vacant WWF Championship called "Deadly Game". The 1998 event was the 12th event in the Survivor Series chronology and was subtitled "Deadly Game" for the aforementioned tournament. The event was scheduled to be held on November 15, 1998, at the Kiel Center in St. Louis, Missouri.