title: History of the Maldives

text: In April 2019 parliamentary election The Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) of president Ibrahim Mohamed Solih won a landslide victory. It took 65 of 87 seats of the parliament. This was the first time a single party was able to get such a high number of seats in the parliament in Maldivian history. Former president Abdulla Yameen was sentenced to five years in prison in November 2019 for money laundering. The High Court upheld the jail sentence in January 2021. The Supreme Court acquitted Yameen from the charges on the 30th of November 2021 due to the lack of substantial evidence.


title: Dan Castellaneta filmography

text: The following is a complete filmography of the actor Dan Castellaneta. Active since the 1980s, Castellaneta has appeared in numerous films, television series and video games. Along with his live-action work, he has often worked as a voice actor, including for his longest-running role as Homer Simpson in the animated sitcom "The Simpsons". Castellaneta has also written six episodes of the show with his wife Deb Lacusta, and has won three Primetime Emmy Awards Outstanding Voice-Over Performance for it.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Marina Hyde (born Marina Elizabeth Catherine Dudley-Williams; 13 May 1974) is an English journalist. She joined "The Guardian" newspaper in 2000 and, as one of the newspaper's columnists, writes three articles each week on current affairs, celebrity, and sport.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Hyde is the daughter of Sir Alastair Edgcumbe James Dudley-Williams, 2nd Baronet, and his wife, the former Diana Elizabeth Jane Duncan. Through her father, she is the granddaughter of aviation pioneer and Conservative politician Sir Rolf Dudley-Williams, 1st Baronet. She attended Downe House School, near Newbury in Berkshire, and read English at Christ Church, Oxford.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Hyde began her career in journalism as a temporary secretary on the "Showbiz" desk at "The Sun" newspaper. In an otherwise unrelated article in "The Guardian", she wrote: "I am only called Marina Hyde because my real name was too long to fit across a single column in "The Sun", where I started out". She was later sacked by "Sun" editor David Yelland after it emerged she had been exchanging e-mails with Piers Morgan, editor of rival newspaper the "Daily Mirror".


title: Marina Hyde

text: Since 2000, Hyde has worked for "The Guardian", at first writing the newspaper's Diary column. She contributes three columns a week: one on sport, one on celebrity, and one which is typically about politics. Her sport column appears on Thursday; her celebrity column is entitled "Lost in Showbiz" and appears in the "G2" supplement each Friday. She has a regular serious column in the main section of "The Guardian" on Saturday, as well as a column in the "Weekend" supplement, in which she parodies a celebrity diary entry. This is entitled "A Peek at the Diary of...", which ends in the sign-off, "As seen by Marina Hyde". Hyde was nominated as Columnist of the Year in the 2010 British Press Awards.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Elton John unsuccessfully sued "The Guardian" for libel in relation to Hyde's spoof diary column "A peek at the diary of... 'Sir Elton John'", published in July 2008. Mr Justice Tugendhat ruled that the "irony" and "teasing" did not amount to defamation. Hyde published a follow-up diary of Elton John in 2009.


title: Marina Hyde

text: In November 2011, "The Guardian" apologised to "The Sun" newspaper for an article in which Hyde had falsely alleged the newspaper had visited the home of a member of the legal team of the Leveson Inquiry. In the front-page story Hyde had accused "The Sun" of "blowing a giant raspberry at Lord Justice Leveson’s inquiry". "The Sun"s then managing editor Richard Caseby sent a toilet roll accompanied by "a squalid note" to "Guardian" editor Alan Rusbridger after Hyde's false story.


title: Marina Hyde

text: A few months later, Caseby once again objected to an article by Hyde in which, according to Roy Greenslade, she was "employing irony", in a reference to Page 3 models following a comment on Twitter by Rupert Murdoch and the use by "The Sun" of a photograph of model Reeva Steenkamp in a bikini, on the day after her murder. Caseby objected to the article, and complained to "The Guardian"s readers' editor, but his complaint was the only one received.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Hyde received two awards from the Sports Journalists' Association (SJA) in February 2020, including Sports Journalist of the Year, the first woman to receive the award in its 43-year history. The other award was for Sports Columnist of the Year. She had written columns during the year on Prime Minister Theresa May’s decision to award a knighthood to Geoff Boycott, Tiger Woods’s performance at the 2019 Masters, and male responses to the FIFA Women's World Cup that year.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Hyde has won awards for her journalism. In 2017 she was named Political Commentator of the Year at the Editorial Intelligence Comment Awards, as well as winning the Commentariat of the Year Award. At the 2018 Editorial Intelligence Comment Awards, she received the Commentator of the Year award. In 2019, she won Political Commentator of the Year at the National Press Awards. Also in 2019, she received the Columnist of the Year award at the British Journalism Awards. She won the same award again at the British Journalism Awards in 2020. Also in 2020, she became the first woman ever to win the Sports Journalist of the Year award at the British Sports Journalism Awards. At the same event, she also won Sports Columnist of the Year. In 2020 Hyde won the London Press Club's Edgar Wallace Award for writing or reporting of the highest quality.


title: Marina Hyde

text: Hyde's book about celebrity, "Celebrity: How Entertainers Took Over the World and Why We Need an Exit Strategy", was published in 2009. "What Just Happened?!", a collection of her "Guardian" columns written between 2016 and 2022, was published in 2022.


title: Marina Hyde

text: In 1999, Hyde married Kieran Clifton, a director at the BBC. The couple had a child in 2010 and live in London. Their third child was born in the summer of 2014.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: The SIG Sauer P230 is a small, semi-automatic handgun chambered in .32 ACP or .380 Auto. It was designed by SIG Sauer of Eckernförde, Germany. It was imported into the United States by SIGARMS in 1985. In 1996 it was replaced by the model P232.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: SIG P230 was designed in 1977 as a concealable law enforcement sidearm. After World War II, the West German state police mainly carried Walther PP and Walther PPK models chambered in .32 ACP, as at the time, no 9×19mm pistol was compact nor portable enough for concealed carry. However, various terrorist incidents in West Germany circa early 1970s, such as 1972 Munich Massacre and Red Army Faction's activities, pushed the West German law enforcement outfits to seek new, more powerful handguns to counter to these new threats. P230 was submitted for the search, but was not selected. The West German police decided to use 9mm Parabellum ammunition, with SIG Sauer P225 (P6), Walther P5, and H&K P7 being selected, and would be issued at the discretion of each state.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: The design and function of the P230 is of the simple fixed barrel, straight blow-back configuration. It has a reputation as a well-built firearm, and competes with the smaller Walther PPK. With its relatively narrow slide and frame it can be carried in an ankle holster or beneath body armor.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: The P230 was available in both blued and all-stainless finishes. The blued version features a blued steel slide and a matching, anodized aluminum frame, whereas the stainless version was completely made from stainless steel. Both versions came with a molded polymer, wrap-around grip that is contoured to give the shooter a comfortable and secure hold on the pistol.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: The trigger comes from the factory with a single-action pull, and is capable of both single-action and double-action. Pulling back the slide sets the hammer backwards and downwards to its single-action position, making for a very short trigger pull, with minimal take-up. The double-action pull is longer and more stiff. It has no external safeties, though it does have a de-cocking lever positioned just above the right-handed shooter's thumb, on the left side of the grip. The lever provides for a safe method of lowering the hammer from its full-cocked, single-action position, to a "half-cock", double-action safe position where the hammer itself falls forward to a locking point about an eighth of an inch from the rear of the firing pin. Once de-cocked, it is physically impossible for the hammer to drop completely and contact the firing pin, which would otherwise greatly increase the risk of the unintentional discharge of a chambered round. In order for the round to discharge, the full double-action pull would have to be completed, which allows for the pistol to be carried reasonably safely with a round chambered. In addition, the SIG P232 has an automatic firing pin safety.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: The sights are of the traditional SIG design and configuration, with a dot on the front sight and a rectangle on the rear sight. To aim using the sights, the shooter simply aligns the dot over the rectangle. The magazine release is located behind and below the magazine floor plate. The magazine is released by pushing the lever towards the rear of the grip, at which point the magazine can be removed from the pistol.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: The P232 incorporates more than 60 changes to the design of the P230. Most of the changes are internal. Some of the changes are:


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: Due to its small dimensions, it is easily carried as a backup weapon or as a concealed carry handgun, holding 8 + 1 rounds of .32 ACP or 7 + 1 rounds of .380 ACP (9mm "Kurz" or Short), respectively.


title: SIG Sauer P230

text: Imports of the SIG Sauer P232 to the United States, and of spare parts and magazines, were discontinued in July 2014. Although the P230 and P232 are known for reliability and accuracy, market competition had increased with the proliferation of smaller, lighter and less expensive pistols chambered for the .380 ACP cartridge. The P232 and other SIG Sauer products manufactured in Germany were banned for export by the German Government, due to unlawful foreign arms sales by the U.S. State Department to the Colombian Defense Ministry.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine, sold under the brand name Apokyn among others, is a type of aporphine having activity as a non-selective dopamine agonist which activates both D-like and, to a much lesser extent, D-like receptors. It also acts as an antagonist of 5-HT and α-adrenergic receptors with high affinity. The compound is historically a morphine decomposition product made by boiling morphine with concentrated acid, hence the "-morphine" suffix. Contrary to its name, apomorphine does not actually contain morphine or its skeleton, nor does it bind to opioid receptors. The "apo-" prefix relates to it being a morphine derivative ("[comes] from morphine").


title: Apomorphine

text: Historically, apomorphine has been tried for a variety of uses, including as a way to relieve anxiety and craving in alcoholics, an emetic (to induce vomiting), for treating stereotypies (repeated behaviour) in farmyard animals, and more recently in treating erectile dysfunction. Currently, apomorphine is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. It is a potent emetic and should not be administered without an antiemetic such as domperidone. The emetic properties of apomorphine are exploited in veterinary medicine to induce therapeutic emesis in canines that have recently ingested toxic or foreign substances.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine was also used as a private treatment of heroin addiction, a purpose for which it was championed by the author William S. Burroughs. Burroughs and others claimed that it was a "metabolic regulator" with a restorative dimension to a damaged or dysfunctional dopaminergic system. Despite anecdotal evidence that this offers a plausible route to an abstinence-based mode, no clinical trials have ever tested this hypothesis. A recent study indicates that apomorphine might be a suitable marker for assessing central dopamine system alterations associated with chronic heroin consumption. There is, however, no clinical evidence that apomorphine is an effective and safe treatment regimen for opiate addiction.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine is used in advanced Parkinson's disease intermittent hypomobility ("off" episodes), where a decreased response to an anti-Parkinson drug such as -DOPA causes muscle stiffness and loss of muscle control. While apomorphine can be used in combination with -DOPA, the intention is usually to reduce the -DOPA dosing, as by this stage the patient often has many of dyskinesias caused by -DOPA and hypermobility periods. When an episode sets in, the apomorphine is injected subcutaneously or applied sublingually, and signs subside. It is used an average of three times a day. Some people use portable mini-pumps that continuously infuse them with apomorphine, allowing them to stay in the "on" state and using apomorphine as an effective monotherapy.


title: Apomorphine

text: The main and absolute contraindication to using apomorphine is the concurrent use of adrenergic receptor antagonists; combined, they cause a severe drop in blood pressure and fainting. Alcohol causes an increased frequency of orthostatic hypotension (a sudden drop in blood pressure when getting up), and can also increase the chances of pneumonia and heart attacks. Dopamine antagonists, by their nature of competing for sites at dopamine receptors, reduce the effectiveness of the agonistic apomorphine.


title: Apomorphine

text: IV administration of apomorphine is highly discouraged, as it can crystallize in the veins and create a blood clot (thrombus) and block a pulmonary artery (pulmonary embolism).


title: Apomorphine

text: Nausea and vomiting are common side effects when first beginning therapy with apomorphine; antiemetics such as trimethobenzamide or domperidone, dopamine antagonists, are often used while first starting apomorphine. Around 50% of people grow tolerant enough to apomorphine's emetic effects that they can discontinue the antiemetic.


title: Apomorphine

text: Other side effects include orthostatic hypotension and resultant fainting, sleepiness, dizziness, runny nose, sweating, paleness, and flushing. More serious side effects include dyskinesias (especially when taking -DOPA), fluid accumulation in the limbs (edema), suddenly falling asleep, confusion and hallucinations, increased heart rate and heart palpitations, and persistent erections (priapism). The priapism is caused by apomorphine increasing arterial blood supply to the penis. This side effect has been exploited in studies attempting to treat erectile dysfunction.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine's R-enantiomer is an agonist of both D and D dopamine receptors, with higher activity at D. The members of the D subfamily, consisting of D, D, and D receptors, are inhibitory G protein–coupled receptors. The D receptor in particular is an important target in the signaling pathway, and is connected to several neurological disorders. Shortage or excess of dopamine can prevent proper function and signaling of these receptors leading to disease states.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine improves motor function by activating dopamine receptors in the nigrostriatal pathway, the limbic system, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland. It also increases blood flow to the supplementary motor area and to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (stimulation of which has been found to reduce the tardive dyskinesia effects of -DOPA). Parkinson's has also been found to have excess iron at the sites of neurodegeneration; both the ("R")- and ("S")-enantiomers of apomorphine are potent iron chelators and radical scavengers.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine also decreases the breakdown of dopamine in the brain (though it inhibits its synthesis as well). It is an upregulator of certain neural growth factors, in particular NGF but not BDNF, epigenetic downregulation of which has been associated with addictive behaviour in rats.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine causes vomiting by acting on dopamine receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone of the medulla; this activates the nearby vomiting center.


title: Apomorphine

text: While apomorphine has lower bioavailability when taken orally, due to not being absorbed well in the GI tract and undergoing heavy first-pass metabolism, it has a bioavailability of 100% when given subcutaneously. It reaches peak plasma concentration in 10–60 minutes. Ten to twenty minutes after that, it reaches its peak concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid. Its lipophilic structure allows it to cross the blood–brain barrier.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine possesses affinity for the following receptors (note that a "higher" "K" indicates a "lower" affinity):


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine has a high clearance rate (3–5 L/kg/hr) and is mainly metabolized and excreted by the liver. It is likely that while the cytochrome P450 system plays a minor role, most of apomorphine's metabolism happens via auto-oxidation, "O"-glucuronidation, "O"-methylation, "N"-demethylation, and sulfation. Only 3–4% of the apomorphine is excreted unchanged and into the urine. The half-life is 30–60 minutes, and the effects of the injection last for up to 90 minutes.


title: Apomorphine

text: Toxicity depends on the route of administration; the LDs in mice were 300 mg/kg for the oral route, 160 mg/kg for intraperitoneal, and 56 mg/kg intravenous.


title: Apomorphine

text: Several techniques exist for the creation of apomorphine from morphine. In the past, morphine had been combined with hydrochloric acid at high temperatures (around 150 °C) to achieve a low yield of apomorphine, ranging anywhere from 0.6% to 46%.


title: Apomorphine

text: More recent techniques create the apomorphine in a similar fashion, by heating it in the presence of any acid that will promote the essential dehydration rearrangement of morphine-type alkaloids, such as phosphoric acid. The method then deviates by including a water scavenger, which is essential to remove the water produced by the reaction that can react with the product and lead to decreased yield. The scavenger can be any reagent that will irreversibly react with water such as phthalic anhydride or titanium chloride. The temperature required for the reaction varies based upon choice of acid and water scavenger. The yield of this reaction is much higher: at least 55%.


title: Apomorphine

text: The pharmacological effects of the naturally-occurring analog aporphine in the blue lotus ("Nymphaea caerulea") were known to the ancient Egyptians and Mayans, with the plant featuring in tomb frescoes and associated with entheogenic rites. It is also observed in Egyptian erotic cartoons, suggesting that they were aware of its erectogenic properties.


title: Apomorphine

text: The modern medical history of apomorphine begins with its synthesis by Arppe in 1845 from morphine and sulfuric acid, although it was named "sulphomorphide" at first. Matthiesen and Wright (1869) used hydrochloric acid instead of sulfuric acid in the process, naming the resulting compound "apomorphine". Initial interest in the compound was as an emetic, tested and confirmed safe by London doctor Samuel Gee, and for the treatment of stereotypies in farmyard animals. Key to the use of apomorphine as a behavioural modifier was the research of Erich Harnack, whose experiments in rabbits (which do not vomit) demonstrated that apomorphine had powerful effects on the activity of rabbits, inducing licking, gnawing and in very high doses convulsions and death.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine was one of the earliest used pharmacotherapies for alcoholism. The Keeley Cure (1870s to 1900) contained apomorphine, among other ingredients, but the first medical reports of its use for more than pure emesis come from James Tompkins and Charles Douglas. Tompkins reported, after injection of 6.5 mg ("one tenth of a grain"):Douglas saw two purposes for apomorphine:This use of small, continuous doses (1/30th of a grain, or 2.16 mg by Douglas) of apomorphine to reduce alcoholic craving comes some time before Pavlov's discovery and publication of the idea of the "conditioned reflex" in 1903. This method was not limited to Douglas; the Irish doctor Francis Hare, who worked in a sanatorium outside London from 1905 onward, also used low-dose apomorphine as a treatment, describing it as "the most useful single drug in the therapeutics of inebriety". He wrote:He also noted there appeared to be a significant prejudice against the use of apomorphine, both from the associations of its name and doctors being reluctant to give hypodermic injections to alcoholics. In the US, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act made working with any morphine derivatives extremely hard, despite apomorphine itself not being an opiate.


title: Apomorphine

text: In the 1950s the neurotransmitter dopamine was discovered in the brain by Katharine Montagu, and characterised as a neurotransmitter a year later by Arvid Carlsson, for which he would be awarded the Nobel Prize. A. N. Ernst then discovered in 1965 that apomorphine was a powerful stimulant of dopamine receptors. This, along with the use of sublingual apomorphine tablets, led to a renewed interest in the use of apomorphine as a treatment for alcoholism. A series of studies of non-emetic apomorphine in the treatment of alcoholism were published, with mostly positive results. However, there was little clinical consequence.


title: Apomorphine

text: The use of apomorphine to treat "the shakes" was first suggested by Weil in France in 1884, although seemingly not pursued until 1951. Its clinical use was first reported in 1970 by Cotzias et al., although its emetic properties and short half-life made oral use impractical. A later study found that combining the drug with the antiemetic domperidone improved results significantly. The commercialization of apomorphine for Parkinson's disease followed its successful use in patients with refractory motor fluctuations using intermittent rescue injections and continuous infusions.


title: Apomorphine

text: Aversion therapy in alcoholism had its roots in Russia in the early 1930s, with early papers by Pavlov, Galant and Sluchevsky and Friken, and would remain a strain in the Soviet treatment of alcoholism well into the 1980s. In the US a particularly notable devotee was Dr Voegtlin, who attempted aversion therapy using apomorphine in the mid to late 1930s. However, he found apomorphine less able to induce negative feelings in his subjects than the stronger and more unpleasant emetic emetine.


title: Apomorphine

text: In the UK, however, the publication of J Y Dent's (who later went on to treat Burroughs) 1934 paper "Apomorphine in the treatment of Anxiety States" laid out the main method by which apomorphine would be used to treat alcoholism in Britain. His method in that paper is clearly influenced by the then-novel idea of aversion:However, even in 1934 he was suspicious of the idea that the treatment was pure conditioned reflex – "though vomiting is one of the ways that apomorphine relives the patient, I do not believe it to be its main therapeutic effect." – and by 1948 he wrote:This led to his development of lower-dose and non-aversive methods, which would inspire a positive trial of his method in Switzerland by Dr Harry Feldmann and later scientific testing in the 1970s, some time after his death. However, the use of apomorphine in aversion therapy had escaped alcoholism, with its use to treat homosexuality leading to the death of a British Army Captain Billy Clegg Hill in 1962, helping to cement its reputation as a dangerous drug used primarily in archaic behavioural therapies.


title: Apomorphine

text: In his "Deposition: Testimony Concerning a Sickness" in the introduction to later editions of "Naked Lunch" (first published in 1959), William S. Burroughs wrote that apomorphine treatment was the only effective cure to opioid addiction he has encountered:


title: Apomorphine

text: He goes on to lament the fact that as of his writing, little to no research has been done on apomorphine or variations of the drug to study its effects on curing addiction, and perhaps the possibility of retaining the positive effects while removing the side effect of vomiting.


title: Apomorphine

text: Despite his claims throughout his life, Burroughs never really cured his addiction and was back to using opiates within years of his apomorphine "cure". However, he insisted on apomorphine's effectiveness in several works and interviews.


title: Apomorphine

text: There is renewed interest in the use of apomorphine to treat addiction, in both smoking cessation and alcoholism. As the drug is known to be reasonably safe for use in humans, it is a viable target for repurposing.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine has been researched as a possible treatment for erectile dysfunction and female hypoactive sexual desire disorder, though its efficacy has been limited. Nonetheless, it was under development as a treatment for erectile dysfunction by TAP Pharmaceuticals under the brand name Uprima. In 2000, TAP withdrew its new drug application after an FDA review panel raised questions about the drug's safety, due to many clinical trial subjects fainting after taking the drug.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine is reported to be an inhibitor of amyloid beta protein fiber formation, whose presence is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease, and a potential therapeutic under the amyloid hypothesis.


title: Apomorphine

text: Two routes of administration are currently clinically utilized: subcutaneous (either as intermittent injections or continuous infusion) and sublingual. Other non-invasive administration routes were investigated as a substitute for parenteral administration, reaching different preclinical and clinical stages. These include: peroral, nasal, pulmonary, transdermal, rectal, and buccal, as well as iontophoresis methods.


title: Apomorphine

text: Apomorphine is used to inducing vomiting in dogs after ingestion of various toxins or foreign bodies. It can be given subcutaneously, intramuscularly, intravenously, or, when a tablet is crushed, in the conjunctiva of the eye. The oral route is ineffective, as apomorphine cannot cross the blood–brain barrier fast enough, and blood levels don't reach a high enough concentration to stimulate the chemoreceptor trigger zone. It can remove around 40–60% of the contents in the stomach.


title: Apomorphine

text: One of the reasons apomorphine is a preferred drug is its reversibility: in cases of prolonged vomiting, the apomorphine can be reversed with dopamine antagonists like the phenothiazines (for example, acepromazine). Giving apomorphine after giving acepromazine, however, will no longer stimulate vomiting, because apomorphine's target receptors are already occupied. An animal who undergoes severe respiratory depression due to apomorphine can be treated with naloxone.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: Michael Joseph Dunleavy Jr. (born September 15, 1980) is an American former professional basketball player who is the vice president of basketball operations for the Golden State Warriors of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He previously played for the Warriors, Indiana Pacers, Milwaukee Bucks, Chicago Bulls, Cleveland Cavaliers and Atlanta Hawks. He is the son of long-time NBA player and former NBA head coach Mike Dunleavy Sr.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: As a 1999 graduate of Jesuit High School in Beaverton, Oregon, Dunleavy led them to the 1999 4A State Boys Basketball Championship over North Salem High School, 65–38. Dunleavy attended the University School of Milwaukee for his freshman year, and Homestead High School in Mequon, Wisconsin for his sophomore year.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: Dunleavy played at Duke University from 1999 to 2002. As a sophomore, he played on Duke's national championship team and scored a team-high 21 points in the title game, including 3 three-pointers during a decisive 11–2 second-half Duke run. As a junior, Dunleavy was a first-team NABC All-American, averaging 17.3 points per game and 7.2 rebounds per game for the 31–4 Blue Devils.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: In 2001–02, Dunleavy, Jay Williams, and Carlos Boozer each scored at least 600 points for the season, a feat only matched at Duke by Jon Scheyer, Kyle Singler, and Nolan Smith in the 2009–10 season.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: In November 2005, the Warriors signed Dunleavy to a 5-year, $44 million contract extension. The Warriors' general manager Chris Mullin said, "The way Mike performed, the way he conducted himself and the way we run our organization, we both felt it was something that we wanted." The deal drew criticism from fans, though, in light of the other large contracts that the Warriors franchise had signed, including those of Adonal Foyle and Derek Fisher. During the 2005–06 season, Dunleavy lost his starting role as small forward for a number of games, due partly to a shooting slump. He won back the starting job later in the season and was expected to start at his new position of power forward for the 2006–07 season. Some early struggles, however, prompted Warriors head coach Don Nelson to send Dunleavy back to the bench, juggling his lineup in search of better team chemistry and winning results.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On January 17, 2007, Dunleavy was dealt to the Indiana Pacers along with teammates Troy Murphy, Ike Diogu, and Keith McLeod for Stephen Jackson, Al Harrington, Šarūnas Jasikevičius, and Josh Powell. In his first full season with the Pacers, Dunleavy started all 82 games and averaged a career-high 19.1 points per game.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: During the 2010–2011 season, the Indiana Pacers advanced to the NBA playoffs for the first time since 2006 thanks to an end of the season win over the Washington Wizards coupled with a Charlotte Bobcats loss to the Orlando Magic. Dunleavy scored 14 points in the 136–112 victory. Dunleavy also ended his career playoff drought of 9 years and 624 games. He was the second active leader in this category behind former Warriors and Pacers teammate Troy Murphy, who also ended his drought as a part of the Boston Celtics. Chris Wilcox of the Boston Celtics now holds the record.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: Following the 2011 NBA lockout, Dunleavy signed a two-year, $7.5 million contract with the Milwaukee Bucks on December 10. His best game as a Buck came on November 3, 2012 when he recorded 29 points and 12 rebounds against the Cleveland Cavaliers.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On July 10, 2013, Dunleavy signed with the Chicago Bulls, on a reported two-year deal worth about $6 million.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On April 25, 2014, Dunleavy set a playoff career-high 35 points including a franchise playoff record for most three-point field goals with 8 against the Washington Wizards in game three of their 2014 NBA Playoffs first round match-up, which the Bulls won 100–97.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: Dunleavy injured his right ankle against the Denver Nuggets on January 1, 2015 and was sidelined for over a month.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On July 14, 2015, Dunleavy re-signed with the Bulls to a reported three-year, $14.4 million contract. After missing the Bulls' first 16 games of the season due to a back injury, he was ruled out for a further four-to-six weeks on December 3 due to the injury requiring additional rehabilitation. On February 1, 2016, using the flexible assignment rule, Dunleavy was assigned to the Santa Cruz Warriors, the D-League affiliate of the Golden State Warriors, with the goal to practice there during the Bulls' West Coast road trip. Two days later, he was recalled by the Bulls. On February 6, Dunleavy made his season debut for the Bulls after missing the first 49 games. He played 14 minutes and scored five points in a 112–105 loss to the Minnesota Timberwolves.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On July 7, 2016, Dunleavy was traded, along with the rights to Vladimir Veremeenko, to the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for the rights to Albert Miralles. He made his debut for the Cavaliers in the team's season opener on October 25, 2016 against the New York Knicks. In 22 minutes off the bench, he recorded four points, four rebounds, two assists and three steals in a 117–88 win. On December 23, 2016, he scored a season-high 14 points in a 119–99 win over the Brooklyn Nets.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On January 7, 2017, Dunleavy was traded, along with Mo Williams and a future first-round draft pick, to the Atlanta Hawks in exchange for Kyle Korver. After Dunleavy initially refused to report to the Hawks while seeking a buyout of his contract, he changed his mind and agreed to join the team. On January 10, he reported to the team and passed his physical. Three days later, he made his debut for the Hawks, scoring six points on a pair of three-pointers in a 103–101 loss to the Boston Celtics. On January 15, he scored 20 points off the bench in a 111–98 win over the Milwaukee Bucks. It was his first 20-point performance since a first-round playoff game for Chicago on April 30, 2015. On March 3, 2017, Dunleavy was diagnosed with right ankle synovitis. He returned to action on March 22 against Washington after a 13-game injury layoff.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: Dunleavy's final NBA game was Game 6 of the 2017 Eastern Conference First Round on April 28th, 2017 in a 99 - 115 loss to the Washington Wizards. In his final game, Dunleavy only played for 71 seconds, substituting towards the end of the first quarter for Tim Hardaway Jr.. He would subsequently sit out the rest of the game, as the Hawks went on to lose the game and the series to Washington 4 - 2. On June 30, 2017, he was waived by the Hawks, and retired shortly afterwards.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: On September 24, 2018, Dunleavy was hired by the Golden State Warriors as a pro scout. On August 29, 2019, Dunleavy was promoted to assistant general manager of the Warriors. On September 30, 2021, Dunleavy was promoted to vice president of basketball operations. He won his first NBA championship after the Warriors defeated the Boston Celtics in six games in the 2022 NBA Finals.


title: Mike Dunleavy Jr.

text: Dunleavy has two younger brothers: Baker, who played at Villanova from 2002 to 2006 and is the current head coach at Quinnipiac; and James, who was a walk-on for USC and is currently an NBA player agent. His father is Mike Dunleavy Sr., former Los Angeles Clippers and Portland Trail Blazers coach, retired NBA player, and the former head coach at Tulane. While growing up, Dunleavy attended a residential sports camp in Eagle River, Wisconsin called Camp Menominee. In 2008, Camp Menominee honored Dunleavy by naming its basketball courts "The Mike Dunleavy Jr. Courts".


title: Wave vector

text: In physics, a wave vector (or wavevector) is a vector used in describing a wave, with a typical unit being cycle per metre. It has a magnitude and direction. Its magnitude is the wavenumber of the wave (inversely proportional to the wavelength), and its direction is perpendicular to the wavefront. In isotropic media, this is also the direction of wave propagation.


title: Wave vector

text: A closely related vector is the angular wave vector (or angular wavevector), with a typical unit being radian per metre. The wave vector and angular wave vector are related by a fixed constant of proportionality, 2π radians per cycle.


title: Wave vector

text: It is common in several fields of physics to refer to the angular wave vector simply as the "wave vector", in contrast to, for example, crystallography. It is also common to use the symbol k for whichever is in use.


title: Wave vector

text: In the context of special relativity, "wave vector" can refer to a four-vector, in which the (angular) wave vector and (angular) frequency are combined.


title: Wave vector

text: For this article, the terms "wave vector" and "angular wave vector" are used with distinct meanings to avoid confusion. Here, the wave vector is denoted by and the wavenumber by , and the angular wave vector is denoted by k and the angular wavenumber by . These are related by .


title: Wave vector

text: The direction in which the wave vector points must be distinguished from the "direction of wave propagation". The "direction of wave propagation" is the direction of a wave's energy flow, and the direction that a small wave packet will move, i.e. the direction of the group velocity. For light waves in vacuum, this is also the direction of the Poynting vector. On the other hand, the wave vector points in the direction of phase velocity. In other words, the wave vector points in the normal direction to the surfaces of constant phase, also called wavefronts.


title: Wave vector

text: In a lossless isotropic medium such as air, any gas, any liquid, amorphous solids (such as glass), and cubic crystals the direction of the wavevector is the same as the direction of wave propagation. If the medium is anisotropic, the wave vector in general points in directions other than that of the wave propagation. The wave vector is always perpendicular to surfaces of constant phase.


title: Wave vector

text: For example, when a wave travels through an anisotropic medium, such as light waves through an asymmetric crystal or sound waves through a sedimentary rock, the wave vector may not point exactly in the direction of wave propagation.


title: Wave vector

text: In solid-state physics, the "wavevector" (also called k-vector) of an electron or hole in a crystal is the wavevector of its quantum-mechanical wavefunction. These electron waves are not ordinary sinusoidal waves, but they do have a kind of "envelope function" which is sinusoidal, and the wavevector is defined via that envelope wave, usually using the "physics definition". See Bloch's theorem for further details.


title: Wave vector

text: A moving wave surface in special relativity may be regarded as a hypersurface (a 3D subspace) in spacetime, formed by all the events passed by the wave surface. A wavetrain (denoted by some variable X) can be regarded as a one-parameter family of such hypersurfaces in spacetime. This variable X is a scalar function of position in spacetime. The derivative of this scalar is a vector that characterizes the wave, the four-wavevector.


title: Wave vector

text: where the angular frequency formula_14 is the temporal component, and the wavenumber vector formula_15 is the spatial component.


title: Wave vector

text: Alternately, the wavenumber formula_16 can be written as the angular frequency formula_6 divided by the phase-velocity formula_18, or in terms of inverse period formula_7 and inverse wavelength formula_20.


title: Wave vector

text: An example of a null four-wavevector would be a beam of coherent, monochromatic light, which has phase-velocity formula_24


title: Wave vector

text: which would have the following relation between the frequency and the magnitude of the spatial part of the four-wavevector:


title: Wave vector

text: Taking the Lorentz transformation of the four-wavevector is one way to derive the relativistic Doppler effect. The Lorentz matrix is defined as


title: Wave vector

text: In the situation where light is being emitted by a fast moving source and one would like to know the frequency of light detected in an earth (lab) frame, we would apply the Lorentz transformation as follows. Note that the source is in a frame "S" and earth is in the observing frame, "S".


title: Wave vector

text: As an example, to apply this to a situation where the source is moving directly away from the observer (formula_37), this becomes:


title: Wave vector

text: To apply this to a situation where the source is moving straight towards the observer (formula_39), this becomes:


title: Wave vector

text: To apply this to a situation where the source is moving transversely with respect to the observer (formula_41), this becomes:


title: 1986 European Cup Final

text: The 1986 European Cup Final was a football match held at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium, Seville, on 7 May 1986 that saw Steaua București of Romania defeat Barcelona of Spain in a penalty shoot out after 120 minutes of play could not separate the two sides. Barcelona had all of their spot-kicks saved by Steaua goalkeeper Helmuth Duckadam, who was later dubbed "The Hero of Seville". It was the first European Cup final to finish goalless and remains Steaua's only European Cup triumph, and the first of only two won by an Eastern European club.


title: Puroresu

text: Despite some similarities to the popular style of professional wrestling in the United States, Japanese wrestling is known for many differences from the Western style. "Puroresu" is known for its ""fighting spirit"" (, "tōkon"), and the wrestlers are known for their full contact strikes. Many Japanese wrestlers have some degree of knowledge in many different martial arts and wrestling styles; because of this, there are usually doctors and trainers at ringside for assisting the wrestlers after a match. Most matches have clean finishes and many of the promotions do not use any angles or gimmicks. Japanese wrestling is also known for its relationship with fellow mixed martial arts promotions. Puroresu remains popular, and it draws huge crowds from the major promotions. With this and its relationship with other martial arts disciplines, the audiences and wrestlers treat puroresu as a combat sport.


title: Puroresu

text: It should be also noted that the term "Puroresu" in Japan refers to all professional wrestling, regardless of country of origin. For example, American promotions WWE and Ring of Honor are referred to as "Puroresu" in Japan. Japanese wrestling historian Fumi Saito noted: "Puroresu is completely Japanese-English, and in the U.S. the same word is used for both pro and amateur wrestling. It may be easier to understand if you think of wrestling in the U.S. as having the same nuance as 'sumo' in Japanese. You call both 'wrestling' even if it's competitive or professional wrestling."


title: Puroresu

text: Puroresu has a variety of different rules, which can differ greatly from wrestling in other countries. While there is no governing authority for puroresu, there is a general standard which has developed. Each promotion has its own variation, but all are similar enough to avoid confusion. Any convention described here is simply a standard, and may or may not correspond exactly with any given promotion's codified rules.


title: Puroresu

text: Matches are held between two or more sides ("corners"). Each corner may consist of one wrestler, or a team of two or more. Most team matches are governed by tag team rules (see below).


title: Puroresu

text: The match is won by scoring a "fall", which is generally consistent with standard professional wrestling:


title: Puroresu

text: Additional rules govern how the outcome of the match is to take place. One such example would be the Japanese Universal Wrestling Federation, as it does not allow pinfall victories in favor of submissions and knockouts; this is seen as an early influence of mixed martial arts, as some wrestlers broke away from traditional wrestling endings to matches in favor of legitimate outcomes. Another example is that most promotions disallow punches, so many wrestlers utilize open handed strikes and stiff forearms; this rule was also applied in the early stages of Pancrase.


title: Puroresu

text: New Japan Pro-Wrestling, headed by Antonio Inoki, used Inoki's "strong style" approach of wrestling as a combat sport, influenced strongly by the styles of catch wrestlers Lou Thesz and Karl Gotch. Wrestlers incorporated kicks and strikes from martial arts disciplines, and a strong emphasis was placed on submission wrestling. Many of New Japan's wrestlers, including top stars such as Shinya Hashimoto, Riki Choshu, Minoru Suzuki, Shinsuke Nakamura and Keiji Mutoh, came from a legitimate martial arts background.


title: Puroresu

text: "Ōdō" ("King's Road"; also translated as "Royal Road") is a style which originated in All Japan Pro Wrestling, and is most closely associated with the Four Pillars (四天王, "Shitennō"), the informal nomenclature for 1990s AJPW wrestlers Toshiaki Kawada, Kenta Kobashi, Mitsuharu Misawa, and Akira Taue. However, matches involving these four have been also referred to in Japan as "Shitennō puroresu" (). As opposed to "strong style's" European catch wrestling influences, "ōdō" opted for a more "narrative" style, derived from the American model of professional wrestling as physical storytelling. However, "ōdō" distinguished itself from American professional wrestling by largely eschewing many of its storytelling devices. Angles and gimmicks were virtually non-existent, as all the storytelling in "ōdō" occurred through the matches themselves. Blading was also banned outright. Because Baba disliked submissions, they were also eschewed for decisive pinfalls. In 2011, Japanese wrestling magazine "G Spirits" cited Misawa's July 29, 1993 Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship title defense against Kawada as the first match in the "Shitennō" style, and the 1993 World's Strongest Tag Determination League final, in which Misawa and Kobashi wrestled Kawada and Taue, was referred to as the "completed form" of the style by "Tokyo Sports" in 2014. According to Kawada, "ōdō" matches, which placed a heavy emphasis on "fighting spirit", were about "breaking the limit you set in the last". AJPW referee Kyohei Wada, who recounted that Baba told his talent "whatever you want to do, do it, and whatever you can show the people, show it", would later compare his job officiating these matches to "conducting a symphony".


title: Puroresu

text: However, this escalation eventually manifested through the use of dangerous maneuvers that focused on the head and neck, particularly during the finishing stretches of "ōdō" matches. The physical consequences of this style, or at least its use of head drops, has often been cited as the underlying reason for Misawa's death after an in-ring accident in 2009. Professional wrestling journalist and historian Dave Meltzer noted after his death that Misawa "regularly took psychotic bumps", including back suplexes where he would land on his head. AJPW would steer away from "ōdō" after Misawa led a mass exodus to form Pro Wrestling Noah, particularly when Motoko Baba sold her stock to Keiji Mutoh, but Noah would continue to practice "ōdō" in its booking. This element of "ōdō" has been criticized for its negative influence on professional wrestling, and 1990s All Japan been cited as a cautionary tale in response to legitimately dangerous maneuvers. Meltzer wrote in 2009 that head drops were "never necessary", as Misawa and his peers in AJPW were already "having the best matches in wrestling" before they incorporated these maneuvers into their style.


title: Puroresu

text: Throughout the 1990s, three individual styles—shoot style, lucha libre, and hardcore—were the main divisions of independent promotions, but as a result of interpromoting, it is not unusual to see all three styles on the same card.


title: Puroresu

text: Puroresu done by female wrestlers is called or "joshi puro" for short. Women's professional wrestling in Japan is usually handled by promotions that specialize in "joshi puroresu", rather than divisions of otherwise male-dominated promotions as is the case in the United States (a major exception was FMW, a men's promotion which had a small women's division, but even then depended on talent from women's federations to provide competition). However, "joshi puroresu" promotions usually have agreements with male puroresu promotions such that they recognize each other's titles as legitimate, and may share cards.


title: Puroresu

text: All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling was the dominant "joshi" organization from the 1970s to the 1990s. AJW's first major star was Mach Fumiake in 1974, followed in 1975 by Jackie Sato and Maki Ueda, known as the "Beauty Pair". The early 1980s saw the fame of Jaguar Yokota and Devil Masami, major stars of the second wave of excellent workers who took the place of the glamour-based "Beauty Pair" generation. That decade would later see the rise of Chigusa Nagayo and Lioness Asuka, known as the "Crush Gals", who as a tag team achieved a level of unprecedented mainstream success in Japan, unheard of by any female wrestler in the history of professional wrestling all over the world. Their long running feud with Dump Matsumoto and her "Gokuaku Domei" ("Atrocious Alliance") stable would become extremely popular in Japan during the 1980s, with their televised matches resulting in some of the highest rated broadcasts in Japanese television as well as the promotion regularly selling out arenas.


title: Puroresu

text: In 1985, Japan's second women's wrestling promotion formed in Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling. The promotion ran their first show on August 17, 1986. It featured Jackie Sato who returned from retirement and future stars such as Shinobu Kandori, Mayumi Ozaki, Cutie Suzuki and Dynamite Kansai, who would go on to be top stars in LLPW and JWP.


title: Puroresu

text: In 1992, Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling dissolved, splitting into LLPW and JWP. These promotions worked together with FMW and All Japan Women's Pro-Wrestling to create a critically acclaimed era with several classic matches authorized by the American wrestling publication "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" featuring wrestlers such as Manami Toyota, Aja Kong, Kyoko Inoue, Bull Nakano, Mayumi Ozaki, Megumi Kudo, Dynamite Kansai amongsts others. This era was also notable for multiple wrestlers returning from retirement such as Chigusa Nagayo, Lioness Asuka, Jaguar Yokota, Devil Masami and Bison Kimura, which increased interest.


title: Puroresu

text: In 2022, New Japan Pro Wrestling followed FMW's example by inaugurating their own IWGP Women's Championship.


title: Yamatai

text: Yamatai or Yamatai-koku is the Sino-Japanese name of an ancient country in Wa (Japan) during the late Yayoi period The Chinese text "Records of the Three Kingdoms" first recorded the name as () or (; using reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciations) followed by the character for "country", describing the place as the domain of Priest-Queen (died ). Generations of Japanese historians, linguists, and archeologists have debated where Yamatai was located and whether it was related to the later .


title: Yamatai

text: The oldest accounts of Yamatai are found in the official Chinese dynastic Twenty-Four Histories for the 1st- and 2nd-century Eastern Han dynasty, the 3rd-century Wei kingdom, and the 6th-century Sui dynasty.


title: Yamatai

text: The c. 297 CE "Records of Wèi" (), which is part of the "Records of the Three Kingdoms" (), first mentions the country "Yamatai", usually spelled as (), written instead with the spelling (), or "Yamaichi" in modern Japanese pronunciation.


title: Yamatai

text: Most "Wei Zhi" commentators accept the () transcription in later texts and dismiss this initial spelling using () meaning "one" (the anti-forgery character variant for "one") as a miscopy, or perhaps a naming taboo avoidance, of () meaning "platform; terrace." This history describes ancient Wa based upon detailed reports of 3rd-century Chinese envoys who traveled throughout the Japanese archipelago:Going south by water for twenty days, one comes to the country of Toma, where the official is called "mimi" and his lieutenant, "miminari". Here there are about fifty thousand households. Then going toward the south, one arrives at the country of Yamadai, where a Queen holds her court. [This journey] takes ten days by water and one month by land. Among the officials there are the "ikima" and, next in rank, the "mimasho"; then the "mimagushi", then the "nakato". There are probably more than seventy thousands households. (115, tr. Tsunoda 1951:9)


title: Yamatai

text: The "Wei Zhi" also records that in 238 CE, Queen Himiko sent an envoy to the court of Wei emperor Cao Rui, who responded favorably:


title: Yamatai

text: We confer upon you, therefore, the title 'Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei', together with the decoration of the gold seal with purple ribbon. ...As a special gift, we bestow upon you three pieces of blue brocade with interwoven characters, five pieces of tapestry with delicate floral designs, fifty lengths of white silk, eight taels of gold, two swords five feet long, one hundred bronze mirrors, and fifty catties each of jade and of red beads. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:14-15)


title: Yamatai

text: The ca. 432 CE "Book of the Later Han" () says the Wa kings lived in the country of Yamatai ():The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Han [Korea] in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities. From the time of the overthrow of Chaoxian [northern Korea] by Emperor Wu (B.C. 140-87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han [dynasty] court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa [Yamato] resides in the country of Yamadai. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:1)


title: Yamatai

text: The "Book of Sui" (), finished in 636 CE, records changing the capital's name from "Yamadai" (, ) to "Yamato" (Japanese logographic spelling ):Wa is situated in the middle of the great ocean southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand "li" away by water and land. The people dwell on mountainous islands. ...The capital is Yamato, known in the Wei history as Yamadai. The old records say that it is altogether twelve thousand "li" distant from the borders of Lelang and Daifang prefectures, and is situated east of Kuaiji and close to Dan'er. (81, tr. Tsunoda 1951:28)


title: Yamatai

text: The first Japanese books, such as the "Kojiki" or "Nihon Shoki", were mainly written in a variant of Classical Chinese called "kanbun". The first texts actually in the Japanese language used Chinese characters, called "kanji" in Japanese, for their phonetic values. This usage is first seen in the 400s or 500s before to spell out Japanese names, as on the Eta Funayama Sword or the Inariyama Sword. This gradually formalized over the 600s and 700s into the "Man'yōgana" system, a rebus-like transcription that uses specific kanji to represent Japanese phonemes. For instance, "man'yōgana" spells the Japanese mora "ka" using (among others) the character , which means "to add", and was pronounced as in Middle Chinese and borrowed into Japanese with the pronunciation "ka". Irregularities within this awkward system led Japanese scribes to develop phonetically regular syllabaries. The new kana were graphic simplifications of Chinese characters. For instance, "ka" is written in hiragana and in katakana, both of which derive from the "Man'yōgana" 加 character (hiragana from the cursive form of the kanji, and katakana from a simplification of the kanji).


title: Yamatai

text: The c. 712 "Kojiki" (, "Records of Ancient Matters") is the oldest extant book written in Japan. The "Birth of the Eight Islands" section phonetically transcribes "Yamato" as , pronounced in Middle Chinese as and used to represent the Old Japanese morae "ya ma to" (see also Man'yōgana#chartable). The "Kojiki" records the Shintoist creation myth that the god "Izanagi" and the goddess "Izanami" gave birth to the "Ōyashima" (, "Eight Great Islands") of Japan, the last of which was Yamato:Next they gave birth to Great-Yamato-the-Luxuriant-Island-of-the-Dragon-Fly, another name for which is Heavenly-August-Sky-Luxuriant-Dragon-Fly-Lord-Youth. The name of "Land-of-the-Eight-Great-Islands" therefore originated in these eight islands having been born first. (tr. Chamberlain 1919:23)


title: Yamatai

text: Chamberlain (1919:27) notes this poetic name "Island of the Dragon-fly" is associated with legendary Emperor Jimmu, whose honorific name includes "Yamato", as "Kamu-yamato Iware-biko".


title: Yamatai

text: The 720 "Nihon Shoki" (, "Chronicles of Japan") transcribes "Yamato" with the Chinese characters , pronounced in Middle Chinese as and in Old Japanese as "ya ma to" or "ya ma do". In this version of the Eight Great Islands myth, "Yamato" is born second instead of eighth:Now when the time of birth arrived, first of all the island of Ahaji was reckoned as the placenta, and their minds took no pleasure in it. Therefore it received the name of Ahaji no Shima. Next there was produced the island of Oho-yamato no Toyo-aki-tsu-shima. (tr. Aston 1924 1:13)


title: Yamatai

text: The translator Aston notes a literal meaning for the epithet of "Toyo-aki-tsu-shima" of "rich harvest's" (or "rich autumn's") "island" ("i.e." "Island of Bountiful Harvests" or "Island of Bountiful Autumn").


title: Yamatai

text: The c. 600-759 "Man'yōshū" (, "Myriad Leaves Collection") transcribes various pieces of text using not the phonetic "man'yōgana" spellings, but rather a logographic style of spelling, based on the pronunciation of the kanji using the native Japanese vocabulary of the same meaning. For instance, the name "Yamato" is sometimes spelled as ("yama", "mountain") + ("ato", "footprint; track; trace"). Old Japanese pronunciation rules caused the sound "yama ato" to contract to just "yamato".


title: Yamatai

text: According to the Chinese record Twenty-Four Histories, Yamatai was originally ruled by the shamaness Queen Himiko. The other officials of the country were also ranked under the queen, with the highest position called "ikima", followed by "mimasho", then "mimagushi", and the lowest-ranking position of "nakato". According to the legends, Himiko lived in a palace with 1,000 female handmaidens and one male servant who would feed her. This palace was most likely located at the site of Makimuku in Nara prefecture. She ruled for most of the known history of Yamatai. After she died, her younger brother became ruler of the country for a short period before Yamatai disappears from historical records.


title: Yamatai

text: Modern Japanese "Yamato" () descends from Old Japanese "Yamatö" or "Yamato", which has been associated with "Yamatai". The latter umlaut or subscript diacritics distinguish two vocalic types within the proposed eight vowels of Nara period (710-794) Old Japanese ("a", "i", "ï", "u", "e", ë, "o", and "ö", see Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai), which merged into the five modern vowels ("a", "i", "u", "e", and "o").


title: Yamatai

text: During the Kofun period (250-538) when "kanji" were first used in Japan, "Yamatö" was written with the "ateji" 倭 for "Wa", the name given to "Japan" by Chinese writers using a character meaning "docile, submissive". During the Asuka period (538-710) when Japanese place names were standardized into two-character compounds, the spelling of "Yamato" was changed to , adding the prefix ("big; great").


title: Yamatai

text: Following the ca. 757 graphic substitution of ("peaceful") for ("docile"), the name "Yamato" was spelled ("great harmony"), using the Classical Chinese expression (pronounced in Middle Chinese as , as used in "Yijing" 1, tr. Wilhelm 1967:371: "each thing receives its true nature and destiny and comes into permanent accord with the Great Harmony.")


title: Yamatai

text: The early Japanese texts above give three spellings of "Yamato" in kanji: ("Kojiki"), ("Nihon Shoki"), and ("Man'yōshū"). The "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki" use Sino-Japanese "on'yomi" readings of "ya" "night" or "ya" or "ja" (an interrogative sentence-final particle in Chinese), "ma" "hemp", and "to" "rise; mount" or "do" "fly; gallop". In contrast, the "Man'yōshū" uses Japanese "kun'yomi" readings of "yama" "mountain" and "ato" "track; trace". As noted further above, Old Japanese pronunciation rules caused "yama ato" to contract to "yamato".


title: Yamatai

text: The early Chinese histories above give three transcriptions of "Yamatai": ("Wei Zhi"), ("Hou Han Shu"), and ("Sui Shu"). The first syllable is consistently written with "a place name", which was used as a jiajie graphic-loan character for , an interrogative sentence-final particle, and for "evil; depraved". The second syllable is written with "horse" or "rub; friction". The third syllable of "Yamatai" is written in one variant with "faithful, committed", which is also financial form of , "one", and more commonly using "platform; terrace" (cf. "Taiwan" 臺灣) or "pile; heap". Concerning the transcriptional difference between the spelling in the "Wei Zhi" and the in the "Hou Han Shu", Hong (1994:248-9) cites that was correct. Chen Shou, author of the ca. 297 "Wei Zhi", was writing about recent history based on personal observations; Fan Ye, author of the ca. 432 "Hou Han Shu", was writing about earlier events based on written sources. Hong says the "San Guo Zhi" uses ("one") 86 times and ("platform") 56 times, without confusing them.


title: Yamatai

text: During the Wei period, was one of their most sacred words, implying a religious-political sanctuary or the emperor's palace. The characters and mean "evil; depraved" and "horse", reflecting the contempt Chinese felt for a barbarian country, and it is most unlikely that Chen Shou would have used a sacred word after these two characters. It is equally unlikely that a copyist could have confused the characters, because in their old form they do not look nearly as similar as in their modern printed form. Yamadai was Fan Yeh's creation. (1994:249)


title: Yamatai

text: He additionally cites Furuta that the "Wei Zhi", "Hou Han Shu", and "Xin Tang Shu" histories use at least 10 Chinese characters to transcribe Japanese "to", but is not one of them.


title: Yamatai

text: In historical Chinese phonology, the Modern Chinese pronunciations differ considerably from the original 3rd-7th century transcriptions from a transitional period between Archaic or Old Chinese and Ancient or Middle Chinese. The table below contrasts Modern pronunciations (in Pinyin) with differing reconstructions of Early Middle Chinese (Edwin G. Pulleyblank 1991), "Archaic" Chinese (Bernhard Karlgren 1957), and Middle Chinese (William H. Baxter 1992). Note that Karlgren's "Archaic" is equivalent with "Middle" Chinese, and his "yod" palatal approximant "" (which some browsers cannot display) is replaced with the customary "j".


title: Yamatai

text: Roy Andrew Miller describes the phonological gap between these Middle Chinese reconstructions and the Old Japanese "Yamatö".


title: Yamatai

text: The "Wei chih" account of the Wo people is chiefly concerned with a kingdom which it calls Yeh-ma-t'ai, Middle Chinese" i̯a-ma-t'ḁ̂i", which inevitably seems to be a transcription of some early linguistic form allied with the word Yamato. The phonology of this identification raises problems which after generations of study have yet to be settled. The final "-ḁ̂i" of the Middle Chinese form seems to be a transcription of some early form not otherwise recorded for the final "-ö" of Yamato. (1967:17-18)


title: Yamatai

text: While most scholars interpret as a transcription of pre-Old Japanese "yamatai", Miyake (2003:41) cites Alexander Vovin that Late Old Chinese "ʑ(h)a maaʳq dhəə" represents a pre-Old Japanese form of Old Japanese "yamato" (*"yamatə"). Tōdō Akiyasu reconstructs two pronunciations for – "dai" < Middle "dǝi" < Old *"dǝg" and "yi" < "yiei" < *"d̥iǝg" – and reads 邪馬臺 as "Yamai".


title: Yamatai

text: The etymology of "Yamato", like those of many Japanese words, remains uncertain. While scholars generally agree that "Yama-" signifies Japan's numerous "yama" "mountains", they disagree whether -"to" < -"tö" signifies "track; trace", "gate; door", "door", "city; capital", or perhaps "place".


title: Yamatai

text: The location of Yamatai-koku is one of the most contentious topics in Japanese history. Generations of historians have debated "the Yamatai controversy" and have hypothesized numerous localities, some of which are fanciful like Okinawa (Farris 1998:245). General consensus centers around two likely locations of Yamatai, either northern Kyūshū or Yamato Province in the Kinki region of central Honshū. Imamura describes the controversy.


title: Yamatai

text: The question of whether the Yamatai Kingdom was located in northern Kyushu or central Kinki prompted the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan. This debate originated from a puzzling account of the itinerary from Korea to Yamatai in "Wei-shu". The northern Kyushu theory doubts the description of distance and the central Kinki theory the direction. This has been a continuing debate over the past 200 years, involving not only professional historians, archeologists and ethnologists, but also many amateurs, and thousands of books and papers have been published. (1996:188)


title: Yamatai

text: The location of ancient Yamatai-koku and its relation with the subsequent Kofun-era Yamato polity remains uncertain. In 1989, archeologists discovered a giant Yayoi-era complex at the Yoshinogari site in Saga Prefecture, which was thought to be a possible candidate for the location of Yamatai. While some scholars, most notably Seijo University historian Takehiko Yoshida, interpret Yoshinogari as evidence for the Kyūshū Theory, many others support the Kinki Theory based on Yoshinogari clay vessels and the early development of Kofun (Saeki 2006).


title: Yamatai

text: The recent archeological discovery of a large stilt house suggests that Yamatai-koku was located near Makimuku in Sakurai, Nara (Anno. 2009). Makimuku has also revealed wooden tools such as masks and a shield fragment. A large amount of pollen that would have been used to dye clothes was also found at the site of Makimuku. Clay pots and vases were also found at the site of Makimuku similar to ones found in other prefectures of Japan. Another site at Makimuku supporting the theory that Yamatai once existed there is, the possible burial site of Queen Himiko at the Hashihaka burial mound. Himiko was the ruler of Yamatai from 189 C.E.- 248 C.E.


title: Yamatai

text: Some instances of pop culture also place the location of Yamatai on an island in the Devil's sea. Although most evidence would support Yamatai being located on one of the main islands of Japan.


title: Zaza language

text: Zaza or Zazaki (), is an Iranian language spoken primarily in eastern Turkey by the Zazas. The language is a part of the Zaza–Gorani language group of the northwestern group of the Iranian branch. The glossonym Zaza originated as a pejorative and many Zazas call their language Dimlî.


title: Zaza language

text: While Zaza is linguistically more closely related to Gorani, Gilaki, Talysh, Tati, Mazandarani and the Semnani language, Kurdish has had a profound impact on the language due to centuries of interaction, which have blurred the boundaries between the two languages. This and the fact that Zaza speakers are identified as ethnic Kurds by some scholars, has encouraged many linguists to classify the language as a Kurdish dialect.


title: Zaza language

text: According to Ethnologue, Zaza is spoken by around three to four million people. Nevins, however, puts the number of Zaza speakers between two and three million.


title: Zaza language

text: Writing in Zaza is a recent phenomenon. The first literary work in Zaza is "Mewlîdu'n-Nebîyyî'l-Qureyşîyyî" by Ehmedê Xasi in 1899, followed by the work "Mawlûd" by Osman Efendîyo Babij in 1903. As the Kurdish language was banned in Turkey during a large part of the Republican period, no text was published in Zaza until 1963. That year saw the publication of two short texts by the Kurdish newspaper "Roja Newe," but the newspaper was banned and no further publication in Zaza took place until 1976, when periodicals published a few Zaza texts. Modern Zaza literature appeared for the first time in the journal "Tîrêj" in 1979 but the journal had to close as a result of the 1980 coup d'état. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most Zaza literature was published in Germany, France and especially Sweden until the ban on the Kurdish language was lifted in Turkey in 1991. This meant that newspapers and journals began publishing in Zaza again. The next book to be published in Zaza (after "Mawlûd" in 1903) was in 1977, and two more books were published in 1981 and 1986. From 1987 to 1990, five books were published in Zaza. The publication of books in Zaza increased after the ban on the Kurdish language was lifted and a total of 43 books were published from 1991 to 2000. As of 2018, at least 332 books have been published in Zaza.


title: Zaza language

text: Due to the above-mentioned obstacles, the standardization of Zaza could not have taken place and authors chose to write in their local or regional Zaza variety. In 1996, however, a group of Zaza-speaking authors gathered in Stockholm and established a common alphabet and orthographic rules which they published. Some authors nonetheless do not abide by these rules as they do not apply the orthographic rules in their oeuvres.


title: Zaza language

text: The institution of Higher Education of Turkey approved the opening of the Zaza Language and Literature Department in Munzur University in 2011 and began accepting students in 2012 for the department. In the following year, Bingöl University established the same department. TRT Kurdî also broadcast in the language. Some TV channels which broadcast in Zaza were closed after the 2016 coup d'état attempt.


title: Zaza language

text: Ludwig Paul divides Zaza into three main dialects. In addition, there are transitions and edge accents that have a special position and cannot be fully included in any dialect group.


title: Zaza language

text: As with a number of other Indo-Iranian languages like the Kurdish languages, Zaza features split ergativity in its morphology, demonstrating ergative marking in past and perfective contexts, and nominative-accusative alignment otherwise. Syntactically it is nominative-accusative.


title: Zaza language

text: Among all Western Iranian languages only Zaza and Kurmanji distinguish between masculine and feminine grammatical gender. Each noun belongs to one of those two genders. In order to correctly decline any noun and any modifier or other type of word affecting that noun, one must identify whether the noun is feminine or masculine. Most nouns have inherent gender. However, some nominal roots have variable gender, i.e. they may function as either masculine or feminine nouns.


title: Zaza language

text: A vowel may also be realized as when occurring before a consonant. may become lowered to an when occurring before a velarized nasal ; , or occurring between a palatal approximant and a palato-alveolar fricative . Vowels , , or become nasalized when occurring before , as , , or .


title: Zaza language

text: The Zaza alphabet is an extension of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Zaza language, consisting of 32 letters, six of which (ç, ğ, î, û, ş, and ê) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: Jermaine John Coleman (born August 30, 1978), better known by his stage name Maino, is an American rapper from Brooklyn, New York City.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: His debut single "Hi Hater" peaked at #16 on Billboard's Hot Rap Songs. His follow-up, "All the Above," features American singer T-Pain and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). To date Maino has sold just under 4 million digital singles globally.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: Jermaine Coleman was born in New York City. In the early 1990s, Maino was involved in a "drug related kidnapping," that led to a 5-to-15 years prison sentence: "We didn't really know what we were doing," he recalls. "We had a great idea, I guess, but we wound up getting caught." During his decade-long prison term, Maino began rapping as a result of boredom: "I'd be in the box for twenty-three hours a day, I just started rapping as something to do. I feel like hip hop kept me alive."


title: Maino (rapper)

text: While listening to DJ Clue mixtapes featuring some of "Brooklyn's Finest" – Notorious B.I.G, Jay-Z, Lil' Kim – the vibe only got stronger. Maino adopted the "no writing" technique of emceeing: "I was never comfortable writing my raps down." Upon his release in 2003, Maino immediately launched independent record label Hustle Hard Entertainment. After several mixtape releases and key guest features, in June 2005 Maino was offered a recording contract by Universal Motown Records. Maino dropped from Universal Motown Records on August 27, 2007.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: On August 28, 2007, Maino later signed himself and his Hustle Hard imprint to Atlantic Records. He then began working on his debut album, "If Tomorrow Comes...". His commercial debut single, titled "Hi Hater," was released in April 2008. Maino later released the song's official remix, featuring fellow American rappers T.I., Swizz Beatz, Plies, Jadakiss and Fabolous. The album's second single was "All the Above," featuring T-Pain. "All the Above" is Maino's first song to chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It debuted at #54 and then rose to #39 the next week.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: It also peaked at #10 on the Hot Rap Tracks, #59 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and #46 on the Pop 100. The single is certified platinum and is Maino's only Top 40 hit to date. The album's third single "Million Bucks," features vocals and production from Swizz Beatz. "If Tomorrow Comes..." debuted at number 25 on the "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 18,000 copies in the United States. In 2008, Maino also crafted an original song titled "Getaway Driver", for the Grand Theft Auto IV video game.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: On February 2, 2010, Maino released "Unstoppable", exclusively through iTunes; an extended play (EP) which featured four new recordings. On July 5, 2011, Maino announced his second studio album, entitled "The Day After Tomorrow", would still be pushed by Atlantic Records, but it would be distributed by E1 Music The album's lead single "Let It Fly", features Atlanta rapper-singer Roscoe Dash. It debuted on the US Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs at number 57. "The Day After Tomorrow", unlike Maino's debut album, had lower sales, debuting at number 94 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: Through his label Hustle Hard, Maino formed a rap group called The Black Flag Mafia, which includes himself, Push!, Lucky Don, Twigg Martin and Hustle Hard Mouse. On October 9, 2012, they released their first mixtape, "The Mafia". They are currently working on their EP album for E1 Music. On February 4, 2014, Maino released a digital EP, "King Of Brooklyn EP". In 2018 he did a duet with RRose RRome.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: In October 2014, porn actress Mellanie Monroe alleged that Maino assaulted her. Video evidence showed that no assault occurred and Maino was cleared of all charges.


title: Maino (rapper)

text: In the 2016 Irving Plaza shooting, he was cleared of any responsibility in the shooting with an NYPD Chief saying "We do not believe that he (Maino) was involved in the dispute."


title: Maino (rapper)

text: On September 12, 2010, Maino made a cameo on the MTV show "World of Jenks" where he infamously had an altercation with show host Andrew Jenks after a culture clash. This was said to be the most dramatic episode of "World of Jenks". Though Maino clashed with Jenks, the two reconciled their differences at the end.


title: Mark Rydell

text: Mark Rydell (born Mortimer H. Rydell; March 23, 1929) is an American actor, film director, and producer. He has directed several Academy Award-nominated films including "The Fox" (1967), "The Reivers" (1969), "Cinderella Liberty" (1973), "The Rose" (1979), and "The River" (1984). He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director for "On Golden Pond" (1981).


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell initially trained in music. As a youth, he wanted to be a conductor. He said he left music because of the proliferation of drugs among the musicians: "Heroin was the drug of choice," he said. "Knowing that I have an addict's personality in that a little is good but a lot is better, I knew I was in danger. So I went back to college and went to the Neighborhood Playhouse". He studied acting at The Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City. His first significant roles were as Walt Johnson on "The Edge of Night", and as Jeff Baker on "As the World Turns", which he played from December 12, 1956, to 1962. The role of Jeff was a particularly popular role with the audience. During the series run he directed "Roots" off broadway in 1961.


title: Mark Rydell

text: In 1962, Rydell declined to sign another long-term contract at "ATWT", and producers had his character die in a car crash. He later won plaudits for his role of violent Jewish mob kingpin Marty Augustine in Robert Altman's "The Long Goodbye" (1973). His most recent significant film role was in Woody Allen's "Hollywood Ending" (2002).


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell moved into directing television and soon became very successful. He did episodes of "Mr. Novak", "Ben Casey", "The Reporter", "Slattery's People", "I Spy", "The Wild Wild West", "The Long, Hot Summer", and "Gunsmoke". He said later: "I come from the school of sitting around the table for two weeks examining every detail of the material, working out relationships with the actors, so they know what they are doing, bringing them to locations, so they can get comfortable."


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell's first feature as director was "The Fox" (1967) which was a box-office hit, in part due to its then-rare lesbian content. He signed a multi picture contract with the film's producer Raymond Stross but disliked working with him and says he ended up paying out four times his fee for the picture to get out of the contract. Nonetheless he credits Stross for starting his film career. He directed Steve McQueen in "The Reivers" (1969). Rydell and friend Sydney Pollack, who had known each other since they were both actors, formed a company, Sanford Productions, and signed a six picture contract with the Mirisch Brothers. They planned to make "Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff", which was eventually made in 1979 by other filmmakers.


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell directed John Wayne in "The Cowboys" (1972). He made a romantic comedy, "Cinderella Liberty" (1973), with James Caan and Marsha Mason. Around this time he said he did not want to make genre movies: "I want to create my own genre." He was reunited with Caan on "Harry and Walter Go to New York" (1976) which was a box-office flop, and directed the pilot episode of "Family" (1976).


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell directed "The Rose" (1979), starring Bette Midler, which was a huge hit. So too was "On Golden Pond" (1981), starring Henry Fonda and Katharine Hepburn, for which Rydell received an Oscar nomination as Best Director. "I'm this week's heat," he joked at the time. He was going to make a film based on the play "Nuts" but instead did "The River" (1984), with Mel Gibson and Sissy Spacek. It was not a commercial success. Neither was Rydell's next film, "For the Boys" (1991), with Caan and Midler.


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell made the TV movie "McBride and Groom" (1993) and the feature "Intersection" (1994). He directed the TV movies "Crime of the Century" (1996), which starred Isabella Rossellini and Stephen Rea, and "James Dean" (2001), which earned actor James Franco a Golden Globe award. Rydell also acted in the movie, playing Jack L. Warner (head of Warner Bros). He was credited as executive producer on "An Unfinished Life" (2005).


title: Mark Rydell

text: In 2006, Rydell directed the movie "Even Money". His last credit to date was an episode of "Masters of Science Fiction", "A Clean Escape".


title: Mark Rydell

text: Three years later – working with actor Martin Landau and screenwriter/playwright Lyle Kessler – he produced an education seminar, The Total Picture Seminar. The two-day event covers the disciplines of acting, directing, and writing for film. The three have worked together as a team for many decades at The Actors Studio teaching and coaching professional actors, writers, and directors. In 2010, Rydell joined the Advisory Board of Openfilm, an online video sharing site created to help aspiring independent filmmakers.


title: Mark Rydell

text: Rydell married actress Joanne Linville in 1962. The couple had two children, Amy and Christopher, both actors. Rydell and Linville divorced in 1973. Rydell had another son, Alexander, from his second marriage to documentary producer Esther Rydell. That union ended in divorce in 2007.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: A horn is any of a family of musical instruments made of a tube, usually made of metal and often curved in various ways, with one narrow end into which the musician blows, and a wide end from which sound emerges. In horns, unlike some other brass instruments such as the trumpet, the bore gradually increases in width through most of its length—that is to say, it is conical rather than cylindrical. In jazz and popular-music contexts, the word may be used loosely to refer to any wind instrument, and a section of brass or woodwind instruments, or a mixture of the two, is called a horn section in these contexts.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: As the name indicates, people originally used to blow on the actual horns of animals before starting to emulate them in metal or other materials. This original usage survives in the shofar (), a ram's horn, which plays an important role in Jewish religious rituals. The genus of animal-horn instruments to which the shofar belongs is called () in Hebrew, in Akkadian, and () in Greek.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: The "olifant" or "oliphant" (an abbreviation of the French "cor d'olifant"/"oliphant", "elephant horn") was the name applied in the Middle Ages to ivory hunting or signalling horns made from elephants' tusks. Apparently of Asian origin, they reached Europe from Byzantium in the tenth or eleventh century, and are first mentioned in French literature in the early 12th century. In Europe they came to be symbols of royalty.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: From late antiquity there are mentions of "alpine horns", but the earliest secure description of the wooden instrument now called an "alphorn" dates from the sixteenth century. This description by the naturalist Conrad Gessner calls the instrument a "lituus alpinus" and says it is "nearly eleven feet long, made from two pieces of wood slightly curved and hollowed out, fitted together and skillfully bound with osiers". Nevertheless, one modern authority says that at the time it was a straight instrument eleven feet long, and this form persisted in Austria until the nineteenth century. The more familiar form, with an upturned bell, was developed in Switzerland in the eighteenth century. The practice of making these instruments in different sizes, to be played together in part music, originated in 1826. Similar wooden instruments, used by shepherds for signalling, are known in Romania by the name "bucium". They are made in straight, hooked, and S-shaped forms, in lengths between 1.5 and 3 meters. A variant of the straight version is called "tulnic".


title: Horn (instrument)

text: Metal instruments modelled on animal horns survive from as early as the 10th century BC, in the form of lurer (a modern name devised by archaeologists). Nearly fifty of these curved bronze horns have been excavated from burial sites, mostly in Scandinavia, since the first was discovered in 1797. Many are in unison pairs, curved in opposite directions. Because their makers left no written histories, their use and manner of playing is unknown. The lur was likely known to the Etruscans, noted as bronze-workers from the 8th century BC, who in turn were credited by the Romans with the invention of their horns and trumpets, including long curved horns in the form of a letter C or G. Depictions of these instruments are found from the 5th century BC onward on Etruscan funerary monuments. The Etruscan name for them is unknown, but the Romans called them "buccina" and "cornu". The latter name is the Latin word for "horn", and the source of the name of the musical instrument in many Romance languages: French "cor", Italian "corno", Provençal "corn". Very old metal instruments similar in form to both the lurer and the cornu, often also with ceremonial or military uses, are known on the Indian subcontinent by a variety of names: "ramsinga", "ransingha", "sringa", "ranasringa" (Sanskrit for "war-horn"), "kurudutu", and "kombu".


title: Horn (instrument)

text: Early metal horns were less complex than modern horns. By the early 17th century, there were two main types of hunting horns, both designed to deal with the problem of providing a tube long enough to allow playing higher partials, while at the same time allowing the instruments to be played on horseback. Marin Mersenne calls these "trompe", made in a crescent shape, and the "cor à plusieurs tours", a tightly coiled instrument in spiral form. The tightly coiled (or spiral) form of horn was never very popular in France, but both there and in Germany was usually called a "trumpet". In German, the word "trumpet" was usually qualified by "Italian" or "hunting", to distinguish these coiled horns from the military or courtly trumpet, though spiral trumpets (sometimes called ) pitched in D and played in clarino style also existed. The earliest surviving horn of the tightly spiralled type, dating from about 1570, is by Valentin Springer, though it is described as early as 1511 by Sebastian Virdung. Around the middle of the seventeenth century instruments began to appear in the form of brass tubes wound into a single open hoop, with a flared exit opening (the bell). Although these came to be associated especially with France, the first known example was made in 1667 by the German maker Starck, in Nuremberg. In French, they were most often called "trompe de chasse", though "cor de chasse" is also frequently found. In Germany, they came to be called "Waldhörner". Because these horns were intended to be played on horseback during a hunt the mouthpiece was not removable. It was soldered to a mouthpipe, which in turn was often soldered to the body of the instrument and strengthened by a crosspiece, as was also the bell, rendering the horn more solid. The sound they produced was called a recheat. Change of pitch was effected entirely by the lips (the horn not being equipped with valves until the 19th century). Without valves, only the notes within the harmonic series are available.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: Since the only notes available were those on the harmonic series of one of those pitches, they had no ability to play in different keys. The remedy for this limitation was the use of crooks, i.e., sections of tubing of differing length which, when inserted between the mouthpiece and lead pipe, increased the length of the instrument, and thus lowered its pitch. The earliest surviving crooked horn was made by the Viennese maker Michael Leichamschneider and is dated 1721. However, Leichamschneider is known to have been making crooked horns as early as 1703, when he sold "a pair of great new "Jägerhorn"" equipped with four double crooks and four tuning bits to the Abbot of Krems. In England, the crooked horn appeared as early as 1704, when it was called "corno cromatico" or, because of its origin and because it was most often played by German musicians (in particular the Messing family, who popularized the instrument in London beginning around 1730), "German horn". In cases where it was necessary to specify the older, hooped horn without crooks, the English called it the "French horn".


title: Horn (instrument)

text: By the second decade of the eighteenth century horns had become regular members of continental orchestras. In 1713 Johann Mattheson stated, "the lovely, majestic hunting horns (Ital. "Cornette di Caccia", Gall. "Cors de Chasse") have now become very fashionable, in church music just as much as in theatre and chamber music, partly because they are not so coarse as trumpets, but also partly because they can be managed with greater "facilité". The most useful have the same "ambitus" above F as the trumpets have above C. However, they sound more poetic and are more satisfying than the deafening and shrieking "clarini" ... because they are a perfect fifth lower in pitch."


title: Horn (instrument)

text: One performing difficulty raised by the use of crooks inserted at the mouthpiece end of the instrument was that players were obliged to hold the horn in a way that the crooks would not fall out. For the hunting horn played on horseback, the left hand held the reins while the right hand gripped the body of the horn, but with crooks the left hand was required to hold them and the instrument securely together, with the right hand grasping the bell or the body of the instrument. The solution came with the creation of the "Inventionshorn" in about 1753 by the famous horn player Anton Joseph Hampel in collaboration with the Dresden instrument maker Johann Georg Werner. In this type of instrument, the relationship between the mouthpiece and lead pipe is usually undisturbed and a series of cylindrical-bore sliding crooks are fitted into the central portion of the instrument to lower the pitch from E downwards. These sliding crooks also had the function of tuning slides, obviating the need for tuning "bits" inserted before or after the crook. In order to raise the pitch above F, however, it was necessary to insert a new, shorter lead pipe, acting as a crook. This design was adapted and improved by the Parisian maker Raoux in about 1780, and adopted by many soloists in France. This was called the "cor solo", and was distinguished by the use of just five crooks for playing in the most common keys for solo compositions, G, F, E, E, and D.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: Orchestral horns are traditionally grouped into "high" horn and "low" horn pairs. Players specialize to negotiate the unusually wide range required of the instrument. Formerly, in certain situations, composers called for two pairs of horns in two different keys. For example, a composer might call for two horns in C and two in E for a piece in C minor, in order to gain harmonics of the relative major unavailable on the C horns. Eventually, two pairs of horns became the standard, and from this tradition of two independent pairs, each with its own "high" and "low" horn, came the modern convention of writing both the first and third parts above the second and fourth.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: In the mid-18th century, horn players began to insert the right hand into the bell to change the effective length of the instrument, adjusting the tuning up to the distance between two adjacent harmonics depending on how much of the opening was covered. This technique, known as hand-stopping, is generally credited to the self-same Anton Joseph Hampel who created the "Inventionshorn". It was first developed around 1750, and was refined and carried to much of Europe by the influential Giovanni Punto. This offered more possibilities for playing notes not on the harmonic series. By the early classical period, the horn had become an instrument capable of much melodic playing. A notable example of this are the four Mozart Horn Concerti and Concert Rondo (K. 412, 417, 477, 495, 371), wherein melodic chromatic tones are used, owing to the growing prevalence of hand-stopping and other newly emerging techniques.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: In 1818 rotary valves were introduced by Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blümel (later, in 1839, piston valves were applied to the horn by François Périnet), initially to overcome problems associated with changing crooks during a performance. Valves' unreliability, musical taste, and players' distrust, among other reasons, slowed their adoption into mainstream. Many traditional conservatories and players refused to use them at first, claiming that the valveless horn, or "natural horn," was a better instrument. Some musicians, specializing in period instruments, still use a natural horn when playing in original performance styles, seeking to recapture the sound and tenor in which an older piece was written.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: The use of valves, however, opened up a great deal more flexibility in playing in different keys; in effect, the horn became an entirely different instrument, fully chromatic for the first time. Valves were originally used primarily as a means to play in different keys without crooks, not for harmonic playing. That is reflected in compositions for horns, which only began to include chromatic passages in the late 19th century. When valves were invented, generally, the French made narrower-bored horns with piston valves and the Germans made larger-bored horns with rotary valves.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: The variety in horn history includes fingerhole horns, the natural horn, Russian horns, French horn, Vienna horn, mellophone, marching horn, and Wagner tuba.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: Animal horns adapted as signalling instruments were used from prehistoric times. Archaeologists have discovered cow horns with fingerholes drilled in the side (providing a more complete musical scale) dating from the Iron Age. This type of rustic instrument is found down to the present day all over the Baltic region of Europe, and in some parts of Africa. In Scandinavia it is known by many names: "björnhorn", "bukkehorn", "fingerhorn", "lekhorn", "låthorn", "prillarhorn", "soittotorvi", "spelhorn", "tjuthorn", "tuthorn", "vallhorn", and many others. In Estonia it is called and by the Bongo people . Descriptions in French are found from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries of instruments called "coradoiz" (= modern French "cor à doigts"), which are precursors of the cornett.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: The cornett, which became one of the most popular wind instruments of the Renaissance and early Baroque periods, was developed from the fingerhole-horn idea. In its most common form it was a gently curved instrument, carved in two halves from wood. The pieces were then glued together and wrapped in black leather (hence the term "black cornett"), and a detachable mouthpiece added. Another variant, called the "mute cornett", was turned from a single piece of wood with the mouthpiece an integral part of the instrument. Because the types of wood used were usually light in colour, these were sometimes referred to as "white cornetts". Amongst the earliest representations of the cornett, showing its characteristic octagonal exterior, is a carving in Lincoln Cathedral from about 1260, which shows an angel apparently playing two cornetti at once. The earliest use of the name in English is in "Le Morte d'Arthur" from about 1400 where, as in most subsequent sources it is spelled with a single T: "cornet". The spelling with two Ts is a modern convention, to avoid confusion with the nineteenth-century valved brass instrument of that name, though in Old French the spelling "cornette" is found. The name is a diminutive derived the Latin "cornu", "horn".


title: Horn (instrument)

text: In the sixteenth century still larger versions of the cornett were devised. In order to put the fingerholes within reach of the human hand, these bass instruments required so many curves they acquired the name "serpent". Toward the end of the eighteenth century various attempts were made to improve the serpent. An upright version, built on the pattern of the bassoon and made sometimes of wood, sometimes of metal, sometimes a combination of the two, were called "bass horn" or "Russian bassoon". In the nineteenth century, an all-metal version with larger tone holes closed by keywork was called an ophicleide (from the Greek "ophis" (ὄφις) "serpent" + "kleis" (κλείς) "key" = "keyed serpent"). The ophicleide only remained in use until the middle of the nineteenth century when it was eclipsed by the superior valved brass instruments.


title: Horn (instrument)

text: Natural horns include a variety of valveless, keyless instruments such as bugles, posthorns, and hunting horns of many different shapes. One type of hunting horn, with relatively long tubing bent into a single hoop (or sometimes a double hoop), is the ancestor of the modern orchestral and band horns. Beginning in the early 18th century, the player could change key by adding crooks to change the length of tubing. It is essentially a hunting horn, with its pitch controlled by air speed, aperture (opening of the lips through which air passes) and the use of the right hand moving in and out of the bell. Today it is played as a period instrument. The natural horn can only play from a single harmonic series at a time because there is only one length of tubing available to the horn player. A proficient player can indeed alter the pitch by partially muting the bell with the right hand, thus enabling the player to reach some notes that are not part of the instrument's natural harmonic series—of course this technique also affects the quality of the tone.