title: Lúcia Moniz

text: In 1999, Moniz released her first studio album, titled "Magnolia", after the name of the location in the United States where it was recorded. The album includes rhythmic pop songs unlike her Eurovision entry, both in Portuguese and in English. It was certified Gold.


title: Lúcia Moniz

text: "Magnolia" was a successful platform for her follow-up release, "67". It was made with her longtime producer, Nuno Bettencourt, and co-produced with multi-instrumentalist Anthony J. Resta. The record was released by EMI in 2002. The album was named after the number of days it took to complete.


title: Lúcia Moniz

text: Moniz returned to the music scene in 2005, three years after the release of "67", with the album "Leva-me p'ra casa" ("Take Me Home").


title: Lúcia Moniz

text: After a six-year gap, Moniz released her fourth album, "Fio de Luz" (2011). This was followed by "Calendário" in 2015.


title: Lúcia Moniz

text: Moniz reprised her role from "Love Actually" for "Red Nose Day Actually", a short-film sequel that was broadcast on British television in March 2017.


title: Misty (song)

text: "Misty" is a jazz standard written in 1954 by pianist Erroll Garner. He composed it as an instrumental in the traditional 32-bar format, and recorded it for the album "Contrasts". Lyrics were added later by Johnny Burke. It appeared on Johnny Mathis' 1959 album "Heavenly", and this recording reached number 12 on the U.S. Pop Singles chart later that year. It has since become the signature song of Mathis.


title: Misty (song)

text: The song has been recorded by many other artists, including versions by Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra, and Sarah Vaughan. Recordings by both Mathis and Garner have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. It was ranked number 174 in the list of the Songs of the Century compiled by Recording Industry Association of America and National Endowment for the Arts.


title: Misty (song)

text: Erroll Garner was inspired to write "Misty" on a flight from San Francisco to Chicago which passed through a thunderstorm: as the plane descended into O'Hare, Garner looked through the window to see a rainbow glowing through a haze, and was moved to begin composing "Misty" on the spot, striking imaginary piano keys on his knees as he hummed the notes he imagined (causing his neighboring passenger to summon a flight attendant to assist the apparently ill Garner).


title: Misty (song)

text: The lyrics were added later by Johnny Burke. Burke was initially reluctant to write for the song, but was persuaded to do so at the insistence of his pianist Herb Mesick, who knew Garner and was fond of the tune. It was said that Mesick would play the tune every time Burke came into the room, until Burke said: "Alright, give me the damn music, and I'll do it." Burke wrote the lyrics in two to three hours in the bedroom.


title: Misty (song)

text: Garner first recorded his rendition of "Misty" on piano in 1954, accompanied by Wyatt Ruther on bass and Fats Heard on drums. The recording was first released in October 1954 credited to Errol Garner Trio, and it was included in Garner's album "Contrasts" released in December 1954. Garner later re-recorded the song with an orchestral arrangement by Mitch Miller for his album "Other Voices" in 1957. Instrumental versions were also recorded by Georgie Auld and Johnny Costa in 1955. Garner's original recording was ranked No. 174 in the list of the Songs of the Century compiled by RIAA and NEA.


title: Misty (song)

text: After lyrics were written for "Misty", Dakota Staton was the first to record the song in 1957. A number of artists also recorded the song, but it was the recording by Sarah Vaughan that drew greater attention to the song. Vaughan recorded the song in a 1958 Paris session, with an arrangement by Quincy Jones for her album "Vaughan and Violins". It was released backed with "Broken Hearted Melody", and it reached No. 6 on the Bubbling Under chart in July 1959. Those who recorded the song after Vaughn included Count Basie, Ella Fitzgerald, and most notably Johnny Mathis who created the best-known version of the song.


title: Misty (song)

text: Mathis first heard Garner play the tune when he was a teenager, and told him that he would love to sing it if Garner had lyrics for it. A few years later, having heard Vaughan's version of the song, he chose "Misty" as one of the possible songs for his 1959 album "Heavenly", and informed Garner that he would record the song. Accounts differ as to whether it was Garner or Garner's business manager, Martha Glaser, who was in attendance when Mathis later recorded the song; at the recording session, it was originally scheduled that Mathis should record a show tune, but Mathis insisted on recording "Misty" when Garner or Glaser turned up expectedly at the recording session.


title: Misty (song)

text: Glenn Osser arranged the song at short notice, with Andy Ackers playing the piano. Mathis revealed that, on the high-pitched note when he first started singing "On my own" after the instrumental break, he used a technique of standing a distance from the microphone and then walked slowly toward it to create a fade in effect. Mathis said that "Misty" was the song he was most proud of, because he recorded the song the way he wanted to, rather than relying on the producer Mitch Miller.


title: Misty (song)

text: The song was initially released as a back-to-back single together with Garner's version intended only for those in the broadcasting industry, but due to heavy demand Columbia released Mathis' recording as a commercial single in September 1959. It reached No. 12 on "Billboard" Hot 100. Although the song is not Mathis' highest charting song, it became his signature song. Mathis received his first Grammy nomination for the song at the 3rd Annual Grammy Awards in the Best Male Pop Vocal Performance category. Both Mathis' and Garner's recordings were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, Garner in 1991 and Mathis in 2002.


title: Misty (song)

text: Clint Eastwood used the instrumental version in his 1971 film "Play Misty for Me", a low-budget film that proved to be a box-office success. Eastwood was said to have paid Garner a $25,000 fee for the right to use the tune in his film.


title: Misty (song)

text: In 1975, singer Ray Stevens released an up-tempo country rendition of this song. It is the title track of his twelfth studio album. Stevens recounted that the song was recorded on the second take when experimenting in the studio. His version won a Grammy in the category of Music Arrangement of the Year. This version peaked at No. 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and reached No. 2 in the United Kingdom.


title: Burning Spear

text: Winston Rodney OD (born 1 March 1945), better known by the stage name Burning Spear, is a Jamaican roots reggae singer-songwriter, vocalist and musician. Burning Spear is a Rastafarian and one of the most influential and long-standing roots artists to emerge from the 1970s.


title: Burning Spear

text: Winston Rodney was born in Saint Ann's Bay, Saint Ann, Jamaica. As a young man he listened to the R&B, soul and jazz music transmitted by the US radio stations whose broadcasts reached Jamaica. Curtis Mayfield is cited by Rodney as a major US musical influence along with James Brown. Rodney was deeply influenced as a young man by the views of the political activist Marcus Garvey, especially with regard to the exploration of the themes of Pan-Africanism and self-determination. In 1969, Bob Marley, who was also from Saint Ann, advised Rodney to approach Coxsone Dodd's Studio One label after Rodney sought his advice during a casual conversation.


title: Burning Spear

text: Burning Spear was originally Rodney's group, named after a military award given by Jomo Kenyatta, the first President of an independent Kenya, and included bass singer Rupert Willington. The duo auditioned for Dodd in 1969 which led to the release of their debut single "Door Peep" (the session also included Cedric Brooks on saxophone). They were then joined by tenor Delroy Hinds. The trio recorded several more singles for Dodd, and two albums, before they moved on to work with Jack Ruby in 1975. Their first recording with Ruby, "Marcus Garvey", was intended as an exclusive track for Ruby's Ocho Rios–based Hi-Power sound system, but was released as a single, giving them an immediate hit, and was followed by "Slavery Days". These recordings featured the backing band The Black Disciples, which included Earl "Chinna" Smith, Valentine Chin, Robbie Shakespeare and Leroy Wallace. The group worked with Ruby on their third album, "Marcus Garvey" (1975), which was immediately successful and led to a deal with Island Records to give the album a wider release. Island remixed and altered the speed of some of the tracks, much to the annoyance of fans and the group, leading Rodney to set up his own Burning Music label for future releases where he would have full control, although further releases followed on Island including "Garvey's Ghost", a dub album, and the "Man in the Hills" album. In late 1976, Rodney split from both Ruby and group members Willington and Hinds, and from that point on used the name Burning Spear for himself alone. "Dry and Heavy" followed in 1977, self-produced but still on Island, and with a sizeable following by now in the United Kingdom, he performed in London that year with members of Aswad acting as his backing band for a sold-out show at the Rainbow Theatre, which was recorded and released as the album "Live!". Aswad also provided backing on his next studio album, "Social Living" (1978), which also featured Sly Dunbar and Rico Rodriguez. A dub version of the album, "Living Dub" (1979), was mixed by Sylvan Morris. His profile was raised further by an appearance in the film "Rockers", performing "Jah no Dead".


title: Burning Spear

text: In 1980, Rodney left Island Records and set up the Burning Music Production Company, which he signed to EMI, debuting on the label with "Hail H.I.M.", recorded at Marley's Tuff Gong studio and co-produced by Aston Barrett. A Sylvan Morris dub version followed in the form of "Living Dub Volume Two". In 1982, Rodney signed with Heartbeat Records with a series of well-received albums following, including the 1985 Grammy-nominated "Resistance". He returned to Island in the early 1990s, releasing two albums before rejoining Heartbeat. This arrangement in which Burning Music Productions delivered completed albums of music to EMI, Island and Heartbeat Records for worldwide distribution lasted for many years. When Heartbeat ceased releasing new material, Burning Music took matters into their own hands and began to release music solely through their own imprint. Albums released by Heartbeat through an agreement with Burning Music include: "The World Should Know" (1993), "Rasta Business" (1995), "Appointment with His Majesty" (1997) and the Grammy award winning "Calling Rastafari" (1999) which was the last completed album to be solely pressed by an outside label.


title: Burning Spear

text: Burning Spear spent decades touring extensively, and several live albums have been issued including "Burning Spear Live", "Live in Paris", "Live in South Africa", "Live in Vermont", "Peace and Love Live", "Live at Montreux Jazz Festival" and "(A)live 1997". Touring the world time and time again, the band's live sound matured and grew more sophisticated. While remaining firmly rooted in reggae, accents of free jazz, funk and psychedelic music were increasingly in evidence.


title: Burning Spear

text: His 1999 album, "Calling Rastafari" brought his first Grammy Award in 2000, a feat which he repeated with "Jah Is Real" in 2009. In 2000 Home to My Roots Tour he performed in Cape Town, South Africa alongside other reggae icon Joseph Hill with Culture (band). In 2002 he and his wife, Sonia Rodney who has produced a number of his albums, restarted Burning Music Records, giving him a greater degree of artistic control. Since the mid-1990s, he has been based in Queens in New York City. Burning Spear was awarded the Order of Distinction in the rank of Officer on 15 October 2007. Since establishing their own label, Winston and Sonia Rodney have released nearly forty singles, CDs, DVDs and vinyl albums on the Burning Music imprint. Many of these albums have been deluxe editions of albums previously available on other labels and often include bonus tracks and DVD footage.


title: Burning Spear

text: In 2016 Rodney announced his retirement, but in 2022 it was announced that he would perform at the Rototom Sunsplash festival in Spain, and on the 'Welcome to Jamrock' cruise in December.


title: Burning Spear

text: Rodney is playing three shows in California in July 2022. One in San Francisco on July 22, the next in San Diego on July 23, and the final in Los Angeles on July 24. He is scheduled to play at the Levitt Pavillion, Denver, Colorado; on July 30, 2022.


title: Burning Spear

text: Two tour dates in the UK in 2022, August 13th at Forum Birmingham, and August 14th O2 Academy Brixton London.


title: Burning Spear

text: Burning Spear has won two Grammy Awards for Best Reggae Album; one at the 42nd Grammy Awards in 2000 for "Calling Rastafari", and one for 2009's "Jah Is Real". He has been nominated for a total of 12 Grammy Awards.


title: Dalia Hernández

text: Dalia Hernández Armenta (born August 14, 1985) is a Mexican actress born in Veracruz, Mexico. She is known for roles in "Apocalypto" (2006), "Die Legende der Maske" (2014) and "Miracle Underground" (2016).


title: Dalia Hernández

text: In 2007, she won an Imagen Award for best supporting actress for her role in "Apocalypto". She had a role in the TV series "Capadocia del 2008" in the episode "María Magdalena" as "Rosa". In 2014 she played the role of "Nayeli" in Die Legende der Maske and as "Patricia" in the movie Miracle Underground.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: Abir Chatterjee (born 18 November 1980) is an Indian actor who mainly works in Bengali cinema. He is the son of theater personalities Phalguni Chatterjee and Rumki Chatterjee. He started his career with Bengali television and made his debut in Bengali cinema in 2009 as a lead with "Cross Connection". He is well known for appearing as famous Detective Byomkesh Bakshi in separate movie series.He has starred in 33 consecutive box-office successes between 2010 and 2022.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: He is the son of theatre artists Phalguni Chatterjee and Rumki Chatterjee. He was granted his B.Com degree from the Goenka College of Commerce and Business Administration and his MBA degree from the ICFAI Business School, Kolkata.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: Chatterjee is married to Nandini Chatterjee, his college friend in 2007. The couple has a daughter named Mayurakshi Chatterjee.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: He has acted in many Bengali serials including "Proloy..asche" " Ruposhi Bangla", Shasuri Zindabad," Khuje Berai Kacher Manush", Banhishikha, Sudhu Tomari Jonno, Somoy, Ek Akasher Niche, and Janmobhumi.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: He has appeared in Bengali movies as Byomkesh Bakshi and Feluda. The Indian Express said he brought "elegant élan and confidence" to his role in "The Royal Bengal Tiger".


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: Abir has appeared as Byomkesh Bakshi in two different series, one helmed by Anjan Dutt and the other by Arindam Sil. He appeared as Feluda in the 2014 film Badshahi Angti.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: Abir Chatterjee's great lost film is his screen debut in the 2004 independent period drama Robibar Bikelbela, in which he portrays a disillusioned former Naxalite revolutionary in post-Emergency Bengal. No copies of the film have been found yet.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: 2014 saw his emergence in a solo leading role in the critically acclaimed film "Hrid Majharey" by debutant director Ranjan Ghosh.<ref name="Hrid Majharey (Bengali) / Dark but honest|"></ref>


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: After acting in this film, he went on to top the list of "Calcutta Times Most Desirable Men" of 2014 and 2019. Since 2020, he hosts Zee Bangla Sa Re Ga Ma Pa.


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: In 2018 Abir worked in Flat No 609 as a lead role. In 2022, he debuted in the Hindi industry with Season 2 of the SonyLIV original .


title: Abir Chatterjee

text: 2020 - West Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards for Best Actor In A Negative Role - Abir Chatterjee for asur


title: Fishplate

text: A fishplate, splice bar or joint bar is a metal connecting plate used to bolt the ends of two rails into a continuous track. The name is derived from "fish", a wooden reinforcement of a "built-up" ship's mast that helped round out its desired profile. The top and bottom faces taper inwards along their short dimensions to create an even alignment between the two rails when the fish plate is wedged into place by tightening its bolts during installation.


title: Fishplate

text: In rail transport modelling, a fishplate is often a small copper or nickel silver plate that slips onto both rails to provide the functions of maintaining alignment and electrical continuity.


title: Fishplate

text: The device was invented by William Bridges Adams in May 1842, because of his dissatisfaction with the scarf joints and other systems of joining rails then in use. He noted that to form the scarf joint the rail was halved in thickness at its ends, where the stress was greatest. It was first deployed on the Eastern Counties Railway in 1844, but only as a wedge between the adjoining rails. Adams and Robert Richardson patented the invention in 1847, but in 1849 James Samuel, the engineer of the ECR, developed fishplates that could be bolted to the rails.


title: Fishplate

text: The moving blades of a railroad switch can be connected to the closure rails by looser than normal fishplates. This is called a heeled switch. Alternatively, the blade and closure rail can be a one piece heel-less switch, with a flexible thinned section to create the moving heel.


title: Fishplate

text: When railway lines are equipped with track circuits, or where the line is electrified for electric traction, the electrical connection provided by fishplates is poor and unreliable and has to be supplemented by bonding wire spanning the joined rails fixed by spot welding or other means.


title: Fishplate

text: An improvement over fishplate rail connectors is directly bonding rails together using thermite welding. In 1967, the Hither Green rail crash occurred on the Southern Region of British Railways when a rail fractured at its fishplate joint. The crash accelerated welded rail connections, with strict procedures on concrete and wooden sleepers.


title: Jan Sterling

text: Jan Sterling (born Jane Sterling Adriance; April 3, 1921 – March 26, 2004) was an American film, television and stage actress. At her most active in films during the 1950s (immediately prior to which she had joined the Actors Studio), Sterling received a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in "The High and the Mighty" (1954), as well as an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress nomination. Her best performance is often considered to be opposite Kirk Douglas, as the opportunistic wife in Billy Wilder's 1951 "Ace in the Hole". Although her career declined during the 1960s, she continued to play occasional television and theatre roles.


title: Jan Sterling

text: Born in New York City, Sterling was the daughter of Eleanor Ward (née Deans) and William Allen Adriance Jr, an architect and advertising executive. She had a younger sister, Ann "Mimi" Adriance, a model and businesswoman. Jane grew up in a wealthy household and attended private schools before moving with her family to Europe and South America. In London and Paris she was schooled by private tutors, and in London she attended Fay Compton's dramatic school. During the taping of the pilot of a game show in 1968, she told the story of having been sent airfare to fly back to the United States; seeing some lingerie she liked in a shop window, she used the last of her money to buy it, then traded in the airfare and booked aboard a steamship. Midway through the voyage, she found out that the airship she had originally been booked on, the Hindenburg, had been destroyed in a massive fire upon arriving in New Jersey on May 6, 1937.


title: Jan Sterling

text: As a teenager, she returned to the borough of Manhattan, and using variations of her given name, including "Jane Adriance" and "Jane Sterling", she began her acting career in 1938 by performing on Broadway as the character Chris Faringdon in "Bachelor Born". She then appeared in a variety of other Broadway productions during the 1940s, such as "When We Were Married", "This Rock", and "The Rugged Path". In 1947 she made her film debut in "Tycoon", billed as Jane Darian. Ruth Gordon reportedly insisted she change her stage name, and they agreed upon Jan Sterling. She played a prominent supporting role in "Johnny Belinda" (1948). Alternating between films and television, Sterling appeared in several television anthology series during the 1950s, and played film roles in "Caged" (1950), "Mystery Street" (1950), "Union Station" (1950), "The Mating Season" (1951), "Ace in the Hole" (1951), "Flesh and Fury" (1952), "The High and the Mighty" (1954), "Female on the Beach" (1955), and "High School Confidential" (1958). Often cast as hard and determined characters, she played a more sympathetic character in "Sky Full of Moon" (1952). In 1950, she was cast as "Ruth" (the girlfriend of Deputy Roscoe, played by veteran western film star Roscoe Ates) on ABC's "The Marshal of Gunsight Pass".


title: Jan Sterling

text: In 1954, Sterling was nominated for an Academy Award and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in "The High and the Mighty". Later that year, she travelled to Britain to play the role of Julia in the first film version of George Orwell's "1984", despite being several months pregnant at the time. During the following years, she appeared regularly in films. Some of her appearances on American television series include the title character in "The Annie Griffith Story" on "Wagon Train" in 1959 and "The Selena Hartnell Story" in 1961; and during the 1960s, guest-starring role on "Riverboat", her performance as Dianne Jordan in a 1960 "Bonanza" episode ("The Blood Line"), her portrayal of Nurse Murdoch in the 1963 episode "Millions of Faces" on ABC's "Breaking Point", and her performance in the 1967 episode "Eleven Miles to Eden" of NBC's "The Road West". In late 1968, Sterling began portraying the conniving "Miss Foss" on "The Guiding Light". After performing in the 1969 film "The Minx", she curtailed her appearances in films and on television but continued to work on stage. She did, however, return to television in 1979 to portray the wife of President Herbert Hoover in "Backstairs at the White House", and in 1981 Sterling made her last film appearance playing Walter Matthau's wife in the "First Monday in October".


title: Jan Sterling

text: Sterling was married twice. In 1941 she wed actor John Merivale, a union that ended in divorce seven years later. She then married another actor, Paul Douglas, in 1950 and remained with him until his death in 1959. In the 1970s, she entered into a long-lasting personal relationship with Sam Wanamaker. Inactive professionally for nearly two decades, she made an appearance at the Cinecon Film Festival in Los Angeles in 2001.


title: Jan Sterling

text: Sterling's later life was marked by illness and injury that included diabetes, a broken hip and a series of strokes. Her son died of heart failure in December 2003 aged 48. Sterling died three months later, on March 26, 2004, aged 82, at the Motion Picture and Television Hospital in Woodland Hills, California.


title: Christopher Voss

text: Christopher Voss is an American businessman, author, and academic. Voss is a former FBI hostage negotiator , the CEO of The Black Swan Group Ltd, a company registered in East Grinstead, England, and co-author of the book "Never Split the Difference". He is an adjunct Professor at Harvard Law School, Georgetown University's McDonough School of Business, and a lecturer at the Marshall School of Business at University of Southern California .


title: Christopher Voss

text: Voss was born in Mt. Pleasant, Iowa. He earned a Bachelor of Science from Iowa State University and Master of Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Government.


title: Christopher Voss

text: Voss was a member of the New York City Joint Terrorism Task Force from 1986 to 2000. He was involved in monitoring the New York City landmark bomb plot after spending three years investigating the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, one of 500 agents who were involved in the task. He was the "co-case agent" during the investigation of the 1996 TWA Flight 800 explosion.


title: Christopher Voss

text: In 1992, he received hostage negotiation training at the FBI Academy. He spent 24 years working in the FBI Crisis Negotiation Unit and was the FBI's chief international hostage and kidnapping negotiator from 2003 to 2007.


title: Christopher Voss

text: In 2006, he was the lead negotiator on the Jill Carroll case in Iraq as well as the Steve Centanni case in the Gaza Strip. Voss supervised additional hostage cases in the Philippines, Colombia and Haiti.


title: Christopher Voss

text: After working on more than 150 international hostage cases, he retired from the FBI in 2007 and founded The Black Swan Group. The Black Swan Group serves as a consultancy and trainer for both businesses and individuals on negotiation skills. He became an adjunct professor at Georgetown University's McDonough School of Business and a lecturer at the USC Marshall School of Business.


title: Christopher Voss

text: In 2016, Voss co-authored the book "Never Split the Difference: Negotiating As If Your Life Depended On It", with journalist Tahl Raz.


title: Christopher Voss

text: Voss was given the Attorney General's Award for Excellence in Law Enforcement as well as the FBI Agents Association Award for Distinguished and Exemplary Service.


title: Christopher Voss

text: Voss is a regular commentator on CNBC, CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News, and NPR. He has also been featured in "Forbes", "The New York Times", "Inc.", "Variety", and "Time".


title: Economic history

text: Economic history is the academic learning of economies or economic events of the past. Research is conducted using a combination of historical methods, statistical methods and the application of economic theory to historical situations and institutions. The field can encompass a wide variety of topics, including equality, finance, technology, labour, and business. It emphasizes historicizing the economy itself, analyzing it as a dynamic force and attempting to provide insights into the way it is structured and conceived.


title: Economic history

text: Using both quantitative data and qualitative sources, economic historians emphasize understanding the historical context in which major economic events take place. They often focus on the institutional dynamics of systems of production, labor, and capital, as well as the economy's impact on society, culture, and language. Scholars of the discipline may approach their analysis from the perspective of different schools of economic thought, such as mainstream economics, Marxian economics, the Chicago school of economics, and Keynesian economics.


title: Economic history

text: Economic history has several sub-disciplines. Historical methods are commonly applied in and business history, which overlap with areas of social history such as demographic and labor history. In the sub-discipline called New Economic History or cliometrics, economists use quantitative (econometric) methods. In history of capitalism, historians explain economic historical issues and processes from a historical point of view.


title: Economic history

text: Arnold Toynbee made the case for combining economics and history in his pioneering study of the Industrial Revolution. Toynbee declared, “I believe economics today is much too dissociated from history. Smith and Malthus had historical minds. However, Ricardo – who set the pattern of modern textbooks – had a mind that was entirely unhistorical.” There were several advantages in combining economics and history according to Toynbee. To begin with, it improved economic understanding. “We see abstract propositions in a new light when studying them in relation to historical facts. Propositions become more vivid and truthful.” Meanwhile, studying history with economics makes history easier to understand. Economics teaches us to look out for the right facts in reading history and makes matters such as introducing enclosures, machinery, or new currencies more intelligible. Economics also teaches careful deductive reasoning. “The habits of mind it instils are even more valuable than the knowledge of principles it gives. Without these habits, the mass of their materials can overwhelm students of historical facts.”


title: Economic history

text: In late-nineteenth-century Germany, scholars at a number of universities, led by Gustav von Schmoller, developed the historical school of economic history. It argued that there were no universal truths in history, emphasizing the importance of historical context without quantitative analysis. This historical approach dominated German and French scholarship for most of the 20th century. The historical school of economics included other economists such as Max Weber and Joseph Schumpeter who reasoned that careful analysis of human actions, cultural norms, historical context, and mathematical support was key to historical analysis. The approach was spread to Great Britain by William Ashley (University of Oxford) and dominated British economic history for much of the 20th century. Britain's first professor in the subject was George Unwin at the University of Manchester. Meanwhile, in France, economic history was heavily influenced by the Annales School from the early 20th century to the present. It exerts a worldwide influence through its journal "Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales."


title: Economic history

text: Treating economic history as a discrete academic discipline has been a contentious issue for many years. Academics at the London School of Economics and the University of Cambridge had numerous disputes over the separation of economics and economic history in the interwar era. Cambridge economists believed that pure economics involved a component of economic history and that the two were inseparably entangled. Those at the LSE believed that economic history warranted its own courses, research agenda and academic chair separated from mainstream economics. In the initial period of the subject's development, the LSE position of separating economic history from economics won out. Many universities in the UK developed independent programmes in economic history rooted in the LSE model. Indeed, the Economic History Society had its inauguration at LSE in 1926 and the University of Cambridge eventually established its own economic history programme.


title: Economic history

text: In the United States, the field of economic history was largely subsumed into other fields of economics following the cliometric revolution of the 1960s. To many it became seen as a form of applied economics rather than a stand-alone discipline. Cliometrics, also known as the New Economic History, refers to the systematic use of economic theory and econometric techniques to the study of economic history. The term was originally coined by Jonathan R. T. Hughes and Stanley Reiter and refers to Clio, who was the muse of history and heroic poetry in Greek mythology. One of the most famous cliometric economic historians is Douglass North, who argued that it is the task of economic history to elucidate the historical dimensions of economies through time. Cliometricians argue their approach is necessary because the application of theory is crucial in writing solid economic history, while historians generally oppose this view warning against the risk of generating anachronisms.


title: Economic history

text: Early cliometrics was a type of counterfactual history. However, counterfactualism was not its distinctive feature; it combines neoclassical economics with quantitative methods in order to explain human choices based on constraints. Some have argued that cliometrics had its heyday in the 1960s and 1970s and that it is now neglected by economists and historians. In response to North and Robert Fogel's Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1993, Harvard University economist Claudia Goldin argued that:economic history is not a handmaiden of economics but a distinct field of scholarship. Economic history was a scholarly discipline long before it became cliometrics. Its practitioners were economists and historians studying the histories of economies... The new economic history, or cliometrics, formalized economic history in a manner similar to the injection of mathematical models and statistics into the rest of economics.The relationship between economic history, economics and history has long been the subject of intense discussion, and the debates of recent years echo those of early contributors. There has long been a school of thought among economic historians that splits economic history—the study of how economic phenomena evolved in the past—from historical economics—testing the generality of economic theory using historical episodes. US economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger explained this position in his 1990 book "Historical Economics: Art or Science?". Economic historian Robert Skidelsky (University of Cambridge) argued that economic theory often employs ahistorical models and methodologies that do not take into account historical context. Yale University economist Irving Fisher already wrote in 1933 on the relationship between economics and economic history in his "Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions":


title: Economic history

text: The study of dis-equilibrium may proceed in either of two ways. We may take as our unit for study an actual historical case of great dis-equilibrium, such as, say, the panic of 1873; or we may take as our unit for study any constituent tendency, such as, say, deflation, and discover its general laws, relations to, and combinations with, other tendencies. The former study revolves around events, or facts; the latter, around tendencies. The former is primarily economic history; the latter is primarily economic science. Both sorts of studies are proper and important. Each helps the other. The panic of 1873 can only be understood in light of the various tendencies involved—deflation and other; and deflation can only be understood in the light of various historical manifestations—1873 and other.


title: Economic history

text: The past three decades have witnessed the widespread closure of separate economic history departments and programmes in the UK and the integration of the discipline into either history or economics departments. Only the LSE retains a separate economic history department and stand-alone undergraduate and graduate programme in economic history. Cambridge, Glasgow, LSE, Oxford, Queen's, and Warwick together train the vast majority of economic historians coming through the British higher education system today, but do so as part of economics or history degrees. Meanwhile, there have never been specialist economic history graduate programs at universities anywhere in the US. However, economic history remains a special field component of leading economics PhD programs, including University of California, Berkeley, Harvard University, Northwestern University, Princeton University, the University of Chicago and Yale University.


title: Economic history

text: Despite the pessimistic view on the state of the discipline espoused by many of its practitioners, economic history remains an active field of social scientific inquiry. Indeed, it has seen something of a resurgence in interest since 2000, perhaps driven by research conducted at universities in continental Europe rather than the UK and the US. The overall number of economic historians in the world is estimated at 10,400, with Japan and China as well as the U.K and the U.S. ranking highest in numbers. Some less developed countries, however, are not sufficiently integrated in the world economic history community, among others, Senegal, Brazil and Vietnam.


title: Economic history

text: Part of the growth in economic history is driven by the continued interest in big policy-relevant questions on the history of economic growth and development. MIT economist Peter Temin noted that development economics is intricately connected with economic history, as it explores the growth of economies with different technologies, innovations, and institutions. Studying economic growth has been popular for years among economists and historians who have sought to understand why some economies have grown faster than others. Some of the early texts in the field include Walt Whitman Rostow's "The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto" (1971) which described how advanced economies grow after overcoming certain hurdles and advancing to the next stage in development. Another economic historian, Alexander Gerschenkron, complicated this theory with works on how economies develop in non-Western countries, as discussed in "Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays" (1962). A more recent work is Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson's "" (2012) which pioneered a new field of persistence studies, emphasizing the path-dependent stages of growth. Other notable books on the topic include Kenneth Pomeranz's "The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy" (2000) and David S. Landes's "The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some are So Rich and Some So Poor" (1998).


title: Economic history

text: In recent decades, and notably since the global financial crisis of 2007–2008, scholars have recently become more interested in a field which may be called "new" new economic history. Scholars have tended to move away from narrowly quantitative studies toward institutional, social, and cultural history affecting the evolution of economies. The focus of these studies is frequently on "persistence", as past events are linked to present outcomes. Columbia University economist Charles Calomiris argued that this new field showed 'how historical (path-dependent) processes governed changes in institutions and markets.' However, this trend has been criticized, most forcefully by Francesco Boldizzoni, as a form of economic imperialism "extending the neoclassical explanatory model to the realm of social relations."


title: Economic history

text: Conversely, economists in other specializations have started to write a new kind of economic history which makes use of historical data to understand the present day. A major development in this genre was the publication of Thomas Piketty's "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" (2013). The book described the rise in wealth and income inequality since the 18th century, arguing that large concentrations of wealth lead to social and economic instability. Piketty also advocated a system of global progressive wealth taxes to correct rising inequality. The book was selected as a "New York Times" best seller and received numerous awards. The book was well received by some of the world's major economists, including Paul Krugman, Robert Solow, and Ben Bernanke. Books in response to Piketty's book include "After Piketty: The Agenda for Economics and Inequality", by Heather Boushey, J. Bradford DeLong, and Marshall Steinbaum (eds.) (2017), "Pocket Piketty" by Jesper Roine (2017), and "Anti-Piketty: Capital for the 21st Century", by Jean-Philippe Delsol, Nicolas Lecaussin, Emmanuel Martin (2017). One economist argued that Piketty's book was "Nobel-Prize worthy" and noted that it had changed the global discussion on how economic historians study inequality. It has also sparked new conversations in the disciplines of public policy.


title: Economic history

text: In addition to the mainstream in economic history, there is a parallel development in the field influenced by Karl Marx and Marxian economics. Marx used historical analysis to interpret the role of class and class as a central issue in history. He debated with the "classical" economists (a term he coined), including Adam Smith and David Ricardo. In turn, Marx's legacy in economic history has been to critique the findings of neoclassical economists. Marxist analysis also confronts economic determinism, the theory that economic relationships are the foundation of political and societal institutions. Marx abstracted the idea of a "capitalist mode of production" as a way of identifying the transition from feudalism to capitalism. This has influenced some scholars, such as Maurice Dobb, to argue that feudalism declined because of peasants' struggles for freedom and the growing inefficiency of feudalism as a system of production. In turn, in what was later coined the Brenner debate, Paul Sweezy, a Marxian economist, challenged Dobb's definition of feudalism and its focus only on western Europe."


title: Economic history

text: A new field calling itself the "history of capitalism" has emerged in US history departments since about the year 2000. It includes many topics traditionally associated with the field of economic history, such as insurance, banking and regulation, the political dimension of business, and the impact of capitalism on the middle classes, the poor and women and minorities. The field has particularly focused on the contribution of slavery to the rise of the US economy in the nineteenth century. The field utilizes the existing research of business history, but has sought to make it more relevant to the concerns of history departments in the United States, including by having limited or no discussion of individual business enterprises. Historians of capitalism have countered these critiques, citing the issues with economic history. As University of Chicago professor of history Jonathan Levy states, "modern economic history began with industrialization and urbanization, and, even then, environmental considerations were subsidiary, if not nonexistent."


title: Economic history

text: Scholars have critiqued the history of capitalism because it does not focus on systems of production, circulation, and distribution. Some have criticized its lack of social scientific methods and its ideological biases. As a result, a new academic journal, "", was founded at the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Marc Flandreau (University of Pennsylvania), Julia Ott (The New School, New York) and Francesca Trivellato (Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton) to widen the scope of the field. The journal's goal is to bring together "historians and social scientists interested in the material and intellectual aspects of modern economic life."


title: Economic history

text: The first journal specializing in the field of economic history was "The Economic History Review", founded in 1927, as the main publication of the Economic History Society. The first journal featured a publication by Professor Sir William Ashley, the first Professor of Economic History in the English-speaking world, who described the emerging field of economic history. The discipline existed alongside long-standing fields such as political history, religious history, and military history as one that focused on humans' interactions with 'visible happenings'. He continued, '[economic history] primarily and unless expressly extended, the history of actual human practice with respect to the material basis of life. The visible happenings with regard-to use the old formula-to "the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth" form our wide enough field'.


title: Economic history

text: Later, the Economic History Association established another academic journal, "The Journal of Economic History", in 1941 as a way of expanding the discipline in the United States. The first president of the Economic History Association, Edwin F. Gay, described the aim of economic history was to provide new perspectives in the economics and history disciplines: 'An adequate equipment with two skills, that of the historian and the economist, is not easily acquired, but experience shows that it is both necessary and possible'. Other related academic journals have broadened the lens with which economic history is studied. These interdisciplinary journals include the "Business History Review", "European Review of Economic History", "Enterprise and Society", and "Financial History Review".


title: Economic history

text: The "International Economic History Association", an association of close to 50 member organizations, recognizes some of the major academic organizations dedicated to study of economic history: the Business History Conference, Economic History Association, Economic History Society, European Association of Business Historians, and the International Social History Association.


title: Book review

text: A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is merely described (summary review) or analyzed based on content, style, and merit.


title: Book review

text: A book review may be a primary source, opinion piece, summary review or scholarly review. Books can be reviewed for printed periodicals, magazines and newspapers, as school work, or for book websites on the Internet. A book review's length may vary from a single paragraph to a substantial essay. Such a review may evaluate the book on the basis of personal taste. Reviewers may use the occasion of a book review for an extended essay that can be closely or loosely related to the subject of the book, or to promulgate their own ideas on the topic of a fiction or non-fiction work.


title: Book review

text: Some journals are devoted to book reviews, and reviews are indexed in databases such as "Book Review Index" and "Kirkus Reviews"; but many more book reviews can be found in newspaper and scholarly databases such as Arts and Humanities Citation Index, Social Sciences Citation Index and discipline-specific databases.


title: Book review

text: Photios I of Constantinople has been called "the inventor of the book-review" for his work, "Bibliotheca".


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The Mark 14 torpedo was the United States Navy's standard submarine-launched anti-ship torpedo of World War II. This weapon was plagued with many problems which crippled its performance early in the war. It was supplemented by the Mark 18 electric torpedo in the last two years of the war. From December 1941 to November 1943 the Mark 14 and the destroyer-launched Mark 15 torpedo had numerous technical problems that took almost two years to fix. After the fixes the Mark 14 played a major role in the devastating blow U.S. Navy submarines dealt to the Japanese naval and merchant marine forces during the Pacific War.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: By the end of World War II, the Mark 14 torpedo was a reliable weapon ultimately remaining in service for almost 40 years in the U.S. Navy, and even longer with other navies.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The design of the Mark 14 started in January 1931; the Navy allocated $143,000 for its development. The Mark 14 was to serve in the new "fleet" submarines and replace the Mark 10 which had been in service since World War I and was standard in the older R- and S-boats. Although the same diameter, the Mark 14 was longer, at , and therefore incompatible with older submarines' torpedo tubes. Later in the war, the Bureau of Ordnance (BuOrd) stopped producing Mark 10s for the S-boats and provided a shortened Mark 14.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Torpedoes consist of several subsystems, and those subsystems evolved over time. Torpedoes are also tailored for their application. Submarine torpedoes, such as the Mark 14, are constrained by the dimensions of the submarine's torpedo tubes: 21 inches in diameter and a certain maximum length. Submarines are expected to close with their targets, so the torpedoes do not need a long range. In contrast, torpedoes fired by destroyers need greater range because their approach would be under fire from their targets. Improvements in the propulsion engine power output allowed the Mark 14 to have a top speed of compared to the Mark 10 Mod 0's . Steering is controlled by a gyroscope; the gyro on the Mark 10 Mod 0 was spun up in the torpedo tube and was not powered after launch; the gyro on the Mark 14 was continuously powered by its air flask. The depth control on the Mark 10 was slow — the depth would not stabilize quickly; the Mark 14 depth stabilization was improved.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The design for the Mark 6 exploder used in the Mark 14 torpedo had started at the Naval Torpedo Station (NTS), Newport, in 1922. Ship's armor was improving with innovations such as torpedo belts and torpedo blisters (bulges). To circumvent these measures, torpedoes needed larger warheads or new technology. One option would use a fairly small warhead but was intended to explode beneath the keel where there was no armor. This technology required the sophisticated new Mark 6 magnetic influence exploder, which was similar to the British Duplex and German models, all inspired by German magnetic mines of World War I. The Mark 14 shared this exploder with the concurrently-designed surface ship Mark 15 torpedo.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The Mark 6 exploder, designated Project G53, was developed "behind the tightest veil of secrecy the Navy had ever created." Exploders were tested at the Newport lab and in a small field test aboard . At Ralph Christie's urging, equatorial tests were later conducted with , which fired one hundred trial shots between 10°N and 10°S and collected 7000 readings. The tests were done using torpedoes with instrumented exercise heads: an electric eye would take an upward-looking picture from the torpedo; the magnetic influence feature would set off some gun cotton. Inexplicably, no live fire trials were ever done with production units. Chief of Naval Operations William V. Pratt offered the hulk of destroyer , but prohibited the use of a live warhead, and insisted the Bureau of Ordnance (commonly called BuOrd) pay the cost of refloating her if she was hit in error. These were strange restrictions, as "Ericsson" was due to be scrapped. BuOrd declined. A service manual for the exploder "was written—but, for security reasons, not printed—and locked in a safe."


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Torpedoes were sophisticated and expensive. The cost of a torpedo in 1931 was about $10,000 (). The development of the Mark 13, Mark 14 and Mark 15 torpedoes was done frugally. The Navy did not want to do live fire tests that would destroy a $10,000 torpedo. The Navy was also reluctant to supply target ships. Consequently, there were no live-fire tests, and the designers had to rely on their judgment. Sadly, that judgment sometimes led to problems: a contact exploder that worked reliably at failed at . In addition, the Navy had limited experience in using torpedoes in combat.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The U.S. Navy has a long history of torpedo supply problems. In 1907, the Navy knew there was a problem with torpedo supply; a major contractor, the E. W. Bliss Company, could produce only 250 torpedoes per year. During World War I, the Navy had almost 300 destroyers that each had 12 torpedo tubes. The Bliss Company was to produce about 1,000 torpedoes for the Navy, but that production was delayed by demands for artillery shells and only 20 torpedoes were close to being shipped before WWI started for the U.S. When war was declared on Germany, another 2,000 torpedoes were ordered. To produce large numbers of torpedoes, the government loaned $2 million to Bliss Company so it could build a new factory. Although the government had ordered 5,901 torpedoes, only 401 had been delivered by July 1918. The supply problems prompted the Navy to build the U.S. Naval Torpedo Station, Alexandria, VA, but WWI ended before the plant was built. The plant produced torpedoes for five years, but was shuttered in 1923.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: In 1923, Congress made NTS Newport the sole designer, developer, builder and tester of torpedoes in the United States. No independent or competing group was assigned to verify the results of Mark 14 tests.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The Navy had not learned from the torpedo supply lessons of WWI. Looking back in 1953, the Bureau of Ordnance stated, "Production planning in the prewar years was also faulty. Torpedoes were designed for meticulous, small-scale manufacture. When military requirements demanded that they be supplied in large numbers, a series of new problems was exposed. There were simply no realistic plans available for providing the weapon in adequate quantity." There was little interest in torpedo production until 1933 when the Vinson Shipbuilding Program recognized the need for torpedoes to fill the torpedo tubes on its newly-constructed ships. Consequently, Newport received new production equipment and an increased budget. NTS produced only 1½ torpedoes a day in 1937, despite having three shifts of three thousand workers working around the clock. Production facilities were at capacity and there was no room for expansion.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: By January 1938, unfilled torpedo orders at Newport amounted to $29,000,000. A forecast that did not include war estimated Newport would have a backlog of 2425 torpedoes by 1 July 1942. More production was needed. The simplest route was to reopen the Alexandria Torpedo Station, but New England congressmen objected to reopening Alexandria; they wanted production concentrated in New England. The Navy side-stepped the opposition by including the Alexandria funds as part of the Naval Gun Factory's 1939 budget. The Naval Torpedo Station at Keyport, Washington, was also expanded.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: "Although torpedo production was still low – 3 a day – when the national emergency was proclaimed in September 1939, an investment of almost $7,000,000 assured early improvement." By the fall of 1941, Alexandria had been reopened. The required production rate for torpedoes was raised to 50 per day. Both Newport and Alexandria went to 3 shifts operating 7 days per week, but their combined torpedo production was 23 torpedoes per day. The Navy contracted with the American Can Company to produce torpedoes.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The short supply of Mark 14 torpedoes was compounded by a 10 December 1941 Japanese air raid on Cavite Navy Yard. The attack destroyed 233 Mark 14 torpedoes.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: After the U.S. entered the war, the contract with American Can was expanded and Pontiac Motor Company, International Harvester, E. W. Bliss Company, and Precision Manufacturing Co. were retained as contractors. In May 1942, Westinghouse Electric Corporation was asked to build an electric torpedo (which became the Mark 18 torpedo).


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Only 2,000 submarine torpedoes were built by all three Navy factories (Newport, Alexandria, and Keyport) during 1942. This exacerbated torpedo shortages; the Pacific Fleet Submarine Force had fired 1,442 torpedoes since war began. "Until the spring of 1945, supply was a problem" for the Mark 14 torpedo.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The torpedo shortage at the start of the war also meant that commanders did not want to waste torpedoes on testing.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The Mark 14 was central to the torpedo scandal of the U.S. Pacific Fleet Submarine Force during World War II. Inadequate production planning led to severe shortages of the weapon. The frugal, Depression-era, peacetime testing of both the torpedo and its exploder was woefully inadequate and had not uncovered many serious design problems. Torpedoes were so expensive that the Navy was unwilling to perform tests that would destroy a torpedo. Furthermore, the design defects tended to mask each other. Much of the blame commonly attached to the Mark 14 correctly belongs to the Mark 6 exploder. These defects, in the course of fully twenty months of war, were exposed, as torpedo after torpedo either missed by running directly under the target, prematurely exploded, or struck targets with textbook right angle hits (sometimes with an audible clang) yet failed to explode.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Responsibility lies with the Bureau of Ordnance, which specified an unrealistically rigid magnetic exploder sensitivity setting and oversaw the feeble testing program. Its small budget did not permit live fire tests against real targets. Instead, any torpedo that ran under the target was presumed to be a hit due to the magnetic influence exploder, which was never actually tested. Therefore, additional responsibility must also be assigned to the United States Congress, which cut critical funding to the Navy during the interwar years, and to NTS, which inadequately performed the very few tests made. The Bureau of Ordnance failed to assign a second naval facility for testing, and failed to give Newport adequate direction.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Some of these flaws had the unfortunate property of masking or explaining other flaws. Skippers would fire torpedoes and expect the magnetic influence exploder to sink the target ship. When the torpedoes did not explode, they started to believe the magnetic influence exploder did not work. Against orders, some submariners disabled the magnetic influence feature of the Mark 6 exploder, suspecting it was faulty, and went for contact exploder hits; such efforts would confuse the issues. Looking back in 1953, the BuOrd speculated, "Many shots planned for impact against the side of a ship missed because of deep running, yet damaged the enemy due to the magnetic influence feature of the Mark 6." When later tests discovered the torpedoes ran deeper than set, the submarine command then believed that the torpedoes ran so deeply that the magnetic influence exploder could not sense the target ship; the failure to explode had been due entirely to the depth setting and that nothing was wrong with the magnetic influence exploder. When the depth issue was fixed, the magnetic influence exploder's premature detonation made it seem like the exploder was working but little damage would be done to the target ship. It was only after the magnetic influence feature was deactivated that problems with the contact exploder would be discernible.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: On 24 December 1941, during a war patrol, Commander Tyrell D. Jacobs in fired eight torpedoes at two different ships with no results. When two additional merchantmen came in view, Jacobs took extra care to set up his torpedo shots. He pursued the targets for fifty-seven minutes and made certain the TDC bearings matched perfectly before firing two torpedoes at each ship from an average range of . The shots should have hit, but all failed to explode.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: A few days after he discovered the torpedoes were running too deep, and corrected the problem, Jacobs detected a big, slow tanker. Again, his approach was meticulous, firing one torpedo at a close range of . It missed. Exasperated, Jacobs broke radio silence to question the Mark 14's reliability.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: A similar experience happened to Pete Ferrall in , who fired eight torpedoes for only one hit and began to suspect the Mark 14 was faulty.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Shortly after replacing John E. Wilkes as Commander of Southwest Pacific submarines in Fremantle, Western Australia, newly minted Rear Admiral Charles A. Lockwood ordered a historic net test at Frenchman Bay, Albany on 20 June 1942. Eight hundred torpedoes had already been fired in combat, more than a year's production from NTS.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Jim Coe's fired a single torpedo with an exercise head from a distance of . Despite being set for a depth of , the torpedo pierced the net at a depth of . James Fife, Jr. (formerly Chief of Staff to Wilkes, whom Lockwood was replacing) followed up the next day with two more test shots; Fife concluded the torpedoes ran an average deeper than the depth at which they were set. BuOrd was not amused. Neither was the CNO, Admiral Ernest J. King, who "lit a blowtorch under the Bureau of Ordnance". The fact that destroyers' Mark 15s were suffering the same failures may have had something to do with it as well. On 1 August 1942, BuOrd finally conceded the Mark 14 ran deep, and six weeks later, "that its depth-control mechanism had been 'improperly designed and tested'.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The Mark 14 torpedo tended to run some too deep for several reasons. The first was that it was tested with an exercise warhead that was more buoyant than the warhead; that was a precaution made to avoid losing an expensive torpedo. A light exercise head made the torpedo positively buoyant, so it would float to the surface at the end of its run. The live warhead contained more mass, so it reached equilibrium at a lower depth. Also, the depth mechanism was designed prior to the warhead's explosive charge being increased, making the torpedo even heavier overall. "Testing conditions became more and more unrealistic, obscuring the effect of the heavier warhead on depth performance." Furthermore, the depth testing device used by NTS to verify the torpedo's running depth (the depth and roll recorder) had the same measuring port placement error as the Mark 14's depth control port, so both were off by the same amount in the same direction and gave the impression that the torpedo was running at the desired depth when it was actually much deeper. After hearing of the deep-running torpedo problem, most submarine skippers simply set their torpedoes' running depth to zero, which risked the torpedo broaching the surface.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Torpedo depth is a control problem; good depth control requires more than just measuring the torpedo's depth. A depth control system that used just depth (measured by a hydrostat) to control the elevators would tend to oscillate around the desired depth. Whitehead in Fiume supplied many of the world's navies, and it had trouble with depth control until it developed the "balance chamber" with pendulum (pendulum-and-hydrostat control). The balance chamber had water pressure push against a disk that was balanced by a spring. "The inclusion of a pendulum stabilized the mechanism's feedback loop." This development (known as "The Secret") was around 1868.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Depth control in early torpedoes such as the Mark 10 had been done with a pendulum mechanism that limited the torpedo to shallow pitches of less than 1 degree. The shallow angle meant that it could take a long time for a torpedo to stabilize at its desired depth. For example, to change depth by on a 1° slope takes a horizontal run of about . The improved Uhlan mechanism (Uhlan gear) for depth control had much faster depth stabilization and had been introduced in the Mark 11 torpedo.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: When the Uhlan gear was incorporated in the Mark 14 design, the pressure sensing port for the depth mechanism was moved from its position on the cylindrical body to the cone-shaped tail section; the designers did not realize that move would affect the pressure readings. This repositioning meant that when the torpedo was moving, a hydrodynamic flow effect created a substantially lower pressure at the port than hydrostatic depth pressure. The torpedo's depth control engine therefore thought the torpedo was at too shallow a depth and responded by trimming the torpedo to run deeper. A simple laboratory test (such as immersing a non-moving torpedo in a pool of static water) would not be subject to the flow-induced pressure change and would show the torpedo trimmed at the desired depth. Dynamic tests using exercise heads with depth and roll recorders would have shown the depth problem, but the depth measuring port suffered from the same placement problem and gave consistent (though incorrect) measurements. The problem was also exacerbated by higher speeds. The depth problem was finally addressed in the last half of 1943 by relocating the sensor point to the midbody of the torpedo where hydrodynamic effects were minimized.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: By August 1942, the faulty running depth situation was resolved, and submarines were getting more hits with the Mark 14. However, curing the deep-running problem caused more prematures and duds even as more hits were being achieved. The number of sinkings did not rise.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The deep running torpedoes would explain many warshot misses: a torpedo running too deeply under the target would not allow the magnetic influence exploder to detect the target. Getting the torpedoes to run at the correct depth would presumably fix the problem of the torpedoes failing to explode. This explanation satisfied Lockwood and Robert H. English (then ), who both refused to believe the exploder could also be defective. In August 1942, the submarine commands believed mistakenly that the torpedo reliability problem was solved.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The skippers, however, continued to report problems with the Mark 14. Suspicion about the magnetic influence exploder grew.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: On 9 April 1943, attacked an aircraft carrier formation. ULTRA enemy signal intercepts disclosed that all three torpedoes fired at the second carrier were premature explosions. The commanding officer stated, "The shallow [depth] setting thus caused the torpedo to reach the activating flux density of the exploder some fifty meters from the target."


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: On 10 April, attacked Japanese aircraft carrier by firing six torpedoes. There were at least three premature explosions, and the aircraft carrier was not damaged.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: On 10 April 1943, Bureau of Ordnance Chief Admiral Blandy wrote Lockwood that the Mark 14 was likely to explode prematurely at shallow depths. Blandy recommended that the magnetic influence feature be disabled if torpedoes were fired for contact hits.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: BuOrd also concluded that the Mark 14's arming distance of was too short; an arming distance of would be needed for most torpedoes to stabilize their course and depth. BuOrd also believed the Mark 6 magnetic influence feature was less effective below 30°N latitude and did not recommend its use below 30°S latitude.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: On 10 June 1943, fired six torpedoes from at the aircraft carrier . Two torpedoes missed, one exploded prematurely, one was a dud, and two hit. The carrier was damaged but made it home.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The most humiliating failure by the U.S. submarine fleet during World War II other than the failure of the Asiatic Fleet in December 1941 was a daring raid by many submarines on 11 June 1943 that actually infiltrated Tokyo Harbor undetected and planned on sinking numerous ships. Every single Mark 14 torpedo failed and there were zero sunken ships. If they were able to sink some Japanese ships in Tokyo it would have been one of the greatest raids of the entire war. Because they failed to sink or damage any ships this daring raid is completely obscure and unknown by most people.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Uniquely, Lieutenant Commander John A. Scott in on 9 April 1943 found himself in an ideal position to attack aircraft carriers "Hiyō", , and . From only , he fired all ten tubes, hearing all four stern shots and three of the bow's six explode. No enemy carrier was seen to diminish its speed, though "Taiyo" was slightly damaged in the attack. Much later, intelligence reported each of the seven explosions had been premature; the torpedoes had run true but the magnetic feature had fired them too early.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Many submarine commanders in the first two years of the war reported explosions of the warhead with little to no damage of the enemy. The magnetic exploders were triggering prematurely, before getting close enough to the vessel to destroy it. Earth's magnetic field near NTS, where the trials (limited as they were) were conducted, differed from the areas where the fighting was taking place.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Submarine skippers believed that about 10 percent of their torpedoes prematurely exploded; BuOrd statistics had the premature explosions at 2 percent.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: At Pearl Harbor, despite nearly all his skippers' suspicions about the torpedoes, Rear Admiral Thomas Withers, Jr. refused to deactivate the torpedo's Mark 6 exploder, arguing torpedo shortages stemming from inadequate production at NTS made it impossible. As a result, his men did it on their own, doctoring their patrol reports and overstating the size of ships to justify using more torpedoes.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Only in May 1943, after the most famous skipper in the Sub Force, Dudley W. "Mush" Morton, returned having failed to inflict any damage, did Admiral Charles A. Lockwood, Commander Submarine Force Pacific (), accept the Mark 6 should be deactivated. It took a commander of Morton's stature to challenge the Navy senior command and move them into action, even at the risk of Morton's career.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Nonetheless, Lockwood waited to see if Bureau of Ordnance commander Admiral William "Spike" Blandy might yet find a fix for the problem. The Bureau of Ordnance sent an expert to Surabaja to investigate, who set the gyro backwards on one of "Sargo"s trial torpedoes; the potentially deadly setting, guaranteed to cause erratic running, was corrected by torpedo officer Doug Rhymes. Though he found nothing wrong with maintenance or procedures, the expert submitted a report laying all the blame on the crew.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: In late June 1943, Rear Admiral Lockwood (by then ) asked Commander-in-Chief of the Pacific Fleet (CINCPAC) Chester Nimitz for permission to deactivate the magnetic exploders. The next day, 24 June 1943, CINCPAC ordered all of his submarines to deactivate the magnetic exploder.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Rear Admiral Ralph Waldo Christie, who had been involved in the development of the magnetic influence exploder, was now commander of the Australian-based submarines in the South West Pacific Area and not in Nimitz' chain of command. Christie insisted his area's submarines continue to use the magnetic exploder. At the end of 1943, Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid replaced Admiral Arthur S. Carpender as Commander Allied Naval Forces South West Pacific Area (Christie's boss) and ordered Christie to deactivate the magnetic influence exploder.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: In 1939, before the war started for the U.S., BuOrd knew the magnetic influence exploder was suffering from unexplained premature detonations:


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: There were two common types of premature explosions. In the first, the warhead exploded just as it armed. These premature explosions were easily discerned by the submarine because the torpedo exploded before it had a chance to reach its target. In the second, the warhead exploded just before reaching the target ship but far enough away that it did no damage. The skipper, looking through the periscope, could see the torpedo run right to the ship and see the explosion; the crew could hear the high order explosion. Everything would look OK except that the target ship would get away with little or no damage. Sometimes the submarine command would hear about these premature explosions from intercepted enemy communications.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Both premature explosion types could result from the magnetic influence exploder. If a torpedo was still turning to get on course or had not stabilized its depth when the warhead armed, the exploder could see a magnetic field change and detonate. As the warhead approached the target, it could sense a change due to the ship's effect on the earth's magnetic field. That's a desired effect if the torpedo is set to run under the ship, but not a desirable effect when the torpedo is set to hit the side of the ship.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The second type of premature explosion masked contact exploder failures. Skippers firing the torpedo for a contact exploder hit on the side of the target would see an explosion and believe the contact exploder worked, but the explosions were triggered not by the contact feature, but rather by the magnetic influence feature at a distance far enough from the hull to cause little or no damage.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Early reports of torpedo action included some dud hits, heard as a dull clang. In a few instances, Mark 14s would strike a Japanese ship and lodge in its hull without exploding. The contact pistol appeared to be malfunctioning, though the conclusion was anything but clear until running depth and magnetic exploder problems were solved. The experience of Dan Daspit (in ) was exactly the sort of live-fire trial BuOrd had been prevented from doing in peacetime. It was now clear to all at Pearl Harbor the contact pistol was also defective. Ironically, a direct hit on the target at a 90-degree angle, as recommended in training, would usually fail to detonate; the contact pistol functioned reliably only when the torpedo impacted the target at an oblique angle.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Once the magnetic influence exploder was deactivated, problems with the contact exploder became more apparent. Torpedoes would hit their target without detonating. There might be a small "explosion" when the air flask ruptured due to the impact with the target.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Daspit carefully documented his efforts to sink 19,000-ton whale factory ship"Tonan Maru III" on 24 July 1943. He fired four torpedoes from ; two hit, stopping the target dead in the water. Daspit immediately fired another two; these hit as well. With no enemy anti-submarine combatants in sight, Daspit then took time to carefully maneuver into a textbook firing position, square off the target's beam, where he fired nine more Mark 14s and observed all with his periscope (despite the Japanese firing at it). All were duds. Daspit, suspicious by now he was working with a faulty production run of Mark 14s, saved his last remaining torpedo to be analyzed by experts back at base. Nothing out of the ordinary was found.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Daspit's cruise raised enough of an issue that tests were carried out by 's gunnery and torpedo officer, Art Taylor. Taylor, "Swede" Momsen, and others fired warshots into the cliffs of Kahoolawe, beginning 31 August. Additional trials, supervised by Taylor, used a crane to drop warheads filled with sand instead of high explosive from a height of (the height was chosen so the velocity at impact would match the torpedo's running speed of ). In these drop tests, 70% of the exploders failed to detonate when they hit the target at 90 degrees. A quick fix was to encourage "glancing" shots (which cut the number of duds in half), until a permanent solution could be found.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: The Mark 6's contact exploder mechanism descended from the Mark 3 contact exploder. Both exploders had the unusual feature that the firing pin's travel was perpendicular to the torpedo's travel, so the firing pin would be subject to side loading when the torpedo struck its target. The Mark 3 exploder was designed when torpedo speeds were much slower (the Mark 10 torpedo's speed was ), but even then the Mark 3 prototypes had problems with the firing pin binding during the high deceleration when the torpedo collided with the target. The solution was to use a stronger firing spring to overcome the binding. The Mark 14 torpedo had a much higher speed of , so it would see significantly higher deceleration, but BuOrd apparently just assumed the contact exploder would work at the higher speed. There were no live-fire tests of the Mark 14 torpedo, so there were no-live fire tests of its contact exploder. If BuOrd had tried some live-fire tests of the contact exploder during peacetime, it probably would have experienced some duds and rediscovered the binding problem.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Pearl Harbor made working exploders by using lighter weight aluminum parts. Reducing the mass reduces the binding friction. BuOrd suggested using a stiffer spring, the fix that had worked decades before. In the end, BuOrd adopted a ball switch and electric detonator rather than using a firing pin mechanism.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: In September 1943, the first torpedoes with new contact pistols were sent to war. "After twenty-one months of war, the three major defects of the Mark 14 torpedo had at last been isolated. Each defect had been discovered and fixed in the field—always over the stubborn opposition of the Bureau of Ordnance."


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: There were numerous reports of the Mark 14 running erratically and circling back on the firing boat. is thought to have been sunk by a circular-running Mark 14 hitting the periscope tower without exploding, and jamming the diving controls at full emergency dive position. A circular run sank the submarine , but it may not have been a Mark 14. Likewise, was almost sunk by a circular run, but the circular run happened because the gyro had not been installed. The subsequent Mark 18 torpedo was no better, sinking . The surface-launched Mark 15 torpedo had collars to prevent circular runs, but the Mark 14 was never given this feature.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Once remedied, sinkings of enemy ships rose noticeably. By the end of World War II the Mark 14 torpedo had become a much more reliable weapon. Lessons learned allowed surface ships such as destroyers to remedy the failings of the Mark 15; the two designs shared the same strengths and faults.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: After the war, the best features of the improved Mark 14 were merged with the best features of captured German torpedoes to create the hydrogen peroxide–fueled Mark 16 with a pattern-running option. The Mark 16 became the standard United States post-war anti-shipping torpedo, despite the large remaining inventory of Mark 14 torpedoes.


title: Mark 14 torpedo

text: Official U.S. Navy naming policy had settled on using Arabic instead of Roman numerals to designate torpedo models since the 1917 development of the Bliss-Leavitt Mark 4 torpedo. However, many instances exist of the Mark 14 being referred to as the "Mark XIV" in official documentation and reports as well as accounts by historians and observers.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: Rutger C. Bregman (born 26 April 1988) is a Dutch historian and author. He has published four books on history, philosophy, and economics, including "", which has been translated into thirty-two languages. His work has been featured in "The Washington Post", "The Guardian" and the BBC. He has been described by "The Guardian" as the "Dutch wunderkind of new ideas" and by "TED Talks" as "one of Europe's most prominent young thinkers". His TED Talk, "Poverty Isn't a Lack of Character; It's a Lack of Cash", was chosen by TED curator Chris Anderson as one of the top ten of 2017.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: Bregman was born in Renesse. His father is a Protestant minister, while his mother is a special needs teacher. He earned his Bachelor of Arts in history at Utrecht University in 2009. He earned his Master of Arts in history in 2012, partly at Utrecht and partly at the University of California, Los Angeles. His graduate studies were concentrated on cities, states and citizenship. He was a member of Christian student association SSR-NU.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: Bregman thought of becoming an academic historian, but began working as a journalist instead. He writes regularly for the online journal "De Correspondent", and was twice nominated for the European Press Prize for his work there. His articles have also been published in "The Guardian", "The Washington Post", "Evonomics", and "The Conversation".


title: Rutger Bregman

text: "Utopia for Realists: How We Can Build the Ideal World" (Dutch title: "Gratis geld voor iedereen") promotes a more productive and equitable life based on three core ideas which include a universal and unconditional basic income paid to everybody, a short workweek of fifteen hours, and open borders worldwide with the free exchange of citizens between all nations. It was originally written as a series of articles for the Dutch online journal "De Correspondent".


title: Rutger Bregman

text: In an interview with the Montreal newspaper "Le Devoir" in September 2017, Bregman said that "to move forward, a society needs dreams, not nightmares. Yet people are caught in the logic of fear. Whether it is Trump, Brexit or the last elections in Germany, they vote against the future and instead for solutions to replace it, believing the past was better based on a thoroughly mistaken view of the world: the world was worse before … Humanity is improving, conditions of life, work and health too. And it's time to open the windows of our minds to see it."


title: Rutger Bregman

text: In September 2019, Bregman published "" (Dutch title: "De meeste mensen deugen"), where he argues that humans are fundamentally mostly decent, and that more recognition of this view would likely be beneficial to everyone, partly as it would reduce excessive cynicism. For example, if society was less adamant on the view that humans are naturally lazy, there would be less reason to oppose the widespread introduction of poverty mitigation measures like basic income. The book takes a multi-disciplinary approach, drawing from the findings of history, economics, psychology, biology, anthropology and archaeology. Bregman's arguments include the assertion that in the state of nature debate, Rousseau, rather than Hobbes, was more correct about humanity's essential goodness. An English translation was published in May 2020. The paperback release was a New York Times Best Seller. In addition to praise, "Humankind: Hopeful History" has also received strong criticism. Various critics, for example, point to the book's lack of scientific content.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: Prior to the release of "Utopia for Realists", Bregman had already published several books, including "History of Progress", which won the Liberales book prize for best Dutch-language nonfiction book of 2013.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: In a TED presentation titled "Poverty Isn't a Lack of Character; It's a Lack of Cash" in April 2017, Bregman argued for a universal basic income as the solution to end poverty.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: In January 2019, Bregman took part in a panel debate at the World Economic Forum in Davos, where he criticised the event for its focus on philanthropy rather than tax avoidance and the need for fair taxation. His intervention was widely reported and followed on social media.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: A month after his Davos appearance, Bregman was interviewed remotely by Fox News anchor and journalist Tucker Carlson, with a recording originally being scheduled to air at a later point. Bregman told Carlson that the United States "could easily crack down on tax paradises" if they wanted to and that Fox News would not cover stories about tax evasion by the wealthy. He said that Carlson himself had been taking "dirty money" for years from the CATO Institute where he was senior fellow and which is "funded by Koch billionaires", Charles Koch and David Koch. He said that Carlson and other Fox News anchors are "millionaires paid by billionaires", referring to the Murdochs and, in Carlson's case, the Koch brothers. Bregman told Carlson that "what the Murdochs want you to do [on Fox News] is scapegoat immigrants instead of talking about tax avoidance". Carlson was angered by Bregman's comments, calling him a "moron" and telling him to "go fuck [himself]". Carlson later apologized for using profane language, but declared his comments towards Bregman were "genuinely heartfelt". A recording of the interview from Bregman's point of view was obtained by NowThis News, who released the video on 20 February 2019. It later exceeded four million views on YouTube.


title: Rutger Bregman

text: Bregman approvingly cites a 1968 US proposal for a guaranteed minimum income, put forward by President Richard Nixon, among others. He also cites a 1974–1979 Canadian federal government project in Dauphin, Manitoba, that temporarily eradicated poverty. "The most popular study on the effects of basic income took place in Manitoba between 1974 and 1979 where everyone received a 'Mincome' (minimum income) of $9,000 a year (by today's standards) from the government, no strings attached. Evelyn Forget, an economist and professor at the University of Manitoba, who looked over the data from the study says there was a 9 percent reduction in working hours among two main groups of citizens. But the reasons why give insight into how basic income can dramatically change the course of someone's life."


title: Rutger Bregman

text: In April 2021 Bregman became a member of Giving What We Can, a community of people who have pledged to give at least 10% of their income to effective charities.


title: Esra Erdoğan

text: Esra Erdoğan Albayrak (born 1983) is a Turkish sociologist. She is the daughter of the 12th President of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, and the wife of the 66th Minister of Finance and Treasury, Berat Albayrak.


title: Esra Erdoğan

text: Her father is Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and her mother is Emine Erdoğan. She has three siblings: Ahmet Burak, Necmettin Bilal and Sümeyye. On 11 July 2004, she was married to Sadık Albayrak's son Berat Albayrak at the Lütfi Kırdar Convention and Exhibition Center. Guests at the ceremony included Romanian Prime Minister Adrian Năstase, Greek Prime Minister Kostas Karamanlis, Jordanian King Abdullah II, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf, Minister of Foreign Affairs Abdullah Gül and Speaker of the Grand National Assembly Bülent Arınç. They have four children; Ahmet Akif (b. 2006), Emine Mahinur (b. 2009), Sadık (b. 2015) and Hamza Salih (b. 2020).


title: Esra Erdoğan

text: She completed her high school education in Kadıköy İmam Hatip High School and her undergraduate education in 2003 in the field of sociology and history at Indiana University. She received her master's degree from the University of California, Berkeley. In 2016, she completed her PhD in sociology at the same university. One of her friends whom she studied with described her as a person with "strong personality; strict beliefs about life, faith, politics and family".


title: Esra Erdoğan

text: She is a board member of TURKEN Foundation in New York, USA, TÜRGEV (Turkey Youth and Education Services Foundation), and Green Crescent, established under the leadership of her father Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. She participated in the 'We are Volunteers, We Teach' campaign initiated by Ümraniye Municipality for disabled people and taught the alphabet to disabled girls.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: Pebbles Flintstone (also known as Pebbles Flintstone-Rubble as an adult) is a fictional character in the "Flintstones" franchise. The red-haired daughter of Fred and Wilma Flintstone, Pebbles is born near the end of the third season. She is most famous in her infant form on "The Flintstones", but has also appeared at various other ages, including as a teenager on the early 1970s spin-off "The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show" and as an adult in three television films. She spent most of her time with Bamm-Bamm Rubble, her childhood best friend whom she eventually marries.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: According to the February 22, 1963, edition of "TV Guide", Pebbles was born at the Bedrock Rockapedic Hospital on February 22, 10,000 BC. That particular year was never actually cited within the show itself; most versions of the show put the Flintstones' era as around 1,000,000 BC.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: As an infant, Pebbles quickly became lifelong best friends with her next-door neighbor, Bamm-Bamm Rubble.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: As a preteen, Pebbles was an excellent baseball player, which led to a misadventure involving her father, as seen in the 1978 primetime special "".


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: By the time she was a teenager, Pebbles began dating Bamm-Bamm and was noted for getting their friends into various misadventures, mostly due to sharing her dad's penchant for schemes that would inevitably backfire (such as causing a strike by Bedrock's city employees when she was elected honorary mayor for a week). Her friends and she attended Bedrock High School; Pebbles had a catchphrase similar to her father's: "Yabba-Dabba-Doozie!"


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: As an adult, Pebbles pursued a career in advertising and married Bamm-Bamm. After this, the newly married couple moved to Hollyrock, a fictional, prehistoric version of Hollywood, California. They eventually had a son named Chip and a daughter named Roxy, who were fraternal twins.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: Through the various Flintstones incarnations, the age of Pebbles has varied widely, appearing as an adolescent in one spin-off and as an infant again in the next. Arranged roughly in chronological order, the Flintstones incarnations in which Pebbles has made appearances are:


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: In 1963, when Hanna-Barbera decided to add a baby to the show, their first choice was a boy. When Ideal Toy Company heard this, company executives approached Hanna-Barbera with a proposal to change the baby character to a girl for which the toymaker could create a doll, and Hanna-Barbera agreed.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: Pebbles, in her conventional toddler incarnation, is sometimes seen in the various Post Fruity Pebbles and Cocoa Pebbles cereal commercials that have been produced over the years.


title: Pebbles Flintstone

text: Pebbles also appears on the packages of "Flintstones" children's vitamins and with Bamm-Bamm on the packages of "Flintstones" toddler vitamins, which are manufactured by Bayer Healthcare (formerly Miles Laboratories).


title: Izabella St. James

text: Izabella St. James (born 25 September 1975) is a television personality and a former girlfriend of Hugh Hefner, editor/publisher of "Playboy" magazine. She is best known as the author of a memoir entitled "Bunny Tales: Behind Closed Doors at the Playboy Mansion", published 2006, about activities at the Playboy Mansion in Los Angeles.


title: Izabella St. James

text: Izabella St. James was born in Kraków, Poland, when that country was under Communist rule. When St. James was ten years old her parents moved to Athens, Greece, where they lived for a year. Her family then moved to British Columbia, Canada. A year later they settled further east in the province of Ontario, Canada. St. James lived in Kitchener-Waterloo for five years while she attended high school, and graduated with an award for academic excellence. After high school, she moved to Montreal, Canada, to attend McGill University. She started with a double major in political science and history, but switched to a humanistic studies major, and studied art history, classical music, literature and Spanish.


title: Izabella St. James

text: She then attended Pepperdine University School of Law in Malibu, California. She finished law school in December 2001, earning her Juris Doctor degree by graduating a semester early, having completed study abroad programs at Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain, and at the Jagiellonian University in her native Poland. However, she did not complete the bar examination the following February.


title: Izabella St. James

text: In September 2000, she met Hugh Hefner and his girlfriends in a Los Angeles nightclub, and began attending parties at the Playboy Mansion. In January 2002, after finishing law school, St. James became part of Hefner's girlfriend posse, spending nights out and traveling regularly with him and his girlfriends. In April 2002, Hefner invited her to move into the Playboy Mansion and become one of his "official girlfriends". St. James lived at the Mansion for two years, moving out and ending her relationship with Hefner in May 2004.


title: Izabella St. James

text: Since leaving the Playboy Mansion, St. James has been acting and writing. In August 2006, she published "Bunny Tales: Behind Closed Doors at the Playboy Mansion", a memoir of her time as one of Hugh Hefner's girlfriends.


title: Izabella St. James

text: In 2015, she starred in the first season of the Polish reality TV series called "Żony Hollywood" ("Hollywood Wives") which is based on "The Real Housewives" franchise.


title: Fairy Tail (season 7)

text: The seventh season of the "Fairy Tail" anime series is directed by Shinji Ishihira and produced by A-1 Pictures and Bridge. Like the rest of the series, it follows the adventures of Natsu Dragneel and Lucy Heartfilia of the fictional guild Fairy Tail. The season contains three story arcs. The first 27 episodes continue the arc, which adapts material from the beginning of the 36th to the middle of the 40th volume of the "Fairy Tail" manga by Hiro Mashima. Focusing on Natsu and the others who have been frozen in time for seven years on Sirius Island, the members continue to participate in the Grand Magic Games, an annual competition to decide the Kingdom of Fiore's strongest guild. However, they encounter a conspiracy involving a time machine called Eclipse and the imminent destruction of the kingdom. The next 24 episodes form an original storyline called , in which the twelve celestial spirits of the Zodiac rebel against their owners Lucy and Yukino after being transformed by Eclipse's black magic. The remaining 39 episodes contain the arc, which adapts material from the rest of the manga's 40th volume to the middle of the 49th volume, depicting Fairy Tail's battle with a dark guild of Zeref's demons who aim to resurrect E.N.D., their master and Zeref's ultimate creation.


title: Fairy Tail (season 7)

text: The season ran from April 5, 2014, to December 26, 2015, on TV Tokyo. The first DVD compilation was released with the first issue of "Fairy Tail Monthly" magazine on July 17, 2014, renumbered as "Vol. 1". The season is simulcast by North American licensor Funimation Entertainment, subtitled in English on their website, and by Crunchyroll.


title: Fairy Tail (season 7)

text: Fourteen pieces of theme music were used for this season: seven opening and seven ending themes. For episodes 176 to 188, the opening theme is titled "Masayume Chasing" and performed by BoA. For episodes 189 to 203, the second opening theme is "Strike Back" performed by Back-On. For episodes 204 to 214, the third opening theme is "Mysterious Magic" performed by Do as Infinity. The fourth opening, used from episodes 215 to 226, is "Break Out" performed by V6. The fifth opening theme, used from episodes 227 to 239, are by Tackey and Tsubasa. The sixth opening theme is "Never-End Tale" performed by Tatsuyuki Kobayashi and Konomi Suzuki for episodes 240 to 252. For the rest of the season, the seventh opening theme is "Believe in Myself" performed by Edge of Life. The ending themes, used with their respective openings, are performed by Breathe, performed by May J, performed by ROOT FIVE, "Don't Let Me Down" performed by Nishiuchi, "Never Ever" by Tokyo Girls' Style, "Forever Here" performed by Yoko Ishida, and performed by Megumi Mori.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: Northridge is a neighborhood in the San Fernando Valley region of the City of Los Angeles. The community is home to California State University, Northridge, and the Northridge Fashion Center.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: Originally named Zelzah by settlers in 1908, the community was renamed North Los Angeles in 1929 but the appellation sometimes caused confusion between North Hollywood and Los Angeles. In 1938, civic leader Carl S. Dentzel decided to rename the community to Northridge Village, which morphed into modern-day Northridge.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: The Northridge area can trace its history back to the Tongva people and later to Spanish explorers. It was sold by the Mexican governor Pio Pico to Eulogio de Celis, whose heirs divided it for resale.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: The 2000 U.S. census counted 57,561 residents in the Northridge neighborhood—or , among the lowest population densities for the city. In 2008, the city estimated that the population had increased to 61,993. In 2000 the median age for residents was 32, about average for city and county neighborhoods; the percentage of residents aged 19 to 34 was among the county's highest.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: The neighborhood was considered "highly diverse" ethnically within Los Angeles, with a high percentage of Asian people for the county. The breakdown was whites, 49.5%; Latinos, 26.1%; Asians, 14.5%; blacks, 5.4%; and others, 4.6%. Mexico (24.7%) and the Philippines (9.8%) were the most common places of birth for the 31.8% of the residents who were born abroad—an average figure for Los Angeles.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: The median yearly household income in 2008 dollars was $67,906, considered high for the city. Renters occupied 46.4% of the housing stock, and house- or apartment-owners held 53.6%. The average household size of 2.7 people was considered average for Los Angeles.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: In 2000 there were 3,803 military veterans, or 8.5% of the population, a high percentage compared to the rest of the city.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: Northridge touches Porter Ranch and Granada Hills on the north, North Hills on the east, Van Nuys on the southeast, Lake Balboa and Reseda on the south and Winnetka and Chatsworth on the west.


title: Northridge, Los Angeles

text: The area now called Northridge was first inhabited about 2,000 years ago by the Native American Gabrielino (or Tongva) people. Among their tribal villages Totonga was nearby Northridge. The Gabrielino-Tongva people, who lived in dome-shaped houses, are sometimes referred to as the "people of the earth". They spoke a Takic Uto-Aztecan (Shoshonean) language. Their pictographs are very hard to find nowadays, and those not public, nor protected, many destroyed by the development of Greater Los Angeles; there are no public rock art sites in Los Angeles County. A replica can be seen at The Southwest Museum and there are archeological exhibits at Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Rancho Los Alamitos, Louis Robidoux Nature Center and El Dorado Nature Center.