title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Kevin Coulson returns to Crosby where he grew up, planning to go to his childhood home and die by suicide. While sitting in his car he is approached by Olive Kitteridge, his former math teacher, who enters his car and speaks to him frankly about his mother's suicide years before and her own father's suicide. Kevin decides not to go through with his plan. Olive notices that a former classmate of Kevin's, Patty Howe, has fallen into the dock, and Kevin rescues her.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Angie O'Meara, who plays piano at the Warehouse Bar and Grill, is an alcoholic who can only perform in front of people when she is drunk. One winter evening she sees her ex-boyfriend Simon in the audience and she calls her married lover, Malcolm, to break off their relationship. Simon later tells Angie that her mother, a prostitute, followed Simon and propositioned him. She thinks he is lying because of his dissatisfaction with his own life.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Olive's only child, Christopher, finally marries at the age of 38. Olive finds the wedding overwhelming since she is very close to Chris. She overhears his new bride, Sue, making fun of the dress Olive is wearing, and implying that Olive is difficult. Infuriated, Olive steals and damages some of Sue's clothes, giving her a little burst of happiness of the kind Olive depends on to make her life worth living.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Harmon, who runs the local hardware store, begins an affair with the widow Daisy Foster after his wife, Bonnie, informs him she is no longer interested in sex. Harmon observes Tim Burnham and his girlfriend Nina and is intrigued by their loose attitudes towards drugs and sex. When Tim leaves Nina, she goes to Daisy for help and reveals she suffers from anorexia. Olive Kitteridge, Harmon and Daisy all try to help Nina, but she eventually suffers a relapse and dies. These events cause Harmon to realize he is in love with Daisy and he rents Tim and Nina's former home, in preparation for leaving Bonnie.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Olive reflects on an occasion when she stopped at a small hospital emergency room to use their bathroom. Despite not feeling ill, she was persuaded to have an examination. The delay meant that Olive and Henry were there when two young men invaded the hospital looking for drugs. Held hostage alongside the nurse and the doctor, Henry and Olive began quarreling, with Olive disparaging Henry's mother and Henry taking the nurse's side when Olive rebuked her for praying. After their rescue, tensions remain between the couple and Olive reflects how their relationship has been affected by their experiences at the hospital.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Jane and Bob Houlton, a retired couple, meet the parents of their daughter's friends at a concert. Jane knows that one of their daughters has had an abortion. In conversation, the couple mention seeing Bob at an airport in Miami. At home, Jane confronts Bob, who admits that, four years earlier, his former mistress had contacted him because she had breast cancer. Jane is upset by his betrayal.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Olive's son Chris and his new wife have moved to California. After a year, Chris announces that they are divorcing but he will be staying in California. Olive and Henry try to adjust to retired life, but Henry suffers a stroke which leaves him unresponsive, forcing him to move to a care home. Olive finds herself contemplating suicide now that she lives alone. After receiving a condolence note, Olive goes to visit Louise Larkin. Louise and her husband have become shut-ins after their son Doyle committed murder. Louise talks about suicide with Olive and mocks her for lying to make her life appear better than it is. Shortly after while visiting Henry, Olive gives him "permission" to die but he continues to live.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Olive helps set up the wake of Ed Bonney, something Henry would have done were he well. During the wake, Kerry Monroe, the cousin of Ed's widow Marlene, becomes intoxicated and makes a scene. Olive later finds Marlene with Kerry, who has passed out. Marlene confesses to Olive that, since Ed died, Kerry has confessed to having previously had an affair with him. She asks Olive to dispose of a basket filled with pamphlets for vacation packages which Marlene now feels unable to look at.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Winnie's sister Julie is left at the altar by her fiancé Bruce, who tells her he wants to continue dating, but does not want to get married. Julie's mother Anita threatens to kill Bruce and disown Julie if she continues her relationship with him after he left her at the altar. Nevertheless, Julie leaves on a bus to go to Bruce in Boston. Anita finds a note Julie wrote to Winnie asking her to stop her parents finding out and Winnie realizes that something between her and her mother is now broken.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Chris has married a second time and is now living in New York City. He asks Olive to visit and she goes, realizing that Chris's invitation is only a way to get her to help out with his two young stepchildren. Olive dislikes Chris's new wife Ann, who smokes and drinks while pregnant, but does her best to help out. After an incident during a trip to get ice cream, Olive tells Chris she wants to leave and they quarrel. Olive leaves New York City and goes home early with neither her son nor daughter-in-law taking her to the airport.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: The penultimate story focuses on Rebecca Brown, the daughter of a minister, who starts to develop kleptomania after her father's death and fantasizes about burning things.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: After Henry's death, Olive meets widower Jack Kennison, a retired professor, after she finds him having fainted on a walking path. Olive and Jack build up a friendship that blossoms into romance despite their different political beliefs. Olive begins a new relationship with him realizing she has found a reason to live again.


title: Voiceless palatal plosive

text: The voiceless palatal plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound used in some vocal languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1.


title: Voiceless palatal plosive

text: If distinction is necessary, the voiceless alveolo-palatal plosive may be transcribed as (advanced ) or (retracted and palatalized ), but these are essentially equivalent, because the contact includes both the blade and body (but not the tip) of the tongue. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are codice_2 and codice_3 or codice_4, respectively. There is also a non-IPA letter ("t", plus the curl found in the symbols for alveolo-palatal sibilant fricatives ), used especially in sinological circles.


title: Voiceless palatal plosive

text: It is common for the phonetic symbol to be used to represent voiceless postalveolar affricate or other similar affricates, for example in the Indic languages. This may be considered appropriate when the place of articulation needs to be specified and the distinction between plosive and affricate is not contrastive.


title: Voiceless palatal plosive

text: There is also the voiceless post-palatal plosive in some languages, which is articulated slightly more back compared with the place of articulation of the prototypical palatal consonant, though not as back as the prototypical velar consonant. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as (retracted ) or (advanced ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are codice_5 and codice_6, respectively.


title: Voiceless palatal plosive

text: Especially in broad transcription, the voiceless post-palatal plosive may be transcribed as a palatalized voiceless velar plosive ( in the IPA, codice_7 or codice_8 in X-SAMPA).


title: Brian Vernel

text: Brian Vernel (born 29 December 1990) is a Scottish actor best known for his film role in "" and as the character Odda the Younger in the TV series "The Last Kingdom" and Billy Wallace in "Gangs of London".


title: Brian Vernel

text: A native of Glasgow, Vernel attended St Mungo's Academy in Bridgeton before training at the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland (formerly the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama) after a one-year general arts foundation course at Glasgow University.


title: Brian Vernel

text: He played the role of Bala-Tik in the 2015 film "Star Wars: The Force Awakens". Vernel's character spoke in a Glaswegian accent.


title: Signed number representations

text: In computing, signed number representations are required to encode negative numbers in binary number systems.


title: Signed number representations

text: In mathematics, negative numbers in any base are represented by prefixing them with a minus sign ("−"). However, in RAM or CPU registers, numbers are represented only as sequences of bits, without extra symbols. The four best-known methods of extending the binary numeral system to represent signed numbers are: sign–magnitude, ones' complement, two's complement, and offset binary. Some of the alternative methods use implicit instead of explicit signs, such as negative binary, using the base −2. Corresponding methods can be devised for other bases, whether positive, negative, fractional, or other elaborations on such themes.


title: Signed number representations

text: There is no definitive criterion by which any of the representations is universally superior. For integers, the representation used in most current computing devices is two's complement, although the Unisys ClearPath Dorado series mainframes use ones' complement.


title: Signed number representations

text: The early days of digital computing were marked by competing ideas about both hardware technology and mathematics technology (numbering systems). One of the great debates was the format of negative numbers, with some of the era's top experts expressing very strong and differing opinions. One camp supported two's complement, the system that is dominant today. Another camp supported ones' complement, where a negative value is formed by inverting all of the bits in its positive equivalent. A third group supported sign–magnitude, where a value is changed from positive to negative simply by toggling the word's highest-order bit.


title: Signed number representations

text: There were arguments for and against each of the systems. Sign–magnitude allowed for easier tracing of memory dumps (a common process in the 1960s) as small numeric values use fewer 1 bits. These systems did ones' complement math internally, so numbers would have to be converted to ones' complement values when they were transmitted from a register to the math unit and then converted back to sign–magnitude when the result was transmitted back to the register. The electronics required more gates than the other systemsa key concern when the cost and packaging of discrete transistors were critical. IBM was one of the early supporters of sign–magnitude, with their 704, 709 and 709x series computers being perhaps the best-known systems to use it.


title: Signed number representations

text: Ones' complement allowed for somewhat simpler hardware designs, as there was no need to convert values when passed to and from the math unit. But it also shared an undesirable characteristic with sign–magnitude: the ability to represent negative zero (−0). Negative zero behaves exactly like positive zero: when used as an operand in any calculation, the result will be the same whether an operand is positive or negative zero. The disadvantage is that the existence of two forms of the same value necessitates two comparisons when checking for equality with zero. Ones' complement subtraction can also result in an end-around borrow (described below). It can be argued that this makes the addition and subtraction logic more complicated or that it makes it simpler, as a subtraction requires simply inverting the bits of the second operand as it is passed to the adder. The PDP-1, CDC 160 series, CDC 3000 series, CDC 6000 series, UNIVAC 1100 series, and LINC computer use ones' complement representation.


title: Signed number representations

text: Two's complement is the easiest to implement in hardware, which may be the ultimate reason for its widespread popularity. Processors on the early mainframes often consisted of thousands of transistors, so eliminating a significant number of transistors was a significant cost savings. Mainframes such as the IBM System/360, the GE-600 series, and the PDP-6 and PDP-10 use two's complement, as did minicomputers such as the PDP-5 and PDP-8 and the PDP-11 and VAX machines. The architects of the early integrated-circuit-based CPUs (Intel 8080, etc.) also chose to use two's complement math. As IC technology advanced, two's complement technology was adopted in virtually all processors, including x86, m68k, Power ISA, MIPS, SPARC, ARM, Itanium, PA-RISC, and DEC Alpha.


title: Signed number representations

text: In the "sign–magnitude" representation, also called "sign-and-magnitude" or "signed magnitude", a signed number is represented by the bit pattern corresponding to the sign of the number for the sign bit (often the most significant bit, set to 0 for a positive number and to 1 for a negative number), and the magnitude of the number (or absolute value) for the remaining bits. For example, in an eight-bit byte, only seven bits represent the magnitude, which can range from 0000000 (0) to 1111111 (127). Thus numbers ranging from −127 to +127 can be represented once the sign bit (the eighth bit) is added. For example, −43 encoded in an eight-bit byte is 10101011 while 43 is 00101011. Using sign–magnitude representation has multiple consequences which makes them more intricate to implement:


title: Signed number representations

text: This approach is directly comparable to the common way of showing a sign (placing a "+" or "−" next to the number's magnitude). Some early binary computers (e.g., IBM 7090) use this representation, perhaps because of its natural relation to common usage. Sign–magnitude is the most common way of representing the significand in floating-point values.


title: Signed number representations

text: In the "ones' complement" representation, a negative number is represented by the bit pattern corresponding to the bitwise NOT (i.e. the "complement") of the positive number. Like sign–magnitude representation, ones' complement has two representations of 0: 00000000 (+0) and 11111111 (−0).


title: Signed number representations

text: As an example, the ones' complement form of 00101011 (43) becomes 11010100 (−43). The range of signed numbers using ones' complement is represented by to and ±0. A conventional eight-bit byte is −127 to +127 with zero being either 00000000 (+0) or 11111111 (−0).


title: Signed number representations

text: To add two numbers represented in this system, one does a conventional binary addition, but it is then necessary to do an "end-around carry": that is, add any resulting carry back into the resulting sum. To see why this is necessary, consider the following example showing the case of the addition of −1 (11111110) to +2 (00000010):


title: Signed number representations

text: In the previous example, the first binary addition gives 00000000, which is incorrect. The correct result (00000001) only appears when the carry is added back in.


title: Signed number representations

text: A remark on terminology: The system is referred to as "ones' complement" because the negation of a positive value x (represented as the bitwise NOT of x) can also be formed by subtracting x from the ones' complement representation of zero that is a long sequence of ones (−0). Two's complement arithmetic, on the other hand, forms the negation of x by subtracting x from a single large power of two that is congruent to +0. Therefore, ones' complement and two's complement representations of the same negative value will differ by one.


title: Signed number representations

text: Note that the ones' complement representation of a negative number can be obtained from the sign–magnitude representation merely by bitwise complementing the magnitude (inverting all the bits after the first). For example, the decimal number −125 with its sign–magnitude representation 11111101 can be represented in ones' complement form as 10000010.


title: Signed number representations

text: In the "two's complement" representation, a negative number is represented by the bit pattern corresponding to the bitwise NOT (i.e. the "complement") of the positive number plus one, i.e. to the ones' complement plus one. It circumvents the problems of multiple representations of 0 and the need for the end-around carry of the ones' complement representation. This can also be thought of as the most significant bit representing the inverse of its value in an unsigned integer; in an 8-bit unsigned byte, the most significant bit represents the 128ths place, where in two's complement that bit would represent −128.


title: Signed number representations

text: In two's-complement, there is only one zero, represented as 00000000. Negating a number (whether negative or positive) is done by inverting all the bits and then adding one to that result. This actually reflects the ring structure on all integers modulo 2: formula_1. Addition of a pair of two's-complement integers is the same as addition of a pair of unsigned numbers (except for detection of overflow, if that is done); the same is true for subtraction and even for "N" lowest significant bits of a product (value of multiplication). For instance, a two's-complement addition of 127 and −128 gives the same binary bit pattern as an unsigned addition of 127 and 128, as can be seen from the 8-bit two's complement table.


title: Signed number representations

text: Example: for +2, which is 00000010 in binary (the ~ character is the C bitwise NOT operator, so ~X means "invert all the bits in X"):


title: Signed number representations

text: In the "offset binary" representation, also called "excess-K" or "biased", a signed number is represented by the bit pattern corresponding to the unsigned number plus K, with K being the "biasing value" or "offset". Thus 0 is represented by K, and −K is represented by an all-zero bit pattern. This can be seen as a slight modification and generalization of the aforementioned two's-complement, which is virtually the representation with negated most significant bit.


title: Signed number representations

text: Biased representations are now primarily used for the exponent of floating-point numbers. The IEEE 754 floating-point standard defines the exponent field of a single-precision (32-bit) number as an 8-bit excess-127 field. The double-precision (64-bit) exponent field is an 11-bit excess-1023 field; see exponent bias. It also had use for binary-coded decimal numbers as excess-3.


title: Signed number representations

text: In the "base −2" representation, a signed number is represented using a number system with base −2. In conventional binary number systems, the base, or radix, is 2; thus the rightmost bit represents 2, the next bit represents 2, the next bit 2, and so on. However, a binary number system with base −2 is also possible. The rightmost bit represents , the next bit represents , the next bit and so on, with alternating sign. The numbers that can be represented with four bits are shown in the comparison table below.


title: Signed number representations

text: The range of numbers that can be represented is asymmetric. If the word has an even number of bits, the magnitude of the largest negative number that can be represented is twice as large as the largest positive number that can be represented, and vice versa if the word has an odd number of bits.


title: Signed number representations

text: The following table shows the positive and negative integers that can be represented using four bits.


title: Signed number representations

text: Same table, as viewed from "given these binary bits, what is the number as interpreted by the representation system":


title: Signed number representations

text: Google's Protocol Buffers "zig-zag encoding" is a system similar to sign–magnitude, but uses the least significant bit to represent the sign and has a single representation of zero. This allows a variable-length quantity encoding intended for nonnegative (unsigned) integers to be used efficiently for signed integers.


title: Signed number representations

text: A similar method is used in the Advanced Video Coding/H.264 and High Efficiency Video Coding/H.265 video compression standards to extend exponential-Golomb coding to negative numbers. In that extension, the least significant bit is almost a sign bit; zero has the same least significant bit (0) as all the negative numbers. This choice results in the largest magnitude representable positive number being one higher than the largest magnitude negative number, unlike in two's complement or the Protocol Buffers zig-zag encoding.


title: Signed number representations

text: Another approach is to give each digit a sign, yielding the signed-digit representation. For instance, in 1726, John Colson advocated reducing expressions to "small numbers", numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. In 1840, Augustin Cauchy also expressed preference for such modified decimal numbers to reduce errors in computation.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: MSK or The Rascalz were an American professional wrestling stable and later, tag team. It was formed by Dezmond Xavier, Trey Miguel, Zachary Wentz and Myron Reed. They began teaming with each other for the first time on the independent circuit in 2015 and competed in various independent promotions. They soon joined a stable called Scarlet and Graves, which primarily competed in Combat Zone Wrestling (CZW) as well as other independent promotions. In 2018, the stable ended as Xavier and Wentz went on to form a new tag team called The Rascalz. They were soon joined by Myron Reed and Trey Miguel, but Reed soon left the group and the remaining three continued on as a trio, making their debut in Impact Wrestling shortly after.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: The trio would depart from the company in November 2020 with Xavier and Wentz signing with WWE the following month while Miguel went his separate way and returned to Impact Wrestling the following January. In WWE, Xavier and Wentz names were changed to Wes Lee and Nash Carter and performed as MSK on the NXT brand, where they were two-time NXT Tag Team Champions. In April 2022, Wentz would be fired from WWE as a result of multiple allegations. After Wentz returned to the indies, he would rejoin Reed and Miguel who had been using the Rascalz name on the indies.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: Dezmond Xavier and Zachary Wentz teamed with each other for the first time at a Rockstar Pro event "Amped" on December 12, 2015 by defeating Ohio Is 4 Killers (Dave Crist and Jake Crist). They soon formed an alliance with Dave Crist, JT Davidson and Brittany Blake called Scarlet And Graves at a Combat Zone Wrestling event "Seventeen" on February 13, 2016 by defeating Conor Claxton, Frankie Pickard and Neiko Sozio. Xavier and Wentz won many tag team titles as part of the stable including the CZW World Tag Team Championship twice and the All American Wrestling Tag Team Championship once. In CZW, they split up from Dave Crist and JT Davidson, with whom Xavier and Wentz had begun feuding and continued to compete as Scarlet And Graves. Xavier and Wentz teamed with their future partner Trey Miguel for the first time to defeat Ohio Is 4 Killers (Dave Crist, Jake Crist and Sami Callihan) in a doors match at "EVILution" on July 8, 2017.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: Scarlet and Graves dissolved in 2017 and Xavier and Wentz formed a tag team called The Rascalz in Fight Club Pro by teaming with Meiko Satomura against Travis Banks and Aussie Open in a six-person tag team match at the second day of the Dream Tag Team Invitational tournament on March 31, 2018.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: Xavier and Wentz added Trey Miguel and Myron Reed as the new members of Rascalz in CZW at "Welcome to the Combat Zone" on April 7, 2018. They defeated Bandido and Flamita and Ohio Versus Everything in a three-way match. At FCP's "International Tekkers: Nothing Is True, Everything Is Permitted", Xavier and Wentz captured The Wrestling Revolver's PWR Tag Team Championship by defeating the defending champions Millie McKenzie and Pete Dunne and The Besties In The World (Davey Vega and Mat Fitchett) in a three-way match. They successfully defended the titles in a one-night tag team tournament against Killer Death Machines (Jessicka Havok and Nevaeh), The Crew (Jason Cade and Shane Strickland) and The Latin American Exchange (Santana and Ortiz) at "Catalina Wrestling Mixer 2". Miguel and Reed also participated in the tournament, losing to Besties in the World in the opening round. Rascalz held the PWR Tag Team Championship until "It's Always Sunny In Iowa" on March 3, 2019, where they lost the titles to Latin American Exchange in a three-way match, also involving Besties in the World. Reed would leave the group after Miguel, Xavier and Wentz signed with Impact Wrestling.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: On May 12, Miguel and Wentz won the WC Big Top Tag Team Championship at WrestleCircus event "Encore" by defeating The Dirty Devils (Andy Dalton and Isaiah James) and The Riegel Twins (Logan and Sterling) in a three-way match. After a successful title defense against Riegel Twins and Private Party at "Big Top Revival", Miguel and Wentz vacated the titles on July 25. In the United Kingdom-based Southside Wrestling Entertainment, Xavier and Wentz captured the SWE Tag Team Championship by defeating Chris Tyler and Stixx at "III Manors" on August 10. They lost the titles to Deadly Sins at "Lock, Stock And Three Smoking Rascalz".


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: Dezmond Xavier and Zachary Wentz debuted for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) at "Time is a Flat Circle" on March 23, 2018 by defeating Bandido and Flamita in a tag team match. The following month, during the night one of "All Star Weekend" on April 20, Rascalz defeated The Chosen Bros (Jeff Cobb and Matt Riddle) and The Young Bucks in a three-way match to capture the World Tag Team Championship. Rascalz made their first successful title defense the following night against Violence Unlimited. Rascalz would retain the titles throughout the rest of 2018 and 2019 as they successfully defended the titles against Young Bucks, Lucha Brothers, Latin American Exchange and Best Friends in quick succession. At "Two Hundred", Rascalz retained the title against LAX and Lucha Brothers in a three-way match. They successfully defended the titles against Flamita and Rey Horus at "Mystery Vortex VI" and LAX in a ladder match at "Sixteen".


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic causing PWG to postpone running shows for over a year, the team remained champions even after signing with WWE/NXT. Their reign is the longest ever in the promotion’s history.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: The Rascalz signed with Impact Wrestling in the fall of 2018. Dezmond Xavier had already worked for Impact, having won the Super X Cup tournament the previous year. Zachary Wentz and Trey Miguel made their first appearance in Impact by teaming with Ace Austin as enhancement talents against oVe (Dave Crist, Jake Crist and Sami Callihan) in a losing effort on the September 6 episode of "Impact!". A vignette aired promoting the debut of Rascalz on the November 15 episode of "Impact!". Rascalz made their debut as a fan favorite team on the November 29 episode of "Impact!" as Xavier and Wentz defeated Chris Bey and Mike Sydal. Miguel was in their corner for the match. Rascalz began their feud against Moose in 2019, which led to Rascalz making their pay-per-view debut against Moose and The North in a six-man tag team match at Rebellion, which Rascalz lost. During the match, the ring names of Xavier, Miguel and Wentz were shortened to Dez, Trey and Wentz respectively.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: Dez and Wentz would lose to North at Code Red. The Rascalz would then go on to defeat oVe members Dave Crist, Jake Crist and Madman Fulton at A Night You Can't Mist. On the June 7 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Dez and Wentz received their first opportunity for the World Tag Team Championship against The Latin American Exchange (Santana and Ortiz), which they lost via disqualification after Wentz interfered in the match. This led to a rematch between the two teams for the titles at Slammiversary XVII. On the July 5 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Dez and Wentz defeated Trey in a three-way match to earn the right to be LAX's opponents at Slammiversary. In the meanwhile, LAX lost the titles to The North, which led to North being added into the match, making it a three-way match for the titles, where North retained the titles. Rascalz would then defeat Andy Dalton, Matthew Palmer and Steve O Reno at Bash at the Brewery.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: At Slammiversary, The Rascalz, represented by Dez and Wentz, issued an open challenge to any tag team. The reunited Motor City Machine Guns accepted the challenge and won the match. Trey challenged for the vacant Impact World Championship in the main event. However, the match was won by Eddie Edwards.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: On November 11, it was revealed that The Rascalz would be leaving Impact amid interest from both WWE and All Elite Wrestling. During the November 17 tapings, The Rascalz were given a "send off" by the Impact locker room. Trey confirmed the following day that he, Dez and Wentz were in fact finished with Impact Wrestling. However, since then, Trey Miguel has made his return to IMPACT, effectively ending The Rascalz as a trio.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: On December 2, 2020, it was announced that Dezmond Xavier and Zachary Wentz had signed with WWE and would be reporting to the WWE Performance Center.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: On the January 13, 2021 episode of "NXT", Xavier and Wentz debuted as Wes Lee and Nash Carter respectively under the new team name MSK. They defeated Jake Atlas and Isaiah "Swerve" Scott in the first round of the Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic tournament. The duo then defeated Drake Maverick and Killian Dain in the second round on the January 27 episode of "NXT" to advance to the semi-finals. On the February 10 episode, they defeated Legado Del Fantasma in the semi-finals. On February 14, at , MSK defeated the Grizzled Young Veterans in the finals to become the 2021 Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classics Winners. At , MSK defeated Grizzled Young Veterans and Legado Del Fantasma in a triple threat tag team match to win the vacant NXT Tag Team Championship. MSK would have their first successful title defense against the team of Killian Dain and Drake Marverick on the April 13 episode of "NXT." At , MSK would team with NXT North American Champion, Bronson Reed to take on Legado Del Fantasma in a winners take all match, where the team of MSK and Reed would be successful. At , MSK would defeat Tommaso Ciampa and Timothy Thatcher to retain their NXT Tag Team Titles. On the September 8 episode of "NXT," MSK would defeat Oney Lorcan and Danny Burch to retain the NXT Tag Team Titles. On the October 5 episode of "NXT 2.0," MSK would successfully defend their Tag Titles in a fatal-4-way elimination match"." At on October 26, MSK would lose their titles to Imperium, ending their reign at 201 days. They would regain their title from Imperium several months later on April 2, 2022, at NXT Stand & Deliver in a triple threat match that also involved The Creed Brothers. However a few days later on April 6, Nash Carter would be released from his WWE contract and two days later, the NXT Tag Team Championship would be declared vacant.


title: MSK (professional wrestling)

text: On June 9, it was announced that the Rascalz would be reforming with Miguel, Wentz and Reed, facing the team of Blake Christian, Nick Wayne and Fuego Del Sol at Warrior Wrestling 24 on June 26.


title: TRPV1

text: The transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TrpV1), also known as the capsaicin receptor and the vanilloid receptor 1, is a protein that, in humans, is encoded by the "TRPV1" gene. It was the first isolated member of the transient receptor potential vanilloid receptor proteins that in turn are a sub-family of the transient receptor potential protein group. This protein is a member of the TRPV group of transient receptor potential family of ion channels.


title: TRPV1

text: The function of TRPV1 is detection and regulation of body temperature. In addition, TRPV1 provides a sensation of scalding heat and pain (nociception). In primary afferent sensory neurons, it cooperates with TRPA1 (a chemical irritant receptor) to mediate the detection of noxious environmental stimuli.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 is an element of or mechanism used by the mammalian somatosensory system. It is a nonselective cation channel that may be activated by a wide variety of exogenous and endogenous physical and chemical stimuli. The best-known activators of TRPV1 are: temperature greater than ; acidic conditions; capsaicin (the irritating compound in hot chili peppers); and allyl isothiocyanate, the pungent compound in mustard and wasabi. The activation of TRPV1 leads to a painful, burning sensation. Its endogenous activators include: low pH (acidic conditions), the endocannabinoid anandamide, N-oleyl-dopamine, and N-arachidonoyl-dopamine. TRPV1 receptors are found mainly in the nociceptive neurons of the peripheral nervous system, but they have also been described in many other tissues, including the central nervous system. TRPV1 is involved in the transmission and modulation of pain (nociception), as well as the integration of diverse painful stimuli.


title: TRPV1

text: The sensitivity of TRPV1 to noxious stimuli, such as high temperatures, is not static. Upon tissue damage and the consequent inflammation, a number of inflammatory mediators, such as various prostaglandins and bradykinin, are released. These agents increase the sensitivity of nociceptors to noxious stimuli. This manifests as an increased sensitivity to painful stimuli (hyperalgesia) or pain sensation in response to non-painful stimuli (allodynia). Most sensitizing pro-inflammatory agents activate the phospholipase C pathway. Phosphorylation of TRPV1 by protein kinase C have been shown to play a role in sensitization of TRPV1. The cleavage of PIP2 by PLC-beta can result in disinhibition of TRPV1 and, as a consequence, contribute to the sensitivity of TRPV1 to noxious stimuli.


title: TRPV1

text: Upon prolonged exposure to capsaicin, TRPV1 activity decreases, a phenomenon called "desensitization". Extracellular calcium ions are required for this phenomenon, thus influx of calcium and the consequential increase of intracellular calcium mediate this effect. Various signaling pathways such as phosphorylation by PKA and PKC, interaction with calmodulin, dephosphorylation by calcineurin, and the decrease of PIP, have been implicated in the regulation of desensitization of TRPV1. Desensitization of TRPV1 is thought to underlie the paradoxical analgesic effect of capsaicin.


title: TRPV1

text: As a result of its involvement in nociception, TRPV1 has been a target for the development of pain reducers (analgesics). Three major strategies have been used:


title: TRPV1

text: The TRPV1 receptor is useful to be able to measure how an organism can sense temperature change. In the lab the receptor may be removed from mice giving them the inability to detect differences in ambient temperature. In the pharmaceutical field this allows for the blocking of heat receptors giving patients with inflammatory disorders or severe burning pains a chance to heal without the pain. The lack of the TRPV1 receptor gives a glimpse into the developing brain as heat can kill most organisms in large enough doses, so this removal process shows researchers how the inability to sense heat may be detrimental to the survivability of an organism and then translate this to human heat disorders.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 plays an important role not only in neurones but also in immune cells. Activation of TRPV1 modulates immune response including the release of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and the ability to phagocytose. However, the role of TRPV1 in immune cells is not entirely understood and it is currently intensely studied. TRPV1 is not the only TRP channel expressed in immune cells. TRPA1, TRPM8 and TRPV4 are the most relevant TRP channels that are also studied in immune cells.


title: TRPV1

text: The expression of TRPV1 was confirmed in the cells of innate immunity as well as the cells of adaptive immunity. TRPV1 can be found in monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, T lymphocytes, natural killer cells and neutrophiles. TRPV1 is said to be potentially very important in immune cell functioning as it senses higher temperature and lower pH, which can affect the immune cell performance.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 is an important membrane channel in T cells as it regulates the influx of calcium cations. TRPV1’s involvement is mainly in T cell receptor signalling (TCR) signalling, T cell activation and TCR-mediated influx of calcium ions, but it is involved in T cell cytokine production as well. Indeed, T cells with TRPV1 knockout show impaired calcium uptake after T cell activation via TCR, thus they show dysregulation in signalling pathways such as NF-κB and NFAT.


title: TRPV1

text: Regarding innate immunity, activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin has been shown to suppress the production of nitrite radical, superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide by macrophages. Furthermore, administration of capsaicin, and subsequent activation of TRPV1, suppresses phagocytosis in dendritic cells. In a mouse model, TRPV1 affect dendritic cell maturation and function, however, further studies are needed to clarify this effect in humans. In neutrophils, the increase in cytosolic calcium cations leads to synthesis of prostaglandins. Activation of TRPV1 by capsaicin modulates neutrophil immune response due to the higher influx of calcium ions into the cell.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 is also considered a novel therapeutic agent in many inflammatory diseases. Multiple studies have proven that TRPV1 influences the outcome of several inflammatory diseases such as chronic asthma, esophageal inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. Studies using TRPV1’s agonists and antagonists have shown that their administration indeed changes the course of inflammation. However, at this point, there is a lot of contradictive evidence about what type of response, pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory, TRPV1’s activation induces. Further research needs to be carried out. Meanwhile, it is important to highlight that TRPV1’s influence on inflammatory diseases is probably not limited to only immune cells as it is rather an interplay between immune cells, neurons, and other cell types (epithelial cells etc.).


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 was found to be overexpressed in several types of cancers, e.g., pancreatic cancer and colon adenocarcinoma. This suggest that certain types of cancers might be more prone to cell death mediated by capsaicin-induced (and also other vanilloid-induced) cell death. Indeed, studies have shown inversed correlation of consumption of chili-based foods and all-cause mortality along with cancers. This beneficial impact of the consumption of chili-based foods was attributed to capsaicinoid content.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 activation caused by its agonist capsaicin was shown to induce G0-G1 cell arrest and apoptosis in leukemic cell lines, Adult T-Cell Leukaemia and Multiple Myeloma. Capsaicin reduces the expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and it also promotes activation of p53, a tumour-suppressor protein known as a major regulator of cell death. This effect of capsaicin in both cases subsequently leads to above-mentioned apoptosis.


title: TRPV1

text: The interplay between neurons and immune cells is a well-known phenomenon, therefore it is no surprise that TRPV1 plays its role in neuroinflammation, as it is expressed both in neurons and in immune cells. Significant importance should be paid to the confirmed expression of TRPV1 in microglia and astrocytes, cells found in close proximity to neurons. The neuro-immune axis is the place of production of neuroinflammatory molecules and receptors that interplay between the two systems and ensure a complex response to external stimuli (or to the body’s own pathologies). Studying TRPV1’s involvement in neuroinflammation has a great therapeutical significance for the future.


title: TRPV1

text: Cutaneus neurons expressing TRPV1 and dendritic cells were found to be located close to each other. Activation of TRPV1 channels in neurons is associated with subsequent production of interleukin 23 (IL-23) by dendritic cells and further production of IL-17 by T cells. These interleukins are important for host defence against pathogenic fungi (such as "Candida albicans") and bacteria (such as "Staphylococcus aureus"), thus TRPV1’s activation can lead to better defence against these pathogens, thanks to the neuro-immune axis.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 is said to contribute to autophagy of microglia via its Ca-signalling, which leads to mitochondria-induced cell death. The TRPV1 channel also influences microglia-induced inflammation. Migration and chemotaxis of microglia and astrocytes seems to be affected by TRPV1’s interaction with the cytoskeleton and Ca-signalling. TRPV1 is therefore involved in the neuro-immune axis via its function in microglia as well.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 was shown to have protective effect in neurologic disorders such as Huntington’s disease, vascular dementia, and Parkinson’s disease. However, its precise function needs to be further explored.


title: TRPV1

text: Antagonists block TRPV1 activity, thus reducing pain. Identified antagonists include the competitive antagonist capsazepine and the non-competitive antagonist ruthenium red. These agents could be useful when applied systemically. Numerous TRPV1 antagonists have been developed by pharmaceutical companies. TRPV1 antagonists have shown efficacy in reducing nociception from inflammatory and neuropathic pain models in rats. This provides evidence that TRPV1 is capsaicin's sole receptor In humans, drugs acting at TRPV1 receptors could be used to treat neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis, chemotherapy, or amputation, as well as pain associated with the inflammatory response of damaged tissue, such as in osteoarthritis.


title: TRPV1

text: These drugs can affect body temperature (hyperthermia) which is a challenge to therapeutic application. For example, a transient temperature gain (~1 °C for a duration of approximately 40 minutes, reverting to baseline by 40 minutes) was measured in rats with the application of TRPV1 antagonist AMG-9810. The role of TRPV1 in the regulation of body temperature has emerged in the last few years. Based on a number of TRPV-selective antagonists' causing a mild increase in body temperature (hyperthermia), it was proposed that TRPV1 is tonically active in vivo and regulates body temperature by telling the body to "cool itself down". Without these signals, the body overheats. Likewise, this explains the propensity of capsaicin (a TRPV1 agonist) to cause sweating (i.e.: a signal to reduce body temperature). In a recent report, it was found that tonically active TRPV1 channels are present in the viscera and keep an ongoing suppressive effect on body temperature. Recently, it was proposed that predominant function of TRPV1 is body temperature maintenance. Experiments have shown that TRPV1 blockade increases body temperature in multiple species, including rodents and humans, suggesting that TRPV1 is involved in body temperature maintenance. In 2008, AMG-517, a highly selective TRPV1 antagonist was dropped out of clinical trials due to the causation of hyperthermia (~38.3 °C mean increase which was most intense on day 1 but was attenuated on days 2–7. Another molecule, SB-705498, was also evaluated in the clinic but its effect on body temperature was not reported. As we increase understanding of modality specific agonism of TRPV1 it seems that next generation therapeutics targeting TRPV1 have the potential to side-step hyperthermia. Moreover, for at least two indications or approaches this may be a secondary issue. Where the therapeutic approach (e.g., in analgesia) is agonist-mediated desensitization then the hyperthermic effects of antagonists may not be relevant. Secondarily in applications such as TRPV1 antagonism for the treatment of severe conditions such as heart failure, then there may be an acceptable trade-off with mild hyperthermia, although no hyperthermia was observed in rodent models of heart failure treated with BCTC, SB-366791 or AMG-9810. Post translational modification of TRPV1 protein by its phosphorylation is critical for its functionality. Reports published from NIH suggest that Cdk5-mediated phosphorylation of TRPV1 is required for its ligand-induced channel opening.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 is activated by numerous agonists from natural sources. Agonists such as capsaicin and resiniferatoxin activate TRPV1 and, upon prolonged application, cause TRPV1 activity to decrease (desensitization), leading to alleviation of pain via the subsequent decrease in the TRPV1 mediated release of inflammatory molecules following exposures to noxious stimuli. Agonists can be applied locally to the painful area in various forms, generally as a patch or an ointment. Numerous capsaicin-containing creams are available over the counter, containing low concentrations of capsaicin (0.025 - 0.075%). It is debated whether these preparations actually lead to TRPV1 desensitization; it is possible that they act via counter-irritation. Novel preparations containing higher capsaicin concentration (up to 10%) are under clinical trials. Eight percent capsaicin patches have recently become available for clinical use, with supporting evidence demonstrating that a 30-minute treatment can provide up to 3 months analgesia by causing regression of TRPV1-containing neurons in the skin. Currently, these treatments must be re-administered on a regular (albeit infrequent) schedule in order to maintain their analgesic effects.


title: TRPV1

text: Certain metabolites of polyunsaturated fatty acids have been shown to stimulate cells in a TRPV1-dependent fashion. The metabolites of linoleic acid, including 13("S")-hydroxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoic acid (13(S)-HODE), 13("R")-hydroxy-9Z,11E-octadecadienoic acid (13("R")-HODE, 9("S")-hydroxy-10(E),12(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9("S")-HODE), 9("R")-hydroxy-10(E),12(Z)-octadecadienoic acid (9("R")-HODE), and their respective keto analogs, 13-oxoODE and 9-oxoODE (see 13-HODE and 9-HODE sections on Direct actions), activate peripheral and central mouse pain sensing neurons. Reports disagree on the potencies of these metabolites with, for example, the most potent one, 9("S")-HODE, requiring at least 10 micromoles/liter. or a more physiological concentration of 10 nanomoles/liter to activate TRPV1 in rodent neurons. The TRPV1-dependency of these metabolites' activities appears to reflect their direct interaction with TPRV1. Although relatively weak agonists of TRPV1 in comparison to anandamide, these linoleate metabolites have been proposed to act through TRPV1 in mediating pain perception in rodents and to cause injury to airway epithelial cells and thereby to contribute to asthma disease in mice and therefore possibly humans. Certain arachidonic acid metabolites, including 20-hydroxy-5"Z",8"Z",11"Z",14"Z"-eicosatetraenoic acid (see 20-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid) and 12("S")-hydroperoxy-5"Z",8"Z",10"E",12"S",14"Z"-eicosatetraenoic acid (12(S)-HpETE), 12("S")-hydroxy-5"Z",8"Z",10"E",12"S",14"Z"-eicosatetraenoic acid (12("S")-HETE (see 12-HETE), hepoxilin A3 (i.e. 8R/S-hydroxy-11,12-oxido-5Z,9E,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid) and HxB3 (i.e. 10R/S-hydroxy-11,12-oxido-5Z,8Z,14Z-eicosatrienoic acid) likewise activate TRPV1 and may thereby contribute to tactile hyperalgesia and allodynia (see Hepoxilin#Pain perception).


title: TRPV1

text: Studies with mice, guinea pig, and human tissues and in guinea pigs indicate that another arachidonic acid metabolite, Prostaglandin E2, operates through its prostaglandin EP3 G protein coupled receptor to trigger cough responses. Its mechanism of action involves activation and/or sensitization of TRPV1 (as well as TRPA1) receptors, presumably by an indirect mechanism. Genetic polymorphism in the EP3 receptor (rs11209716), has been associated with ACE inhibitor-induced cough in humans.


title: TRPV1

text: Resolvin E1 (RvE1), RvD2 (see resolvins), neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), and maresin 1 (Mar1) are metabolites of the omega 3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (for RvE1) or docosahexaenoic acid (for RvD2, NPD1, and Mar1). These metabolites are members of the specialized proresolving mediators (SPMs) class of metabolites that function to resolve diverse inflammatory reactions and diseases in animal models and, it is proposed, humans. These SPMs also dampen pain perception arising from various inflammation-based causes in animal models. The mechanism behind their pain-dampening effects involves the inhibition of TRPV1, probably (in at least certain cases) by an indirect effect wherein they activate other receptors located on the neurons or nearby microglia or astrocytes. CMKLR1, GPR32, FPR2, and NMDA receptors have been proposed to be the receptors through which these SPMs operate to down-regulate TRPV1 and thereby pain perception.


title: TRPV1

text: N-Arachidonoyl dopamine, an endocannabinoid found in the human CNS, structurally similar to capsaicin, activates the TRPV1 channel with an EC of approximately of 50 nM.


title: TRPV1

text: AM404—an active metabolite of paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen) —that serves as an anandamide reuptake inhibitor and COX inhibitor also serves as a potent TRPV1 agonist.


title: TRPV1

text: The plant-biosynthesized cannabinoid cannabidiol also shows "either direct or indirect activation" of TRPV1 receptors. TRPV1 colocalizes with CB1 receptors and CB2 receptors in sensory and brain neurons respectively, and other plant-cannabinoids like CBN, CBG, CBC, THCV, and CBDV are also agonists of this ion channel. There is also evidence that non cannabinoid components of the Cannabis secondary metabolome such as myrcene activate TRPV1.


title: TRPV1

text: Vitamin D metabolites, calcifediol (25-hydroxy vitamin D or 25OHD) and calcitriol (1,25-hydroxy vitamin D or 1,25OHD), act as endogenous ligands of TRPV1.


title: TRPV1

text: TRPV1 is also expressed at high levels in the central nervous system and has been proposed as a target for treatment not only of pain but also for other conditions such as anxiety.


title: TRPV1

text: Furthermore, TRPV1 appears to mediate long-term synaptic depression (LTD) in the hippocampus. LTD has been linked to a decrease in the ability to make new memories, unlike its opposite long-term potentiation (LTP), which aids in memory formation. A dynamic pattern of LTD and LTP occurring at many synapses provides a code for memory formation. Long-term depression and subsequent pruning of synapses with reduced activity is an important aspect of memory formation. In rat brain slices, activation of TRPV1 with heat or capsaicin induced LTD while capsazepine blocked capsaicin's ability to induce LTD. In the brainstem (solitary tract nucleus), TRPV1 controls the asynchronous and spontaneous release of glutamate from unmyelinated cranial visceral afferents - release processes that are active at normal temperatures and hence quite distinct from TRPV1 responses in painful heat. Hence, there may be therapeutic potential in modulating TRPV1 in the central nervous system, perhaps as a treatment for epilepsy (TRPV1 is already a target in the peripheral nervous system for pain relief).


title: TRPV1

text: The dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons of mammals were known to express a heat-sensitive ion channel that could be activated by capsaicin. The research group of David Julius, therefore, created a cDNA library of genes expressed in dorsal root ganglion neurons, expressed the clones in HEK 293 cells, and looked for cells that respond to capsaicin with calcium influx (which HEK-293 normally not do). After several rounds of screening and dividing the library, a single clone encoding the TRPV1 channel was finally identified in 1997. It was the first TRPV channel to be identified. Julius was awarded the 2021 Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Katherine Marlea Clark (born July 17, 1963) is an American politician who has served as the U.S. Representative for Massachusetts's 5th congressional district since 2013. She has been Assistant House Democratic Leader (officially Assistant Speaker) since 2021, making her the fourth-highest-ranking House Democrat, and has been elected minority whip for the session starting in 2023. Her district includes many of Boston's northern and western suburbs, such as Medford, Framingham, Woburn, Waltham and her home city of Revere. Clark was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 2008 to 2011 and Massachusetts Senate from 2011 to 2013.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Born in Connecticut, Clark worked as an attorney in several states, before moving to Massachusetts in 1995, where she worked in state government. She joined the Melrose School Committee in 2002, becoming committee chair in 2005. She was first elected to the state legislature in 2008, and contributed to legislation regarding criminal justice, education, and municipal pensions. She won the 2013 special election for the U.S. House of Representatives, to succeed Ed Markey, in the 5th district, and sits on the House Appropriations Committee.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Katherine Marlea Clark was born on July 17, 1963, in New Haven, Connecticut. She attended St. Lawrence University, Cornell Law School, and Harvard's John F. Kennedy School of Government. She studied in Nagoya, Japan, in 1983.


title: Katherine Clark

text: In her early career, she worked as an attorney in Chicago. She then moved to Colorado, where she worked as a clerk for Judge Alfred A. Arraj of the United States District Court for the District of Colorado and later as a staff attorney for the Colorado District Attorneys' Council. She moved to Massachusetts in 1995 and became general counsel for the state Office of Child Care Services.


title: Katherine Clark

text: In 2001, Clark moved to Melrose, where she was elected to the Melrose School Committee, taking her seat in January 2002. She first ran for the Massachusetts Senate in 2004 and lost to Republican incumbent Richard Tisei. In January 2005, she was unanimously elected chairwoman of the Melrose School Committee. In 2006, she ran for the 32nd Middlesex seat in the Massachusetts House of Representatives when incumbent Mike Festa began a run for Middlesex district attorney but withdrew after he dropped out of the race.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark was appointed co-chair of Victory 2006, the state Democratic Party's campaign and fundraising effort for the 2006 gubernatorial election. She spent some time as Chief of Policy and Government Relations in the Massachusetts Attorney General's office.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Festa resigned his state House seat in October 2007 to become Secretary of Elder Affairs in the Deval Patrick administration, and Clark entered the special election to succeed him. During the campaign, she emphasized her experience as an attorney and made "developing stability in state aid" her top policy issue. She won the Democratic primary in January with 65% of the vote, defeating two other Melrose Democrats. She defeated Republican real estate businessman Mark B. Hutchison, 63% to 37%. In November 2008, she was reelected to a full term unopposed.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Sworn in on March 13, 2008, Clark represented Melrose and Wakefield. She served on the Education, Judiciary, and Municipalities and Regional Government Committees.


title: Katherine Clark

text: When Tisei resigned his state senate seat to run for lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, Clark ran for his seat. In the Democratic primary, she defeated Stoneham attorney Michael S. Day, 64%–36%. In the November 2010 general election, she defeated Republican Craig Spadafora, 52%–48%.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark was sworn in on January 5, 2011. She is a pro-choice legislator and has been endorsed in her campaigns by NARAL Pro-Choice Massachusetts and the Planned Parenthood Advocacy Fund.


title: Katherine Clark

text: In 2011, Clark was co-chair of the Joint Committee on Public Service, where she was lead author of the Senate version of a bill to reform municipal pensions. For her work in 2011, she received legislator of the year awards from the Massachusetts Municipal Association and the Massachusetts Police Association. In 2012, she authored a law that takes steps to ensure that all Massachusetts students read at grade level by third grade. Also in 2012, her bill extending restraining orders in domestic violence cases to cover victims' pets, which are often used as pawns in abusive relationships, was signed as part of a larger law on animal shelters. In 2013, she co-sponsored a bill expanding the state's wiretapping authority, which was strictly limited under existing law, in order to help police better investigate violent street crime. At the same time, she co-sponsored a bill to secure electronic privacy protections, requiring police to have probable cause before investigating the electronic records of individuals. She filed another bill tightening sex offender laws, imposing stricter penalties and making offender data more accessible to agencies and the public. The Women's Bar Association of Massachusetts named Clark its 2013 Legislator of the Year for her service on women's issues.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark was the Democratic nominee in the 2013 special election for the U.S. House of Representatives in . The district's longtime incumbent, Ed Markey, had just been elected to the United States Senate six months into his 19th term. In a heavily contested Democratic primary—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district—she was endorsed by Massachusetts attorney general Martha Coakley and EMILY's List. On October 15, 2013, she won the primary with a plurality of 32% of the vote. Her closest competitor was Middlesex County Sheriff Peter Koutoujian, with 22% of the vote. On December 10, as expected, she easily won the special election.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark was sworn into office on December 12, 2013, and sits on the House Appropriations Committee. In a 2014 interview with "The Boston Globe", she compared life in Washington to the television series "House of Cards", saying "It's exactly like here, minus the murders."


title: Katherine Clark

text: In March 2015, Clark decided not to attend the speech by Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu before a joint session of Congress. She affirmed a commitment to maintaining and strengthening the relationship between the U.S. and Israel but noted that the invitation was offered without first consulting the Obama administration.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark has introduced legislation in response to Internet harassment, most notably resulting from the Gamergate controversy, and has advocated for more stringent enforcement of existing laws. After introducing legislation that would criminalize "swatting" (falsely reporting an ongoing critical incident to dispatch an emergency response), she was herself targeted by a false report of an active shooter at her home.


title: Katherine Clark

text: In January 2017, Clark announced a boycott of Donald Trump's inauguration. She was part of a small group of House and Senate members who chose to boycott the ceremony. Her reason was her desire not to "normalize" Trump's promotion of "bigoted, misogynist, anti-Semitic, and racist claims."


title: Katherine Clark

text: On November 28, 2018, it was announced that Clark had defeated California congressman Pete Aguilar to succeed Linda Sánchez as Vice Chair of the House Democratic Caucus.


title: Katherine Clark

text: On November 18, 2020, it was announced that Clark had defeated Rhode Island congressman David Cicilline by a vote of 135 to 92 to succeed Ben Ray Luján as Assistant Speaker, the number four spot in Democratic house leadership.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark has been mentioned as a possible candidate to succeed Pelosi as Speaker of the House. But after Pelosi, Steny Hoyer, and Jim Clyburn announced their retirement from party leadership in November 2022, Clark instead announced a bid for party whip. After running unopposed, Clark was elected as the minority whip on November 30, 2022.


title: Katherine Clark

text: Clark is married to Rodney S. Dowell, Chief Bar Counsel for the Massachusetts Board of Bar Overseers, the state entity that regulates the legal profession in Massachusetts. They live in Revere and have three children, one of whom identifies as non-binary.


title: Katherine Clark

text: When Congress is in session, Clark rooms with Representatives Annie Kuster, Grace Meng, Lois Frankel, Cheri Bustos, and Julia Brownley.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Paweł Aleksander Pawlikowski (; born 15 September 1957) is a Polish filmmaker. He garnered early praise for a string of documentaries in the 1990s and for his award-winning feature films of the 2000s, "Last Resort" (2000) and "My Summer of Love" (2004). His success continued into the 2010s with "Ida" (2013), which won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and "Cold War" (2018), for which Pawlikowski won the Best Director prize at the Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director, while the film received a nomination for Best Foreign Language Film.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski was born in Warsaw, Poland, to a father who was a doctor and a mother who started as a ballet dancer and later became an English literature professor at the University of Warsaw. In his late teens, he learned that his paternal grandmother was Jewish and had been murdered in Auschwitz.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: At the age of 14, he left communist Poland with his mother for London. What he thought was a holiday turned out to be a permanent exile. A year later he moved to Germany, before finally settling in Britain in 1977. He studied literature and philosophy at Oxford University.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: In the late 1980s and 1990s, Pawlikowski was best known for his documentaries, whose blend of lyricism and irony won him many fans and awards around the world. "From Moscow to Pietushki" was a poetic journey into the world of the Russian cult writer Venedikt Erofeev, for which he won an Emmy, an RTS award, a Prix Italia and other awards. The multi-award-winning "Dostoevsky's Travels" was a tragi-comic road movie in which a St Petersburg tram driver and the only living descendant of Fyodor Dostoevsky, travels rough around Western Europe haunting high-minded humanists, aristocrats, monarchists and the Baden-Baden casino in his quest to raise money to buy a secondhand Mercedes.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski's most original and formally successful film was "Serbian Epics" (1992), made at the height of the Bosnian War. The oblique, ironic, imagistic, at times almost hypnotic study of epic Serbian poetry, with exclusive footage of Radovan Karadžić and General Ratko Mladić, aroused a storm of controversy and incomprehension at the time, but has now secured it something of a cult status. The absurdist "Tripping with Zhirinovsky", a surreal boat journey down the Volga with controversial Russian politician Vladimir Zhirinovsky, won Pawlikowski the Grierson Award for the Best British Documentary in 1995.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski's transition to fiction occurred in 1998 with a small 50-minute hybrid film "Twockers", a lyrical and gritty love story set on a sink estate in Yorkshire, which he co-wrote and co-directed with Ian Duncan. In 2001 he wrote and directed "Last Resort" starring Dina Korzun and Paddy Considine, which won a BAFTA, the Michael Powell Award for Best British Film at Edinburgh and many other awards. In 2004 he wrote and directed "My Summer of Love" starring Emily Blunt and Natalie Press, which won a BAFTA, the Michael Powell Award for Best British Film and many other awards.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: In 2006, he filmed about 60% of his adaptation of Magnus Mills' "The Restraint of Beasts" when the project was halted—his wife had fallen gravely ill and he left to care for her and their children. In 2011, he wrote and directed a film loosely adapted from Douglas Kennedy's novel "The Woman in the Fifth", starring Ethan Hawke and Kristin Scott Thomas.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: On 19 October 2013, his film "Ida" (starring Agata Kulesza) won the Best Film Award at the London Film Festival, on the same night that Anthony Chen, one of his students at the National Film and Television School, won the Sutherland Prize for the Best First Film, for "Ilo Ilo". "Ida" won the 2015 Academy Award for Foreign Language Film on 23 February 2015, the first Polish film to do so. In the same year, he was a member of jury headed by Alfonso Cuarón at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: In 2017, Pawlikowski adapted Emmanuel Carrère's biographical novel "Limonov" (2011), based on the life of Eduard Limonov, into a screenplay. Pawlikowski planned to direct the film adaptation but revealed in 2020 that he lost interest in the character and abandoned plans to direct.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: His most recent film, "Cold War" earned him the Best Director Award at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. It also won five awards at the 2018 European Film Awards including Best Film, Best Director and Best Actress Awards. In 2019, he was announced as one of the members of the jury at the Cannes Film Festival.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski's next film is scheduled to begin filming in 2023 under the working title "The Island". The film is inspired by true events and will star Joaquin Phoenix and Rooney Mara as an American couple in the 1930s, who leave behind civilization to live on a deserted island.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski grew up a Catholic and considers himself one up to this day, but says that he finds the Catholic Church in Great Britain to be easier to grow in faith in than that in Poland.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski was a Creative Arts Fellow at Oxford Brookes University from 2004 to 2007. He teaches film direction and screenwriting at the National Film School in the UK and the Wajda Film School in Warsaw. In addition to his native Polish, he speaks six languages including German and Russian.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski's first wife, who was Russian, developed a serious illness in 2006 and died several months later. They have a son and a daughter. After his children left for university, Pawlikowski moved to Paris, and later relocated to Warsaw, where he lives close to his childhood home. At the end of 2017, he married Polish model and actress Małgosia Bela.


title: Paweł Pawlikowski

text: Pawlikowski was made Honorary Associate of London Film School. In 2019, he was awarded the title of an honorary citizen of Warsaw.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Kaboni Savage (born January 1, 1975) is an American drug dealer, organized crime leader, and murderer who is currently on federal death row for ordering the firebombing of a house where a federal witness lived, killing six people (including four children). He is the first man from Philadelphia in modern history to receive a federal death sentence. He has twelve convictions for murder in aid of racketeering, one fewer than the Pennsylvania state record, and the most for anyone in Philadelphia. Savage was the first person sentenced to death by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania since the federal death penalty resumed in 1988.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage, a former student of Frankford High School, began boxing at the Front Street Gym in North Philadelphia. He had one professional boxing fight, which he won. Savage's father died of cancer when he was 13 years old.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage began his operations as a drug dealer in Hunting Park and became a higher-level dealer. According to federal authorities, Savage, from 1998 to around 2004 distributed hundreds of kilograms of cocaine in the Philadelphia area.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Authorities accused Savage of personally killing a stranger, Kenneth Lassiter, after Lassiter's car bumped into Savage's while the two were trying to park their respective cars. Savage was acquitted of Lassiter's murder after the lead witness in the case, Tybius "Tib" Flowers, was also murdered. Savage is suspected of ordering Flowers's murder.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage ordered the deaths of others, including that of Carlton Brown, a drug dealer and competitor of Savage who was shot by hitman Lamont Lewis in 2001. Savage also ordered five other deaths of adult men and engaged in multiple attempts at intimidation while held at Federal Detention Center, Philadelphia (FDC Philadelphia,), threatening to kill children of those who testified against him.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Less than one week after he was acquitted in the Lassiter case, Savage was arrested and accused of heading a drug trafficking network. He was convicted of 14 out of 16 charges and received a 30-year sentence. Savage was convicted of multiple charges, including money laundering, witness intimidation, and drug offenses. Savage was imprisoned in a federal facility near Florence, Colorado.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage's daughter, Ciara "CeCe" Savage, a student at Ross Elementary School, died at age 9 during a gang shooting in York, Pennsylvania. Police and Jasmine Vadell, Ciara's mother, said the shooting was unrelated to Savage's gang activities in Philadelphia. Vadell had raised Ciara alone and had not been romantically involved with Savage for years.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Eugene "Twin" Coleman, who was previously working with Savage, was arrested and put in federal custody on October 8, 2004 and agreed to testify against Savage in a drug trial. In March 2003, after Coleman murdered his friend, 26-year-old Tyrone Toliver of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, federal agents encouraged Coleman's 54-year-old mother, Marcella Coleman, a prison guard at the Curran-Fromhold Correctional Facility, to move to a new house; believing that she could defend herself, she refused. Savage was convicted partly due to Coleman's testimony.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: In return, Savage ordered Marcella Coleman's house in North Philadelphia to be burned down. At the time, Savage was in custody at FDC Philadelphia. At about 5 a.m. on October 9, 2004, the rowhouse was firebombed. The fire originated in a living room on the first floor, traveled quickly, and was extinguished after about 20 minutes. There were no survivors; it was the deadliest mass murder in Philadelphia since the Lex Street murders in 2000. Included in the death toll were Coleman; her 15-month-old son Damir Jenkins; three other youths related to Coleman, 10-year-old Khadjah Nash, 12-year-old Tahj Porchea, and 15-year-old Sean Rodriguez ; and 34-year-old Tameka Nash, Coleman's cousin and the mother of Khadjah Nash. The family dog, a pit bull, also perished.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: After learning that Eugene had been temporarily released from prison to attend the funeral of his relatives, a bug in Savage's cell recorded him remarking "They should stop off and get him some barbecue sauce … pour it on them burnt bitches."


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage's sister, Kidada Savage, known as "Da" or "Lil' Sis", helped plot this crime by recruiting Lamont Lewis, the hitman.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Lewis had been previously acquitted of killing Carlton "Muhammad" Brown, who died in 2001. Lewis in turn asked Robert "B.J." Merritt, Jr., his cousin, to help him. Kidada Savage showed the hitman where the house was located. According to federal prosecutors Merritt was the one who lit a gasoline can and threw it, and another one into the house. Lewis said that both he and Merritt tossed cans into the house.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Lewis stated that he did not know children were in the house until after they died, and that Kidada Savage only gave him $2,000 even though she promised him $5,000. After authorities captured Lewis he agreed to cooperate.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Coleman stated that Dawud "Cool" Bey, another drug dealer who was communicating with Savage while being held at FDC Philadelphia, told him that Savage wanted his family dead.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Police did not find Lewis at a house in West Philadelphia which they believed was his, but later arrested him in 2007 when he was driving his car.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage was held at FDC Philadelphia during his trial. The prosecution sought death sentences for Kaboni Savage, Merritt, and Northington.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Jury selection for Savage's trial occurred in September 2012. Lamont Lewis served as the star witness, testifying against Kaboni and Kidada Savage as well as Merritt and Steven Northington. The trial ended in May 2013. On May 13, 2013, Savage was convicted of 17 charges, including 12 counts of murder in aid of racketeering.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: In June 2013, Savage was given 13 death sentences, one for witness intimidation and one each for a total of 12 racketeering murders, including those from the retaliatory firebombing. The sentences were formally pronounced by Judge Richard Barclay Surrick.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Savage, Federal Bureau of Prisons# 58232-066, is currently incarcerated in ADX Florence near Florence, Colorado.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: In May 2013, Kidada Savage was convicted of various crimes, including retaliating against witnesses and aiding racketeering. In February 2014, Surrick imposed a sentence of life imprisonment plus a consecutive ten-year sentence; the life sentence was mandatory. Kidada Savage tried to delay the sentencing but Surrick denied the request. Kidada is now BOP #04867-748 at FCI Tallahassee.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Merritt avoided a possible death sentence after he was only convicted of non-capital charges. He was given a life sentence as BOP #59317-066 at USP Terre Haute. After the jury spared his life, Northington received a life sentence as BOP #58967-066 at USP Coleman I.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: Due to his cooperation, Lewis was given a 40-year sentence, the minimum allowed under his plea agreement. The judge cited his "powerful" testimony and said he seemed genuinely remorseful for what he did.


title: Kaboni Savage

text: As an example Lewis's remorsefulness, Assistant U.S. Attorney John Gallagher shared a chat he had overheard between Lewis and a detective. During a break in a meeting with investigators, Lewis said he was going to hell for what he'd done. The detective told Lewis he couldn't know that since God was forgiving. Lewis replied that he'd been raised in church, saying "There is no redemption for me."


title: Kaboni Savage

text: In an earlier interview, Lewis said he and Merritt had believed only Coleman's mother and brother were home, and were shocked after learning how many people were killed in the firebombing. "We both were really messed up about what happened," he said.


title: Photorespiration

text: Photorespiration (also known as the oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle or C cycle) refers to a process in plant metabolism where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, wasting some of the energy produced by photosynthesis. The desired reaction is the addition of carbon dioxide to RuBP (carboxylation), a key step in the Calvin–Benson cycle, but approximately 25% of reactions by RuBisCO instead add oxygen to RuBP (oxygenation), creating a product that cannot be used within the Calvin–Benson cycle. This process lowers the efficiency of photosynthesis, potentially lowering photosynthetic output by 25% in plants. Photorespiration involves a complex network of enzyme reactions that exchange metabolites between chloroplasts, leaf peroxisomes and mitochondria.


title: Photorespiration

text: The oxygenation reaction of RuBisCO is a wasteful process because 3-phosphoglycerate is created at a lower rate and higher metabolic cost compared with RuBP carboxylase activity. While photorespiratory carbon cycling results in the formation of G3P eventually, around 25% of carbon fixed by photorespiration is re-released as and nitrogen, as ammonia. Ammonia must then be detoxified at a substantial cost to the cell. Photorespiration also incurs a direct cost of one ATP and one NAD(P)H.


title: Photorespiration

text: While it is common to refer to the entire process as photorespiration, technically the term refers only to the metabolic network which acts to rescue the products of the oxygenation reaction (phosphoglycolate).


title: Photorespiration

text: Addition of molecular oxygen to ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate produces 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) and 2-phosphoglycolate (2PG, or PG). PGA is the normal product of carboxylation, and productively enters the Calvin cycle. Phosphoglycolate, however, inhibits certain enzymes involved in photosynthetic carbon fixation (hence is often said to be an 'inhibitor of photosynthesis'). It is also relatively difficult to recycle: in higher plants it is salvaged by a series of reactions in the peroxisome, mitochondria, and again in the peroxisome where it is converted into glycerate. Glycerate reenters the chloroplast and by the same transporter that exports glycolate. A cost of 1 ATP is associated with conversion to 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) (Phosphorylation), within the chloroplast, which is then free to re-enter the Calvin cycle.


title: Photorespiration

text: Several costs are associated with this metabolic pathway; the production of hydrogen peroxide in the peroxisome (associated with the conversion of glycolate to glyoxylate). Hydrogen peroxide is a dangerously strong oxidant which must be immediately split into water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase. The conversion of 2× 2Carbon glycine to 1× serine in the mitochondria by the enzyme glycine-decarboxylase is a key step, which releases , NH, and reduces NAD to NADH. Thus, one molecule is produced for every two molecules of (two deriving from RuBisCO and one from peroxisomal oxidations). The assimilation of NH occurs via the GS-GOGAT cycle, at a cost of one ATP and one NADPH.


title: Photorespiration

text: Cyanobacteria have three possible pathways through which they can metabolise 2-phosphoglycolate. They are unable to grow if all three pathways are knocked out, despite having a carbon concentrating mechanism that should dramatically lower the rate of photorespiration (see below).


title: Photorespiration

text: During the catalysis by RuBisCO, an 'activated' intermediate is formed (an enediol intermediate) in the RuBisCO active site. This intermediate is able to react with either or . It has been demonstrated that the specific shape of the RuBisCO active site acts to encourage reactions with . Although there is a significant "failure" rate (~25% of reactions are oxygenation rather than carboxylation), this represents significant favouring of , when the relative abundance of the two gases is taken into account: in the current atmosphere, is approximately 500 times more abundant, and in solution is 25 times more abundant than .


title: Photorespiration

text: The ability of RuBisCO to specify between the two gases is known as its selectivity factor (or Srel), and it varies between species, with angiosperms more efficient than other plants, but with little variation among the vascular plants.


title: Photorespiration

text: A suggested explanation of RuBisCO's inability to discriminate completely between and is that it is an evolutionary relic: The early atmosphere in which primitive plants originated contained very little oxygen, the early evolution of RuBisCO was not influenced by its ability to discriminate between and .


title: Photorespiration

text: Factors which influence this include the atmospheric abundance of the two gases, the supply of the gases to the site of fixation (i.e. in land plants: whether the stomata are open or closed), the length of the liquid phase (how far these gases have to diffuse through water in order to reach the reaction site). For example, when the stomata are closed to prevent water loss during drought: this limits the supply, while production within the leaf will continue. In algae (and plants which photosynthesise underwater); gases have to diffuse significant distances through water, which results in a decrease in the availability of relative to . It has been predicted that the increase in ambient concentrations predicted over the next 100 years may lower the rate of photorespiration in most plants by around 50%. However, at temperatures higher than the photosynthetic thermal optimum, the increases in turnover rate are not translated into increased assimilation because of the decreased affinity of Rubisco for .


title: Photorespiration

text: At higher temperatures RuBisCO is less able to discriminate between and . This is because the enediol intermediate is less stable. Increasing temperatures also lower the solubility of , thus lowering the concentration of relative to in the chloroplast.


title: Photorespiration

text: Certain species of plants or algae have mechanisms to lower uptake of molecular oxygen by RuBisCO. These are commonly referred to as Carbon Concentrating Mechanisms (CCMs), as they increase the concentration of so that RuBisCO is less likely to produce glycolate through reaction with .


title: Photorespiration

text: Biochemical CCMs concentrate carbon dioxide in one temporal or spatial region, through metabolite exchange. C and CAM photosynthesis both use the enzyme Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) to add to a 4-Carbon sugar. PEPC is faster than RuBisCO, and more selective for .


title: Photorespiration

text: C plants capture carbon dioxide in their mesophyll cells (using an enzyme called phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase which catalyzes the combination of carbon dioxide with a compound called phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)), forming oxaloacetate. This oxaloacetate is then converted to malate and is transported into the bundle sheath cells (site of carbon dioxide fixation by RuBisCO) where oxygen concentration is low to avoid photorespiration. Here, carbon dioxide is removed from the malate and combined with RuBP by RuBisCO in the usual way, and the Calvin Cycle proceeds as normal. The concentrations in the Bundle Sheath are approximately 10–20 fold higher than the concentration in the mesophyll cells.


title: Photorespiration

text: This ability to avoid photorespiration makes these plants more hardy than other plants in dry and hot environments, wherein stomata are closed and internal carbon dioxide levels are low. Under these conditions, photorespiration does occur in C plants, but at a much lower level compared with C plants in the same conditions. C plants include sugar cane, corn (maize), and sorghum.


title: Photorespiration

text: CAM plants, such as cacti and succulent plants, also use the enzyme PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide, but only at night. Crassulacean acid metabolism allows plants to conduct most of their gas exchange in the cooler night-time air, sequestering carbon in 4-carbon sugars which can be released to the photosynthesizing cells during the day. This allows CAM plants to minimize water loss (transpiration) by maintaining closed stomata during the day. CAM plants usually display other water-saving characteristics, such as thick cuticles, stomata with small apertures, and typically lose around 1/3 of the amount of water per fixed.


title: Photorespiration

text: C photosynthesis (also called glycine shuttle and photorespiratory CO pump) is a CCM that works by making use of – as opposed to avoiding – photorespiration. It performs "carbon refixation" by delaying the breakdown of photorespired glycine, so that the molecule is shuttled from the mesophyll into the bundle sheath. Once there, the glycine is decarboxylated in mitochondria as usual, releasing CO and concentrating it to triple the usual concentration.


title: Photorespiration

text: Although C photosynthesis is tradiationally understood as an intermediate step between C and C, a wide variety of plant lineages do end up in the C stage without further evolving, showing that it's an evolutionary steady state of its own. C may be easier to engineer in that the phenotype requires fewer anatomical changes to produce.


title: Photorespiration

text: There have been some reports of algae operating a biochemical CCM: shuttling metabolites within single cells to concentrate in one area. This process is not fully understood.


title: Photorespiration

text: This type of carbon-concentrating mechanism (CCM) relies on a contained compartment within the cell into which is shuttled, and where RuBisCO is highly expressed. In many species, biophysical CCMs are only induced under low carbon dioxide concentrations. Biophysical CCMs are more evolutionary ancient than biochemical CCMs. There is some debate as to when biophysical CCMs first evolved, but it is likely to have been during a period of low carbon dioxide, after the Great Oxygenation Event (2.4 billion years ago). Low periods occurred around 750, 650, and 320–270 million years ago.


title: Photorespiration

text: In nearly all species of eukaryotic algae ("Chloromonas" being one notable exception), upon induction of the CCM, ~95% of RuBisCO is densely packed into a single subcellular compartment: the pyrenoid. Carbon dioxide is concentrated in this compartment using a combination of CO pumps, bicarbonate pumps, and carbonic anhydrases. The pyrenoid is not a membrane bound compartment, but is found within the chloroplast, often surrounded by a starch sheath (which is not thought to serve a function in the CCM).


title: Photorespiration

text: Certain species of hornwort are the only land plants which are known to have a biophysical CCM involving concentration of carbon dioxide within pyrenoids in their chloroplasts.


title: Photorespiration

text: Cyanobacterial CCMs are similar in principle to those found in eukaryotic algae and hornworts, but the compartment into which carbon dioxide is concentrated has several structural differences. Instead of the pyrenoid, cyanobacteria contain carboxysomes, which have a protein shell, and linker proteins packing RuBisCO inside with a very regular structure.


title: Photorespiration

text: Cyanobacterial CCMs are much better understood than those found in eukaryotes, partly due to the ease of genetic manipulation of prokaryotes.


title: Photorespiration

text: Lowering photorespiration may not result in increased growth rates for plants. Photorespiration may be necessary for the assimilation of nitrate from soil. Thus, a lowering in photorespiration by genetic engineering or because of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (due to fossil fuel burning) may not benefit plants as has been proposed. Several physiological processes may be responsible for linking photorespiration and nitrogen assimilation. Photorespiration increases availability of NADH, which is required for the conversion of nitrate to nitrite. Certain nitrite transporters also transport bicarbonate, and elevated has been shown to suppress nitrite transport into chloroplasts. However, in an agricultural setting, replacing the native photorespiration pathway with an engineered synthetic pathway to metabolize glycolate in the chloroplast resulted in a 40 percent increase in crop growth.


title: Photorespiration

text: Although photorespiration is much lower in C species, it is still an essential pathwaymutants without functioning 2-phosphoglycolate metabolism cannot grow in normal conditions. One mutant was shown to rapidly accumulate glycolate.


title: Photorespiration

text: Although the functions of photorespiration remain controversial, it is widely accepted that this pathway influences a wide range of processes from bioenergetics, photosystem II function, and carbon metabolism to nitrogen assimilation and respiration. The oxygenase reaction of RuBisCO may prevent depletion near its active sites and contributes to the regulation of CO concentration in the atmosphere The photorespiratory pathway is a major source of hydrogen peroxide () in photosynthetic cells. Through production and pyrimidine nucleotide interactions, photorespiration makes a key contribution to cellular redox homeostasis. In so doing, it influences multiple signalling pathways, in particular, those that govern plant hormonal responses controlling growth, environmental and defense responses, and programmed cell death.


title: Photorespiration

text: It has been postulated that photorespiration may function as a "safety valve", preventing the excess of reductive potential coming from an overreduced NADPH-pool from reacting with oxygen and producing free radicals, as these can damage the metabolic functions of the cell by subsequent oxidation of membrane lipids, proteins or nucleotides. The mutants deficient in photorespiratory enzymes are characterized by a high redox level in the cell, impaired stomatal regulation, and accumulation of formate.


title: Tentacle

text: In zoology, a tentacle is a flexible, mobile, and elongated organ present in some species of animals, most of them invertebrates. In animal anatomy, tentacles usually occur in one or more pairs. Anatomically, the tentacles of animals work mainly like muscular hydrostats. Most forms of tentacles are used for grasping and feeding. Many are sensory organs, variously receptive to touch, vision, or to the smell or taste of particular foods or threats. Examples of such tentacles are the eyestalks of various kinds of snails. Some kinds of tentacles have both sensory and manipulatory functions.


title: Tentacle

text: A tentacle is similar to a cirrus, but a cirrus is an organ that usually lacks the tentacle's strength, size, flexibility, or sensitivity. A nautilus has cirri, but a squid has tentacles.


title: Tentacle

text: Many molluscs have tentacles of one form or another. The most familiar are those of the pulmonate land snails, which usually have two sets of tentacles on the head: when extended the upper pair have eyes at their tips; the lower pair are chemoreceptors. Both pairs are fully retractable muscular hydrostats, but they are not used for manipulation or prey capture.


title: Tentacle

text: Some marine snails such as abalone and top snails, Trochidae, have numerous small tentacles around the edge of the mantle. These are known as "pallial tentacles".


title: Tentacle

text: Among cephalopods, squid have spectacular tentacles. They take the form of highly mobile muscular hydrostats with various appendages such as suction disks and sometimes thorny hooks. Up to the early twentieth century "tentacles" were interchangeably called "arms". The modern convention however, is to speak of appendages as "tentacles" when they have relatively thin "peduncles" or "stalks" with "clubs" at their tips. In contrast the convention refers to the relatively shorter appendages as "arms". By this definition the eight appendages of octopuses, though quite long, count as arms. It is worth noting however, that while arms are distinct from tentacles (a definition specific to the limb featuring peduncles), arms do fall within the general definition of "tentacle" as "a flexible, mobile, and elongated organ" and "tentacle" could be used as an umbrella term.


title: Tentacle

text: The tentacles of the giant squid and colossal squid have powerful suckers and pointed teeth at the ends. The teeth of the giant squid resemble bottle caps and function like tiny hole saws, while the tentacles of the colossal squid wield two long rows of swiveling, tri-pointed hooks.


title: Tentacle

text: Cnidarians, such as jellyfish, sea anemones, "Hydra" and coral have numerous hair-like tentacles. Cnidarians have huge numbers of cnidocytes on their tentacles. In medusoid form, the body floats on water so that the tentacles hang down in a ring around the mouth. In polyp form, such as sea anemone and coral, the body is below with the tentacles pointed upwards.


title: Tentacle

text: Many species of the jellyfish-like ctenophores have two tentacles, while some have none. Their tentacles have adhesive structures called "colloblasts" or "lasso cells". The colloblasts burst open when prey comes in contact with the tentacle, releasing sticky threads that secure the food.


title: Tentacle

text: The tentacles of the Lion's mane jellyfish may be up to long. They are hollow and are arranged in 8 groups of between 70 and 150. The longer tentacles are equipped with cnidocytes whose venom paralyses and kills prey. The smaller tentacles guide food into the mouth.


title: Tentacle

text: Bryozoa (moss animals) are tiny creatures with tentacles around their mouths. The tentacles are almost cylindrical and have bands of cilia which create a water current towards the mouth. The animal extracts edible material from the flow of water.


title: Tentacle

text: Trypanorhynch cestodes are parasitic in fish. Their scolex shows four tentacles which are covered by spines. These tentacles help the adult cestode to attach to the intestine of the shark or ray that they parasitize. The same tentacles are also present in the larvae.


title: Tentacle

text: The legless amphibians called caecilians have two short tentacles, one on each side of the head, between their eyes and nostrils. The current opinion is that these tentacles supplement the normal sense of smell, possibly for navigation and to locate prey underground.


title: Tentacle

text: The star-nosed mole, "Condylura cristata", of North America, has 22 short but conspicuous tentacles around its nose. They are mobile and extremely sensitive, helping the animal to find its way about the burrow and detect prey. They are about 1–4 mm long and hold about 25,000 touch receptors called Eimer's organs, perhaps giving this mole the most delicate sense of touch among mammals.


title: Tentacle

text: The word tentillum (pl. tentilla) literally means "little tentacle". However, irrespective of size, it usually refers to a side branch of a larger tentacle. In some cases such tentilla are specialised for particular functions; for example, in the Cnidaria tentilla usually bear cnidocytes, whereas in the Ctenophora they usually have collocytes. Siphonophores are an example of Cnidaria that use tentilla.


title: Washington Sundar

text: Washington Sundar (born 5 October 1999) is an Indian international cricketer who plays for the Indian cricket team as an all-rounder. He is a left-handed batsman and right-arm off-spinner. He made his international debut against Sri Lanka on 13 December 2017. He has played for the India national under-19 cricket team as an all-rounder. He started his IPL career in 2017 with Rising Pune Supergiant. Since 2022, he has been playing for Sunrisers Hyderabad.


title: Washington Sundar

text: Washington Sundar was born in a Tamil Hindu family on 5 October 1999 in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. He was named by his father M. Sundar in honour of a man named P.D. Washington, who had sponsored the elder Sundar's cricket passion. His sister Shailaja Sundar is also a professional cricketer. He started playing cricket from the age of four or five. He received his early education from St. Bede's Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School.


title: Washington Sundar

text: He made his first-class debut for Tamil Nadu in the 2016–17 Ranji Trophy on 6 October 2016. Like Ravichandran Ashwin from Tamil Nadu before him, Washington Sundar went from being a batsman as a youngster to making his name as an offspinner. In October 2017, he scored his maiden first-class century, batting for Tamil Nadu against Tripura in the 2017–18 Ranji Trophy. He was also selected for the India U-19 world cup in 2016.


title: Washington Sundar

text: In 2017, he was selected by Rising Pune Supergiant as a replacement for Ravichandran Ashwin. He made his Twenty20 debut for Rising Pune Supergiants in the 2017 Indian Premier League on 22 April 2017. He had received the man of the match award in IPL 2017 Qualifier 1 played between Mumbai Indians and Pune Supergiants, in which he took 3 wickets for 16 runs.


title: Washington Sundar

text: January 2018, he was bought by the Royal Challengers Bangalore in the 2018 IPL auction. In October 2018, he was named in India C's squad for the 2018–19 Deodhar Trophy.


title: Washington Sundar

text: In August 2022, Sundar played for Lancashire County Cricket Club in the Royal London One-Day Cup and the County Championship. He claimed a five-wicket haul in his debut match against Northamptonshire County Cricket Club.


title: Washington Sundar

text: In November 2017, he was named in India's Twenty20 International (T20I) squad for their series against Sri Lanka. Early the following month, he was also added to India's One Day International (ODI) squad for the same series, after Kedar Jadhav injured his hamstring. He made his ODI debut for India against Sri Lanka on 13 December 2017. Lahiru Thirimanne became his first wicket in international cricket as he clean bowled him out. Sundar then made his T20I debut for India against Sri Lanka on 24 December 2017. At the age of 18 years and 80 days, he became the youngest player to debut for India in T20Is.


title: Washington Sundar

text: In March 2018, he was selected in India's squad for the 2018 Nidahas Trophy against Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. He was praised by many for his economical bowling inside the powerplay at an economy of less than 6 runs an over. During the series, he bagged a maiden 3-wicket haul, making him the youngest ever T20I player to do so. He was named the player of the series for his performance. He then became a regular member of the Indian Twenty20 team.