title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In the preterite tense, a number of irregular verbs in Portuguese change the stem vowel to indicate differences between first and third person singular: "fiz" 'I did' vs. "fez" 'he did', "pude" 'I could' vs. "pôde" 'he could', "fui" 'I was' vs. "foi" 'he was', "tive" 'I had' vs. "teve" 'he had', etc. Historically, these vowel differences are due to vowel raising (metaphony) triggered by the final of the first-person singular in Latin. Spanish maintains such a difference only in "fui" 'I was' vs. "fue" 'he was'. In all other cases in Spanish, the stem vowel has been regularized throughout the conjugation and a new third-person ending "-o" adopted: "hice" 'I did' vs. "hizo" 'he did', "pude" 'I could' vs. "pudo" 'he could', etc. Portuguese verbs ending in "-duzir" are regular in the preterite, while their Spanish counterparts in "-ducir" undergo a consonant change and are stressed on the stem; thus Portuguese "reduzi" vs. Spanish "reduje" ('I reduced'). Similarly, the preterite of "andar" is regular in Portuguese ("andaste"), but irregular in Spanish ("anduviste", 'you went').


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Meanwhile, Spanish maintains many more irregular forms in the future and conditional: "saldré" 'I will leave', "pondré" 'I will put', "vendré" 'I will come', "diré" 'I will say', etc. Portuguese has only three: "farei" 'I will do', "direi" 'I will say', "trarei" 'I will carry'.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In the imperfect tense, Spanish has three irregular verbs while Portuguese has four; "ser" (to be) is the only such verb that is irregular in the imperfect across both languages. While the counterparts of the Spanish verbs "tener" (to have), "poner" (to put), and "venir" (to come) are irregular in Portuguese, the counterparts of the Portuguese verbs "ir" (to go) and "ver" (to see) are irregular in Spanish.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Portuguese drops -"e" in "irregular" third-person singular present indicative forms after ⟨z⟩ and ⟨r⟩, according to phonological rules: "faz" 'he does', "diz" 'he says', "quer" 'he wants', etc. Spanish has restored -"e" by analogy with other verbs: "hace" 'he does', "dice" 'he says', "quiere" 'he wants', etc. (The same type of analogy accounts for "fiz" vs "hice" 'I did' in the past tense. In nouns such as "paz" 'peace', "luz" 'light', "amor" 'love', etc. "-e" was dropped in both languages and never restored).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In Spanish the prepositions "a" ('to') and "de" ('of, from') form contractions with a following masculine singular definite article ("el" 'the'): "a" + "el" > "al", and "de" + "el" > "del". This kind of contraction is much more extensive in Portuguese, involving the prepositions "a" ('to'), "de" ('of, from'), "em" ('in'), and "por" ('for') with articles and demonstratives regardless of number or gender. All four of these prepositions join with the definite article, as shown in the following table:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Additionally, the prepositions "de" and "em" combine with the demonstrative adjectives and pronouns as shown below:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The neuter demonstrative pronouns ("isto" 'this' "isso", "aquilo" 'that') likewise combine with "de" and "em" – thus, "disto", "nisto", etc. And the preposition "a" combines with the "distal" demonstratives (those that begin with "a-") to form "àquele", "àquilo", etc.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The Portuguese contractions mentioned thus far are obligatory. Contractions can also be optionally formed from "em" and "de" with the indefinite article ("um", "uma", "uns", "umas"), resulting in "num", "numa", "dum", "duma", etc. and from the third person pronouns ("ele", "ela", "eles", "elas"), resulting in "nele", "nela", "dele", "dela", etc. Other optional contractions include "de" with "aqui" > "daqui" ('from here').


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The Spanish "con" ('with', "com" in Portuguese) combines with the prepositional pronouns "mí", "ti", and "sí" to form "conmigo", "contigo", "consigo" ('with me', 'with you', 'with him-/herself '). In Portuguese this process not only applies to the pronouns "mim", "ti", and "si" (giving "comigo", "contigo", and "consigo"), but also is extended to "nós" and, in those varieties which use it, "vós", producing "connosco" ("conosco" in Brazilian Portuguese) and "convosco".


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Spanish employs a preposition, the so-called "personal "a"", before the direct object of a transitive verb (except "tener") when it denotes a specific person(s), or domestic pet; thus "Veo a Juan" 'I see John'; "Hemos invitado a los estudiantes" 'We've invited the students.'


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In Portuguese, personal "a" is virtually non-existent, except before "Deus" 'God': "louvar a Deus" 'to praise God', "amar a Deus" 'to love God'.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Quite common in both languages are the prepositions "a" (which often translates as "to") and "para" (which often translates as "for"). However, European Portuguese and Spanish distinguish between going somewhere for a short while versus a longer stay, especially if it is an intended destination, in the latter case using "para" instead of "a". While there is no specified duration of stay before a European Portuguese speaker must switch prepositions, "a" implies one will return sooner, rather than later, relative to the context. This distinction is not made in English and Brazilian Portuguese. In Spanish the distinction is not made if the duration is given in the context (maybe implicitly), and in this case "a" is generally preferred.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Note, though, in the first example, "para" could be used in Portuguese if in contrast to a very brief period of time.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In informal, non-standard Brazilian Portuguese, "em" (in its original form or combined with a given article in a contraction, yielding "no", "na", "numa", etc.), often replaces the preposition "a" from standard Portuguese.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In Portuguese the preposition até can also be used when the duration of the stay is expected to be short or when there is a specific reason for going somewhere. In Spanish hasta has the same meaning and function.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Spanish has two prepositions of direction: "para" ('for', including 'headed for [a destination]') and "hacia" ('toward [not necessarily implying arrival]'). Of them, only "para" exists in Portuguese, covering both meanings.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Colloquially, "para" is often reduced in both languages: to "pa" in Spanish, and to "pra" (sometimes written "p'ra" and this form may be used in literature) or "pa" (only in slang in Portugal and Rio de Janeiro, and not permitted in writing) in Portuguese. Portuguese "pra", in turn, may join with the definite article: "pra" + "o" > "pro" (BP) or "prò" (EP), "pra" + "a" > "pra" (BP) or "prà" (EP), etc. In reference to the slang option "pa", these become: "pa" + "o" > "pò", "pa" + "a" > "pà", etc.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Both languages have a construction similar to the English "going-to" future. Spanish includes the preposition "a" between the conjugated form of "ir" "to go" and the infinitive: "Vamos a cantar" "We're going to sing" or "Let's sing" (present tense of "ir" + "a" + infinitive). Usually, in Portuguese, there is no preposition between the helping verb and the main verb: "Vamos cantar" (present tense of "ir" + infinitive). This also applies when the verb is in other tenses:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: While as a rule the same prepositions are used in the same contexts in both languages, there are many exceptions.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The traditional Spanish alphabet had 28 letters, while the Portuguese had 23. Modern versions of recent years added "k" and "w" (found only in foreign words) to both languages. Portuguese also added "y" for loanwords.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: With the reform in 1994 by the 10th congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies, Spanish alphabetization now follows the same pattern as that of other major West European languages. Prior to this date, however, the digraphs "ch" and "ll" were independently alphabetized. For example, the following surnames would be put in this order: "Cervantes, Contreras, Cruz, Chávez, Dávila". Many Spanish dictionaries and other reference material still exist using the pre-reform rule of alphabetization.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: ⟨Sc⟩ in Latin American Spanish is not called a digraph, however it is a single sound as in Brazilian Portuguese. Also Spanish has taken ⟨sh⟩ from English as a loan sound; e.g., "sherpa", "show", "flash" (however, the Royal Spanish Academy prescribes these words to be written in italics, as unadapted foreign words). Brazilian Portuguese uses the trigraph ⟨tch⟩ for loanwords; e.g., "tchau", 'ciao', "tcheco" 'Czech', "República Tcheca" 'Czech Republic', "tchê" 'che' (this latter is regional), etc. European Portuguese normally replace the trigraph ⟨tch⟩ with ⟨ch⟩ : "chau", "checo", "República Checa", etc. (This is pronounced in northern European Portuguese dialects.)


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Both Spanish and Portuguese use ⟨zz⟩ (never as – this sequence appears only in loanwords from Japanese, e.g., "adzuki") for some Italian loanwords, but in Portuguese may sometimes not be pronounced as affricate, but having an epenthetic or ; e.g., Sp. and Port. "pizza" 'pizza', Sp. and Port. "paparazzo" 'paparazzo', etc. (however, the Royal Spanish Academy prescribes these words to be written in italics). Spanish also utilizes ⟨tz⟩ for Basque, Catalan and Nahuatl loanwords, and ⟨tl⟩ (or ) for Nahuatl loanwords; e.g., "Ertzaintza", "quetzal", "xoloitzcuintle", "Tlaxcala", etc. Portuguese utilizes ⟨ts⟩ for German, originarily ⟨z⟩, and Japanese loanwords.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Although the letters "k", "w", and "y" are now included in the Portuguese alphabet, according to the current orthographic rules they should only be used in proper names (foreign or invented) and their derivatives with suffixes ("kantiano, darwinismo, byroniano", etc.), and also in international symbols. Derivatives without suffixes are generally adapted to the Portuguese spelling ("Karakul" but "caracul", "Zika" but "zica"), except measurement units ("watt, henry"; note also "kwanza", the monetary unit of Angola). On the other hand, the current Spanish orthography allows "k" and "w" to be used in any kind of loanwords, although in some cases alternative spellings are allowed ("kimono" or "quimono"). This leads to differences in Spanish and Portuguese spellings of loanwords:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Spanish: "búnker, chikunguña, karaoke, kárate/karate, karma, kilogramo, kilómetro, kiwi, koala, sándwich, wiski/güisqui, zika".


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Portuguese: "búnquer, chicungunha, caraoquê, caratê, carma, quilograma, quilómetro/quilômetro, quiuí, sanduíche, coala, uísque, zica".


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In practice, foreign words are often left unchanged in both languages, e. g. "whisky, chikungunya". The Royal Spanish Academy accepts such spellings, but only with typographical emphasis: italics in printed text, quotation marks in manuscript or when italics are not available.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: On the other hand, names of measurement units named after people are written unchanged in Portuguese, but Spanish often uses adapted spellings ending in "-io":


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Only in Spanish do interrogatives and exclamations use the question mark or exclamation point respectively at the beginning of a sentence. The same punctuation marks are used, but these are inverted. This prepares the reader in advance for either a question or exclamation type of sentence.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: On the other hand, in Portuguese, a person reading aloud lengthy sentences from an unfamiliar text may have to scan ahead to check if what at first appears to be a statement, is actually a question. Otherwise, it would be too late to enable proper voice inflection. Neither language has the equivalent of the auxiliary verb "to do", which is often used to begin a question in English. Both Spanish and English can place the verb before the subject noun to indicate a question, though this is uncommon in Portuguese, and almost unheard of in Brazil. In fact, most yes/no questions in Portuguese are written the same as a statement except for the final question mark.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Aside from changes of punctuation in written language, in speech, converting any of the above examples from a question to a statement would involve changes of both intonation and syntax in English and Spanish, but intonation only in Portuguese.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The symbols ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨ñ⟩ are etymological in Spanish, as the sounds they represent are often derived from Latin and (for those positions, Portuguese has simple ⟨l⟩ and ⟨n⟩; cf. "rodilla"/"rodela", "peña"/"pena"). The Portuguese digraphs ⟨lh⟩ and ⟨nh⟩ were adopted from Occitan, as poetry of the troubadours was the most important influence on Portuguese literature up until the 14th century. King Denis of Portugal, who established Portuguese instead of Latin as the official language, was an admirer of the poetry of the troubadours and a poet himself. Examples include names such as Port. ""Minho"" (Sp. "Miño") and ""Magalhães"" (Sp. "Magallanes").


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The letter ⟨y⟩ was used in Portuguese from the 16th to the early 20th century in Greek loans, much as in English (e.g., "Psychologia", modern "Psicologia" 'Psychology'). The orthographic reform in 1911 officially replaced it with ⟨i⟩. The corresponding sound can be regarded as an allophone of the vowel in both languages. Compare Sp. "rey ('king'), "mayor" ('larger, greater, elder') with Port. "rei ('king'), "maior" ('larger, greater').


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The exact pronunciation of these three consonants varies somewhat with dialect. The table indicates only the most common sound values in each language. In most Spanish dialects, the consonants written ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨y⟩ have come to be pronounced the same way, a sound merger known as "yeísmo". A similar phenomenon can be found in some dialects of Brazilian Portuguese (e.g., ""muié"" for "mulher", 'woman'), but it is much less widespread than in Spanish.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The Portuguese letter ⟨ç⟩ (c-cedilha), based on a Visigothic form of the letter ⟨z⟩: "ꝣ". In Portuguese it is used before ⟨a⟩, ⟨o⟩, and ⟨u⟩ (including nasals), and never at the beginning or end of any word. It always represents the "soft "c"" sound, namely . In modern Spanish, it has been replaced by ⟨z⟩. Example: "calzado" (Sp.), "calçado" (Port.) 'footwear'.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Both languages use diacritics to mark the stressed syllable of a word whenever it is not otherwise predictable from spelling. Since Spanish does not differentiate between mid-open and mid-close vowels and nasal vowels, it uses only one accent, the acute. Portuguese usually uses the acute accent , but also uses the circumflex accent ( ˆ ) on the mid-close vowels ⟨ê⟩ and ⟨ô⟩ and the stressed (always nasal in Brasil) ⟨â⟩.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Although the Spanish ⟨y⟩ can be either a consonant or a vowel, as a vowel it never takes an accent. At the end of a word, the Portuguese diphthong -"ai" is the equivalent of the Spanish -"ay", however, -"ai" can have an accent on the ⟨í⟩ to break the diphthong into two separate vowels, e.g., "açaí" (three syllables). Without the accent, as in Spanish, the last syllable would be a diphthong: "Paraguai" (Portuguese) and "Paraguay" (Spanish) 'Paraguay'.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Portuguese nasal vowels occur before ⟨n⟩ and ⟨m⟩ (see phonology below) without an accent mark, as these consonants are not fully pronounced in such cases. The tilde (~), is only used on nasal diphthongs such as ⟨ão⟩ and ⟨õe⟩ , plus the final ⟨ã⟩ , which replaces the -"am" ending, as the latter is reserved for verbs, e.g., "amanhã" 'tomorrow'.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: These do not alter the rules for stress, though note endings -"im", -"ins" and -"um", -"uns" are stressed, as are their non-nasal counterparts (see below). A couple of two-letter words consist of only the nasal vowel: "em" and "um".


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Phonetic vowel nasalization occurs in Spanish—vowels may get slightly nasalized in contact with nasal consonants—but it is not phonemically distinctive. In Portuguese, on the other hand, vowel nasalization is distinctive, and therefore phonemic: "pois" or 'because' vs "pões" or '(you) put'.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Portuguese changes vowel sounds with (and without) accents marks. Unaccented ⟨o⟩ () and ⟨e⟩ (), acute accented ⟨ó⟩ () and ⟨é⟩ (), or circumflex accented ⟨ô⟩ () and ⟨e⟩ (). Thus, "nós" or 'we' vs "nos" or 'us', "avô" 'grandfather' vs "avó" 'grandmother', "se" or 'itself, himself, herself' reflexive pronoun vs "sé" 'seat, headquarters' vs "sê" 'to be' 2nd person imperative. Spanish pronunciation makes no such distinction.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The grave accent is also used in Portuguese to indicate the contraction of the preposition "a" (to) with a few words beginning with the vowel "a", but not to indicate stress. In other cases, it is the combination of the preposition and the feminine definite article; in other words, the equivalent of "a la" ('to the') in Spanish. "Às" is used for the plural ("a las" in Spanish).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The diaeresis or trema ( ¨ ) is used in Spanish to indicate ⟨u⟩ is pronounced in the sequence ⟨gu⟩; e.g., "desagüe" . As the Portuguese grave accent, the trema does not indicate stress. In Brazilian Portuguese it was also used for the digraphs ⟨gu⟩ and ⟨qu⟩ for the same purpose as Spanish (e.g., former BP spelling *"qüinqüênio" , EP "quinquénio" 'five-year period'), however since the implementation of the Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement in Brazil, the trema was abolished (current BP spelling "quinquênio" ), and its usage was restricted to some loanwords (e.g., "mülleriano" 'Müllerian').


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The accentuation rules (including those of predictable stress) of Portuguese and Spanish are similar, but not identical. Discrepancies are especially pervasive in words that contain "i" or "u" in their last syllable. Note the Portuguese diphthongs "ei" and "ou" are the approximate Spanish equivalent of "e" and "o" respectively, but any word ending with these diphthongs is, by default, stressed on its final syllable.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Compare the following pairs of cognates, where the stress falls on the same syllable in both languages:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Semivowel–vowel sequences are treated differently in both languages when it comes to accentuation rules. A sequence of a semivowel adjacent to a vowel is by default assumed to be read as a diphthong (part of the same syllable) in Spanish, whereas it is by default assumed to be read as a hiatus (belonging to different syllables) in Portuguese. For both languages, accentuation rules consistently indicate something other than the default.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: A consequence of this is that words that are pronounced alike in both languages are written according to different accentuation rules. Some examples:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Another consequence (though less common) is that some words are written exactly (or almost exactly) the same in both languages, but the stress falls on different syllables:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Although the vocabularies of Spanish and Portuguese are similar, the two languages differ phonologically from each other, very likely because of the stronger Celtic substratum in Portuguese. Phonetically Portuguese bears similarities to French and to Catalan while the phonetics of Spanish are more comparable to those of Sardinian and Sicilian. Portuguese has a significantly larger phonemic inventory than Spanish. This may partially explain why Portuguese is generally not very intelligible to Spanish speakers despite the lexical similarity between the two languages.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: One of the main differences between the Spanish and Portuguese pronunciation are the vowel sounds. Standard Spanish has a basic vowel phonological system, with five phonemic vowels (, , , , ). Phonetic nasalization occurs in Spanish for vowels occurring between nasal consonants or when preceding a syllable-final nasal consonant ( and ), but it is not distinctive as in Portuguese. Dialectally, there are Spanish dialects with a greater number of vowels, with some (as Murcian and Eastern Andalusian) reaching up to 8 to 10 vowel sounds. On the other hand, Portuguese has seven to nine oral vowels (, *, , , *, , , , ) ( is closer to in Portugal, while the near-close near-back unrounded vowel —also rendered as or —is only found in European Portuguese) plus five phonemic nasal vowels (, , , , ) when preceding an omitted syllable-final nasal ( and ) or when is marked with a tilde (~): ⟨ã⟩ and ⟨õ⟩. This appears to be, similarly to French, a Celtic phonological adaptation to Latin. Portuguese, as Catalan, uses vowel height, contrasting stressed and unstressed (reduced) vowels. Moreover, Spanish has two semivowels as allophones, ; while Portuguese has four, two oral and two nasalized glides (non-syllabic near-close vowels, as those of most English speech, are allophones of the glides in the Brazilian dialects where near-closeds are used).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The following considerations are based on a comparison of standard versions of Spanish and Portuguese. Apparent divergence of the information below from anyone's personal pronunciation may indicate one's idiolect (or dialect) diverges from the mentioned standards. Information on Portuguese phonology is adapted from Celso Pedro Luft (, 1971), and information on Spanish phonology adapted from Manuel Seco (, 1994).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Comparing the phonemic inventory of the two languages, a noticeable divergence stands out. First, standard Portuguese has more phonemes than Spanish. Also, each language has phonemes that are not shared by the other.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Spanish and Portuguese have been diverging for over a thousand years. One of the most noticeable early differences between them concerned the result of the stressed vowels of Latin:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: As vowel length ceased to be distinctive in the transition from Latin to Romance, the stressed vowels and became "ie" and "ue" in Spanish whenever they were short (Latin → Spanish "piedra" 'stone'; Latin → Spanish "muere" "he dies"). Similar diphthongizations can be found in other Romance languages (French "pierre", Italian "pietra", Romanian "piatră"; French "meurt", Italian "muore", Romanian "moare"), but in Galician-Portuguese these vowels underwent a qualitative change instead (Portuguese/Galician "pedra", "morre"), becoming lower, as also happened with short and short in stressed syllables. The Classical Latin vowels - and - were correspondingly lowered in Spanish and turned into diphthongs and . In Spanish, short and and long and merged into mid vowels, and , while in Portuguese these vowels stayed as close-mid, and and open-mid, and , as in Vulgar Latin.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Portuguese has five phonemic nasal vowels (), which, according to historical linguistics, arose from the assimilation of the nasal consonants and , often at the end of syllables. Syllable-final "m" and "n" are still written down to indicate nasalization, even though they are no longer fully pronounced, that is, either (before obstruents) or elided completely. In other cases, nasal vowels are marked with a tilde ("ã", "õ"). Not all words containing "vowel + n" have the nasal sound, as the subsequent letter must be a consonant for this to occur: e.g., "anel" ('ring') –oral/non-nasal– vs "anca" ('hip') –nasal–.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: However, in some Brazilian dialects, most vowels (including the allophones present only in unstressed environment) have nasal allophones before one of the nasal consonants , followed by another vowel. In other Brazilian dialects, only stressed vowels can be nasalized this way. In European Portuguese, nasalization is absent in this environment.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The Portuguese digraph "ou" (pronounced usually as the diphthong , but sometimes as a monophthong ) corresponds to the final "-ó" of Spanish "-ar" verbs in the preterite tense; e.g., Spanish "descansó" and Portuguese "descansou" ("he/she rested"). The Spanish irregular verb forms in "-oy" (e.g., "doy" "I give", "estoy" "I am", "soy" "I am", "voy" "I go") correspond to Portuguese forms in "-ou" (e.g., "dou", "estou", "sou", "vou"). But in some other words, conversely, Spanish "o" corresponds to Portuguese "oi", e.g., Spanish "cosa", Portuguese "coisa" "thing"; Spanish "oro" "gold", Portuguese usually "ouro", but sometimes "oiro".


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The history of the unstressed vowels in Spanish and Portuguese is not as well known as that of the stressed vowels, but some points are generally agreed upon. Spanish has the five short vowels of classical Latin, . It has also two semivowels, and , that appear in diphthongs, but these can be considered allophones of and , respectively. The pronunciation of the unstressed vowels does not differ much from that of stressed vowels. Unstressed, non-syllabic , and can be reduced to , and complete elision in some dialects; e.g., "poetisa" ('poet' f.), "línea" ('line'), "ahorita" ('now').


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The system of seven oral vowels of Vulgar Latin has been fairly well preserved in Portuguese, as in the closely related Galician language. In Portuguese, unstressed vowels have been more unstable, both diachronically (across time) and synchronically (between dialects), producing new vowel sounds. The vowels written ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ are pronounced in different ways according to several factors, most notably whether they are stressed, and whether they occur in the last syllable of a word. The basic paradigm is shown in the following table (it has some exceptions).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Brazilian unstressed vowel allophones vary according to the geographical region of the country. Near-close , and unstressed close-mid , are found in southern and western accents, where postvocalic has a "soft" allophone (a flap, a coronal approximant, or a rhotic vowel), and postvocalic sibilants (written ⟨s⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨z⟩) in native words are "always" alveolar . Meanwhile, these close allophones do not occur in the northern and eastern accents, where postvocalic has a "hard" allophone (velar, uvular, or glottal) and postvocalic sibilants "may be", consistently or not, post-alveolar . In the accents where postvocalic sibilants are "always" post-alveolar, such as those of Florianópolis and Rio de Janeiro, or in the accents influenced by them, "any" unstressed , and may be raised (like in Portugal), to , and , respectively. While this is true of all colloquial BP, it is especially characteristic of the latter dialects). This increased vowel reduction is also present in accents of the Brazilian Northeast, particularly from Alagoas to Piauí.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Similar alternation patterns to these exist in other Romance languages such as Catalan and Occitan. Although it is mostly an allophonic variation, some dialects have developed minimal pairs that distinguish the stressed variants from the unstressed ones. The vowel is often elided in connected speech (it is not present in Brazilian Portuguese).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Some Brazilian dialects diphthongize stressed vowels to , etc. (except ), before a sibilant at the end of a syllable (written ⟨s⟩, ⟨x⟩, ⟨z⟩, or rarely, ⟨sh⟩). For instance, "Jesus" 'Jesus', "faz" 'he does', "dez" 'ten'. This has led to the use of "meia" (meaning "meia dúzia", 'half a dozen') for "seis" 'six' when making enumerations, to avoid any confusion with" três" 'three' on the telephone. In Lisbon and surrounding areas, stressed is pronounced or when it comes before an alveolo-palatal or palato-alveolar consonants followed by another vowel.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The orthography of Portuguese, which is partly etymological and analogical, does not indicate these sound changes. This makes the written language look deceptively similar to Spanish. For example, although "breve" ('brief') is spelled the same in both languages, it is pronounced in Spanish, but in Portuguese. In Brazilian Portuguese, in the vast majority of cases, the only difference between final -"e" and -"i" is the stress, as both are pronounced as . The former is unstressed, and the latter is stressed without any diacritical mark. In European Portuguese, final "-e" is not pronounced or is pronounced as , unlike "i", which is consistently .


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Some of the most characteristic sound changes undergone by the consonants from Latin to Spanish and Portuguese are shown in the table below.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Peculiar to early Spanish (as in the Gascon dialect of Occitan, possibly due to a Basque substratum) was the loss of Latin initial - whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. Thus, Spanish "hijo" and "hablar" correspond to Portuguese "filho" and "falar" (from Latin and , 'son' and 'to speak' respectively). Nevertheless, in a few cases Spanish has retained the Latin "f-", so that Portuguese "fogo" corresponds to Spanish "fuego" (from Latin 'fire'); while in other cases the Latin word has yielded two different terms in Spanish, one beginning with "f-" and the other with "h-", with slightly different nuances or altogether different meanings: Latin > Spanish "hastío" - "fastidio", Portuguese "fastio" 'boredom'; Latin > Spanish "fibra" 'fiber' - "hebra" 'thread', Portuguese "fibra" (both meanings); Latin > Spanish "haz" 'beam' - "fajo" 'bundle', Portuguese "feixe" (both meanings).


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Other consonant clusters of Latin also took markedly different routes in the two languages in their archaic period:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Learned words such as "pleno, ocular, no(c)turno, tremular", and so on, were not included in the examples above, since they were adapted directly from Classical Latin in later times.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Portuguese has tended to eliminate hiatuses that were preserved in Spanish, merging similar consecutive vowels into one (often after the above-mentioned loss of intervocalic -- and --). This results in many Portuguese words being one syllable shorter than their Spanish cognates:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In other cases, Portuguese reduces consecutive vowels to a diphthong, again resulting in one syllable fewer:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: There are nevertheless a few words where the opposite happened, such as Spanish "comprender" versus Portuguese "compreender", from Latin .


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Since the late Middle Ages, both languages have gone through sound shifts and mergers that set them further apart.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: The most marked phonetic divergence between Spanish and Portuguese in their modern period concerned the evolution of the sibilants. In the Middle Ages, both had a rich system of seven sibilants – paired according to affrication and voicing: , , , , , , and (the latter probably in free variation with , as still happens today in Ladino) – and spelled virtually the same in Spanish and Portuguese.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: After the Renaissance, the two languages reduced their inventory of sibilants, but in different ways:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: Since no distinction is made anymore between the pronunciation of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩, Spanish spelling has been reformed according to Classical Latin. In Portuguese, the spelling of these letters is based on pronunciation, which is closer to Latin and modern Italian. This leads to some orthographic disparities:


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In Spanish, the plosives "b", "d", "g" are lenited, usually realized as "soft" approximants (here represented without the undertracks) after continuants. While similar pronunciations can be heard in European Portuguese, most speakers of Brazilian Portuguese pronounce these phonemes consistently as "hard" plosives . This can make a Portuguese phrase such as "uma bala" ("a bullet") sound like "una pala" ("a shovel") to a Spanish-speaker.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In Spanish, the following word-final consonants are possible: "-l, -r, -n, -d, -z, -j, -s, -x", but other final consonants are also allowed in loanwords.


title: Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish

text: In Portuguese, the following word-final consonants are possible: "l, -r, -s, -x; -z (only after a stressed vowel); -n (only after an unstressed vowel)". The final "-m" is an orthographic sign of a nasal sound. Other consonants typically receive a paragogic "-e" in loanwords.


title: Piecewise

text: In mathematics, a piecewise-defined function (also called a piecewise function, a hybrid function, or definition by cases) is a function defined by multiple sub-functions, where each sub-function applies to a different interval in the domain. Piecewise definition is actually a way of expressing the function, rather than a characteristic of the function itself.


title: Piecewise

text: A distinct, but related notion is that of a property holding piecewise for a function, used when the domain can be divided into intervals on which the property holds. Unlike for the notion above, this is actually a property of the function itself. A piecewise linear function (which happens to be also continuous) is depicted as an example.


title: Piecewise

text: Piecewise functions can be defined using the common functional notation, where the body of the function is an array of functions and associated subdomains. These subdomains together must cover the whole domain; often it is also required that they are pairwise disjoint, i.e. form a partition of the domain. In order for the overall function to be called "piecewise", the subdomains are usually required to be intervals (some may be degenerated intervals, i.e. single points or unbounded intervals). For bounded intervals, the number of subdomains is required to be finite, for unbounded intervals it is often only required to be locally finite. For example, consider the piecewise definition of the absolute value function:


title: Piecewise

text: For all values of formula_2 less than zero, the first function (formula_3) is used, which negates the sign of the input value, making negative numbers positive. For all values of formula_2 greater than or equal to zero, the second function is used, which evaluates trivially to the input value itself.


title: Piecewise

text: Here, notice that in order to evaluate a piecewise function at a given input value, the appropriate subdomain needs to be chosen in order to select the correct function—and produce the correct output value.


title: Piecewise

text: A piecewise function is continuous on a given interval in its domain if the following conditions are met:


title: Piecewise

text: The pictured function, for example, is piecewise-continuous throughout its subdomains, but is not continuous on the entire domain, as it contains a jump discontinuity at formula_6. The filled circle indicates that the value of the right function piece is used in this position.


title: Piecewise

text: For a piecewise function to be differentiable on a given interval in its domain, the following conditions have to fulfilled in addition to those for continuity above:


title: Piecewise

text: In applied mathematical analysis, piecewise functions have been found to be consistent with many models of the human visual system, where images are perceived at a first stage as consisting of smooth regions separated by edges.


title: Piecewise

text: In particular, shearlets have been used as a representation system to provide sparse approximations of this model class in 2D and 3D.


title: Jolene (film)

text: Jolene is a 2008 American drama film directed by Dan Ireland, based on the short story "Jolene: A Life" by E. L. Doctorow. It marked Jessica Chastain's film debut. It premiered on June 13, 2008 at the Seattle International Film Festival and was later released in the United States on October 29, 2010.


title: Jolene (film)

text: 15-year-old orphan Jolene breaks free from foster care, marrying Mickey, a nerdy 20-year-old. They live with Mickey's Uncle Phil and Aunt Kay. On the night before her sixteenth birthday, Jolene asks Mickey about his mother, but he rebuffs her and starts crying. To make him feel better, she seduces him, but Mickey's inexperience leads to uncomfortable and joyless sex. The next day, Mickey and Uncle Phil wish Jolene "Happy Birthday" with Kay asking Jolene to clean the floor. Phil walks in and is aroused by Jolene's dancing while cleaning the floor and they have sex. They start a passionate affair, and Phil promises to build a house for the two of them, but asks Jolene to keep their relationship a secret, due to them both being married. Upon catching Phil and Jolene in bed, Kay kicks Jolene out of the house. After a physical altercation with Phil, Mickey drives off kills himself by jumping off a bridge.


title: Jolene (film)

text: Aunt Kay has Jolene placed in a juvenile mental institution, where she meets Cindy, a psychiatric nurse. Jolene, a talented artist, asks for paper and colored pencils to draw. Her request is denied, but she is allowed crayons, and she starts a small business selling crayon portraits to her fellow patients. Jolene is called to testify against Uncle Phil, and he is sentenced to eighteen months in prison for statutory rape. Cindy, a closeted lesbian, is immediately infatuated with Jolene and this culminates in another affair. Cindy breaks Jolene out of the mental hospital and hides her in her apartment. Using the money from her portraits, Jolene leaves and boards a bus west out of South Carolina. Jolene resorts to hitchhiking further west, supporting herself by prostitution.


title: Jolene (film)

text: Jolene ends up in Arizona, working as a waitress at an outdoor diner. There, she meets Coco Leger, an aspiring musician and tattoo artist. A relationship blossoms between them and Jolene becomes a tattoo artist at Coco's parlor. After two weeks of dating, Jolene moves in with Coco and he convinces her to get married. After he passes out during sex, Coco is revealed to have a cocaine addiction, supporting his habit and the parlor by dealing cocaine. One evening, a young woman enters the parlor and declares herself to be his wife, Marion and introduces their son, Coco Jr. Coco returns and is confronted by both women before he walks out with Marion and the baby. Furious with Coco Jolene destroys the parlor, dumps the cocaine on a table, steals the drug money and dumps her ring in the center of the cocaine before dialing 911 and fleeing the scene.


title: Jolene (film)

text: Jolene later is in Las Vegas, working as an erotic dancer when she meets Sal Fontaine, a mobster. He takes a liking to her and invites her to quit dancing and move into his high rise condo. Jolene enjoys a life of luxury with Sal, going to fancy dinners and exploring her talent as an artist. One night, Sal demands that Jolene get dressed, go downstairs and wait for him. She falls asleep in the restaurant and quietly returns to the condo to find Sal dead and the mob looking for her. Jolene escapes and ends up hitchhiking on a truck to Tulsa.


title: Jolene (film)

text: In Tulsa, Jolene finds work as a receptionist and banquet server. She meets Brad Benton, the son of a wealthy family. He relentlessly pursues her, sending flowers to her workplace and charming her into dates. Outwardly religious but obnoxiously arrogant, he is rude, entitled, narcissistic and demanding to everyone. Brad pressures Jolene into quickly getting married and on their wedding night when he discovers a tattoo of a heart with flames on her backside, this triggers him and he anally rapes her. When Jolene becomes pregnant, Brad interrogates her on how many people she has had sex with; when she refuses to comply, he slaps her across the face. After the baby is born, Brad's parents investigate Jolene's past and inform him. He then brutally attacks her, permanently damaging her vocal cords. She tries to leave and take Brad Jr., but a domestic violence lawyer refuses to take her case due to her past. While staying in a shelter for battered women, the police come and arrest Jolene for kidnapping and Brad is granted an annulment. Jolene is convicted of the kidnapping and is allowed supervised visits. She decides to exit her baby's life while he is an infant, reasoning that he can imagine his mother to be anybody.


title: Jolene (film)

text: Finally, Jolene ends up in Los Angeles, working as a comic illustrator for a graphic novel company, where she incorporates events from her life into her work. In her final narration, she reveals that she has dreams to be an actress and that a film studio might want to use her. Seeing a woman walking her young son up the street, Jolene imagines herself a famous actress returning to Tulsa in a limousine to visit her son and happily walks out of frame.


title: Jolene (film)

text: Brothers Avi Angel and Asher Angel appeared briefly as Brad Jr. at 7 months and 5 years old, respectively.


title: Jolene (film)

text: The film received a mixed critical reaction. Rotten Tomatoes gives it a score of 48% based on 21 reviews, with an average rating of 4.89/10. Jeanette Catsoulis of "The New York Times" praised Chastain's performance, noting that she "digs deep. Surrendering to her character’s smoky voice-over and disastrous judgment, the actress finds pockets of soul in a role that’s part Jessica Rabbit, part Marilyn Monroe." Rex Reed of "The New York Observer" rated the film 3 out of 4 stars. Reed praised the casting; "This movie boasts a terrific cast, and Ms. Chastain not only holds her own corner of every scene, she's the only thing you want to watch."


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: Long Story Short is a 2021 Australian romantic comedy film written and directed by Josh Lawson about a man who wakes up the morning after his wedding to discover that every few minutes he is jumping forward in time. The film is backed by StudioCanal, Screen Australia, Create NSW and Spectrum Films.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: The film was released on 11 February 2021 in Australia by StudioCanal and was released in the United States on 2 July 2021 by Saban Films. The movie is loosely based on the Indian movie Baar Baar Dekho (2016)


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: At a New Years' Eve party, Teddy races to kiss his girlfriend Becca by midnight. By mistake, he kisses another woman named Leanne who is wearing the same dress. Leanne helps Teddy when he goes into anaphylactic shock from inadvertently consuming a peanut that was in Leanne's mouth, and the two begin a relationship. A few years later, Teddy and Leanne visit Teddy's father's grave to give him the news that Teddy has proposed using the ring he personally crafted for Teddy's mother, though they haven't set a date. A strange woman overhears them and cautions Teddy against wasting his life and gives him a wedding gift of a tin can, with the instruction not to open it until his tenth anniversary, for which the traditional gift is tin.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: The morning after the wedding, Teddy wakes up to discover that exactly one year has passed and Leanne is 18 weeks pregnant. A few minutes later, time shifts to their second anniversary and he is the father of a baby girl who, much to his shock, is named Talullah. Teddy realizes that time is passing normally for everyone but him, and asks his best friend Sam to meet him in one year with an anniversary present, which he does. They theorize that Teddy's predicament is similar to that in the film "Groundhog Day", and that Teddy must have a "perfect day" to break the curse. In the intervening year, Teddy and Leanne have begun couples' counseling and their therapist has asked them to write letters to each other. Leanne feels that Teddy isn't the man she married, as he spends all his time at work. Teddy promises he can change, but the letter he wrote betrays the resentment he feels at being forced to be the family breadwinner instead of pursuing his dream of photography, while Leanne chases a "pipe dream" of being a writer.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: On Teddy and Leanne's fourth anniversary, Teddy is shocked to find Leanne gone; they have agreed to a trial separation. Worse, Sam has been diagnosed with skin cancer, and Teddy is shocked by his weight and hair loss. On their fifth anniversary, Teddy wakes up from a night with his ex Becca, whose marriage has also fallen apart and who Teddy has been seeing casually for a few months. Teddy rushes Becca onto the terrace when Leanne drops by wanting to get back together. They almost have sex, but Leanne walks out upon finding Becca's bra on the couch. Becca vows to stop seeing Teddy, but they are still together a year later. Teddy wonders what keeps bringing them together when they're clearly wrong for each other, and Becca sadly notes that she would have been able to save her marriage if she had the knowledge then that she has now.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: Teddy visits Leanne and is surprised to learn that she is the owner of a Great Dane puppy (a dog Teddy disliked) and is dating a man named Patrick. He suggests they get a kiddie pool, which, as time shifts to their sixth anniversary, he falls into. Leanne and Patrick help him out and Teddy is shocked to see Leanne is no longer wearing his ring. She shamefully admits that she lost it at the beach, and couldn't find it even after hours of searching. Teddy takes the dog on a walk to the beach, where another year passes. He finds a chocolate bar containing peanuts in the sand and considers suicide. His daughter, Tallulah, whom he doesn't remember seeing since infancy and is now seven, tries to cheer him up.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: Another year passes. Teddy tries to call Sam but is heartbroken when he realizes that he passed away. He visits Sam's grave, where he again encounters the strange woman who gave him the "gift" of fast-forwarding through his life. She explains that she was given a similar gift shortly before her own wedding; her experience made her realize that she didn't love her fiancé, and was in fact a lesbian. She often visits her lover's grave to show her how she's using the years she never got to give other people the same gift.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: On their tenth anniversary, Teddy rushes to Leanne's house and asks her to find the old tin can. Upon opening it, Leanne miraculously finds Teddy's father's ring. Teddy and Leanne finally reunite, and Teddy wakes up the day after the wedding. Now with a new outlook on life, Teddy calls his boss to inform her he will be cutting down his hours at work and studying photography, encourages Sam to get screened for skin cancer, and resolves to give the tin can to Becca so she can save her own marriage.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: The film was released in Australia on 11 February 2021 by StudioCanal, and in US theaters and on VOD on 2 July 2021 by Saban Films.


title: Long Story Short (2021 film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, it holds an approval rating of 50% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The website's critics consensus reads: ""Long Story Short"'s handful of clever touches aren't enough to outweigh this romantic comedy's repetitive and predictable story."


title: Data URI scheme

text: The data URI scheme is a uniform resource identifier (URI) scheme that provides a way to include data in-line in Web pages as if they were external resources. It is a form of file literal or here document. This technique allows normally separate elements such as images and style sheets to be fetched in a single Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) request, which may be more efficient than multiple HTTP requests, and used by several browser extensions to package images as well as other multimedia contents in a single HTML file for page saving. , data URIs are fully supported by most major browsers, and partially supported in Internet Explorer.


title: Data URI scheme

text: The syntax of data URIs is defined in Request for Comments (RFC) 2397, published in August 1998, and follows the URI scheme syntax. A data URI consists of:


title: Data URI scheme

text: Thus, within the overall URI syntax, a data URI consists of a scheme and a path, with no authority part, query string, or fragment. The optional media type, the optional base64 indicator, and the data are all parts of the


title: Data URI scheme

text: including data URIs, control characters (ASCII 0 to 31, and 127) and spaces (ASCII 32) are "excluded characters". This means that whitespace characters are not permitted in data URIs. However, in the context of HTML 4 and HTML 5, linefeeds within an element attribute value (such as the "src" above) are ignored. So the data URI above would be processed ignoring the linefeeds, giving the correct result. But note that this is an HTML feature, not a data URI feature, and in other contexts, it is not possible to rely on whitespace within the URI being ignored.


title: Data URI scheme

text: are a feature of CSS, indicating continuation on the next line. These would be removed by the CSS stylesheet processor, and the data URI would be reconstituted without whitespace, making it correct, since whitespace is not allowed within the data component of a data:


title: Data URI scheme

text: The data URI can be utilized to construct attack pages that attempt to obtain usernames and passwords from unsuspecting web users. It can also be used to get around cross-site scripting (XSS) restrictions, embedding the attack payload fully inside the address bar, and hosted via URL shortening services rather than needing a full website that is controlled by a third party. As a result, some browsers now block webpages from navigating to data URIs.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir (; born 4 October 1942) is an Icelandic politician, who served as prime minister of Iceland from 2009 to 2013. She became active in the trade union movement, serving as an officer.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Elected as an MP from 1978 to 2013, she was appointed as Iceland's Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security, serving from 1987 to 1994, and from 2007 until 2009. In 1994, when she lost a bid to head the Social Democratic Party, she raised her fist and declared ""Minn tími mun koma!"" ("My time will come!"), a phrase that became a popular Icelandic expression.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: She became Prime Minister on 1 February 2009, Iceland's first female Prime Minister and the world's first openly LGBT head of government. "Forbes" listed her among the 100 most powerful women in the world.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: She has been a member of the Althing (Iceland's parliament) for Reykjavík constituencies since 1978, winning re-election on eight successive occasions. In September 2012, Jóhanna announced she would not seek re-election and retired from politics as Iceland's longest serving member of Parliament.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Jóhanna was born in Reykjavík. Her father is Sigurður Egill Ingimundarson. She studied at the Commercial College of Iceland, a vocational high school operated by the Chamber of Commerce. After graduating with her commercial diploma in 1960, she worked as a flight attendant with Icelandic Airlines (a predecessor of Icelandair) from 1962 to 1971, and as an office manager from 1971 to 1978.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: She was active in the trade union movement from early in her professional life, presiding over the Board of the Icelandic Cabin Crew Association in 1966 and 1969 and over the Board of Svölurnar, Association of Former Stewardesses in 1975. She was also a member of the Board of the Commercial Workers' Union from 1976 to 1983.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Jóhanna was elected to the Althing in 1978 on the list of the Social Democratic Party for the Reykjavík constituency. She enjoyed early success in her parliamentary career, serving as deputy speaker of the Althing (Iceland's parliament) in 1979 and in 1983–84. She was elected vice-chairman of the Social Democratic Party in 1984, a post she held until 1993. She was also Minister of Social Affairs in four separate Cabinets from 1987 to 1994, when she left the Social Democratic Party after losing the leadership contest to form a new party, National Awakening; the two parties remerged in 2000 to form the present Social Democratic Alliance. Her 1994 declaration "Minn tími mun koma!" ("My time will come!"), after she lost the contest for the leadership of the Social Democratic party, has become an iconic phrase in the Icelandic language.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: From 1994 to 2003, she was an active member of the opposition in the Althing, serving on numerous parliamentary committees. After the 2003 elections, in which she stood in the Reykjavík South constituency (after the split of the old Reykjavík constituency), she was re-elected deputy speaker of the Althing. The 2007 elections, in which she stood in the Reykjavík North constituency, saw the return of the Social Democratic Alliance to government in coalition with the Independence Party, and Jóhanna was named Minister of Social Affairs and Social Security.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: On 26 January 2009, Prime Minister Geir Haarde tendered the coalition government's resignation to the President of Iceland, Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson. The move followed fourteen weeks of protests over the government's handling of the financial crisis, protests that had intensified from 20 January.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: After talks with the leaders of the five parties represented in the Althing, the President asked the Social Democratic Alliance and the Left-Green Movement to form a new government and to prepare for elections in the spring.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Jóhanna was proposed as Prime Minister for the new government; two reasons for this were her popularity among the general public and her good relations with the Left-Green Movement. An opinion poll by Capacent Gallup in December 2008 found 73% approval of her actions as a minister, more than any other member of the Cabinet: she was also the only minister to have improved her approval ratings over 2008.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: The new government needed the support of the Progressive Party in the Althing. Negotiations continued up to the evening of 31 January, and the new Cabinet was appointed on 1 February. Independent polling showed that Jóhanna and Steingrímur J. Sigfússon, leader of the Left-Green Movement, the other party in the coalition government, enjoyed considerable support outside their own parties.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: On 25 April 2009, a parliamentary election was held in Iceland, following the protests now known as the Kitchenware Revolution that resulted from the Icelandic financial crisis.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: The Social Democratic Alliance and the Left-Green Movement, which formed the outgoing coalition government under Jóhanna, both made gains and together had an overall majority of seats in the Althing. The Progressive Party also made gains, and the new Citizens' Movement, formed after the January 2009 protests, gained four seats. The Independence Party, which had been in power for eighteen years until January 2009, lost a third of its support and nine seats in the Althing. On 10 May 2009, the new government was announced, with Jóhanna staying on as Prime Minister.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: There were several referendums to decide about the Icesave Icelandic bank debts, center of the country's financial crisis. The first Icesave referendum (), was held on 6 March 2010. The proposal was resoundingly defeated, with 93% voting against and less than 2% in favor.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: After the referendum, new negotiations commenced. On 16 February 2011, the Althing agreed to a repayment deal to pay back the full amount starting in 2016, finalising before 2046, with a fixed interest rate of 3%. The Icelandic president once again refused to sign the new deal on 20 February, calling for a new referendum. Thus, a second referendum would be held on 9 April 2011 also resulting in "no" victory with a lesser percentage. After the referendum failed to pass, the British and Dutch governments said that they would take the case to the European courts.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: At a session on 28 September 2010, the Althing voted 33–30 to indict the former Prime Minister Geir Haarde, but not the other ministers, on charges of negligence in office. He stood trial before the "Landsdómur", a special court to hear cases alleging misconduct in government office, used for the first time since it was established in the 1905 Constitution. He was convicted of one charge.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Once in power, the left coalition led by Jóhanna—comprising the Social Democratic Alliance, the Left-Green Movement, the Progressive Party and the Liberal Party—inspired largely by the citizen protests, agreed to convene a constitutional assembly to discuss changes to the Constitution, in use since 1905.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Taking its cue from nationwide protests and lobbying efforts by civil organisations, the new governing parties decided that Iceland's citizens should be involved in creating a new constitution and started to debate a bill on 4 November 2009 about that purpose. Parallel to the protests and parliament deliverance, citizens started to unite in grassroots-based think-tanks. A National Forum was organised on 14 November 2009, Þjóðfundur 2009, in the form of an assembly of Icelandic citizens at the Laugardalshöll in Reykjavík, by a group of grassroots citizen movements collectively called "the Anthill". 1,500 people were invited to participate in the assembly; of these, 1,200 were chosen at random from the national registry. On 16 June 2010 the Constitutional Act was finally accepted by parliament and a new Forum was summoned. The Constitutional Act prescribed that the participants of the Forum had to be randomly sampled from the National Population Register. The Forum 2010 came into being due to the efforts of both governing parties and the Anthill group. A seven-member Constitutional Committee, appointed by the parliament, was charged with the supervision of the forum and the presentation of its results, while the organization and facilitation of the National Forum 2010 was done by the Anthill group that had organized the first Forum 2009.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: The process continued in the election of 25 people of no political affiliation on 26 October 2010. The Supreme Court of Iceland later invalidated the results of the election on 25 January 2011 following complaints about several faults in how the election was conducted, but the Parliament decided that it was the manner of the election, and not the results, that had been questioned, and also that those 25 elected candidates would be a part of a Constitutional Council and thus the Constitutional change went on.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: On 29 July 2011 the draft was presented to the Parliament, which finally agreed in a vote on 24 May 2012, with 35 in favor and 15 against, to organize an advisory referendum on the Constitutional Council's proposal for a new constitution no later than 20 October 2012. The only opposing parliament members were the former governing right party, the Independence Party. Also a proposed referendum on the discontinuing of accession talks with the European Union by some parliamentarians of the governing left coalition was rejected, with 34 votes against and 25 in favor.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: In 2010, her government banned strip clubs, paying for nudity in restaurants, and other means of employers profiting from employees' nudity – the first such ban in a Western democratic country. Jóhanna commented: "The Nordic countries are leading the way on women's equality, recognizing women as equal citizens rather than commodities for sale." Responding to the policy change radical feminist Julie Bindel, writing for The Guardian, stated that Iceland had become the most feminist country in the world. Asked what the most important gender issue today is, she answered "To fight the pay gap between men and women".


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: Jóhanna married Þorvaldur Steinar Jóhannesson in 1970 and the couple had two sons named Sigurður Egill Þorvaldsson and Davíð Steinar Þorvaldsson (born 1972 and 1977).


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: After their divorce in 1987, she joined in a civil union with Jónína Leósdóttir (born 1954), an author and playwright, in 2002.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: In 2010, when same-sex marriage was legalised in Iceland, Jóhanna and Jónína changed their civil union into a marriage, thus becoming one of the first same-sex married couples in Iceland.


title: Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

text: In 2017, she released a biography entitled "Minn tími" ("My Time"). The biography covers one of the most contentious periods in Icelandic history – from the financial crash of autumn 2008, through protests and emergency elections the following year, and the difficult recovery period that followed leading Iceland's first left wing government.


title: Dijon FCO

text: Dijon Football Côte d'Or (; literally "Dijon Football Gold Coast"), commonly referred to as Dijon FCO or simply as Dijon, is a French football club based in Dijon. The club was founded in 1998 as a result of a merger between two local clubs in the city, and competed in Ligue 2 after suffering relegation from Ligue 1 in the 2011–12 season. The club earned promotion back to Ligue 1 at the end of the 2015–16 season, before again being relegated in 2020–21. The club’s president is Olivier Delcourt. Dijon plays its home matches at the Stade Gaston Gérard.


title: Dijon FCO

text: The history of football in Dijon began in 1903 with the founding of Cercle Laïque Dijonnais (Dijon Secular Club). The club's football section was set up in 1913. During World War II Cercle Laïque Dijonnais was renamed Cercle Sportif Dijon (Dijon Sports Club) and merged with FC Dijon. The new club, called Cercle Sportif Laïque Dijonnais (Dijon Secular Sports Club), joined Burgundy's regional Division Honneur at its creation in 1945. In spring 1960, the club won the Burgundy championship for the first time.


title: Dijon FCO

text: After a spell in the top level amateur league from 1962, the club was coached by Pierre Danzelle and was able to field a stronger team, as shown by its winning the CFA Centre division in 1965. Refusing repeated proposals by the footballing authorities for the club to turn professional, Dijon's directors brought about the breakup of the team. The club was relegated to the Division d'Honneur in 1967. The club won promotion to Division 3 in 1974 with the help of Philippe Piat.


title: Dijon FCO

text: In the late 1970s, meanwhile, several small clubs merged to form Dijon FC. This new club became the rivals of Cercle Sportif Laïque Dijonnais in the Burgundian capital. During the 1980s Cercle was owned by Jean Claude Dubouil. For the first time in its history, the club played in Division 2 between 1987 and 1991. Despite some good results, however, the club declined both financially and in terms of performance. Meanwhile, the city's second club, Dijon FC, coached by Daniel Joseph, was promoted to the CFA, the same division as Cercle.


title: Dijon FCO

text: In 1998, the two leading clubs of the city, the Cercle Sportif Laïque Dijonnais and Dijon FC decided to merge to give Dijon a stronger club, which was named Dijon Football Côte-d'Or (DFCO). During its first season in CFA, DFCO's manager was Noël Tosi. The club missed out on promotion in the last match of the season. Noël Tosi was dismissed, and replaced by his deputy, Daniel Joseph. The following season, promotion was won in a match against Calais RUFC, again on the last day of the season. The same year DFCO beat Alès to win the French Amateur title, the club's first trophy.


title: Dijon FCO

text: The following two seasons in National were difficult for the club. During the 2000–01 season, the club narrowly escaped relegation. Following the departure of Daniel Joseph, his deputy Mario Relmy took over and again the team managed to avoid relegation. In 2002, Rudi Garcia arrived at Dijon, which turned professional in 2004. In his first season as coach, Garcia took Dijon briefly to the top of the National league before they finally finished 4th, three points away from promotion. In 2004 Dijon achieved a memorable run in the Coupe de France, beating Saint-Étienne (L2), Lens (L1), Reims (L2) and Amiens (L2) before losing to Châteauroux (L2) in the semi-final. In the same year DFCO was promoted to Ligue 2.


title: Dijon FCO

text: Promotion to Ligue 2 allowed the club to be separated into two entities: professional and amateur. Despite limited resources and poor infrastructure, DFCO achieved an impressive 4th place in its first season in Ligue 2. The club also achieved the exploit of beating Bordeaux in the 16th round of the Coupe de la Ligue.


title: Dijon FCO

text: At the end of the 2005–06 season, the club finished fifth. The club's aim was promotion to Ligue 1. During the 2006–07 season, Dijon narrowly missed several opportunities to reach the podium, but finally finished 8th. June 2007 marked the end of an era as Rudi Garcia left to manage Le Mans. The new coach, Serge Romano, led the club to a top-three position during the season for the first time in the club's history, but after the club fell down the table Serge Romano was sacked in December 2007. He was replaced by Faruk Hadžibegić in January 2008 after Frederic Bompard briefly took charge as caretaker. The new coach then saved the club from relegation thanks to a draw on the last day of the season away to AC Ajaccio. The same year, the club reached the quarter finals of the Coupe de France for the first time, but lost to Amiens on 15 April 2008.


title: Dijon FCO

text: The 2008–09 season was marked by the arrival of the French international Eric Carrière, as well as Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang on loan from A.C. Milan. Despite their contribution, DFCO remained stuck in the lower half of the table, although they put themselves beyond relegation in April. In the Coupe de France Dijon lost against the Ligue 1 team Grenoble on penalties after a 1–1 draw.


title: Dijon FCO

text: Following a dispute during the summer break in 2009 between President Bernard Gnecchi and the coach at the time, Faruk Hadžibegić, Gnecchi chose to appoint Patrice Carteron as the new coach. After a first season ended in mid-table, DFCO was promoted to Ligue 1 at the end of the 2010–11 season for the first time in its history, thanks to finishing third in Ligue 2.


title: Dijon FCO

text: Dijon played in Ligue 1 for the first time in its history during the 2011–12 season. On 7 August 2011, the Burgundy club played its first top-flight match against Rennes at home, scoring its first goal and recording its first defeat (1–5). The following Saturday, DFCO lost to Toulouse 2–0. The club's first victory in Ligue 1 came at home on 20 August against Lorient (2–0). The club won a second match in Annecy against Evian Thonon-Gaillard (0–1), but then lost against Lyon at home in the next match (1–2). Dijon was 16th in the table at the winter break, and recorded a series of good results afterward, drawing with the future champions Montpellier (1–1), and beating Marseille (2–1) on 17 March 2012, but internal conflicts and poor performances by leading players such as Benjamin Corgnet, Abdallah Boudabous, and ex-Chelsea player Gaël Kakuta weighed heavily at the end of the season. After a win against SM Caen (2–0) on 25 March 2012, Dijon failed to win another match, losing six and drawing three. On 20 May 2012, on the last day of the season, Dijon lost heavily to Rennes (5–0) and were officially relegated to Ligue 2, accompanied by their local rivals, Auxerre. Conceding 63 goals in 38 games, Dijon had the worst defence in Ligue 1 during their first season in the top flight. Following the relegation, club president Bernard Gnecchi resigned and manager Patrice Carteron left the club.


title: Dijon FCO

text: The new president was Olivier Delcourt, while Olivier Dall'Oglio took over as coach. During the first season back in Ligue 2, the club finished 7th. On 22 April 2016, Dijon won promotion back to Ligue 1 finishing second on the table.


title: Dijon FCO

text: In Dijon's first season back in Ligue 1, they managed to survive relegation and finish 16th. In the 2017–18 Ligue 1 season, Dijon finished 11th, improving their club record of 16th, which they set last season. The 2017–18 campaign, which was only the club's third-ever top-flight season, saw them end on 48 points, 11 more than they managed last year.


title: Dijon FCO

text: In the 2018–19 Ligue 1 season, Dijon finished in 18th place on the table and were required to play a two legged play off against Ligue 2 side RC Lens. After a 1–1 draw in the first leg, Dijon would win the second leg and the tie 3–1 after two goalkeeping blunders by Lens keeper Jérémy Vachoux cost his side a chance of promotion to Ligue 1 and ensured Dijon's survival.


title: Dijon FCO

text: With four games left to play, Dijon were relegated back to Ligue 2 in the 2020–21 Ligue 1 season, following a 5–1 defeat to Stade Rennais on 25 April 2021.


title: Dijon FCO

text: The owl, associated with an architectural detail at the Church of Notre-Dame of Dijon, is a symbol of the city. The club's first crest featured Dijon's Guillaume Gate (Place Darcy) with an owl in the foreground. In the 2006 version, the owl was shown in full flight, while the Guillaume Gate gave way to a plain red background, in line with the team's new home kit. The owl is shown opening its wings to represent V for victory. Between the wings appears "1998", the date of the club's foundation in its modern form, and at the top 'DFCO' and 'Dijon Football Côte d'Or'. The current crest is an updated version of 2006's, with the words 'Dijon Football Côte d'Or' having disappeared, leaving only 'DFCO' and '1998' written in white on the red background.


Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder of the nervous system which prevents the feeling of pain or temperature, and prevents a person from sweating. Cognitive disorders are commonly coincident. CIPA is the fourth type of hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy (HSAN), and is also known as HSAN IV.


title: Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis

text: Signs of CIPA are present from infancy. Infants may present with seizures related to an abnormally high body temperature. Since people with this condition are unable to sweat, they are unable to properly regulate their body temperature. Those affected are unable to feel pain and temperature.


text: The absence of pain experienced by people with CIPA puts them at high risk for accidental self-injury. Corneal ulceration occurs due to lack of protective impulses. Joint and bone problems are common due to repeated injuries, and wounds heal poorly.


text: CIPA is caused by a genetic mutation that prevents the formation of nerve cells which are responsible for transmitting signals of pain, heat, and cold to the brain. The disorder is inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion.


text: CIPA is caused by a mutation in NTRK1, a gene encoding the neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor. NTRK1 is a receptor for nerve growth factor (NGF). This protein induces outgrowth of axons and dendrites and promotes the survival of embryonic sensory and sympathetic neurons. The mutation in NTRK1 does not allow NGF to bind properly, causing defects in the development and function of nociceptive reception.


text: Mitochondrial abnormalities in muscle cells have been found in people with CIPA. Skin biopsies show a lack of innervation of the eccrine glands and nerve biopsies show a lack of small myelinated and unmyelinated fibers.


text: There is no treatment for CIPA. Attention to injuries to prevent infection and worsening is necessary.


text: The condition is inherited and is most common among Negev Arabs aka Negev Bedouins. Approximately 20% of people with CIPA die of hyperthermia by age 3.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: The Republic of the Rio Grande () was an independent nation that insurgents fighting against the Centralist Republic of Mexico


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: sought to establish in northern Mexico. The Republic of the Rio Grande was one of a series of independence movements in Mexico against the unitary government dominated by Antonio López de Santa Anna, including the Republic of Texas, and the Second Republic of Yucatán. The rebellion lasted from 17 January to 6 November 1840.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: After a decade of strife, Mexico won its independence from the Kingdom of Spain in 1821. After a failed attempt at a monarchy, Mexico adopted a new constitution, the 1824 Constitution. This new constitution established los "Estados Unidos Mexicanos", or "the United Mexican States," as a federal republic. During the war for independence, many rebels were driven to Coahuila and Nuevo León, where this revolutionary mentality won the hearts and minds of the people.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: In 1833, General Santa Anna was elected to his first term as president and was, at the time of his election, in support of the federal republic. However, after some members of government angered Santa Anna's political allies, Santa Anna decided to start a centralized government. Santa Anna suspended the constitution, disbanded Congress and made himself the center of power in Mexico. States were converted into departments without political or fiscal autonomy by replacing elected governors with appointed ones and substituting for state assemblies with juntas under Santa Anna's policies. Dismayed by these policies and the perception that the government was deaf to the complaints and plight of the villagers in the North, Republic leaders aimed to expel the government-appointed centralist officials and restore the Constitution of 1824. On November 3, 1838, one of the republic leaders, Antonio Canales Rosillo, issued a pronunciamiento against the government and in favor of federalism.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: In January 1839, Antonio Canales summoned a convention at the office of the Justice of the Peace in Laredo where the Constitution of 1824 was unanimously approved. Canales immediately began building an army and scoured the countryside looking for recruits, among those recruits were Texan Colonels Reuben Ross and Samuel Jordan. Intending to use the property of the church and convents to pay volunteers, In 1839 and 1840 Canales was able to freely travel both sides of the Rio Grande, and recruited a small army of both Tejano and Mexican vaqueros and Caddo Indians, as well as receiving the assistance of the Texian Auxiliary Corps.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: On 3 October Canales and his army marched to the town of Mier, where they faced the Mexican army. During the battle, Colonels Reuben Ross and Samuel Jordan charged at the centralist forces and encircled them in a hacienda, where the Mexican army was forced to surrender. Three hundred and fifty centralist soldiers who were taken prisoner ultimately defected and enlisted in Canales’ army. After the battle, Canales was seen as a hero throughout Northern Mexico and many towns began to support his cause. Within a few days, recruits, supplies, and cash were being sent to him.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: Canales lingered in Mier for forty days before heading to Matamoros, a port town where another Centrist force was residing. In twenty-eight days, his one thousand man army reached the town only to find Mexican General Valentín Canalizo there with fifteen-hundred troops. Outmanned, Canales decided to withdraw and attack General Mariano Arista at Monterrey instead. Colonel Ross, appalled by this withdrawal, left Canales’ army, taking fifty Texans with him. At Monterrey, General Canales sent three hundred cavalry under the command of Colonel José Antonio Zapata to lure Arista out of town. While Arista left the town unguarded to engage with Zapata, General Canales’ army took a convent on the outskirts of town. However, on December 27, General Arista sent spies to Canales’ army and bribed seven hundred Mexicans to abandon their army. Upon discovering this the next morning, Canales and the remnants of his army fled the battle.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: On the 17 January 1840 a meeting was held at the Oreveña Ranch near Laredo. A group of notables from the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas advocated for a rebellion seeking secession from Mexico and formation of their own federal republic with Laredo as the capital. However, those states' own congresses and governments never took any action to support the insurgents, and requested the help of the Central government in Mexico City to aid the local state armies. Despite the lack of support from the state governments, the Republic of the Rio Grande was formed. The new Republic had an official newspaper: “Correo del Rio Bravo del Norte” and their state motto was Dios, Libertad y Convención (God, Liberty, and Convention).


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: Shortly after the formation of the Republic of the Rio Grande, word arrived that General Arista was in the Rio Grande valley. Texan Samuel Jordan urged Canales to retreat to Texas to recruit more Texans but Canales refused. Consequently, Samuel Jordan and 60 of his men left General Canales’ army. While Canales and the army decided to fight, President Cardenas and the new government fled to Victoria, Texas.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: Canales and his army met Arista outside the town of Santa Rita de Morelos. Needing provisions, Antonio Zapata and 30 men rode into town where Arista's men soon surrounded them. Outnumbered by 1,800 men, Zapata surrendered. General Arista offered to pardon Antonio Zapata under the condition that he swore allegiance to Mexico, but he refused. On 29 March 1840, Antonio Zapata was executed and his head placed on a spike in the town of Guerrero as a reminder to his wife, children, and federalists. While Zapata was being held prisoner, General Canales engaged Arista at San Fernando, losing 250 of his four hundred men in the process. After this defeat, Antonio Canales had no other option except to flee to Texas.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: From the beginning, President Cardenas realized that the success of the Republic of the Rio Grande depended on Texan support. Texas also had conflicting interests on whether to support the new Republic or not. On one hand, the formation of the Republic of the Rio Grande would create a buffer state between Mexico and Texas, postponing any possible intentions Mexico had for the reinvasion of Texas; on the other hand, Texas needed Mexico to recognize its independence and supporting the new Republic would certainly anger them. Texas's official stance on the issue was neutral, but president Mirabeau Lamar secretly encouraged Texans to volunteer in Canales's army and gave Canales access to Texan arms and ammunition.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: In Texas, Canales rebuilt his new army at San Patricio under Colonel Samuel Jordan. The new army consisted of 300 Mexicans, 80 Cane Indians, and 410 Texans. With the new army, Canales marched out of Texas and was able to recapture the towns of Laredo, Guerrero, Mier, and Camargo.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: Soon after, Canales ordered 350 men, under the command of Samuel Jordan and Canales’ brother-in-law Juan Molano, to steal horses for future operations. After Jordan and Molano sacked the city of Ciudad Victoria and installed a new state government, they marched to Saltillo where the Mexican General Montoya was residing. Unbeknownst to Jordan, Juan Molano had secretly switched sides and joined the centralist forces.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: On 25 October 1840, the Mexican army under Montoya faced the army of the Republic of the Rio Grande under the command of Colonel Lopez (who had secretly switched allegiance to General Montoya as well). Colonel Lopez ordered Jordan and his men to move into a mountain gorge. Upon realizing the trap, Jordan, his men, and the remaining loyal vaqueros to the Rio Grande Republic turned around and took refuge in a hacienda. The Mexican army attacked the hacienda in full force but was unable to capture the Texans before they retreated. The Mexican army lost four hundred men attacking the hacienda while the Texans only lost five.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: After the defeat at Saltillo, General Canales secretly entered negotiations with General Arista and on November 6, 1840, Antonio Canales surrendered at Camargo. Canales soon accepted a position as an officer in Santa Anna's army. As part of conditions of surrender, no harm would come to the property or safety of former members of the republic. The Republic's debts would be assumed as well. A few days after Canales's surrender, President Cardenas and other officials entered Laredo to officially surrender.


title: Republic of the Rio Grande

text: The flag of the Republic of the Rio Grande has a red hoist with three white stars run evenly along the hoist. The three stars represent the three states that seceded: Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. The fly is split into a white upper fly and a black lower fly.


title: 2023 Turkish presidential election

text: Presidential elections are scheduled to take place in Turkey on 18 June 2023, as part of the 2023 general elections, alongside parliamentary elections. Voters will elect a new president for a term of five years.


title: 2023 Turkish presidential election

text: The previous Turkish general election took place on 24 June 2018. The election marked the country's transition from a parliamentary system to a presidential one, as narrowly endorsed by voters in the controversial 2017 constitutional referendum. That election resulted in a victory for incumbent president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who had held the position since 2014. Meanwhile, the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) lost its absolute majority in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey for the first time since June 2015, forcing it to rely on its coalition partner, the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) of Devlet Bahçeli, to pass legislation.


title: 2023 Turkish presidential election

text: Although there were speculations about a snap election prior to the regular one in 2023, Bahçeli ruled them out. In a written statement, he said that elections would not be held before 2023. He also confirmed that the current coalition between AKP and MHP will remain intact and Erdogan will be their joint nominee for President.


title: 2023 Turkish presidential election

text: The President of Turkey is directly elected through the two-round system, under which a candidate must obtain a simple majority (more than 50%) of the popular vote in order to be elected. If no candidate secures an overall majority outright, then a runoff is held between the two most voted-for candidates from the first round, the winner of which is then declared elected. The first direct election to the Turkish presidency was held in 2014, after a referendum in 2007 abolished the previous system under which the head of state was elected by the legislature, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The President of Turkey is subject to term limits, and may serve at most two consecutive five-year terms.


title: 2023 Turkish presidential election

text: Prospective presidential candidates must be at least 40 years old and must have completed higher education. Any political party that has won 5% of the vote in the previous parliamentary election can put forward a candidate, although parties that have not met this threshold can form alliances and field joint candidates as long as their total vote share exceeds 5%. Independents can run if they collect 100,000 signatures from the electorate.


title: Redcap

text: The redcap (or powrie) is a type of malevolent, murderous goblin found in Border folklore. He is said to inhabit ruined castles along the Anglo-Scottish border, especially those that were the scenes of tyranny or wicked deeds and is known for soaking his cap in the blood of his victims. He is also known as Redcomb and Bloody Cap.


title: Redcap

text: Redcap is depicted as "a short, thickset old elf with long prominent teeth, skinny fingers armed with talons like eagles, large eyes of a fiery red colour, grisly hair streaming down his shoulders, iron boots, a pikestaff in his left hand, and a red cap on his head". When travellers take refuge in his lair, he flings huge stones at them and if he kills them, he soaks his cap in their blood, giving it a crimson hue. He is unaffected by human strength, but can be driven away by words of Scripture or by the brandishing of a crucifix, which cause him to utter a dismal yell and vanish in flames, leaving behind a large tooth.


title: Redcap

text: The tale of a redcap in Perthshire depicts him as a more benign little man living in a room high up in Grantully Castle. He bestows good fortune on those who see or hear him.


title: Redcap

text: The Kabouter (Kaboutermannekins), or redcaps of Dutch folklore, are also very different and more akin to brownies.


title: Redcap

text: The ruin of Blackett Tower, a border fortress that was owned by the Bell family in the parish of Kirkpatrick-Fleming in Dumfriesshire, was haunted by a more traditional ghost known as "Old Red Cap" or "Bloody Bell". A description of the tower and ghost was given by William Scott Irving in the poem "Fair Helen" in which the "ghastly phantom" holds a bloody dagger beneath a red eastern moon.


title: Redcap

text: The term redcap is also used in a more general sense. For example, in the village of Zennor in Cornwall fairies were often referred to as "red-caps" (including the more benevolent trooping fairies) because of their fondness for wearing green clothing and scarlet caps. This characteristic is demonstrated by an excerpt from the poem "The Fairies" by the Irish poet William Allingham: "Wee folk, good folk/trooping all together/Green jacket, red cap/and white owl's feather".


title: Redcap

text: The redcap familiar of Lord William de Soulis, called "Robin Redcap", is said to have wrought much harm and ruin in the lands of his master's dwelling, Hermitage Castle. Ultimately, William was (according to legend) taken to the Ninestane Rig, a stone circle near the castle, then wrapped in lead and boiled to death. In reality, William de Soulis was imprisoned in Dumbarton Castle and died there, following his confessed complicity in the conspiracy against Robert the Bruce in 1320.


title: Redcap

text: Sir Walter Scott in "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border" records a ballad written by John Leyden entitled "Lord Soulis" in which Redcap has granted his master safety against weapons and lives in a chest secured by three strong padlocks. Scott states that the Redcap is a class of spirits that haunts old castles, and that every ruined tower in the south of Scotland was supposed to have one of these spirits residing within. Robin Redcap should not be confused with the mischievous hobgoblin known as Robin Roundcap of East Yorkshire folklore.


title: Blindsight

text: Blindsight is the ability of people who are cortically blind to respond to visual stimuli that they do not consciously see due to lesions in the primary visual cortex, also known as the striate cortex or Brodmann Area 17. The term was coined by Lawrence Weiskrantz and his colleagues in a paper published in a 1974 issue of "Brain". A similar paper studying the discriminatory capacity of a cortically blind patient was published in "Nature" in 1973.


title: Blindsight

text: The majority of studies on blindsight are conducted on patients who are hemianopic, i.e. blind in one half of their visual field. Following the destruction of the left or right striate cortex, patients are asked to detect, localize, and discriminate amongst visual stimuli that are presented to their blind side, often in a forced-response or guessing situation, even though they may not consciously recognize the visual stimulus. Research shows that such blind patients may achieve a higher accuracy than would be expected from chance alone.


title: Blindsight

text: "Type 1 blindsight" is the term given to this ability to guess—at levels significantly above chance—aspects of a visual stimulus (such as location or type of movement) without any conscious awareness of any stimuli. "Type 2 blindsight" occurs when patients claim to have a feeling that there has been a change within their blind area—e.g. movement—but that it was not a visual percept. The re-classification of blindsight into Type 1 and Type 2 was made after it was shown that the most celebrated blindsight patient, "GY", was in fact usually conscious of stimuli presented to his blind field if the stimuli had certain specific characteristics, namely being of high contrast and moving fast (at speeds in excess of 20 degrees per second).


title: Blindsight

text: In the aftermath of the First World War, a neurologist, George Riddoch, had described patients who had been blinded by gunshot wounds to V1, who could not see stationary objects but who were, as he reported, "conscious" of seeing moving objects in their blind field. It is for this reason that the phenomenon has more recently also been called the "Riddoch syndrome".


title: Blindsight

text: Since then it has become apparent that such subjects can also become aware of visual stimuli belonging to other visual domains, such as color and luminance, when presented to their blind fields. The ability of such hemianopic subjects to become consciously aware of stimuli presented to their blind field is also commonly referred to as "residual" or "degraded" vision.


title: Blindsight

text: As originally defined, "blindsight" challenged the common belief that perceptions must enter consciousness to affect our behavior, by showing that our behavior can be guided by sensory information of which we have no conscious awareness. Since demonstration that blind patients can experience some visual stimuli consciously, and the consequent redefinition of blindsight into Type 1 and Type 2, a more nuanced view of the phenomenon has developed. Blindsight may be thought of as a converse of the form of anosognosia known as Anton syndrome, in which there is full cortical blindness along with the confabulation of visual experience.


title: Blindsight

text: Much of our current understanding of blindsight can be attributed to early experiments on monkeys. One monkey, named Helen, could be considered the "star monkey in visual research" because she was the original blindsight subject. Helen was a macaque monkey that had been decorticated; specifically, her primary visual cortex (V1) was completely removed, blinding her. Nevertheless, under certain specific situations, Helen exhibited sighted behavior. Her pupils would dilate and she would blink at stimuli that threatened her eyes. Furthermore, under certain experimental conditions, she could detect a variety of visual stimuli, such as the presence and location of objects, as well as shape, pattern, orientation, motion, and color. In many cases she was able to navigate her environment and interact with objects as if she were sighted.


title: Blindsight

text: A similar phenomenon was also discovered in humans. Subjects who had suffered damage to their visual cortices due to accidents or strokes reported partial or total blindness. Despite this, when prompted they could "guess" the presence and details of objects with above-average accuracy and, much like animal subjects, could catch objects tossed at them. The subjects never developed any kind of confidence in their abilities. Even when told of their successes, they would not begin to spontaneously make "guesses" about objects, but instead still required prompting. Furthermore, blindsight subjects rarely express the amazement about their abilities that sighted people would expect them to express.


title: Blindsight

text: Patients with blindsight have damage to the system that produces visual perception (the visual cortex of the brain and some of the nerve fibers that bring information to it from the eyes) rather than to the underlying brain system controlling eye movements. The phenomenon was originally thought to show how, after the more complex perception system is damaged, people can use the underlying control system to guide hand movements towards an object even though they cannot see what they are reaching for. Hence, visual information can control behavior without producing a conscious sensation. This ability of those with blindsight to act as if able to see objects that they are unconscious of suggested that consciousness is not a general property of all parts of the brain, but is produced by specialised parts of it.


title: Blindsight

text: Blindsight patients show awareness of single visual features, such as edges and motion, but cannot gain a holistic visual percept. This suggests that perceptual awareness is modular and that—in sighted individuals—there is a "binding process that unifies all information into a whole percept", which is interrupted in patients with such conditions as blindsight and visual agnosia. Therefore, object identification and object recognition are thought to be separate processes and occur in different areas of the brain, working independently from one another. The modular theory of object perception and integration would account for the "hidden perception" experienced in blindsight patients. Research has shown that visual stimuli with the single visual features of sharp borders, sharp onset/offset times, motion and low spatial frequency contribute to, but are not strictly necessary for, an object's salience in blindsight.


title: Blindsight

text: There are three theories for the explanation of blindsight. The first states that after damage to area V1, other branches of the optic nerve deliver visual information to the superior colliculus, pulvinar and several other areas, including parts of the cerebral cortex. In turn, these areas might then control the blindsight responses.


title: Blindsight

text: Another explanation for the phenomenon of blindsight is that even though the majority of a person's visual cortex may be damaged, tiny islands of functioning tissue remain. These islands are not large enough to provide conscious perception, but nevertheless enough for some unconscious visual perception.


title: Blindsight

text: A third theory is that the information required to determine the distance to and velocity of an object in object space is determined by the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) before the information is projected to the visual cortex. In a normal subject, these signals are used to merge the information from the eyes into a three-dimensional representation (which includes the position and velocity of individual objects relative to the organism), extract a vergence signal to benefit the precision (previously auxiliary) optical system, and extract a focus control signal for the lenses of the eyes. The stereoscopic information is attached to the object information passed to the visual cortex.


title: Blindsight

text: More recently, with the demonstration of a direct input from the LGN to area V5 (MT), which delivers signals from fast moving stimuli at latencies of about 30 ms, another explanation has emerged. This one proposes that the delivery of these signals is sufficient to arouse a conscious experience of fast visual motion, without implying that it is V5 alone that is responsible, since once signals reach V5, they may be propagated to other areas of the brain. The latter account would seem to exclude the possibility that signals are "pre-processed" by V1 or "post-processed" by it (through return connections from V5 back to V1), as has been suggested. The pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus also sends direct, V1 by-passing, signals to V5 but their precise role in generating a conscious visual experience of motion has not yet been determined.


title: Blindsight

text: Evidence of blindsight can be indirectly observed in children as young as two months, although there is difficulty in determining the type in a patient who is not old enough to answer questions.