title: Thermal equilibrium

text: If bodies are prepared with separately microscopically stationary states, and are then put into purely thermal connection with each other, by conductive or radiative pathways, they will be in thermal equilibrium with each other just when the connection is followed by no change in either body. But if initially they are not in a relation of thermal equilibrium, heat will flow from the hotter to the colder, by whatever pathway, conductive or radiative, is available, and this flow will continue until thermal equilibrium is reached and then they will have the same temperature.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: One form of thermal equilibrium is radiative exchange equilibrium. Two bodies, each with its own uniform temperature, in solely radiative connection, no matter how far apart, or what partially obstructive, reflective, or refractive, obstacles lie in their path of radiative exchange, not moving relative to one another, will exchange thermal radiation, in net the hotter transferring energy to the cooler, and will exchange equal and opposite amounts just when they are at the same temperature. In this situation, Kirchhoff's law of equality of radiative emissivity and absorptivity and the Helmholtz reciprocity principle are in play.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: If an initially isolated physical system, without internal walls that establish adiabatically isolated subsystems, is left long enough, it will usually reach a state of thermal equilibrium in itself, in which its temperature will be uniform throughout, but not necessarily a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if there is some structural barrier that can prevent some possible processes in the system from reaching equilibrium; glass is an example. Classical thermodynamics in general considers idealized systems that have reached internal equilibrium, and idealized transfers of matter and energy between them.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: An isolated physical system may be inhomogeneous, or may be composed of several subsystems separated from each other by walls. If an initially inhomogeneous physical system, without internal walls, is isolated by a thermodynamic operation, it will in general over time change its internal state. Or if it is composed of several subsystems separated from each other by walls, it may change its state after a thermodynamic operation that changes its walls. Such changes may include change of temperature or spatial distribution of temperature, by changing the state of constituent materials. A rod of iron, initially prepared to be hot at one end and cold at the other, when isolated, will change so that its temperature becomes uniform all along its length; during the process, the rod is not in thermal equilibrium until its temperature is uniform. In a system prepared as a block of ice floating in a bath of hot water, and then isolated, the ice can melt; during the melting, the system is not in thermal equilibrium; but eventually, its temperature will become uniform; the block of ice will not re-form. A system prepared as a mixture of petrol vapour and air can be ignited by a spark and produce carbon dioxide and water; if this happens in an isolated system, it will increase the temperature of the system, and during the increase, the system is not in thermal equilibrium; but eventually, the system will settle to a uniform temperature.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: Such changes in isolated systems are irreversible in the sense that while such a change will occur spontaneously whenever the system is prepared in the same way, the reverse change will practically never occur spontaneously within the isolated system; this is a large part of the content of the second law of thermodynamics. Truly perfectly isolated systems do not occur in nature, and always are artificially prepared.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: One may consider a system contained in a very tall adiabatically isolating vessel with rigid walls initially containing a thermally heterogeneous distribution of material, left for a long time under the influence of a steady gravitational field, along its tall dimension, due to an outside body such as the earth. It will settle to a state of uniform temperature throughout, though not of uniform pressure or density, and perhaps containing several phases. It is then in internal thermal equilibrium and even in thermodynamic equilibrium. This means that all local parts of the system are in mutual radiative exchange equilibrium. This means that the temperature of the system is spatially uniform. This is so in all cases, including those of non-uniform external force fields. For an externally imposed gravitational field, this may be proved in macroscopic thermodynamic terms, by the calculus of variations, using the method of Langrangian multipliers. Considerations of kinetic theory or statistical mechanics also support this statement.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: There is an important distinction between thermal and thermodynamic equilibrium. According to Münster (1970), in states of thermodynamic equilibrium, the state variables of a system do not change at a measurable rate. Moreover, "The proviso 'at a measurable rate' implies that we can consider an equilibrium only with respect to specified processes and defined experimental conditions." Also, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium can be described by fewer macroscopic variables than any other state of a given body of matter. A single isolated body can start in a state which is not one of thermodynamic equilibrium, and can change till thermodynamic equilibrium is reached. Thermal equilibrium is a relation between two bodies or closed systems, in which transfers are allowed only of energy and take place through a partition permeable to heat, and in which the transfers have proceeded till the states of the bodies cease to change.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: An explicit distinction between 'thermal equilibrium' and 'thermodynamic equilibrium' is made by C.J. Adkins. He allows that two systems might be allowed to exchange heat but be constrained from exchanging work; they will naturally exchange heat till they have equal temperatures, and reach thermal equilibrium, but in general, will not be in thermodynamic equilibrium. They can reach thermodynamic equilibrium when they are allowed also to exchange work.


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: Another explicit distinction between 'thermal equilibrium' and 'thermodynamic equilibrium' is made by B. C. Eu. He considers two systems in thermal contact, one a thermometer, the other a system in which several irreversible processes are occurring. He considers the case in which, over the time scale of interest, it happens that both the thermometer reading and the irreversible processes are steady. Then there is thermal equilibrium without thermodynamic equilibrium. Eu proposes consequently that the zeroth law of thermodynamics can be considered to apply even when thermodynamic equilibrium is not present; also he proposes that if changes are occurring so fast that a steady temperature cannot be defined, then "it is no longer possible to describe the process by means of a thermodynamic formalism. In other words, thermodynamics has no meaning for such a process."


title: Thermal equilibrium

text: A planet is in thermal equilibrium when the incident energy reaching it (typically the solar irradiance from its parent star) is equal to the infrared energy radiated away to space.


title: Aanandham

text: Aanandham () is a 2001 Indian Tamil-language drama film written and directed by N. Lingusamy and produced by R. B. Choudary. The film features an ensemble cast including Mammootty, Murali, Abbas, Devayani, Rambha, Sneha, Delhi Ganesh and Srividya. Arthur A. Wilson handled cinematography, while S. A. Rajkumar composed the film's score and soundtrack. The film opened on 25 May 2001 to positive reviews, and became one of the highest grossing Tamil films of the year. It was remade in Telugu as "Sankranti" (2005) .


title: Aanandham

text: Thirupathisamy owns a provisional store and is the eldest among four brothers, and all live together in a home along with their parents. Thirupathi is widely respected by everyone in the family and was responsible for bringing back their family to a good state after financial troubles a few years back. He marries Bharathi, who is responsible and kind. Madhavan is the second son in the family who assists Thirupathi in managing their provisional store. He is innocent and marries his relative Renuka, but she is short-tempered and picks up quarrels often. Kannan is the third son in the family, and he goes to college where he falls for his classmate Viji. Viji is the only daughter of a rich arrogant man Thavasi. Surya is the youngest son and studies in college.


title: Aanandham

text: Renuka feels that only Thirupathi is respected by everyone and not Madhavan because Tirupati manages the provisional store while Madhavan just assists him. She keeps insisting Madhavan to start a separate provisional store, which he does not accept as that would separate him from his brothers. Thavasi learns of Viji's love towards Kannan and warns him to forget her. Kannan gets a job and leaves to Delhi as he does not want to marry Viji against her father's wishes.


title: Aanandham

text: One day, Renuka begins a quarrel at home saying that Thirupathi has a separate savings account in the bank and takes money from the account without the knowledge of other family members. Thirupathi feels bad hearing this. Suddenly, Renuka and Madhavan's daughter faints and is rushed to hospital. It is revealed that the child was suffering from a serious disease which only Thirupati knew before, and he was saving money to meet out the medical expenses without informing others, as they will worry if they get to know about the child's disease. Renuka realises her mistake knowing this and apologises to Thirupathi for her harsh behaviour towards him and Bharathi.


title: Aanandham

text: Later, they start a rice mill. Thirupathi learns of Kannan's love towards Viji and goes to meet Thavasi with a marriage proposal. Thavasi agrees for the wedding, but on a condition that Kannan should stay along with Viji in his home as he does not want to send his daughter to another home after wedding. Thirupathi agrees to the condition but does not inform this to Kannan as he will not agree. On the day of marriage, everyone insults Bharathi for not having a child for many years and everyone learns this except Kannan and leaves the house and Kannan learns of the condition, cancels the wedding, and comes back to his home to meet his family members. Following him, Viji also comes, asking him to marry her against her father's wishes.


title: Aanandham

text: Thirupathi convinces the couple that if they get married without Thavasi's permission, then it will be a big blow to Thavasi's status in society, and they should not be the reason behind that. He also convinces Viji to leave to her home immediately before anyone could know about this. When they step out of the home, they see Thavasi with a group of men to attack Thirupathi's family. But he has overheard Thirupathi's conversation with Viji, realises his good nature, and agrees for their wedding. Finally, Kannan and Viji get married happily, and Viji lives along with everyone in a joint family in Thirupathi's home.


title: Aanandham

text: The director Linguswamy revealed that the film was inspired by moments in his life and through a series of incidents his mother had narrated to him. Thus when director Rajakumaran convinced R. B. Choudary to give Linguswamy an opportunity, he narrated the stories and he found the producer had found them highly appealing. The director had previously assisted Vikraman in "Vaanathaippola", another family drama on brothers. Linguswamy originally wanted to title the project, "Thirupathi Brothers", which he later went on to name his production house.


title: Aanandham

text: Ramya Krishnan was initially signed on to play heroine but Mammooty cast his doubts over her involvement after the pair had fallen out on the sets of a previous Malayalam film, and she was subsequently replaced by Soundarya. Devayani was supposed to feature as Murali's pair in the film, but the actor was reluctant as Devayani had appeared as his sister in another film in the same period, "Kannukku Kannaga" (2000). After Soundarya opted out, Devayani was given the role of Mammooty's pair. Tarun was initially supposed to play the fourth brother in the film and make his acting debut in Tamil cinema, but the role was later altered and Shyam Ganesh was cast.


title: Aanandham

text: Shooting was held at locations in Chennai, Ooty and Mettupalayam among other places. The team faced criticism after litter, including chicken bones, were left on the ground following a shoot sequence held at the Kamakshi temple, Kancheepuram. Subsequently, the government intervened and prevented any further shoots to take place at temples.


title: Aanandham

text: "Aanandham" opened to positive reviews. Malini Mannath of "Chennai Online" noted that "it is a promising work from the debutant director", but was mildly critical of its similarities to "Vaanathaippola". "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 44 out of 100. Abbas' performance in the film was praised by critics. The film won the Filmfare Award for Best Film – Tamil, and the Cinema Express Award for Best Film – Tamil. "Aanandham" also won in two categories the Tamil Nadu State Film Awards: Third Best Film and Best Actress for Sneha, who was also recognised for this film alongside her work in "Virumbugiren" and "Punnagai Desam". Gowri Ramnarayan, writing for "The Hindu", also listed the film amongst the best of 2001.


title: Aanandham

text: The film was both a commercial and critical success. It was one of the biggest hits of Mammootty in Tamil cinema and also one of the highest grossing Tamil films of the year.


title: Aanandham

text: A Telugu remake was released in 2005 as "Sankranti". A TV series inspired by "Aanandham", titled "Pandian Stores", premiered in 2018.


title: English billiards

text: English billiards, called simply billiards in the United Kingdom and in many former British colonies, is a cue sport that combines the aspects of carom billiards and pool. Two (one white and one yellow) and a red are used. Each player or team uses a different cue ball. It is played on a billiards table with the same dimensions as one used for snooker and points are scored for and pocketing the balls.


title: English billiards

text: English billiards originated in England, and was originally called the "winning and losing carambole game", folding in the names of three predecessor games, "the winning game", "the losing game", and an early form of carom billiards that combined to form it.


title: English billiards

text: The winning game was played with two white balls, and was a 12- contest. To start, the player who could strike a ball at one end of the table and get the ball to come to rest nearest the opposite cushion without lying against it earned the right to shoot for points first. This is the origin of the modern custom of "" (or "").


title: English billiards

text: A player who pocketed the opponent's ball scored two points, as is still the case in modern billiards. A player missing the opponent's ball, considered a , added one point to the opponent's total; the shooter conceded two points if their own ball went into a pocket after striking the opponent's ball; and the player conceded three points if the cue ball was pocketed without even hitting the opponent's ball. These rules continued to exist in English billiards until 1983, when a standard of two points for all fouls was introduced.


title: English billiards

text: By contrast, in the losing game a player could only score two points by pocketing the cue ball through a off the opponent's ball. "" and "" are terms still mentioned in the official rules for these two fundamental shot types, although "" and "" have become the usual terms for them in British English.


title: English billiards

text: The final element was the "" (or ) shot, which came from carom billiards, a game popular in various countries of western Continental Europe, especially France, and in many parts of Asia and South America. In the 1700s, the carom game added a red to the two white cue balls, and dispensed with the pockets. This ball was adopted into the English game, which retained the pockets, and the goal was to cannon off both the red and the opponent's ball on a single shot, earning 2 points. This influence on the English game appears to have come about through the popularity of French tables in English coffee houses; London alone had over two thousand such establishments in the early 18th century. One period advertisement read: "A very good French Billiard Table, little the worse for wearing, full size, with all the materials fit for French or English play".


title: English billiards

text: The three ancestral games had their British heyday in the 1770s, but had combined into English billiards, with a 16-point score total, by approximately 1800. The skill required in playing these games helped retire the in favour of the cue stick.


title: English billiards

text: There are a number of pocket billiard games directly descended from English billiards, including bull dog, scratch pool, thirty-one pool and thirty-eight. The last of these gave rise to the more well-known game cowboy pool. English Billiards was virtually unknown in the United States until 1913, when Melbourn Inman visited the US and played the game against Willie Hoppe. By 1915 the game had become rather popular, prompting American billiard hall proprietors of the period to increase the number of English-style tables in their establishments. It also became favored in British colonies; the game's longest-running champion was an Australian, Walter Lindrum, who held the World Professional Billiards Championship from 1933 until his retirement in 1950. The game remains popular in the UK, although it has been eclipsed by snooker.


title: English billiards

text: The first governing body of the game, the Billiards Association, was formed in the UK in 1885, a period that saw a number of sporting bodies founded across the British sporting world. By the mid-20th century, the principal sanctioning body was the Billiards Association and Control Council (later the Billiards and Snooker Control Council), formed in 1919 by an amalgamation of the Billiards Association and the Billiards Control Club (founded in 1908).


title: English billiards

text: In the 19th century and up through the mid-1950s, a common way for championship titles to change hands was by a "challenge match". A challenge was issued to a championship title holder accompanied by money held by a third party. Up until the first organised professional tournament in 1870, all English billiards champions were decided by challenge.


title: English billiards

text: The first champion was Jonathan Kentfield, who held the title from 1820 to 1849, losing it to John Roberts Sr. after Kentfield refused his challenge. Roberts's 21-year reign lasted until he lost to William Cook in 1870. That year was also the first in which an English billiards challenge match was held in the United States.


title: English billiards

text: From 1870 to 1983 the champions were: John Roberts Jr., (1870, 1871, 1875–77, 1885); Joseph Bennett, (1870, 1880–81); Charles Dawson, (1899–1900, 1901, 1903); H. W. Stevenson, (1901, 1909–11); Melbourne Inman, (1908–09, 1912–19); Willie Smith, (1920, 1923); Tom Newman, (1921–22, 1924–27); Joe Davis, (1928–32); Walter Lindrum, (1933–50); Clark McConachy, (1951-68); Rex Williams, (1968–76, 1982–83); and Fred Davis, (1980).


title: English billiards

text: A "Women's Billiard Association" was formed in Britain in 1931. One of the founders was Teresa Billington-Greig who had been a leading suffragette and was then married to a billiard ball manufacturer.


title: English billiards

text: Over the course of the 20th century, English billiards was largely superseded as the favoured cue sport in the United Kingdom by snooker and the rise of English-style eight-ball pool. The game does retain some popularity amongst snooker players, who can use the same equipment for both games and play the game to practice ball control.


title: English billiards

text: There are three balls. They are the same size as snooker balls (52.5 mm or  in with a tolerance of 0.05 mm) and they must weigh the same to a tolerance of 0.5 g within a set.


title: English billiards

text: The billiard table used has the same dimensions as in snooker, and in many venues, both games are played on the same equipment. The playing area of a standard tournament table measures 11 feet 8 inches by 5 ft 10 in (3.569 m by 1.778 m) with a tolerance of inch (1.26 cm) in both directions, though smaller ones, down to half size, are often found in snooker halls, pubs and home billiard rooms.


title: English billiards

text: To see who will be the starting player, players perform a , where both simultaneously hit a cue ball up the table, bouncing it off the top cushion so that it returns to (the first quarter-length of the table). The player who gets their ball closer to the baulk cushion can now choose which cue ball they want to use during the game and to break or let the opponent break.


title: English billiards

text: The red ball is placed on the at the of the table (same as the in snooker) and the first player begins by playing in-hand from behind the baulk line. The other cue ball remains off the table until the opponent's first turn, when they play in hand from the "D".


title: English billiards

text: The idea is to leave the balls by creating either a double baulk (both object balls in baulk), or the red in baulk with the cue-ball () to the top-side cushion.


title: English billiards

text: Combinations of the above may all be scored on the same shot. The most that can be scored in a single shot is therefore 10 – the red and the other cue ball are both potted via a cannon (the red must be struck first), and the cue ball is also potted, making a losing hazard off the red.


title: English billiards

text: The winner is determined by a player reaching a fixed number of points set at the start of the game, or by which player is leading at the end of a timed game.


title: English billiards

text: If the red is potted it is on the spot at the top of the table (the black spot). After the red has been potted twice off the spot in a row (i.e. without a cannon or losing hazard), it is respotted on the . If the middle spot is occupied, it goes on the (the pink spot in snooker). If both the middle and pyramid spots are occupied, it goes back on the spot. When potted from the middle or pyramid spot, it returns to the spot at the top of the table.


title: English billiards

text: After a losing hazard, play continues in-hand from the "D". When playing from in-hand, a striker must touch a ball or cushion out of baulk before striking a ball in baulk.


title: English billiards

text: If playing in-hand and all balls on the table are in baulk, and contact is not made with any ball, this is a miss; 2 points are awarded to the opponent, who must play from where the balls have come to rest.


title: English billiards

text: If an opponent's cue ball is potted, it remains off the table until it is that opponent's turn to play, when it is returned to that player, who may play it in-hand from the "D". There is one exception to this rule: only 15 hazards in a row may be played, after which a cannon is needed to continue the break. If only the red ball is on the table at the start of the break (meaning a cannon cannot be made), then after 15 hazards the opponent's ball must be placed on the "brown spot". It becomes a "line ball" and may not be played directly from baulk.


title: English billiards

text: If the cue ball is touching an object ball, then the balls must be respotted: red on its spot and opponent's ball in the centre spot, with the striker to play from in-hand.


title: English billiards

text: Matches held under professional regulations include a rule forcing the player to execute a shot in a way to have his cue ball cross the baulk line, heading towards the baulk cushion, once between 80 and 99 points in every 100 in a running break.


title: English billiards

text: If a foul occurs, two points are awarded to the opposing player who has the choice of playing from where the balls lie or they can be respotted.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: The Hunters in the Snow (), also known as The Return of the Hunters, is a 1565 oil-on-wood painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. The Northern Renaissance work is one of a series of works, five of which still survive, that depict different times of the year. The painting is in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria. This scene is set in the depths of winter during December/January.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: "The Hunters in the Snow", and the series to which it belongs, are in the medieval and early Renaissance tradition of the Labours of the Months: depictions of various rural activities and work understood by a spectator in Breugel's time as representing the different months or times of the year.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: The painting shows a wintry scene in which three hunters are returning from an expedition accompanied by their dogs. By appearances the outing was not successful; the hunters appear to trudge wearily, and the dogs appear downtrodden and miserable. One man carries the "meager corpse of a fox" illustrating the paucity of the hunt. In front of the hunters in the snow are the footprints of a rabbit or hare—which has escaped or been missed by the hunters. The overall visual impression is one of a calm, cold, overcast day; the colors are muted whites and grays, the trees are bare of leaves, and wood smoke hangs in the air. Several adults and a child prepare food at an inn with an outside fire. Of interest are the jagged mountain peaks which do not exist in Belgium or Holland.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: The painting prominently depicts crows sitting in the denuded trees and a magpie flies in the upper centre of the scene. Bruegel sometimes uses these two species of birds to indicate an ill-omen as in Dutch culture magpies are associated with the Devil.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: The landscape itself is a flat-bottomed valley (a river meanders through it) with jagged peaks visible on the far side. A watermill is seen with its wheel frozen stiff. In the distance, figures ice skate, play bandy (before it became an organized sport), and play eisstock (similar to curling) on a frozen lake; they are rendered as silhouettes.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: The 1560s was a time of religious revolution in the Netherlands, and Bruegel (and possibly his patron) may be attempting to portray an ideal of what country life used to be or what they wish it to be.


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: Writing in the "opinion" section of "Nature", art historian Martin Kemp points out that Old Masters are popular subjects for Christmas cards and states that "probably no 'secular' subject is more popular than ... "Hunters in the Snow"".


title: The Hunters in the Snow

text: The painting is the subject of modernist poet William Carlos Williams's ekphrastic poem "The Hunter in The Snow". "Hunters in the Snow" is used extensively in Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky's films "Solaris" (1972) and "The Mirror" (1974), and in Lars von Trier's 2011 film "Melancholia". It appears also in Alain Tanner's film "Dans la ville blanche" (1983). It was an inspiration for Roy Andersson's 2014 film "A Pigeon Sat on a Branch Reflecting on Existence", is the basis for the first frame of Abbas Kiarostami's "24 Frames" (2017), and was a topic of the 1980 television series "100 Great Paintings".


title: Peace Palace

text: The Peace Palace (; ) is an international law administrative building in The Hague, the Netherlands. It houses the International Court of Justice (which is the principal judicial body of the United Nations), the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), The Hague Academy of International Law and the Peace Palace Library.


title: Peace Palace

text: The palace officially opened on 28 August 1913; it was originally built to provide a home for the PCA, a court created to end war by the Hague Convention of 1899. Andrew Dickson White, whose efforts were instrumental in creating the court, secured from Scottish-American steel magnate Andrew Carnegie US$1.5 million ($, adjusted for inflation) to build the Peace Palace. The European Heritage Label was awarded to the Peace Palace on 8 April 2014.


title: Peace Palace

text: In 1908, Thomas Hayton Mawson won a competition to design the grounds. Because of budget constraints, he also had to discard design elements: mountains and sculptures. He made use of a natural watercourse on the site.


title: Peace Palace

text: The idea of the palace started from a discussion in 1900 between the Russian diplomat Friedrich Martens and American diplomat White over providing a home for the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA). White contacted Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie had reservations, and at first was only interested in donating money for the establishment of a library of international law. White, however, was able to convince Carnegie, and in 1903 Carnegie agreed to donate the US$1.5 million ($, adjusted for inflation) needed to house the court as well as to endow it with a library of international law. White described his idea to Carnegie:


title: Peace Palace

text: "A temple of peace where the doors are open, in contrast to the Janus-temple, in times of peace and closed in cases of war [...] as a worthy testimony of the people that, after many long centuries finally a court that has thrown open its doors for the peaceful settlement of differences between peoples".


title: Peace Palace

text: Were such a fabric to be created, men would make pilgrimages from all parts of the civilized world to see it. It would become a sort of holy place, prized and revered by thinking men throughout the world, and to which, in any danger of war between any two countries, the minds of men would turn naturally and normally. The main difficulty now is that the people of the various nations do not really know what was done for them by the Conference; but such a building would make them know it. It would be an "outward and visible sign" of the Court, which would make its actual, tangible existence known to the ends of the earth"


title: Peace Palace

text: At first Carnegie simply wanted to donate the money directly to the Dutch Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands for the building of the palace, but legal problems prohibited this, and in November 1903 the Carnegie Stichting was founded to manage the construction, ownership, and maintenance of the palace. This foundation is still responsible for these issues.


title: Peace Palace

text: To find a suitable design, the foundation called for an open international competition. The winning design, set in the Neo-Renaissance style, was submitted by French architect Louis M. Cordonnier. To build within budget, Cordonnier and his Dutch associate J.A.G. van der Steur adjusted the design. The palace initially had two big bell towers in front and two small ones in the back. Only one big tower and one small tower remained in the final building. Also to save money, the separate library building from the winning design was incorporated into the palace itself.


title: Peace Palace

text: The palace is filled with many gifts of the different nations who attended the Second Hague Conference as a sign of their support. Among the gifts are a vase from Russia, doors from Belgium, marble from Italy, a fountain from Denmark, wall carpets from Japan, the clock for the clock tower from Switzerland, Persian rugs from Persia, wood from Indonesia, Brazil and the United States of America and wrought-iron fences from Germany.


title: Peace Palace

text: In 1907, the first stone was symbolically placed during the Second Hague Conference. The construction began some months later and was completed with an inauguration ceremony on 28 August 1913, attended by Andrew Carnegie, among others. At the ceremony, Carnegie predicted that the end of war was "as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night." The year was 1913.


title: Peace Palace

text: In 2007, Queen Beatrix opened the new building for the Peace Palace Library of International Law, housing the entire catalogue of the library, a lecture hall and a new reading room in the bridge to the main building of the Peace Palace. Like the new Academy Hall, the library was designed by architects Michael Wilford and . A Visitors Centre was added to the Peace Palace in 2012, which is also designed by Michael Wilford.


title: Peace Palace

text: Other international courts in The Hague, the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and the International Criminal Court, are separate organizations, located elsewhere in The Hague.


title: Peace Palace

text: The palace also features a number of statues, busts and portraits of prominent peace campaigners from around the world and of all eras.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Roasting coffee transforms the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans into roasted coffee products. The roasting process is what produces the characteristic flavor of coffee by causing the green coffee beans to change in taste. Unroasted beans contain similar if not higher levels of acids, protein, sugars, and caffeine as those that have been roasted, but lack the taste of roasted coffee beans due to the Maillard and other chemical reactions that occur during roasting.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Coffee tends to be roasted close to where it will be consumed, as green coffee is more stable than roasted beans. The vast majority of coffee is roasted commercially on a large scale, but small-scale commercial roasting has grown significantly with the trend toward "single-origin" coffees served at specialty shops. Some coffee drinkers even roast coffee at home as a hobby in order to both experiment with the flavor profile of the beans and ensure the freshest possible roasted coffee.


title: Coffee roasting

text: The first recorded implements for roasting coffee beans were thin pans made from metal or porcelain, used in the 15th century in the Ottoman Empire and Greater Persia. In the 19th century, various patents were awarded in the U.S. and Europe for commercial roasters, to allow for large batches of coffee. In the 1950s just as instant coffee was becoming a popular coffee drink, speciality coffee-houses began opening to cater to the connoisseur, offering a more traditionally brewed beverage. In the 1970s, more speciality coffee houses were founded, ones that offered a variety of roasts and beans from around the world. In the 1980s and 1990s, the gourmet coffee industry experienced great growth. This trend continued into the 21st century.


title: Coffee roasting

text: The first known implements for roasting coffee beans were thin, circular, often perforated pans made from metal or porcelain, used in the 15th century in the Ottoman Empire and Greater Persia. This type of shallow, dished pan was equipped with a long handle so that it could be held over a brazier (a container of hot coals) until the coffee was roasted. The beans were stirred with a slender spoon. Only a small amount of beans could be heated at one time. The first cylinder roaster with a crank to keep the beans in motion appeared in Cairo around 1650. It was made of metal, most commonly tinned copper or cast iron, and was held over a brazier or open fire. French, Dutch and Italian variations of this design quickly appeared. These proved popular over the next century in Europe, England and the American colonies.


title: Coffee roasting

text: In the 19th century, various patents were awarded in the U.S. and Europe for commercial roasters, to allow for large batches of coffee. Nevertheless, home roasting continued to be popular. A man working at a commercial roasting plant beginning in the 1850s in St. Louis, Missouri, said that "selling roasted coffee was up-hill work, as everyone roasted coffee in the kitchen oven." Appliances catering to the home roaster were developed; in 1849 a spherical coffee roaster was invented in Cincinnati, Ohio, for use on the top of a wood-fired kitchen stove, fitted into a burner opening. Green beans were available at the local general store, or even through mail order. For roasting, many people used such simple methods as a layer of beans on a metal sheet in the oven, or beans stirred in a cast-iron skillet over a fire. Despite the wide popularity of home roasting, Burns felt that it would soon disappear because of the great strides made in commercial roasting in the 1860s and 1870s, including the benefits of the economies of scale. The commercial roaster inventions patented by Burns revolutionized the U.S. roasting industry, much like the innovations of inventors in Emmerich am Rhein greatly advanced commercial coffee roasting in Germany. As well, the 1864 marketing breakthrough of the Arbuckle Brothers in Philadelphia, introducing the convenient one-pound (0.45 kg) paper bag of roasted coffee, brought success and imitators. From that time commercially roasted coffee grew in popularity until it gradually overtook home roasting during the 1900s in America. In 1903 and 1906 the first electric roasters were patented in the U.S. and Germany, respectively; these commercial devices eliminated the problem of smoke or fuel vapor imparting a bad taste to the coffee. In France, the home roaster did not yield to the commercial roaster until after the 1920s, especially in rural areas. Coffee was roasted to a dark color in small batches at home and by shopkeepers, using a variety of appliances including ones with a rotating cylinder of glass, sheet iron or wire mesh, and ones driven by hand, clockwork or electric motor. Because of the smoke and blowing chaff, country dwellers generally roasted outdoors.


title: Coffee roasting

text: In the 1950s just as instant coffee was becoming a popular coffee drink, speciality coffee-houses began opening to cater to the connoisseur, offering a more traditionally brewed beverage. In the 1970s, more speciality coffee houses were founded, ones that offered a variety of roasts and beans from around the world. In the 1980s and 1990s, the gourmet coffee industry experienced great growth. Through the 1970s and 1980s, the Siemens Sirocco home roaster was made in West Germany and marketed globally. It was a small fluid-bed roaster made for the home enthusiast. The product was named after a commercial hot-air roasting process which itself was named after the hot Sahara winds called sirocco. In 1976, chemical engineer Michael Sivetz patented a competing hot air design for manufacture in the U.S.; this became popular as an economical alternative. Sivetz called for the home roaster to focus on the quality of the bean. From 1986 through 1999 there was a surge in the number of patents filed for home roasting appliances. In the 1990s, more electric home roasting equipment became available, including drum roasters, and variations on the fluid-bed roaster. By 2001, gourmet coffee aficionados were using the internet to purchase green estate-grown beans for delivery by mail.


title: Coffee roasting

text: The coffee-roasting process follows coffee processing and precedes coffee brewing. It consists essentially of sorting, roasting, cooling, and packaging but can also include grinding. Bags of green coffee beans are hand- or machine-opened, dumped into a hopper, and screened to remove debris. The green beans are then weighed and transferred manually, by belt, or pneumatic conveyor to storage hoppers. From the storage hoppers, the green beans are conveyed to the roaster.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Initially, the process is endothermic (absorbing heat), but at around it becomes exothermic (giving off heat). For the roaster, this means that the beans are heating themselves and an adjustment of the roaster's heat source might be required. At the end of the roasting cycle, the roasted beans are dumped from the roasting chamber and are typically cooled by air or water-quenching.


title: Coffee roasting

text: During the roasting process, coffee beans lose 15 to 18% of their mass due mainly to the loss of water but also to volatile compounds. Although the beans experience a weight loss, the size of the beans double during the roasting process due to the physical expansion caused by an increase in internal pressure from vaporized water. Green coffee can contain reasonable quantities of simple sugars. Sugars are quite reactive at roasting temperatures and, once the water has evaporated out of the bean, the sugars can begin to react to the heat in different ways. Some go through caramelization reactions, creating the caramel notes found in certain coffees.


title: Coffee roasting

text: There are several traditional variations to coffee roasting in different parts of the world. For example, in Vietnam coffee is often coated with oil (traditionally clarified butter) and a small amount of sugar prior to roasting to produce a "butter roast". The roasting process results in an additional caramelized coating on the beans.


title: Coffee roasting

text: The most common roasting machines are of two basic types: drum and hot-air, although there are others including packed-bed, tangential and centrifugal roasters. Roasters can operate in either batch or continuous modes. Home roasters are also available.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Drum machines consist of horizontal rotating drums that tumble the green coffee beans in a heated environment. The heat source can be supplied by natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, or even wood. The most common employ indirectly heated drums where the heat source is under the drum. Direct-fired roasters are roasters in which a flame contacts the beans inside the drum; very few of these machines are still in operation.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Fluid bed or hot-air roasters force heated air through a screen or perforated plate under the coffee beans with sufficient force to lift the beans. Heat is transferred to the beans as they tumble and circulate within this fluidized bed.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Some coffee roasters use names for the various degrees of roast, such as "city roast" and "French roast", for the internal bean temperatures found during roasting. Recipes known as "roast profiles" indicate how to achieve flavor characteristics. Any number of factors may help a person determine the best profile to use, such as the coffee's origin, variety, processing method, moisture content, bean density, or desired flavor characteristics. A roast profile can be presented as a graph showing time on one axis and temperature on the other, which can be recorded manually or using computer software and data loggers linked to temperature probes inside various parts of the roaster.


title: Coffee roasting

text: One method of determining the degree of roast is to evaluate the bean's color. As the coffee absorbs heat, the color shifts to yellow and then to increasingly darker shades of brown. During the later stages of roasting, oils appear on the surface of the bean. The roast will continue to darken until it is removed from the heat source. Coffee also darkens as it ages, making color alone a poor roast determinant. It is common for roasters to use a combination of temperature, smell, color, and sound to monitor the roasting process.


title: Coffee roasting

text: There are two events called "cracks" that roasters listen for. At approximately , the coffee will emit a cracking sound. This point is referred to as "first crack", marking the beginnings of a very light roast. At first crack, a large amount of the coffee's moisture has been evaporated and the beans will begin to increase in size. When the coffee reaches approximately , it emits a "second crack". This sound represents the structure of the coffee becoming brittle and fracturing as the bean continues to swell and enlarge from internal pressure. If the roast is allowed to progress further, it begins to take on the characteristics of the roasting process and loses the characteristics of the coffee's origin.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Lipids present inside the coffee seed liquify from heat and pressure built up in the bean. These lipids can often be seen on the bean surface. An oily coating is more prevalent with darker roasts.


title: Coffee roasting

text: These images depict samples taken from the same batch of a typical Brazilian green coffee at various bean temperatures with their subjective roast names and descriptions.


title: Coffee roasting

text: At lighter roasts, the coffee will exhibit more of its "origin character"—the flavors created by its variety, processing, altitude, soil content, and weather conditions in the location where it was grown. As the beans darken to a deep brown, the origin flavors of the bean are eclipsed by the flavors created by the roasting process itself. At darker roasts, the "roast flavor" is so dominant that it can be difficult to distinguish the origin of the beans used in the roast. Green coffee contains many different types of acids, some of which are pleasant to taste and some that are not. Of particular importance to the roaster are the chlorogenic acids (CGAs). One of the key goals of roasting is to break down these unpleasant acids.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Below, roast levels and their respective flavors are described. These are qualitative descriptions, and thus subjective.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Caffeine levels are not significantly affected by the level of roast. Caffeine remains stable up to and completely decomposes around . Given that roasting temperatures do not exceed for long and rarely if ever reach , the caffeine content of a coffee is not likely changed much by the roasting process.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Home roasting is the process of roasting small batches of green coffee beans for personal consumption. Even after the turn of the 20th century, it was more common for at-home coffee drinkers to roast their coffee in their residence than it was to buy pre-roasted coffee. Later, home roasting faded in popularity with the rise of the commercial coffee roasting companies. In recent years home roasting of coffee has seen a revival. In some cases there is an economic advantage, but primarily it is a means to achieve finer control over the quality and characteristics of the finished product.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Extending the shelf life of roasted coffee relies on maintaining an optimum environment to protect it from exposure to heat, oxygen, and light. Roasted coffee has an optimal typical shelf life of two weeks, and ground coffee about 15 minutes. Without some sort of preservation method, coffee becomes stale. The first large-scale preservation technique was vacuum packing in cans. However, because coffee emits CO after roasting, coffee to be vacuum-packed must be allowed to de-gas for several days before it is sealed. To allow more immediate packaging, pressurized canisters or foil-lined bags with pressure-relief valves can be used. Refrigeration and freezing retards the staling process. Roasted whole beans can be considered fresh for up to one month if kept cool. Once coffee is ground it is best used immediately.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds (VOC), organic acids, and combustion products are the principal emissions from coffee processing. Several operations are sources of PM emissions, including the cleaning and destoning equipment, roaster, cooler, and instant coffee drying equipment. The roaster is the main source of gaseous pollutants, including alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids, and nitrogen and sulfur compounds. Because roasters are typically heated by combustion of natural gas, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO) emissions result from fuel combustion. Decaffeination and instant coffee extraction and drying operations may also be sources of small amounts of VOC. Emissions from the grinding and packaging operations typically are not vented to the atmosphere.


title: Coffee roasting

text: Particulate matter emissions from the roasting and cooling operations are typically ducted to cyclones before being emitted to the atmosphere. Gaseous emissions from roasting operations are typically ducted to a thermal oxidiser or thermal catalytic oxidiser following PM removal by a cyclone. Some facilities use the burners that heat the roaster as thermal oxidisers. However, separate thermal oxidisers are more efficient because the desired operating temperature is typically , which is more than the maximum temperature of most roasters. Some facilities use thermal catalytic oxidizers, which require lower operating temperatures to achieve control efficiencies that are equivalent to standard thermal oxidisers. Catalysts are also used to improve the control efficiency of systems in which the roaster exhaust is ducted to the burners that heat the roaster. Emissions from spray dryers are typically controlled by a cyclone followed by a wet scrubber.


title: Rose Abdoo

text: Rose Marie Abdoo (born November 28, 1962) is an American actress and comedian, known for her roles as Stars Hollow's local mechanic, Gypsy, on "Gilmore Girls" and as Spanish teacher Señorita Rodriguez on "That's So Raven".


title: Rose Abdoo

text: Abdoo was born in Detroit, Michigan. She is of Lebanese and Dominican descent. Her father, Peter Abdoo, was a budget analyst for the United States Army Corps of Engineers and her mother, Mary, was a homemaker.


title: Rose Abdoo

text: Abdoo's career began in Chicago, where she performed at various improvisational theaters, including the Improv Institute and four years with The Second City; she went on to develop her own one-woman shows, "Who Does She Think She Is?" and "Get to the Part About Me". She also did a short-lived variety program with Bob Odenkirk and Conan O'Brien called "Happy Happy Good Show".


title: Rose Abdoo

text: After graduating from Southfield High School, Abdoo earned a Bachelor of Arts in Communication in 1984 and later a Master of Fine Arts in Acting, both from Michigan State University. She was cast in several college theater roles and encouraged by a professor to study improvisation. She went on to move to Chicago, where she joined Second City, performing first in their national touring shows and moving on to their E.T.C. troupe. As a part of E.T.C., Abdoo won a Joseph Jefferson Award as "Best Actress in a Revue" in 1991 for her role in the production "We Made a Mesopotamia, Now You Clean It Up", playing what the "Chicago Tribune" called "the show's meatiest part: an obnoxious, know-it-all tour bus rider." She went on to co-host the awards ceremony in 1994.


title: Rose Abdoo

text: She was nominated alongside her castmates for a Best Ensemble Screen Actors Guild award for "Good Night, and Good Luck."


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Internet access is available in North Korea, but is only permitted with special authorization. It is primarily used for government purposes, and also by foreigners. The country has some broadband infrastructure, including fiber optic links between major institutions. Online services for most individuals and institutions are provided through a free domestic-only network known as Kwangmyong, with access to the global Internet limited to a much smaller group.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Internet access in North Korea is available from Internet service provider Star Joint Venture Co., a joint venture between the North Korean government's Ministry of Post and Telecommunications and Thailand-based Loxley Pacific. Star JV took control of North Korea's Internet address allocation on 21 December 2009. Prior to Star JV, Internet access was available only via a satellite link to Germany, or for some government uses through direct connections with China Unicom. Nearly all of North Korea's Internet traffic is routed through China.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Since February 2013, foreigners have been able to access the Internet using the 3G telecommunications network provided by Koryolink.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Permission to access the Internet remains tightly restricted. However, the IT industry has been growing and Internet access is gradually increasing within North Korea. In October 2010, the website of the Korean Central News Agency went live from a web server hosted in North Korea. It is accessible globally on a North Korean IP address , marking the country's first known direct connection to the Internet. Around the same time, on 9 October, journalists visiting Pyongyang for the Workers' Party's 65th anniversary celebrations were given access to a press room with Internet connectivity.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: , 1,024 IP addresses were known to exist in North Korea, although "The New York Times" journalists David E. Sanger and Nicole Perlroth believe that the actual number may be higher. The total number of Internet users is estimated at no more than a few thousand. People who can access the global Internet without limits are claimed to be high-ranking officials, members of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and government ambassadors.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Some access is allowed in North Korea's academic institutions. Professors and graduate students can access the Internet at the Pyongyang University of Science and Technology through a computer lab, for instance. Access through this channel is monitored. In fact, as of 2007, many of the North Koreans with access to the global Internet were tasked only with retrieving scientific and technical information which could then be posted to the national intranet.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Kim Jong-il told a visiting North Korean dignitary in 2002 that he had spent much time on South Korean websites. According to Ofer Gayer, a security researcher of Incapsula, the country's total web traffic footprint has been less than that of the Falkland Islands. Joo Seong-ha, a "The Dong-a Ilbo" journalist and a North Korean defector, said in 2014 the government's intranet Kwangmyong has been used to limit the general public's global Internet usage, especially in hotels. Although available in most campuses, the government has "strictly monitored the Internet usage".


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Since Apple Inc., Sony, and Microsoft are not allowed to distribute their products to North Korea, third-party companies have bought their products and been selling them to customers. Very little is known about the electronics industry in North Korea due to the government's isolation policies.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: In April 2016, North Korea began to block Facebook, YouTube, Twitter and South Korean websites, due to "its concern with the spread of online information".


title: Internet in North Korea

text: On 19 September 2016, North Korea's nameserver that contains information about all of the ".kp" websites was misconfigured, allowing researchers to access and publish the domain names and some of the file data about the site, including zone information for .kp, co.kp, com.kp, edu.kp, gov.kp, net.kp, org.kp, and rep.kp, revealing that North Korea has only 28 websites facing the Internet. However, the Kwangmyong intranet, available only to North Korea, was estimated to host between 1,000 and 5,500 internal-facing websites as of 2014.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: In September 2017, Russian telecommunication company TransTeleCom established direct Internet connection to North Korea, causing China Unicom to no longer be the sole provider of Internet access for North Korea.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: It was reported in January 2021 that North Korea was gearing up to upgrade its network from the current 3G to a 4G network.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: There are about 30 websites, such as Uriminzokkiri, run by the DPRK government. South Korean police have identified 43 pro-North Korean websites that have foreign-based servers. The police report that these websites encourage hostile attitudes towards South Korea and Western countries, and portray the DPRK in a positive light. According to "The Dong-a Ilbo", foreign-based websites include the following: "Joseon Tongsin" (Korean News Service) and "Guk-jeonseon" in Japan, "Unification Arirang" in China, "Minjok Tongsin" in the United States, and twelve new pro-North Korean websites have launched, including the "Korea Network". In August 2010, BBC News reported that an agency contracted by the North Korean government has fielded an official DPRK YouTube channel, Facebook and Twitter accounts for Uriminzokkiri. Both the Twitter and YouTube accounts are solely in Korean. The BBC reported, "In a recent Twitter post, the North Koreans said the current administration in South Korea was 'a prostitute' of the US", though this wording may be a poor translation into English. Among some of the content on the official website is an image of a US soldier being followed by two missiles, along with various other cartoons, pictures and text, with largely anti-US and anti-South Korean sentiment. In September 2007 the .kp top-level domain was created. It contains websites connected to the North Korean government.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: In addition to propaganda sites, there are numerous websites connected to commercial activity. In 2002, North Koreans, in collaboration with a South Korean company, started a gambling site targeting South Korean customers (online gambling being illegal in South Korea), but the site has since been closed down. In late 2007, North Korea launched its first online shop, Chollima, in a joint venture with an unnamed Chinese company. In 2013, The Pirate Bay claimed to be operating from North Korea after legal challenges forced it out of Sweden. The move was later revealed to be a hoax.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: South Korean "No Cut News" has reported that the North Korean government trains computer hackers in Kim Chaek University of Technology and Kim Il-sung University to earn money overseas. A group of North Korean hackers based in Shenyang, China, developed and sold "auto-programs" (programs that allow player characters to earn experience and in-game currency while the player does none of the work) for an online game "Lineage" and a South Korean citizen was arrested in May 2011 for purchasing it.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: In December 2014, North Korea was accused of a hack attack on Sony Pictures Entertainment. From 19–21 December, North Korea experienced technical difficulties with Internet access. On December 22, North Korea suffered a complete Internet link failure, resulting in loss of Internet access from outside the country for which the United States is suspected. On 23 December, nine hours after the outage, the country regained Internet access, albeit "partial and potentially unstable with other websites still inaccessible." On 22–24 December, North Korea experienced seven more Internet outages, including two on 23 December. On 27 December, the country experienced an outage on Internet (the third time of the year) and a mobile network. A similar outage, lasting for one and a half days, occurred in March 2013.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: South Korean Internet users must comply with "Trade Laws with North Korea" (Article 9 Section 2) in which one needs to have the Ministry of Unification's approval to contact North Koreans through their websites.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: North Korea has four IPv4 subnets, of which three are announced by AS131279, named "Ryugyong-dong". The subnets are:


title: Internet in North Korea

text: 175.45.177.0/24 (175.45.177.0-255) is also assigned to North Korea, but it is currently not being announced.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: Despite North Korea's limited Internet access, the small pool of IP addresses has led to very conservative allocations. The Pyongyang University of Science and Technology, for example, had just one IP address on the global Internet in 2012.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: North Korea's telecommunications ministry was previously also the registered user of 256 China Unicom addresses (210.52.109.0 – 210.52.109.255). This pre-dated the activation of North Korea's own block.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: In October 2017 it was reported that Russian ISP TransTelekom was routing traffic from North Korea as a second internet connection, together with China Unicom.


title: Internet in North Korea

text: In December 2020, North Korea had interconnected to 1 Russian ISP and 2 Chinese ISPs (TransTelecom and Cenbong, which automatically re-route traffic, using China Unicom channels).


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: David Rudabaugh (July 14, 1854February 18, 1886) was a cowboy, outlaw, and gunfighter in the American Old West. Modern writers often refer to him as "Dirty Dave" because of his alleged aversion to water, though no evidence has emerged to show that he was ever referred to as such in his own lifetime.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: Rudabaugh was born in Fulton County, Illinois. His father was killed in the Civil War when Dave was a boy. The family moved to Ohio and later Kansas.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: The outlaw career of Dave Rudabaugh began in earnest in Arkansas in the early 1870s. He was part of a band of outlaws who robbed and participated in cattle rustling along with Milton Yarberry and Mysterious Dave Mather. The three were suspected in the death of a rancher and fled the state. By some accounts all three went to Decatur, Texas, but other accounts have Rudabaugh heading to the Black Hills of South Dakota, where he became a stagecoach robber.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: Sometime around 1876, Rudabaugh joined Mike Roarke and Dan Dement to form the outlaw band known as the "Trio." There is a disputed story from around this time that Rudabaugh taught Doc Holliday to use a pistol while Doc taught him the finer points of playing cards.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: In October 1876, Rudabaugh robbed a Santa Fe Railroad construction camp and fled south. Wyatt Earp was issued a temporary commission as Deputy U.S. Marshal and he left Dodge City, following Rudabaugh over towards Fort Griffin, Texas. Rudabaugh arrived at the frontier town on the Clear Fork of the Brazos River ahead of Earp by just a few days. When Earp arrived, he walked into the "Bee Hive Saloon," the largest saloon in town, which was owned by John Shanssey, whom Earp had known since he was 21. Shanssey told Earp that Rudabaugh had passed through town earlier in the week, but he didn't know where he was headed. Shanssey suggested Earp ask gambler "Doc" Holliday, who had played cards with Rudabaugh. In what would be the first conversation in a long friendship between Earp and Holliday, Holliday said he thought Rudabaugh was headed back towards Kansas, and Earp telegraphed the new information to Bat Masterson, which led to Rudabaugh's later capture.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: Rudabaugh's gang attempted their first train robbery, on January 22, 1878, near Kinsley, Kansas. The robbery was a complete failure, and they came away empty handed. The next day, a posse led by Bat Masterson, including John Joshua Webb, captured Rudabaugh and fellow gang member Ed West. The remaining members of the gang were captured shortly thereafter. Rudabaugh took a deal for immunity offered by the prosecuting attorney, and testified against his former gang members.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: Shortly following his release, Rudabaugh accepted Masterson's offer to join a group of gunfighters to fight for the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway in the Railroad Wars.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: During this time he became a very close associate of John Joshua Webb, whom he had met during his earlier arrest. After the railroad wars, he and Webb traveled to the town of Las Vegas, New Mexico, where they became important members of the Dodge City Gang. This gang was a band of ruffians and gamblers who were dominating the political and economic life of the growing community. The leader was Hyman G. Neill (aka Hoodoo Brown). Webb was arrested for murder in the spring of 1880. Dave Rudabaugh and another gang member attempted to break him out of jail on April 5, 1880. The attempt failed, and Rudabaugh shot and killed deputy Antonio Lino Valdez in the process.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: He fled to Fort Sumner, New Mexico, where he eventually joined a gang, one of whose members was Billy the Kid.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: At Stinking Springs (near present-day Taiban, New Mexico), On December 23, 1880 a posse led by Pat Garrett captured Rudabaugh, Billy the Kid, Billy Wilson, and other members of the gang. They were taken to Las Vegas, but the danger of a lynch mob prompted the officers to move them to Santa Fe. In February 1881, while in court, Rudabaugh pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 99 years in prison for several counts of mail robbery. He was then found guilty for the murder of Las Vegas deputy Lino Valdez and was sentenced to death by hanging.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: Rudabaugh was reunited with Webb in jail. After a botched escape attempt in which a fellow prisoner named Thomas Duffy died, he and Webb broke out. Rudabaugh fled to Arizona where he joined the Clanton faction in their feud against the Earps. Dave may have even participated in the murder of Morgan Earp and the attempted murder of Virgil Earp, and may also have been present at the gunfight at Iron Springs in which Curly Bill Brocius was killed.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: As the Clanton gang broke up, Rudabaugh headed down to Mexico where he worked as both a cowboy and a rustler. On February 18, 1886, Rudabaugh was involved in a gunfight with locals in Parral, Chihuahua. The fight began over a card game. He drew his pistol and killed two men and wounded another. He left the saloon unharmed, but unable to find his horse, he re-entered a few moments later, which he was soon to find would be his demise. He was shot several times from the shadows, and then was decapitated with a machete and his head placed on a pole.


title: Dave Rudabaugh

text: Dave Rudabaugh was the only outlaw said to have crossed paths with Dave Mather, Bat Masterson, Pat Garrett, Wyatt Earp, Billy The Kid and Doc Holliday. Rudabaugh was 31 years old when he was killed.


title: Tzedakah

text: Tzedakah or Ṣedaqah ( ) is a Hebrew word meaning "righteousness", but commonly used to signify "charity". This concept of "charity" differs from the modern Western understanding of "charity". The latter is typically understood as a spontaneous act of goodwill and a marker of generosity; "tzedakah" is an ethical obligation.


title: Tzedakah

text: "Tzedakah" (Tzedaka) refers to the religious obligation to do what is right and just, which Judaism emphasizes as an important part of living a spiritual life. Unlike voluntary philanthropy, "tzedakah" is seen as a religious obligation that must be performed regardless of one's financial standing, and so is mandatory even for those of limited financial means. "Tzedakah" is considered to be one of the three main acts that can positively influence an unfavorable heavenly decree.


title: Tzedakah

text: The word "tzedakah" is based on the Hebrew (, "Tzedeq"), meaning "righteousness", "fairness," or "justice", and is related to the Hebrew word "Tzadik", meaning "righteous" as an adjective (or "righteous individual" as a noun in the form of a substantive). Although the word appears 157 times in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible, typically in relation to "righteousness" "per se", its use as a term for "charity" in the above sense is an adaptation of Rabbinic Judaism in Talmudic times.


title: Tzedakah

text: In the Middle Ages, Maimonides conceived of an eight-level hierarchy of "tzedakah", where the highest form is to give a gift, loan, or partnership that will result in the recipient becoming self-sufficient instead of living upon others. In his view, the second highest form of "tzedakah" is to give donations anonymously to unknown recipients.


title: Tzedakah

text: The Hebrew Bible teaches the obligation to aid those in need, but does not employ one single term for this obligation. The term "tzedakah" occurs 157 times in the Masoretic Text, typically in relation to "righteousness" per se, usually in the singular, but sometimes in the plural "tzedekot", in relation to acts of charity. In the Septuagint this was sometimes translated as "eleemosyne", "almsgiving".


title: Tzedakah

text: Today, however, it is evident that it is not very correct to use some expressions such as "charity" or "alms", it is not always accepted, in fact even parents have the duty to give to their children and this is considered Tzedakah, also thanks to the abundance of products and money in most of cases.


title: Tzedakah

text: In classical rabbinical literature, it was argued that the Biblical regulations concerning left-overs only applied to corn fields, orchards, and vineyards, and not to vegetable gardens. The classical rabbinical writers were much stricter as to who could receive the remains. It was stated that the farmer was not permitted to benefit from the gleanings, and was not permitted to discriminate among the poor, nor try to frighten them away with dogs or lions (Hullin 131a, Pe'ah 5:6). The farmer was not even allowed to help one of the poor to gather the left-overs. However, it was also argued that the law was only applicable in Canaan (Jerusalem Talmud. Pe'ah 2:5), although many classical rabbinical writers who were based in Babylon observed the laws there (Hullin 134b). It was also seen as only applying to Jewish paupers, but poor non-Jews were allowed to benefit for the sake of civil peace.


title: Tzedakah

text: Maimonides lists his Eight Levels of Giving, as written in the "Mishneh Torah", "Hilkhot matanot aniyim" ("Laws about Giving to Poor People"), Chapter 10:7–14:


title: Tzedakah

text: In practice, most Jews carry out "tzedakah" by donating a portion of their income to charitable institutions, or to needy people they may encounter. The perception among many modern-day Jews is that if donation of this form is not possible, the obligation of "tzedakah" still requires that something be given. Traditional Jews commonly practice "ma'sar kesafim," tithing 10% of their income to support those in need.


title: Tzedakah

text: Special acts of "tzedakah" are performed on significant days: At weddings, Jewish brides and bridegrooms would traditionally give to charity to symbolise the sacred character of the marriage. At Passover, a major holiday in Jewish tradition, it is traditional to be welcoming towards hungry strangers and feed them at the table. At Purim it is considered obligatory for every Jew to give food to one other person, and gifts to at least two poor people, in an amount that would equate to a meal each, for the purpose of increasing the total happiness during the month.


title: Tzedakah

text: As for the more limited form of "tzedakah" expressed in the biblical laws, namely the leaving of "gleanings" from certain crops, the Shulchan Aruch argues that during The Exile Jewish farmers are not obliged to obey it. Nevertheless, in modern Israel, rabbis of Orthodox Judaism insist that Jews allow "gleanings" to be consumed by the poor and by strangers, and all crops (not just "gleanings") by anyone and everyone (free, not bought nor sold) during sabbatical years.


title: Tzedakah

text: In addition, one must be very careful about how one gives out tzedakah money. It is not sufficient to give to just any person or organization; rather, one must check their credentials and finances to be sure that your tzedakah money will be used wisely, efficiently, and effectively. The meaning of "Do not steal from a poor person, for (s)he is poor" (Proverbs 22:22) and of Talmudic-era commentaries, including Numbers Rabba 5:2, is that tzedakah money was never yours to begin with. Rather, it always belongs to God, who merely entrusts you with it so that you may use it properly. Hence, you are obliged to ensure that it is received by those who are deserving.


title: Tzedakah

text: There are many examples of tzedakah funds that operate according to Maimonides' principles above (particularly #2), including Hands on Tzedakah (working with nonprofits in the U.S. and in Israel), and Mitzvah Heroes Fund (working mainly with nonprofits in Israel). Paamonim is a nonprofit organization in Israel that operates according to Maimonides' first principle. Keeping a "pushke" (a collection box) in private homes is traditional.


title: Tzedakah

text: The Gaon of Vilna considered giving tzedakah "to all householders in our city with tax-benefit". Dvēyre-Ēster Helfer (1817–1907), known to Vilna's Jews for her integrity and wisdom, was legendary for her ability to help people in trouble, although she and her husband were not wealthy. Aided by her phenomenal memory, she was able to touch the right people at the right time to help individuals throughout her life, many of whom came to see her as a sort of saint who not only found money for her, but also offered special blessings accompanying her charitable gifts. She also helped fund a prayerhouse dedicated to charity for the needy that was known colloquially by her name; in her lifetime she came to be seen as a saint, while her death was commemorated in ways usually reserved for religious figures; and her portrait often hung next to the Gaon's in the homes of Vilna's Jews.


title: Tzedakah

text: Both Jewish homes and synagogues have a charity collection box into which cash is placed. At home, particularly before the woman of the house lights her Sabbath candles, it is a way of setting aside money. In the synagogue, a designated individual circulates (and shakes it to announce this opportunity).


title: Tzedakah

text: In Chicago in the early 1900s "Many of the families kept "pushkas", or contribution containers, as a handy means of making periodic contribution to worthwhile causes." The Polish word "puszka" means tin can.


title: Tzedakah

text: "TAT" (an acronym for "Tomchei Torah") is an institutionalized arrangement whereby money is donated for either one-time (e.g. wedding) expenses or ongoing support, for the adult (and often married) yeshiva students. A check made out to "TAT of x" would be for those at that yeshiva, or perhaps it can be designated for a particular newly engaged student (or a student with a son or daughter newly engaged). Sometimes donations were intended for ongoing support of students not receiving family support.


title: Portimão

text: Portimão () is a city and a municipality in the district of Faro, in the Algarve region of southern Portugal. The population in 2011 was 55,614, in an area of 182.06 km. It was formerly known as Vila Nova de Portimão (). In 1924, it was incorporated as a "cidade" and became known merely as Portimão. Historically a fishing and shipbuilding centre, it has nonetheless developed into a strong tourist centre oriented along its beaches and southern coast. The two largest population centers in the Algarve are Portimão and Faro.


title: Portimão

text: The area was settled during the prehistoric epoch: the Cynetes, influenced by the Celts and Tartessos lived in the Algarve for many centuries. In the area of Alcalar there are several remnants of Neolithic funerary sites of which only one, Alcalar monument number seven, comprising a circular chamber composed of schist stone and long corridor, remains. Comparable to western European and Irish monuments, the funeral crypt, with two lateral ritual niches, was protected by a tumulus: a similar site exists in Monte Canelas.


title: Portimão

text: The mouth of the Arade River proved an important natural shelter that soon became a small commercial port for the Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians. The Carthaginians founded two settlements nearby in the mid-6th centuryBC, known by their Roman names and ("Hannibal's Port"). The former was the nucleus of present-day Portimão.


title: Portimão

text: Obvious vestiges of the Roman occupation are situated near Figueira, at Quinta da Abicada, in the confluence of two rivers, where the remains of various rooms were unearthed. Also, in the area of Coca Maravilhas was discovered a well-preserved period cistern, while along the Arade River there have been identified gold coins.


title: Portimão

text: In the 5th century, the Algarve was ruled by the Visigoths until the invasion of the Moors. It was during the Moorish occupation that the settlement changed to . The river and its ocean access to the ancient city of Shilb (Silves), then capital of the Arabian Algarve.


title: Portimão

text: Along with Silves and Alvor, the small fishing centre in Portimão was reconquered in 1249 from the Arabs by Knights of the Order of Santiago and forcibly integrated into the fledgling Kingdom of Portugal, during the reign of Afonso III of Portugal.


title: Portimão

text: Its geographic location created strong economic conditions to allow the region to prosper, eventually allowing Portimão to obtain the status of town in 1435. The inhabitants understood the necessity of constructing walls, in order to protect themselves from constant invasions. The construction of two forts, the Castle of São João (in Ferragudo) and the Fort of Santa Catarina (Portimão), protected the centre from attacks from pirates and privateers during this period.


title: Portimão

text: In Portimão, a major part of the commerce was accomplished across the sea. The transport across the Arade River was done across a boat that docked at the "Largo de Barca". Until bridge and road was constructed, 400 years later, it was the only form of crossing the river.


title: Portimão

text: In 1453, King Afonso V of Portugal, under petition from several inhabitants in Portimão, authorized the founding of new settlement, which became the urbanized centre of Portimão (then named "São Lourenço Barrosa"). In 1476, Vila Nova de Portimão is donated by Afonso V of Portugal to his financial inspector, D. Gonçalo Vaz de Castelo Branco, remaining in the family until the 17th century.


title: Portimão

text: The shipbuilding industry took on an important place in the city's development. These activities were registered in the royal documents that included authorization of Sebastian of Portugal (in 1536). The king visited in 1573, passing the night and assisting a solemn mass in the Convent of São Francisco.


title: Portimão

text: In the port of Portimão local products, such as figs, olives, oil, wine and fish were regularly exported, while other products from the African and Brazilian colonies, such as slaves and sugar, were introduced into the Portuguese territory. But, by the 17th and 18th century, the rhythm of growth slowed considerably. As commerce decreased the inhabitants emigrated, a fact that accelerated after the 1755 earthquake, causing the destruction within the city. The main church was destroyed, while many of the small chapels were damaged. The city walls were severely damaged, not just by the earthquake but also the resulting tsunami. The Fort of Santa Catarina also suffered damage, but was reconstructed in 1792 and 1794, by the Count of Val de Reys. Twenty years after the earthquake, the Marquess of Pombal, wanted to make Portimão a bishopric, and in this evolution, he elevated the town to the status of city. Unfortunately, Queen Maria I of Portugal vetoed these intentions. The civil statute was only issued in 1924, by the Marquess' illustrious son Manuel Teixeira Gomes, as Republican president.


title: Portimão

text: In the 19th century, a fishing conserving industry reinvigorated the old city. Now renamed Portimão, the city turned into one of the more important fishing and packing centres in the Algarve, until the 20th century, when the 1980s recession finally caused these businesses to fold. At the end of the 20th century, visitors to the region began travelling to the beaches of Praia da Rocha or Praia da Santa Catarina. On 1 August 1910, the Praia da Rocha Casino was opened, symptom of the growing influx of tourists to the region, many aristocrats from the southern part of the country and Andalusia.


title: Portimão

text: The place became populated by houses and chalets built for, or rented to, the numerous tourists. The first hotel constructed, the Hotel Viola, dated to the first part of the 20th century, and was expanded after 1932, when the space became too small to support the influx of travellers. In 1936, the Hotel Bela Vista was constructed as total tourists began to exceed a thousand people annually. It turned into a popular destination for sport fishing, and among popular nautical sports, jet skiing, sailing, windsurfing, diving and dolphin watching.


title: Portimão

text: The municipality is located on the western southern coast of the Algarve, bordering the municipalities of Lagos, Lagoa, Monchique and Silves.


title: Portimão

text: The geographical distribution of the altitude and relief of the municipality of Portimão generically follow the three types of territory present in the Barlavento: the coastal region, the Barrocal (a region between the coastal region and the mountains) and the mountains up north. Each one with their own geological, morphological and pedagogical characteristics.


title: Portimão

text: The badlands of Ponta João D’Arens host several species of birds and the Ria de Alvor dunes allow the existence of a marshland and estuary, on which a great diversity of species depend, both fauna and flora, as well as the communities of fishermen and local shellfishers.


title: Portimão

text: Portimão has a hot-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen: "Csa") with hot dry summers and mild wet winters moderated by the Atlantic Ocean. The lowest temperature the city has ever experienced was in January 1976. Along with other municipalities in the Algarve, Portimão is very sunny, averaging over 3,000 hours of sunshine a year. The average sea temperature is around in winter and in the summer.


title: Portimão

text: Portimão is the most important urbanized city in the "Barlavento Algarvio" (the western Algarve), supporting a sizeable population with harbour and a small airfield (Portimão Airport) of its own with schedules flights to some domestic destinations by Aero VIP (the larger Faro International Airport is in the nearby district capital of Faro).


title: Portimão

text: The municipality is primarily serviced by the A22 motorway (the "Via do Infante"), and the E.N.125 roadway that links it directly to the communities of Alvor (), Mexilhoeira Grande () and Praia da Rocha ().


title: Portimão

text: The community, which was founded on the right margin of the Arade River, and oriented towards the sea, is inserted in a region whose geography and physical characteristics justify a seafaring economy. Its maritime economy allowed the development of industries oriented towards salination of fish, the open-water fishing industry, conservation and canning, the construction of ships and transport. Further, the Arade basin permitted rural commerce associated with cultivation of carob, fig, almonds and the saw-milling/forestry industry (including cork), among others.


title: Portimão

text: In the last quarter of the 20th century, tourism became an accentuated economic factor in the regions growth, with the development of activities oriented towards the sea and development of seasonal infrastructures that permitted an influx of new money. By the beginning of the 21st century, 74% of the roughly 2,000 annual overnight stays originated from the United Kingdom, Portugal and Ireland. Seasonal concentration (44%) usually occurred around the high-summer months (July, August and September).


title: Portimão

text: The Algarve in general is a major draw for tourists. In 2018, the region's income from tourism was over a billion euros; the number of visitors totaled 4.2 million. The region's tourism contributed €1.08 billion to the economy in that year.


title: Portimão

text: Besides kindergartens, and primary and secondary education schools with classes from grade 1 to grade 12, Portimão has a branch of the state-run University of Algarve awarding degrees in business management and tourism as well as technical specialization courses in accountancy and post-graduation in real estate appraisal & management, and also a private institution of higher education awarding degrees in fields ranging from law to data science (Instituto Superior Manuel Teixeira Gomes).


title: Portimão

text: Portimão is known for its sporting events, mostly water sports, including surfing and kitesurfing; motorsport; beach soccer; and the professional football team Portimonense S.C.


title: Portimão

text: Portimonense S.C. is the main local sports club, with competitive teams in such sports such as basketball, handball, futsal, esports and association football. It is best known for its professional association football team which plays at the Estádio Municipal de Portimão and has competed in the main professional leagues of the Portuguese football league system. In the summer, a beach soccer tournament called the Mundialito de Futebol de Praia ('Little World Cup') is held.


title: Portimão

text: Being located on the South coast of Portugal, Portimão is well known in the sailing world for being an ideal location for sailing on the Atlantic Ocean, boasting much calmer seas and weather conditions than the Western coastline.


title: Portimão

text: Portimão is the host venue for many prestigious sailing events including the annual Portimão, Portugal Match Cup event which is a part of the World Match Racing Tour. The event draws the world's best sailing teams to Portimão. The identical supplied (SM-40) boats are raced two at a time. Points accrued count towards the World Match Race Tour and a place in the final event of the season, with the overall winner taking the title ISAF World Match Racing Tour Champion. Match racing is an ideal sport for spectators in Portimão.


title: Portimão

text: The Portimão coastline has also been host to the sport of powerboating. The Portuguese Grand Prix of the Sea run by Powerboat P1 as part of its international championship is also held in Portimão.


title: Portimão

text: In the hills near Portimão stands the Autódromo Internacional do Algarve. Finished in October 2008, it is a race and test circuit officially recognised for the highest categories both for cars and motorcycles. MotoGP races, Superbike races, Le Mans Series races and F1 tests are scheduled. The Lisbon to Dakar Rally passed through here.


title: Portimão

text: The 2020 Portuguese Formula One Grand Prix took place over 66 laps of the 4.684-kilometer Autodromo Internacional do Algarve on Sunday, October 25. A month later the 2020 MotoGP season finale also took place at the Autodromo Internacional do Algarve on Sunday, 22 November.


title: Portimão

text: There is also an annual grand prix of rhythmic gymnastics, with an individual all-round competition, a team all-round competition, and finals by apparatus and by group at senior and junior levels.


title: Portimão

text: The Ocean Revival Project saw 4 Portuguese Navy Warships deliberately sunk to form the largest single artificial reef structure in the world.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Penelope Jane Taylor (born 24 May 1981) is an Australian retired professional basketball player and assistant coach. During her 19-year career, Taylor spent the most time with the Phoenix Mercury of the WNBA, where she won three championships. She also won the WNBL title with her first club, the Australian Institute of Sport, and played in China, Italy, Turkey and Russia. As part of the Australian woman's national team, Taylor won two Olympic medals and led the Australian Opals to a gold medal at the World Championships, winning tournament MVP honours ahead of teammate Lauren Jackson.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Penny Taylor was born in Melbourne, Victoria to English parents Michael Taylor and Denna Noble. She has a younger brother named Phillip, step-sister Abbey and an older sister named Heather. Her parents enrolled Taylor in the Belgrave South Red Devils basketball club at the age of 4. The camaraderie helped Taylor overcome her shyness, and eventually move to the Nunawading Spectres. She attended Upwey High School in Upwey, Victoria, and after graduating earned a scholarship to the Australian Institute of Sport in Canberra.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Taylor debuted in the Women's National Basketball League playing for the AIS (Australian Institute of Sport) starting in 1997–98, winning the WNBL title the following season. Afterwards she moved to Dandenong Rangers, where she remained from 1999 to 2002. Taylor led the league in scoring with 25.5 points per game and steals with 2.5 steals per game during the 2000–01 season, being named the WNBL MVP in that season and the next.


title: Penny Taylor

text: After 12 years away from the Australian league, Taylor signed with the Rangers for the 2014–15 WNBL season. Her main intention for the return was to stay close to her family, playing in front of her nephews while also tending for her cancer-ridden father. She scored 20.2 points a game from 17 matches in qualifying the Rangers for the playoffs. During the semifinals against the Sydney Uni Flames, the Rangers were 15 points ahead when Taylor injured her ankle with eight minutes remaining, and her absence was enough for Sydney to take over and win the game.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Taylor was selected by the Cleveland Rockers in the first round (11th overall) during the annual WNBA Draft on 20 April 2001. She starred for the Rockers for three seasons.


title: Penny Taylor

text: In January 2004, the WNBA held a dispersal draft, where the league's existing teams selected former players from the Rockers team. Taylor was selected as the first overall pick by the Phoenix Mercury.


title: Penny Taylor

text: In July 2007 she was chosen as a reserve for the WNBA All Star game. On 16 September 2007, Penny Taylor along with Diana Taurasi and Cappie Pondexter led the Phoenix Mercury to the WNBA championship defeating the Detroit Shock in the final game 5 of the finals, 108 – 92, they became the first team to end out a finals series at an away venue in the WNBA.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Taylor sat out most of the 2009 season after having ankle surgery that required nine weeks of recovery, but returned to the Mercury mid-season and averaged 10.7 points off the bench. The Mercury went on to win the WNBA Championship that year, beating the Indiana Fever 3 games to 2, with Taylor making 2 clutch free throws down the stretch to help clinch the decisive game 94–86.


title: Penny Taylor

text: In 2012, Taylor suffered an anterior cruciate ligament injury of her left knee playing in Turkey during the WNBA offseason, and was forced to sit out of the Mercury's season. Her year-long recovery in Australia had Taylor going through three knee operations, including one to remove floating cartilage revealed in a magnetic resonance imaging exam, and seeing her mother die of cancer. Taylor's return to the Mercury in 2013 eventually had her other knee give in after six games, leading her to further surgery.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Taylor spent the 2014 pre-season working with both the Mercury and the Phoenix Suns health staff to make sure her return to basketball worked. Under new coach and former Australia teammate Sandy Brondello, Taylor saw limited minutes during the first eleven games of the 2014 WNBA season. Once Brondello saw her recovered enough, Taylor returned as a Mercury starter, and the team would then go on to win the following 16 games, the longest win streak in WNBA history and not lose again at home for the remainder of the 2014 season. Taylor's return helped lead the team to the best result in the Western Conference with an average of 10.5 points a game for 33 games, as well as the best record in league history with 29 wins and 5 losses, only one of whom had Taylor as a starter. The Mercury returned to the WNBA Finals, winning the title against the Chicago Sky. An unsigned free agent in 2015, she decided to sit out the 2015 season for personal reasons after the loss of her father. The Mercury re-signed her on 8 February 2016, and Taylor was present right at the first game to start her thirteenth season at the WNBA. Prior to the August break for the Olympics, Taylor announced she would retire at the end of the season. Her last career game happened on 2 October in Phoenix, as the Mercury were swept by the Minnesota Lynx in the WNBA semifinals.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Taylor has been a regular member of the Australian national team, the 'Opals', since 2002, when won a bronze medal in the 2002 World Championship. Her biggest accomplishment was winning the 2006 World Championship in Brazil, where Taylor was named Most Valuable Player of the championship. They won silver medals in consecutive Olympiads: Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008. She wound up out of the Opals for the 2012 Summer Olympics after injuring herself playing in Turkey for Fenerbahçe. Taylor was named Australian Opals captain for the 2014 World Championship, helping the team win the bronze medal, and was named to the All-Star Five. Her last tournament with the Opals was at Rio 2016, where Australia fell in the quarterfinals.


title: Penny Taylor

text: During the WNBA offseason, Taylor has played in Italy, Russia and Turkey, winning each league at least once. The 2015-16 offseason had Taylor in the Shanxi Flame of the Women's Chinese Basketball Association, averaging 23.9 points, 7.1 rebounds and 4.2 assists.


title: Penny Taylor

text: In March 2017, Taylor became the Director of Player Development and Performance for her former WNBA team, the Phoenix Mercury. After giving birth to a son in March 2018, Taylor took a year off from coaching. In April 2019, the Mercury announced that Taylor had been hired as an assistant coach. As of September 2019, Taylor's spouse, Diana Taurasi, is a player for the Phoenix Mercury. It was announced on 6 July 2020 that Taylor would step down as assistant coach of the Mercury to focus on being a full-time mother.


title: Penny Taylor

text: Taylor was married in 2005 to Brazilian volleyball player Rodrigo Rodrigues Gil, but they later divorced. On 13 May 2017, she married fellow Phoenix Mercury star Diana Taurasi. On 1 March 2018, the couple welcomed their first child when Taylor gave birth to their son Leo Michael Taurasi-Taylor. On 26 July 2021, it was announced Taylor was pregnant with their second child, due in October. On 9 October 2021, Taylor gave birth to their first daughter, Isla Taurasi-Taylor, with Taurasi by her side mere hours after Taurasi played the Las Vegas Aces in Las Vegas for game five of the 2021 WNBA Semifinals.


title: Tabun (nerve agent)

text: Tabun or GA is an extremely toxic synthetic organophosphorus compound. It is a clear, colorless, and tasteless liquid with a faint fruity odor. It is classified as a nerve agent because it fatally interferes with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system. Its production is strictly controlled and stockpiling outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. Tabun is the first of the "G-series" nerve agents along with GB (sarin), GD (soman) and GF (cyclosarin).


title: Tabun (nerve agent)

text: Although pure tabun is clear, less-pure tabun may be brown. It is a volatile chemical, although less so than either sarin or soman.


title: Tabun (nerve agent)

text: Tabun can be destroyed with bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite), though the reaction will produce the poisonous gas cyanogen chloride. EA-4352 is an isopropyl analog to tabun.


title: Tabun (nerve agent)

text: Tabun was made on an industrial scale by Germany during World War II, based on a process developed by Gerhard Schrader. In the chemical agent factory in Dyhernfurth an der Oder, codenamed "Hochwerk", at least 12,000 metric tons of this agent were manufactured between 1942 and 1945. The manufacturing process consisted of two steps, the first being reaction of gaseous dimethylamine (1) with an excess of phosphoryl chloride (2), yielding dimethylamidophosphoric dichloride (3, codenamed "Produkt 39" or "D 4") and dimethylammonium chloride (4). The dimethylamidophosphoric dichloride thus obtained was purified by vacuum distillation and thereafter transferred to the main tabun production line. Here it was reacted with an excess of sodium cyanide (5), dispersed in dry chlorobenzene, yielding the intermediate dimethylamidophosphoric dicyanide (not depicted in the scheme) and sodium chloride (8); then, absolute ethanol (6) was added, reacting with the dimethylamidophosphoric dicyanide to yield tabun (7) and hydrogen cyanide (9). After the reaction, the mixture (consisting of about 75% chlorobenzene and 25% tabun, along with insoluble salts and the rest of the hydrogen cyanide) was filtered to remove the insoluble salts and vacuum-distilled to remove hydrogen cyanide and excess chlorobenzene, so yielding the technical product, consisting either of 95% tabun with 5% chlorobenzene (Tabun A) or (later in the war) of 80% tabun with 20% chlorobenzene (Tabun B).


title: Tabun (nerve agent)

text: The symptoms of exposure include: nervousness/restlessness, miosis (contraction of the pupil), rhinorrhea (runny nose), excessive salivation, dyspnea (difficulty in breathing due to bronchoconstriction/secretions), sweating, bradycardia (slow heartbeat), loss of consciousness, convulsions, flaccid paralysis, loss of bladder and bowel control, apnea (breathing stopped) and lung blisters. The exact symptoms of overexposure are similar to those created by all nerve agents. Tabun is toxic even in minute doses. The number and severity of symptoms which appear vary according to the amount of the agent absorbed and rate of entry of it into the body. Very small skin dosages sometimes cause local sweating and tremors accompanied with characteristically constricted pupils with few other effects. Tabun is about half as toxic as sarin by inhalation, but in very low concentrations it is more irritating to the eyes than sarin. Tabun also breaks down slowly, which after repeated exposure can lead to build up in the body.