title: Seven (2019 Indian film)

text: While investigating an enigmatic man named Karthik, a police officer is bewildered by the conflicting statements about his identity. Three young women seem to share a mysterious connection with him and claim Karthik as their husband who has gone missing a few days/months before. An old man from an asylum claims that he knew Karthik as Krishnamurthy, who had died thirty years ago. The next day the old man was found killed. After the old man's death, another woman called Priya appears and claims Karthik as her husband, who has been missing since the previous day. The police officers are in shock with her claim because they had arrested Karthik two days before as the suspect of the old man's murder. During the investigation, Karthik fails to recognize the other three women who claimed him as their husband. In the next scene the woman is brought to the imprisoned Karthik. When she sees Karthik, they both smile at each other and suddenly the woman pulls a gun and shoots him. The police officer stops her act and asks her intention for doing thus. She reveals her love story and marriage with Karthik. After her marriage, due to some misunderstanding Karthik leaves her, after a few months she reads news about Karthik and the affairs he had with other three women (who claimed Karthik as their husband in the first half of the story). She was shocked with the news and assumed that Karthik is a playboy who had spoiled four women's lives (including hers) so, she decides that he is not fit to live. Karthik escapes from the hospital and with the help of a journalist he goes in search of those girls to know their intention to cause such trouble in his life. There he finds all the allegations given towards him are false as they have staged a drama against Karthik on the request of Saraswati, an old lady. Sarswati, the woman behind the scene is the main culprit who saves those girls from getting raped which was staged by herself as she wanted the help of those girls to trouble Karthik for revenge. This lady is shown to be Karthik's father's ex-wife who kills her father and stages a drama to marry Krishnamoorthy (father of Karthik). On their nuptial night, Krishnamurthy realizes that Saraswati has psychotic behavior and the murderer of her father and Krishnamoorthy's fiancée Bhanu's family. He escapes and jumps into a river. Saraswati is sent to an asylum and released after a few years. She sees Krishnamoorthy living a happy life with Bhanu and two children. She kills them on the same day except the son who turned out to be Karthik. At present, she still hallucinates Karthik for Krishnamoorthi and wants to kill him as a revenge for rejecting her. She kidnaps Priya the wife of Karthik and threatens him at gunpoint telling him to kill himself. In an attempt to save Karthik, ACP Vijay Prakash gets injured. The police shoot her in her leg and she finally shoots herself without letting them know the hideout of Priya. Finally Karthik and the police find Priya at the basement and she apologises for misunderstanding Karthik and they reunite.


title: Seven (2019 Indian film)

text: The film started production as a Telugu film, but the film became bilingual after producer M. S. Sharavanan expressed interest in a Tamil version. Havish requested that the makers rope in another artist for the Tamil version as he was not fluent in the language, but they were keen that Havish do it.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The culture of ancient Rome existed throughout the almost 1200-year history of the civilization of Ancient Rome. The term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic, later the Roman Empire, which at its peak covered an area from present-day Lowland Scotland and Morocco to the Euphrates.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, its famed seven hills, and its monumental architecture such as the Colosseum, Trajan's Forum, and the Pantheon. The city also had several theaters and gymnasia, along with many taverns, baths and brothels. Throughout the territory under ancient Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into "insulae" (apartment blocks).


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The city of Rome was the largest megalopolis of that time, with a population that may well have exceeded one million people, with a high-end estimate of 3.6 million and a low-end estimate of 450,000. A substantial proportion of the population under the city's jurisdiction lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of at least 10,000 and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. The most urbanized part of the Empire was Italy, which had an estimated rate of urbanization of 32%, the same rate of urbanization of England in 1800. Most Roman towns and cities had a forum, temples and the same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome. The large urban population required an enormous supply of food, which was a complex logistical task, including acquiring, transporting, storing and distribution of food for Rome and other urban centers. Italian farms supplied vegetables and fruits, but fish and meat were luxuries. Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were imported from Hispania, Gaul and Africa.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: There was a very large amount of commerce between the provinces of the Roman Empire, since its roads and transportation technology were very efficient. The average costs of transport and the technology were comparable with 18th-century Europe. The later city of Rome did not fill the space within its ancient Aurelian Walls until after 1870.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The majority of the population under the jurisdiction of ancient Rome lived in the countryside in settlements with less than 10,000 inhabitants. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. To stimulate a higher labor productivity most landlords freed a large number of slaves and many received wages, but in some rural areas poverty and overcrowding were extreme. Rural poverty stimulated the migration of population to urban centers until the early 2nd century when the urban population stopped growing and started to decline.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Starting in the middle of the 2nd century BC, private Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture from the conservative moralists. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers all came from the Greek East. Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Against this human background, both the urban and rural setting, one of history's most influential civilizations took shape, leaving behind a cultural legacy that survives in part today.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Roman Empire began when Augustus became the first emperor of Rome in 31 BC and ended in the west when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by Odoacer in 476 AD. The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 AD), was the most extensive political and social structure in Western civilization. By 285 AD, the Empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian into a Western and an Eastern Roman Empire. In the east, the Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. The influence of the Roman Empire on Western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of Western culture.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The center of the early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family, which was not only marked by biological relations but also by the legally constructed relation of "patria potestas" ("power of a father"). The "pater familias" was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife (if she was given to him "cum manu", otherwise the father of the wife retained "patria potestas"), his children, the wives of his sons (again if married "cum manu" which became rarer towards the end of the Republic), the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen (liberated slaves, the first generation still legally inferior to the freeborn), disposing of them and of their goods at will, even having them put to death.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. There were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Roman law was not consistent about the status of slaves, except that they were considered like any other moveable property. Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally, mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation, although outrageous cruelty continued. In AD 4, the "Lex Aelia Sentia" specified minimum age limits for both owners (20) and slaves (30) before formal manumission could occur.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Apart from these families (called "gentes") and the slaves (legally objects, mancipia, i.e., "kept in the [master's] hand") there were plebeians that did not exist from a legal perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts, even though they were not slaves. To deal with this problem, the so-called "clientela" was created. By this institution, a plebeian joined the family of a patrician (in a legal sense) and could close contracts by mediation of his patrician "pater familias". Everything the plebeian possessed or acquired legally belonged to the gens. He was not allowed to form his own gens.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The authority of the "pater familias" was unlimited, be it in civil rights as well as in criminal law. The king's duty was to be head over the military, to deal with foreign politics and also to decide on controversies between the gentes. The patricians were divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, Titientes, Luceres).


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: During the time of the Roman Republic (founded in 509 BC) Roman citizens were allowed to vote. This included patricians and plebeians. Women, slaves, and children were not allowed to vote.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: There were two assemblies: the "comitia centuriata" and the "comitia populi tributa", which were made up of all the citizens of Rome. In the "comitia centuriata" the Romans were divided according to age, wealth and residence. The citizens in each tribe were divided into five classes based on property and then each group was subdivided into two centuries by age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assembly of tribes, each century had one vote. The "comitia centuriata" elected the praetors (judicial magistrates), the censors, and the consuls. The "comitia tributa" comprised thirty-five tribes from Rome and the country. Each tribe had a single vote. The "comitia tributa" elected the quaestors (financial magistrates) and the patrician curule aedile.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Over time, Roman law evolved considerably, as well as social views, emancipating (to increasing degrees) family members. Justice greatly increased, as well. The Romans became more efficient at considering laws and punishments.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Life in the ancient Roman cities revolved around the Forum, the central business district, where most of the Romans would go for marketing, shopping, trading, banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould public opinion, and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to them or others. Before sunrise, children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Elders would dress, take a breakfast by 11 o'clock, have a nap and in the afternoon or evening would generally go to the Forum. Going to a public bath at least once daily was a habit with most Roman citizens. There were separate baths for men and women. The main difference was that the women's baths were smaller than the men's, and did not have a "frigidarium" (cold room) or a "palaestra" (exercise area).


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Different types of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free of cost, were available in ancient Rome. Depending on the nature of the events, they were scheduled during daytime, afternoons, evenings, or late nights. Huge crowds gathered at the Colosseum to watch events such as events involving gladiators, combats between men, or fights between men and wild animals. The Circus Maximus was used for chariot racing.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Life in the countryside was slow-paced but lively, with numerous local festivals and social events. Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor of nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. On the other hand, slave labor slogged on continuously, for long hours and all seven days, and ensuring comforts and creating wealth for their masters. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over from the noontime preparations.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the "tunica angusticlavi"; senators wore tunics with purple stripes ("clavi"), called "tunica laticlavi". Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the "toga praetexta", which was a toga with a crimson or purple border, also worn by magistrates in office. The "toga virilis", (or "toga pura") or man's toga was worn by men who had come of age to signify their citizenship in Rome. The "toga picta" was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The "toga pulla" was worn in mourning.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Even footwear indicated a person's social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors such as white, yellow, or green.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The "bulla" was a locket-like amulet worn by children. When about to marry, the woman would donate her "lunula" to the household gods, along with her toys, to signify maturity and womanhood.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Men typically wore a toga, and women wore a stola. The woman's "stola" was a dress worn over a tunic, and was usually brightly colored. A "fibula" (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A "palla", or shawl, was often worn with the "stola".


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Since the beginning of the Republic until 200 BC, ancient Romans had very simple food habits. Simple food was generally consumed at around 11 o'clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was called "ientaculum", lunch was "prandium", and dinner was called "cena". Appetizers were called "gustatio", and dessert was called "secunda mensa" ("second table"). Usually, a nap or rest followed this.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a "triclinium". Fingers were used to take foods which were prepared beforehand and brought to the diners. Spoons were used for soups.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Wine in Rome did not become common or mass-produced until around 250 BC. It was more commonly produced around the time of Cato the Elder, who mentions in his book "De agri cultura" that the vineyard was the most important aspect of a good farm. Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap; however, it was always mixed with water. This was the case even during explicit evening drinking events ("comissatio") where an important part of the festivity was choosing an "arbiter bibendi" ("judge of drinking") who was, among other things, responsible for deciding the ratio of wine to water in the drinking wine. Wine to water ratios of 1:2, 1:3, or 1:4 were commonly used. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. "Mulsum" was honeyed wine, "mustum" was grape juice, "mulsa" was honeyed water. The per-person-consumption of wine per day in the city of Rome has been estimated at 0.8 to 1.1 gallons for males, and about 0.5 gallons for females. Even the notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended distributing a daily ration of low quality wine of more than 0.5 gallons among the slaves forced to work on farms.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Drinking non-watered wine on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign of alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were already recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic—in the gossip-crazy society of the city bound to come to light and easily verified—was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals employed by some of Rome's greatest orators like Cicero and Julius Caesar. Prominent Roman alcoholics include Mark Antony, Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor) and the emperor Tiberius whose soldiers gave him the unflattering nickname Biberius Caldius Mero (lit. "Boozer of Pure Wine," Sueton Tib. 42,1). Cato the Younger was also known as a heavy drinker, frequently found stumbling home disoriented and the worse for wear in the early hours of morning by fellow citizens.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: During the Imperial period, staple food of the lower class Romans (plebeians) was vegetable porridge and bread, and occasionally fish, meat, olives and fruits. Sometimes, subsidized or free foods were distributed in cities. The patrician's aristocracy had elaborate dinners, with parties and wines and a variety of comestibles. Sometimes, dancing girls would entertain the diners. Women and children ate separately, but in the later Empire period, with permissiveness creeping in, even decent women would attend such dinner parties.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learned and good orators commanded respect; becoming an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning. Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education. School was mostly for boys, but some wealthy girls were tutored at home; however, girls could still go to school sometimes.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language of the Indo-European family. Several forms of Latin existed, and the language evolved considerably over time, eventually becoming the Romance languages spoken today.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Initially a highly inflectional and synthetic language, older forms of Latin rely little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Like other Indo-European languages, Latin gradually became much more analytic over time and acquired conventionalized word orders as it lost more and more of its case system and associated inflections. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is in turn derived from the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet is still used today to write most European and many other languages.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Most of the surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire, Greek was the main lingua franca as it had been since the time of Alexander the Great, while Latin was mostly used by the Roman administration and military. Eventually Greek would supplant Latin as both the official written and spoken language of the Eastern Roman Empire, while the various dialects of Vulgar Latin used in the Western Roman Empire evolved into the modern Romance languages still used today.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages beginning in around the 9th century. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin—Britannia was a Roman province, but the Roman presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions—English today borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words. Old English borrowings were relatively sparse and drew mainly from ecclesiastical usage after the Christianization of England. When William the Conqueror invaded England from Normandy in 1066, he brought with him a considerable number of retainers who spoke Anglo-Norman French, a Romance language derived from Latin. Anglo-Norman French remained the language of the English upper classes for centuries, and the number of Latinate words in English increased immensely through borrowing during this Middle English period. More recently, during the Modern English period, the revival of interest in classical culture during the Renaissance led to a great deal of conscious adaptation of words from Classical Latin authors into English.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Although Latin is an extinct language with very few contemporary fluent speakers, it remains in use in many ways. In particular, Latin has survived through Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Catholic Church and one of the official languages of the Vatican City. Although distinct from both Classical and Vulgar Latin in a number of ways, Ecclesiastical Latin was more stable than typical Medieval Latin. More Classical sensibilities eventually re-emerged in the Renaissance with Humanist Latin. Due to both the prevalence of Christianity and the enduring influence of the Roman civilization, Latin became western Europe's "lingua franca", a language used to cross international borders, such as for academic and diplomatic usage. A deep knowledge of classical Latin was a standard part of the educational curriculum in many western countries until well into the 20th century, and is still taught in many schools today. Although it was eventually supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology, and in academia in general.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works currently discovered are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the Roman Republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Greeks and Romans had a tradition of historical scholarship that continues to influence writers to this day. Cato the Elder was a Roman senator, as well as the first man to write history in Latin. Although theoretically opposed to Greek influence, Cato the Elder wrote the first Greek inspired rhetorical textbook in Latin (91), and combined strains of Greek and Roman history into a method combining both. One of Cato the Elder's great historical achievements was the "Origines", which chronicles the story of Rome from Aeneas to his own day, but this document is now lost. In the second and early first centuries BC an attempt was made, led by Cato the Elder, to use the records and traditions that were preserved, in order to reconstruct the entire past of Rome. The historians engaged in this task are often referred to as the "Annalists", implying that their writings more or less followed chronological order.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In 123 BC, an official endeavor was made to provide a record of the whole of Roman history. This work filled eighty books and was known as the "Annales maximi". The composition recorded the official events of the State, such as elections and commands, civic, provincial and cult business, set out in formal arrangements year by year. During the reign of the early emperors of Rome there was a golden age of historical literature. Works such as the "Histories" of Tacitus, the "Gallic Wars" by Julius Caesar and "History of Rome" by Livy have been passed down through generations. Unfortunately, in the case of Livy, much of the script has been lost and it is left with a few specific areas: the founding of the city, the war with Hannibal, and its aftermath.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In the ancient world, poetry usually played a far more important part of daily life than it does today. In general, educated Greeks and Romans thought of poetry as playing a much more fundamental part of life than in modern times. Initially in Rome poetry was not considered a suitable occupation for important citizens, but the attitude changed in the second and first centuries BC. In Rome poetry considerably preceded prose writing in date. As Aristotle pointed out, poetry was the first sort of literature to arouse people's interest in questions of style. The importance of poetry in the Roman Empire was so strong that Quintilian, the greatest authority on education, wanted secondary schools to focus on the reading and teaching of poetry, leaving prose writings to what would now be referred to as the university stage. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His "Aeneid" was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his "On the Nature of Things", attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. Some of his science seems remarkably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer accepted. Later Ovid produced his "Metamorphoses", written in dactylic hexameter verse, the meter of epic, attempting a complete mythology from the creation of the earth to his own time. He unifies his subject matter through the theme of metamorphosis. It was noted in classical times that Ovid's work lacked the "gravitas" possessed by traditional epic poetry.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Catullus and the associated group of Neoteric poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry, seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with a woman called Lesbia. Under the reign of the Emperor Augustus, Horace continued the tradition of shorter poems, with his "Odes" and "Epodes". Martial, writing under the Emperor Domitian, was a famed author of epigrams, poems which were often abusive and censured public figures.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Roman prose developed its sonority, dignity, and rhythm in persuasive speech. Rhetoric had already been key to many great achievements in Athens, so after studying the Greeks the Romans ranked oratory highly as a subject and a profession. Written speeches were some of the first forms of prose writing in ancient Rome, and other forms of prose writing in the future were influenced by this. Sixteen books of Cicero's letters have survived, all published after Cicero's death by his secretary, Tito. The letters provide a look at the social life in the days of the falling republic, providing pictures of the personalities of this epoch. The letters of Cicero are vast and varied, and provide pictures of the personalities of this epoch. Cicero's personality is most clearly revealed, emerging as a vain vacillating, snobbish man. Cicero's passion for the public life of the capital also emerges from his letters, most clearly when he was in exile and when he took on a provincial governorship in Asia Minor. The letters also contain much about Cicero's family life, and its political and financial complications.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Roman philosophical treatises have had great influence on the world, but the original thinking came from the Greeks. Roman philosophical writings are rooted in four 'schools' from the age of the Hellenistic Greeks. The four 'schools' were that of the Epicureans, Stoics, Peripatetics, and the Academy. Epicureans believed in the guidance of the senses, and identified the supreme goal of life to be happiness, or the absence of pain. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Citium, who taught that virtue was the supreme good, creating a new sense of ethical urgency. The Perpatetics were followers of Aristotle, guided by his science and philosophy. The Academy was founded by Plato and was based on the Sceptic Pyro's idea that real knowledge could be acquired. The Academy also presented criticisms of the Epicurean and Stoic schools of philosophy.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Roman innovation, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of Terence, a freed Roman slave captured during the First Punic War.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The rhetorical works of Cicero, a self-distinguished linguist, translator, and philosopher, in particular, were popular. In addition, Cicero's personal letters are considered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman world.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: An early Roman style of note was "Incrustation", in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals, and buildings.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Music was a major part of everyday life in ancient Rome. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Some of the instruments used in Roman music are the tuba, cornu, aulos, askaules, flute, panpipes, lyre, lute, cithara, tympanum, drums, hydraulis and the sistrum.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In its initial stages, the ancient Roman architecture reflected elements of architectural styles of the Etruscans and the Greeks. Over a period of time, the style was modified in tune with their urban requirements, and civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than two thousand years some ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently, like the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world) located in the business district of today's Rome.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The architectural style of the capital city of ancient Rome was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence, like the Verona Arena, Verona, Italy; Arch of Hadrian, Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian, Ephesus, Turkey; a Theatre at Orange, France; and at several other locations, for example, Lepcis Magna, located in Libya. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained. Palaces, private dwellings and villas, were elaborately designed and town planning was comprehensive with provisions for different activities by the urban resident population, and for countless migratory population of travelers, traders and visitors passing through their cities. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a 1st-century BC Roman architect's treatise "De architectura", with various sections, dealing with urban planning, building materials, temple construction, public and private buildings, and hydraulics, remained a classic text until the Renaissance.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The ancient city of Rome had a place called the Campus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the Tiber. Later, the Campus became Rome's track and field playground, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban centers and military settlements.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In the Campus, the youth assembled to play, exercise, and indulge in appropriate sports, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastimes also included fishing and hunting. Females did not participate in these activities. Ball playing was a popular sport and ancient Romans had several ball games, which included handball ("expulsim ludere"), field hockey, catch, and some form of football.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Board games played in ancient Rome included dice (tesserae or tali), Roman chess (latrunculi), Roman checkers (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (terni lapilli), and ludus duodecim scriptorum and tabula, predecessors of backgammon.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot racing, musical and theatrical performances, public executions and gladiatorial combat. In the Colosseum, Rome's amphitheatre, 60,000 persons could be accommodated. There are also accounts of the Colosseum's floor being flooded to hold mock naval battles for the public to watch.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In addition to these, Romans also spent their share of time in bars and brothels, and graffiti carved into the walls of these buildings was common. Based on the number of messages found on bars, brothels, and bathhouses, it's clear that they were popular places of leisure and people spent a deal of time there. The walls of the rooms in the lupanar, one of the only known remaining brothels in Pompeii, are covered in graffiti in a multitude of languages, showcasing how multicultural ancient Rome was.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety "(pietas)" in maintaining good relations with the Gods. According to legendary history, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second King of Rome, who negotiated directly with the Gods. This archaic religion was the foundation of the "mos maiorum", "the way of the ancestors" or simply "tradition," viewed as central to Roman identity.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to "separation of church and state" in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials served as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became "pontifex maximus" before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Roman religion was thus mightily pragmatic and contractual, based on the principle of "do ut des" ("I give that you might give"). Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. In the Imperial Era, as many as 135 days of the year were devoted to religious festivals and games ("ludi)". Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestal Virgins, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks, adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury, since Rome had once been ruled by Etruscan kings.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Mystery religions imported from the Near East (Ptolemaic Egypt, Persia and Mesopotamia), which offered initiates salvation through a personal God and eternal life after the death, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic," conspiracy ("coniuratio"), and subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional Roman morality and unity, as with the Senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces (among them Cybele, Isis, Osiris, Serapis, Epona), and Gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one deity or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In the wake of the Republic's collapse, State religion had adapted to support the new regime of the Emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the Republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the Emperor. So-called "Emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the "Genius", the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire: rejection of the State religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and threat to the stability of the Empire, causing the prosecution of anti-Christian policies; under Emperor Trajan's reign (AD 98–117), Roman intellectuals and functionaries (Lucian of Samosata, Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny the Younger, and Celsus) gained knowledge about the Jewish roots of Early Christians, therefore many of them considered Christianity to be some sort of "superstitio Iudaica".


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: From the 2nd century onward, the Church Fathers began to condemn the diverse religions practiced throughout the Empire collectively as "Pagan." In the early 4th century, Constantine the Great and his half-brother Licinius stipulated an agreement known as the Edict of Milan (313), which granted liberty to all religions to be freely practiced in the Roman Empire; following the Edict's proclamation, the conflict between the two Emperors exacerbated, ending with the execution of both Licinius and the co-Emperor Sextus Martinianus as ordered by Constantine after Licinius' defeat in the Battle of Chrysopolis (324).


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Constantine ruled the Roman Empire as sole emperor for the remainder of his reign. Some scholars allege that his main objective was to gain unanimous approval and submission to his authority from all classes, and therefore chose Christianity to conduct his political propaganda, believing that it was the most appropriate religion that could fit with the Imperial cult (see also Sol Invictus). Regardless, under Constantine's rule Christianity expanded throughout the Empire, launching the era of Christian Church's dominance under the Constantinian dynasty. However, if Constantine himself sincerely converted to Christian religion or remained loyal to Paganism is still a matter of debate between scholars (see also Constantine's Religious policy). His formal conversion to Christianity in 312 is almost universally acknowledged among historians, despite that he was baptized only on his deathbed by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia (337); the real reasons behind it remain unknown and are debated too. According to Hans Pohlsander, Professor Emeritus of History at the University at Albany, SUNY, Constantine's conversion was just another instrument of "Realpolitik" in his hands meant to serve his political interest in keeping the Empire united under his control:


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Emperor and Neoplatonic philosopher Julian the Apostate made a short-lived attempt to restore traditional religion and Paganism, and to reaffirm the special status of Judaism, but in 391, under Theodosius I, Nicene Christianity became the official State church of the Roman Empire to the exclusion of all other Christian churches and Hellenistic religions, including Roman religion itself. Pleas for religious tolerance from traditionalists such as the senator Symmachus (d. 402) were rejected, and Christian monotheism became a feature of Imperial domination. Heretics as well as non-Christians were subject to exclusion from public life or persecution, but, despite the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism, Rome's original religious hierarchy and many aspects of its ritual influenced Christian religion as a whole; various pre-Christian beliefs and practices survived as well in Christian festivals and local traditions.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Ancient Roman philosophy was heavily influenced by the ancient Greeks and the schools of Hellenistic philosophy; however, unique developments in philosophical schools of thought occurred during the Roman period as well. Interest in philosophy was first excited at Rome in 155 BC. by an Athenian embassy consisting of the Academic Skeptic Carneades, the Stoic Diogenes, and the Peripatetic Critolaus.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: During this time Athens declined as an intellectual center of thought while new sites such as Alexandria and Rome hosted a variety of philosophical discussion.


title: Country rap

text: Country rap (or country hip hop and sometimes hick hop) is a fusion genre of popular music, blending country music with hip hop–style singing or rapping.


title: Country rap

text: Early influences on the emergence of country rap as a distinct genre include talking blues like "Big Bad John" (1961) by Jimmy Dean, "A Boy Named Sue" (1969) by Johnny Cash, "Convoy" (1975) by C.W. McCall and "Uneasy Rider" (1975) and "The Devil Went Down to Georgia" (1979), both by Charlie Daniels. Black artists’ works that may have been influential in the genre's development include Jamaican ska artist Prince Buster's "Texas Hold-Up" (1964), "Lil Ole Country Boy" (1970) by Parliament, and "Black Grass" (1972) by Bad Bascomb. Music journalist Chuck Eddy traces the genre's roots back to Woody Guthrie.


title: Country rap

text: Blowfly's single "Blowfly's Rapp" (1980) drew on the influence of earlier country musicians like Charlie Daniels and C. W. McCall; NPR said the song is a ""Deliverance"-style encounter with Ku Klux Klan-accredited truck drivers to light funkbacking". "Spin Magazine" said Trickeration's "Western Gangster Town" (1980) (released four years before Schoolly D's "Gangster Boogie") is "cowboy rap's Rosetta stone, and probably the first 'gangster' rap". Other early examples of country rap are Sir Mix-A-Lot 's "Square Dance Rap" (1985) where he raps in the voice of a "white country boy". The lyric ""From L.A. to Carolina / Drop them suckers in Aunt Jemima"" in Sir Mix-A-Lot's "Buttermilk Biscuits" (1988) is a reference to what many consider a racial stereotype, trademarked after Chris L. Rutt heard a performance of the minstrel song "Old Aunt Jemima" (1876).


title: Country rap

text: The song "Rappin' Duke" (1985) is a parody of western film star John Wayne: "Two hundred punks, well, what you gonna do?/I got two six-shooters that'll see me through". The song also contains a reference to "Old Folks at Home" (1851). The genre-blending wasn't limited only to hip hop artists; country duo Bellamy Brothers released "Country Rap" (1987) with lyrics about soul food, church, turnip greens and black-eyed peas.


title: Country rap

text: UGK became pioneer of the hardcore Southern rap style that emerged after the success of the Geto Boys, which they started to call "country rap". At the end of "Let Me See It", Pimp C raps: "This ain't no muthafuckin' hip-hop records, these country rap tunes", originally a response to Northern hip hop artists who had criticized Southern rap for not being "real hip-hop". The name of the song "Hay" (1996) by Crucial Conflict is a reference to marijuana.


title: Country rap

text: Country rap in its modern form can be traced back to Kid Rock's "Cowboy" which reflects a cross-section of Kid Rock's country music, Southern rock and hip hop influences, even quoting a piano riff from the Doors song "L.A. Woman". Kid Rock has described the song as a cross between Run DMC and Lynyrd Skynyrd.


title: Country rap

text: In the early 2000s, producer Shannon "Fat Shan" Houchins and Bubba Sparxxx released Sparxxx's 2001 debut album "Dark Days, Bright Nights" as an independent release. The blend of country and trap caught the attention of producer Jimmy Iovine who re-released the album on Interscope. Houchins soon after created Average Joes Entertainment with Colt Ford. With songs like "No Trash in My Trailer" (2008) and "Drivin' Around Song" (2013), Ford has sold over one million albums.


title: Country rap

text: The trend continued in 2005 when country music stars Big & Rich introduced Cowboy Troy and his album "Loco Motive". Troy has said he uses "country instrumentation" that includes a banjo, fiddle, and acoustic guitar blended with "shredding rock guitar riffs and a rap delivery." Hal Crowther has written that "I Play Chicken with the Train" (2006) by Cowboy Troy was "scandalous "not" because it mixes 'black' rap with 'white' country, but because, through the sheer force of unlikely-but-seamless juxtaposition, it forces us to acknowledge that those two musical styles, at least when they whoop it up, are brothers under the skin".


title: Country rap

text: In the late 2010s, country rap returned to prominence as part of the "Yee Haw" movement, a trend characterized by hip hop producers incorporating country music into their own recordings. Young Thug's 2017 song "Family Don't Matter" is credited with popularizing the movement. Artists within "Yee Haw" include Lil Tracy and DaBaby. Other country rap artists include Ryan Upchurch, Jawga Boyz, Bottleneck, Moonshine Bandits and Big Smo. Cowboy Troy, Lenny Cooper and The Lacs were three of the top country rap artists of 2013 each with an album on "Billboard" Country Chart.


title: Country rap

text: In 2020, Niko Moon's "Good Time" peaked at number 20 on the Hot 100 – with the track being a hip hop song with country influence, or vice versa.


title: Country rap

text: In 2019, 20-year-old rapper Lil Nas X's "country trap" single "Old Town Road" achieved mainstream international success. Assisted by several subsequent versions, including a remix featuring country singer Billy Ray Cyrus, the song broke multiple U.S. streaming records and charted at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for a record nineteen weeks. In June 2019, Blanco Brown's "The Git Up", also described by "USA Today" as a "trap-country" song, also achieved viral success. Other notable country trap songs include "Rodeo" by Lil Nas X and Cardi B and "Rascal" by RMR.


title: Country rap

text: The Mo Thugs Family single "Ghetto Cowboy" (1998) is noted for featuring a harmonica. "Rolling Stone" said of "Cruise (Remix)" (2012) by Florida Georgia Line featuring Nelly, that the track "ushered in the wave of escapist fantasies set to syncopated drum loops that became known as 'bro country'. Florida Georgia Line has said that Nelly's part "just connected", helping to make the "Cruise" remix reach the No. 1 and No. 4 positions on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs and Hot 100 charts respectively; it also became the first country single to ever gain a RIAA diamond certification.


title: Country rap

text: B.o.B and country singer Taylor Swift collaborated on "Both of Us" (2012). The track features Swift's country vocals and a blend of hip-hop with banjos. It became a top 10 hit in Australia and New Zealand and a top 20 hit in the US.


title: Country rap

text: Country singer Brad Paisley and rapper LL Cool J recorded the controversial song "Accidental Racist" for Paisley's 2013 album "Wheelhouse".


title: Country rap

text: Other collaborations include "Po' Folks" (2002) by Nappy Roots with Anthony Hamilton, "Country Folks" (2012) by Bubba Sparxxx featuring Colt Ford & Danny Boone, "Dirt Road Anthem" (remix) by Jason Aldean and Ludacris, and "Try Harder Than That" by Meghan Linsey with Bubba Sparxxx (2014).


title: Country rap

text: Physical sales of country rap albums are higher in more rural areas where country rap fans do not have the Internet services required to stream or download music. There are numerous country rap festivals where artists gather to play their music for upwards of 7,000 fans.


title: Country rap

text: The term "hick-hop" is often criticized by some southern artists, with Struggle Jennings saying, "I love the country, I love the South, I've been fishing and hunting, but I'm not a hick. I'm not hick-hop". The political ideology of country rap artists is perceived as being right-wing or conservative, due to some right-leaning politics expressed by artists like Upchurch and Forgiato Blow; however the political ideology of country rap artists ranges the full spectrum of political beliefs.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: The Emperor's Club is a 2002 American drama film directed by Michael Hoffman and starring Kevin Kline. Based on Ethan Canin's 1994 short story "The Palace Thief", the film follows a prep school teacher and his students at a fictional boys' prep school, St. Benedict's Academy, near Washington, D.C.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: William Hundert works at a boarding school for boys called Saint Benedict's in the 1970s, where he is a passionate classics teacher who attempts to impart wisdom and a sense of honor to his students; he begins the school year by having new student Martin Blythe read a plaque that hangs over his door which contains a statement made by an ancient Mesopotamian ruler, Shutruk Nahunte. The plaque sings Shutruk Nahunte's praises, but Hundert explains that he contributed nothing of value to his kingdom, and as a result is virtually forgotten today.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: Hundert's disciplined life and classroom are shaken when a new student, Sedgewick Bell, is enrolled late in the class. Sedgewick possesses none of Hundert's principles and is the son of a U.S. senator. He frequently disrupts class and does poorly in his homework. Hundert meets with Sedgewick's father to talk about his behavior, only to discover that the senator totally lacks interest in Sedgewick, beyond knowing he is passing his classes.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: Hundert decides to help Sedgewick, they develop a friendship, and Sedgewick's grades improve. The traditional end-of-the-year "Mr. Julius Caesar contest", in which the top three students compete in a classics quiz in front of the entire school, is approaching. Sedgewick, very hard to earn a spot, but ends up in fourth place. Hundert doesn't want his efforts to be for naught, so he raises his grade to qualify; Hundert later observes Martin, the rightful third place contestant, Martin Blythe, despondently withdrawn under a tree. During the competition Hundert spies Sedgewick using crib notes, but the headmaster orders Hundert to ignore it. Hundert then deliberately asks Sedgewick a question on Hamilcar Barca which was not covered in class; it is answered correctly by another contestant, Deepak Mehta (having been seen earlier by Hundert reading a book on military science on his own initiative), who is crowned "Mr. Julius Caesar". The cheating is never publicized, but the trust Sedgewick and Hundert had in each other is broken. Sedgewick returns to his old ways and barely graduates, with Hundert expressing deep disappointment that he failed Sedgewick.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: Twenty-five years later, Hundert is poised to become the new headmaster, but resigns in shock when a less experienced teacher gets the position due to his fundraising ability. Hundert is later told that Sedgewick will make a tremendous donation to Saint Benedict's, contingent upon Hundert hosting a Mr. Julius Caesar rematch at Sedgewick's resort hotel on the Gold Coast, Long Island. The new members of Sedgewick's graduating class are also invited, and all enjoy the reunion. The three original contestants begin the competition, but as it progresses, Hundert realizes that Sedgewick is being fed answers by an assistant through an earpiece. Hundert asks a question about Shutruk Nahunte, which all the students find laughably easy; however, Sedgewick is unable to answer it. Deepak answers correctly and once again wins. Afterward, Sedgewick formally announces that he is running for a seat in the U.S. Senate. While the men applaud, Hundert is appalled that he was used for political grandstanding.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: Shortly after the announcement, Hundert and Sedgewick run into each other in the men's room, where Hundert confronts Sedgewick. Sedgewick tells Hundert that the real world is full of dishonesty, and that Hundert has let life pass him by. The tirade is overheard by one of Sedgewick's young sons, who is shocked to learn the truth about his father. That evening, at the hotel bar, Hundert apologizes to Martin and admits that he gave his spot to Sedgewick in the competition years ago. Martin forgives him, but his body language makes his feelings toward Hundert ambiguous. The following morning, the resort is apparently empty; however, Hundert is then greeted by a surprise party, held in his honor by his former students, who present an award engraved with a quote about education. The guys wave goodbye as the helicopter carrying Hundert departs, and he reflects that while he failed with Sedgewick, he succeeded with others.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: Hundert returns to his old job teaching classics in the present-day Saint Benedict's, which is now coeducational and more diverse. A boy then enters the class: the son of Martin Blythe, whose name is also Martin Blythe (IV). Hundert peers outside the window to see Blythe gladly waving to his old teacher. Hundert has the younger Blythe read the plaque above the door.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: The film was nominated at the 24th Young Artist Awards in 2003 for Best Family Feature Film – Drama, and Emile Hirsch for Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actor.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. , the film holds a 50% approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 127 reviews with an average rating on 5.78/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Though Kline is excellent in his portrayal of Hundert, the movie is too dull and sentimental to distinguish itself from other titles in its genre." On Metacritic, the film had an average score of 49 out of 100, based on 32 reviews.


title: The Emperor's Club

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three stars and praised the complexity of Hundert's flawed character, noting that as "a portrait of the escalator that speeds the sons of the rich upward toward power, it is unusually realistic", but "The New York Times" reviewer A. O. Scott was less impressed and suggested that Hundert "is less a person than a walking moral problem and is in fact more interesting as an ethical puzzle than as a psychological study". Margaret Pomeranz writes, "Not a major effort but not a complete disaster either."


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Time travel is a common theme in fiction, mainly since the late 19th century, and has been depicted in a variety of media, such as literature, television, film, and advertisements.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The concept of time travel by mechanical means was popularized in H. G. Wells' 1895 story, "The Time Machine". In general, time travel stories focus on the consequences of traveling into the past or the future. The central premise for these stories often involves changing history, either intentionally or by accident, and the ways by which altering the past changes the future and creates an altered present or future for the time traveler upon their return home. In other instances, the premise is that the past cannot be changed or that the future is predetermined, and the protagonist's actions turn out to be either inconsequential or intrinsic to events as they originally unfolded. Some stories focus solely on the paradoxes and alternate timelines that come with time travel, rather than time traveling itself. They often provide some sort of social commentary, as time travel provides a "necessary distancing effect" that allows science fiction to address contemporary issues in metaphorical ways.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Time travel in modern fiction is sometimes achieved by space and time warps, stemming from the scientific theory of general relativity. Stories from antiquity often featured time travel into the future through a time slip brought on by traveling or sleeping, or in other cases, time travel into the past through supernatural means, for example brought on by angels or spirits.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: A time slip is a plot device in fantasy and science fiction in which a person, or group of people, seem to travel through time by unknown means. The idea of a time slip has been used in 19th century fantasy, an early example being Washington Irving's 1819 "Rip Van Winkle", where the mechanism of time travel is an extraordinarily long sleep. Mark Twain's 1889 "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court" had considerable influence on later writers. The first novel to include both travel to the past and travel to the future and return to the present is the Charles Dickens 1843 novel "A Christmas Carol".


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Time slip is one of the main plot devices of time travel stories, another being a time machine. The difference is that in time slip stories, the protagonist typically has no control and no understanding of the process (which is often never explained at all) and is either left marooned in a past or future time and must make the best of it, or is eventually returned by a process as unpredictable and uncontrolled as the journey out. The plot device is also popular in children's literature. The 2011 film, "Midnight in Paris" similarly presents time travel as occurring without an explained mechanism, as the director "eschews a 'realist' internal logic that might explain the time travel, while also foregoing experimental time Distortion techniques, in favor of straightforward editing and a fantastical narrative set-up".


title: Time travel in fiction

text: In literature, communication from the future is a plot device in some science fiction and fantasy stories. Forrest J. Ackerman noted in his 1973 anthology of the best fiction of the year that "the theme of getting hold of tomorrow's newspaper is a recurrent one". An early example of this device can be found in H.G. Wells's 1932 short story "The Queer Story of Brownlow's Newspaper", which tells the tale of a man who receives such a paper from 40 years in the future. The 1944 film "It Happened Tomorrow" also employs this device, with the protagonist receiving the next day's newspaper from an elderly colleague (who is possibly a ghost). Ackerman's anthology also highlights a 1972 short story by Robert Silverberg, "What We Learned From This Morning's Newspaper". In that story, a block of homeowners wake to discover that on November 22, they have received "The New York Times" for the coming December 1. As characters learn of future events affecting them through a newspaper delivered a week early, the ultimate effect is that this "so upsets the future that spacetime is destroyed". The television series "Early Edition", inspired by the film "It Happened Tomorrow", also revolved around a character who daily received the next day's newspaper, and sought to change some event therein forecast to happen.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: A newspaper from the future can be a fictional edition of a real newspaper, or an entirely fictional newspaper. John Buchan's 1932 novel "The Gap in the Curtain", is similarly premised on a group of people being enabled to see, for a moment, an item in "The Times" newspaper from one year in the future. During the Swedish general election of 2006, the Swedish liberal party used election posters which looked like news items, called "Framtidens nyheter" ("News of the future"), featuring a future Sweden that had become what the party wanted.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: A communication from the future raises questions about the ability of humans to control their destiny. The visual novel "Steins;Gate" features characters sending short text messages backwards in time to avert disaster, only to find their problems are exacerbated due to not knowing how individuals in the past will actually utilize the information.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Precognition has been explored as a form of time travel in fiction. Author J. B. Priestley wrote of it both in fiction and non-fiction, analysing testimonials of precognition and other "temporal anomalies" in his book "Man and Time". His books include time travel to the future through dreaming, which upon waking up results in memories from the future. Such memories, he writes, may also lead to the feeling of "déjà vu", that the present events have already been experienced, and are now being re-experienced. Infallible precognition, which describes the future as it truly is, may lead to causal loops, one form of which is explored in Newcomb's paradox. The film "12 Monkeys" heavily deals with themes of predestination and the Cassandra complex, where the protagonist who travels back in time explains that he can't change the past.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The protagonist of the short story "Story of Your Life" experiences life as a superimposition of the present and the totality of her life, future included, as a consequence of learning an alien language. The mental faculty is speculation based on the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: A "time loop" or "temporal loop" is a plot device in which periods of time are repeated and re-experienced by the characters, and there is often some hope of breaking out of the cycle of repetition. Time loops are sometimes referred to as causal loops, but these two concepts are distinct. Although similar, causal loops are unchanging and self-originating, whereas time loops are constantly resetting. In a time loop when a certain condition is met, such as a death of a character or a clock reaching a certain time, the loop starts again, with one or more characters retaining the memories from the previous loop. Stories with time loops commonly center on the character learning from each successive loop through time.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: In some media, certain characters are presented as moving through time backwards. This is a very old concept, with some accounts asserting that English mythological figure Merlin lived backwards, and appeared to be able to prophesy the future because for him it was a memory. This tradition has been reflected in certain modern fictional accounts of the character. In the Piers Anthony book "Bearing an Hourglass", the second of eight books in the "Incarnations of Immortality" series, the character of Norton becomes the incarnation of Time and continues his life living backwards in time. The 2016 film "Doctor Strange" has the character use the Time Stone, one of the Infinity Stones in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, to reverse time, experiencing time backwards while so doing.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: In the film "Tenet", characters time travel without jumping back, but by experiencing past reality in reverse, and at the same speed, after going through a 'turnstile' device and until they revert back to normal time flow by going through such a device again. In the meantime, two versions of the time traveller coexist (and must not meet, lest they mutually destruct): the one that had been 'traveling forward' (existing normally) until entering a turnstile and the one traveling backward from the turnstile. The laws of thermodynamics are reversed for time traveling people and objects, so that for example backward travel requires the use of a respirator. Objects left behind by time travellers obey 'reverse thermodynamics;' for example, bullets shot or even simply deposited while traveling backward fly back into (forward traveling) guns.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Protagonists do not travel in time but perceive other times through a record. Depending on the technology, they can minimally consult the record or maximally interact with it as a simulated reality that can deviate causally from the original timeline from the point of interaction. A record can be consulted multiple times, thus providing a time loop mechanism.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Philip K. Dick's novel "The Man in the High Castle" features books reporting on an alternate timeline. The TV series transposes the mechanism of the books to newsreels. Incidentally, the alternate timeline is the historic timeline, as opposed to the alternate history of the works, so that the records also function as meta-references to the timeline experienced by the authors and the consumers of the works.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The plot of the film "Source Code" features a simulated and time-looped reality based on the memories of a dead man.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The idea of changing the past is logically contradictory, creating situations like the grandfather paradox, where time travellers go back in time and change the past in a way that affects their own future, such as by killing their own grandparents. The engineer Paul J. Nahin states that "even though the consensus today is that the past cannot be changed, science fiction writers have used the idea of changing the past for good story effect". Time travel to the past and precognition without the ability to change events may result in causal loops.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The possibility of characters inadvertently or intentionally changing the past gave rise to the idea of "time police", people tasked with preventing such changes from occurring by themselves engaging in time travel to rectify such changes.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: An alternative future or alternate future is a possible future that never comes to pass, typically when someone travels back into the past and alters it so that the events of the alternative future cannot occur, or when a communication from the future to the past effected a change that alters the future. Alternative histories may exist "side by side", with the time traveller actually arriving at different dimensions as he changes time.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The butterfly effect is the notion that small events can have large, widespread consequences. The term describes events observed in chaos theory where a very small change in initial conditions results in vastly different outcomes. The term was coined by mathematician Edward Lorenz years after the phenomenon was first described.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: The butterfly effect has found its way into popular imagination. For example, in Ray Bradbury's 1952 short story "A Sound of Thunder", the killing of a single insect millions of years in the past drastically changes the world, and in the 2004 film "The Butterfly Effect", the protagonist's small changes to their past results in extreme changes.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: A "distinct subgenre" of stories explore time travel as a means of tourism, with travelers curious to visit periods or events such as the Victorian Era or the Crucifixion of Christ, or to meet historical figures such as Abraham Lincoln or Ludwig van Beethoven. This theme can be addressed from two or three directions. An early example of present-day tourists travelling back to the past is Ray Bradbury's 1952 "A Sound of Thunder", in which the protagonists are big game hunters who travel to the distant past to hunt dinosaurs. An early example of another type, in which tourists from the future visit the present, is Catherine L. Moore and Henry Kuttner's 1946 "Vintage Season". The final type in which there are people time-traveling to the future is experienced in the second book of Douglas Adams' "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" series, "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe", which, as the title indicates, includes a restaurant that exists at the end of the universe. In the restaurant, people time-traveling from all over the space-time continuum (especially the rich) came to the restaurant to view the explosion of the universe put on repeat.


title: Time travel in fiction

text: "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" describes a time war as a fictional war that is "fought across time, usually with each side knowingly using time travel ... in an attempt to establish the ascendancy of one or another version of history". Time wars are also known as "change wars" and "temporal wars". Examples include Clifford D. Simak's 1951 "Time and Again", Barrington J. Bayley's 1974 "The Fall of Chronopolis", and Matthew Costello's 1990 "Time of the Fox".


title: Time travel in fiction

text: Researcher Barbara Bronlow wrote that traditional ghost stories are in effect an early form of time travel, since they depict living people of the present interacting with (dead) people of the past. She noted as an instance that Christopher Marlow's "Doctor Faustus" called up Helen of Troy and met her arising from her grave.


title: Kurt Browning

text: Kurt Browning, (born June 18, 1966) is a Canadian figure skater, choreographer and commentator. He is the first skater to land a ratified quadruple jump in competition. He is a four-time World Champion and Canadian national champion.


title: Kurt Browning

text: Browning was both Canadian figure skating champion and World Champion four times. He represented Canada in three Winter Olympics, 1988 (finishing 8th overall), 1992 (6th) and 1994 (5th), and earned the privilege of carrying the Canadian flag during the opening ceremonies of the 1994 games in Lillehammer, Norway. Browning's other achievements include three Canadian Professional Championships and three World Professional Championships.


title: Kurt Browning

text: On March 25, 1988, at the 1988 World Championships in Budapest, Hungary, Browning landed the first ratified quadruple jump, a toe loop in the competition. This accomplishment is listed in the Guinness Book of Records. Jozef Sabovčík had previously landed a quad toe loop at the 1986 European Championships which was recognized at the event but then ruled invalid three weeks later. Browning later said, "I remember that there were a few people landing the jump (in practice) long before I did, and by watching them I was inspired to try it myself. After landing it, I certainly expected more skaters to start doing it in competition. I was surprised in the next few years when that really did not happen." Browning is also known for his intricate, fast, often lighthearted footwork.


title: Kurt Browning

text: During his career, Browning had a long rivalry with Brian Boitano. At the 2006 Ice Wars competition, Browning narrowly defeated Boitano.


title: Kurt Browning

text: One of Browning's iconic programs is "Singin' in the Rain", where he emulates Gene Kelly's dancing in the film. Choreographed by Sandra Bezic and debuted in a CBC-TV special in 1994, this program is still asked to be performed at ice shows after 20 years.


title: Kurt Browning

text: As a commentator, Browning has made frequent appearances since turning professional in 1994. He has been a regular colour commentator for the CBC at major skating events since 2006.


title: Kurt Browning

text: Browning appeared in the 2006 Fox television program "Skating with Celebrities". Starting in 2009, he was the co-host of Battle of the Blades.


title: Kurt Browning

text: Browning was awarded with a Lou Marsh Trophy for top Canadian Athlete (in 1990), Lionel Conacher Awards (1990 and 1991), Order of Canada (in 1990), an American Skating World Professional Skater of the Year Award (in 1998), and a Gustav Lussi Award from the Professional Skaters' Association (in 2001).


title: Kurt Browning

text: Browning was inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 1994 and Skate Canada Hall of Fame in 2000. He was honored with a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in 2001. He was inducted into World Figure Skating Hall of Fame in 2006. He received the inaugural ISU Skating Lifetime Achievement Award in 2020.


title: Kurt Browning

text: Browning was born on June 18, 1966, in Rocky Mountain House, Alberta. He was raised in Caroline, Alberta.


title: Kurt Browning

text: He married Sonia Rodriguez, a principal dancer with the National Ballet of Canada, on June 30, 1996. Their first son, Gabriel, was born on July 12, 2003, and their second son, Dillon, was born on August 14, 2007. They are now divorced.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Michael Huffington (born September 3, 1947), is an American politician, LGBT activist, and film producer. He was a member of the Republican Party, and a congressman for one term, 1993–1995, from California. Huffington was married to Arianna Huffington, the Greek-born co-founder of "HuffPost", from 1986 to 1997.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington was born in Dallas, Texas, to Celeste Phyllis (Gough) and Roy Michael Huffington, the founder of the natural gas exploration company, Roy M. Huffington, Inc. (HUFFCO).


title: Michael Huffington

text: In 1965, Huffington graduated from Culver Military Academy in Culver, Indiana, where he received the Central States Amateur Rowing Association Medal when he rowed on the light weight crew. After graduation, he was elected to the Culver Chapter of the Cum Laude Society. In 1970, he received a BS degree in engineering and a BA degree in economics concurrently from Stanford University. Huffington was a member of the varsity crew, student senator, and co-president of his senior class. In 1972, he received an MBA in finance from Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington's wealth is derived from a merchant bank he started and his share of the family's Houston oil, gas and real estate firm that was sold to Taiwan interests in 1990. His father, Roy M. Huffington, made a fortune through natural gas interests in Indonesia.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington's interest in politics began in 1968, when he was a summer intern in Washington, D.C. for freshman Congressman George H. W. Bush.


title: Michael Huffington

text: In 1986, President Ronald Reagan appointed Huffington as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Negotiations Policy, with responsibility for conventional arms control negotiations. He was awarded the Secretary of Defense Medal for Outstanding Public Service.


title: Michael Huffington

text: In 1992, Huffington was elected to the House of Representatives from California's 22nd District (Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo counties). He spent a record $5.4 million on his campaign, 95% of it his own money. He spent about $3.5 million in the Republican primary, in which he defeated veteran incumbent Robert J. Lagomarsino. Huffington later defeated then Santa Barbara County Supervisor, Gloria Ochoa, in the general election. He donated his entire congressional salary to the Partnership for Children of Santa Barbara County in 1993, and to the Partnership for Children of San Luis Obispo County in 1994.


title: Michael Huffington

text: In 1994, during his first term in the House, Huffington spent $28 million in a bid for the seat in the United States Senate held by Dianne Feinstein. She had won the seat in a special election two years earlier against John F. Seymour, who had been appointed in 1991 to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement of Governor-elect Pete Wilson. In the Republican primary, Huffington defeated William E. Dannemeyer. At the time, Huffington's campaign was the most expensive in a non-presidential election in American history. He lost to Feinstein in the general election by 1.9 percent of the vote.


title: Michael Huffington

text: During 1998, Huffington was co-chairman (with actor and director Rob Reiner) of Proposition 10 in California, which increased the state excise tax on cigarettes by 50 cents per pack. The resulting multi-hundred million dollars of tax revenue was used for prenatal care and for the health care and education of children under six years of age.


title: Michael Huffington

text: In the 2003 California gubernatorial recall election, Huffington endorsed Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger. His ex-wife, Arianna Huffington, was an opposing candidate. She withdrew before the election, although her name remained on the ballot.


title: Michael Huffington

text: On June 29, 2006, Huffington co-chaired the Log Cabin Republicans "The Courage To Lead: An Evening With The Governor" dinner that honored California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. Huffington also personally contributed $1 for every $2 contributed to the Log Cabin Republicans (a 501(c)(4) tax designated organization) for that dinner.


title: Michael Huffington

text: In 2006, Huffington became the director of It's My Party Too, a group founded by former New Jersey Governor Christine Todd Whitman. A moderate Republican organization with libertarian leanings, it advocated fiscal conservatism, social progressivism, environmental protection and limited government interference in personal matters. In 2007, It's My Party Too evolved into the Republican Leadership Council.


title: Michael Huffington

text: In 2013, Huffington was a signatory to an amicus curiae brief in support of same-sex marriage, submitted to the Supreme Court during the "Hollingsworth v. Perry" case.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington married Arianna Huffington, a Greek-born writer and lecturer, on April 12, 1986. They had two daughters and divorced in 1997. In December 2006, he became a blogger for "The Huffington Post", which was co-founded by his ex-wife in 2005.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington publicly disclosed that he is bisexual in 1998. Since that time, Huffington has made a number of contributions to LGBT causes. Later that year, he provided the initial grant that launched SOIN (Sexual Orientation Issues in the News) at the University of Southern California's Annenberg School for Communication. Then in 2005, Huffington helped to establish a summer fellowship program for LGBT students at Stanford University. He also spoke at the National Equality March rally at the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., on October 11, 2009.


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington was raised Presbyterian, became Episcopalian at age 38, and ultimately joined the Greek Orthodox Church during his marriage to Arianna. Between 2007 and 2012, Huffington gave $2.5 million to establish the Huffington Ecumenical Institute at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles, in order to promote dialogue between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. Concerning the institute's mission, Huffington said, "My dream is that someday I'll get to see members of the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church be able to take communion in each other's churches."


title: Michael Huffington

text: Huffington found a post-political career as a film producer. From 1991 to 2000, he was co-owner of Crest Films Limited.


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Priscilla Marie Pointer (born May 18, 1924) is an American retired actress. She began her career in the theater in the late 1940's, including productions on Broadway. Later, Pointer moved to Hollywood and making appearances on television in the early 1950s.


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: She is the mother of actress and singer Amy Irving, (whom she often appeared alongside as her mother or mother-in-law) therefore making her the former mother-in-law of filmmakers Steven Spielberg and Bruno Barreto and the mother-in-law of documentary filmmaker Kenneth Bowser, Jr.


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Pointer was born on May 18, 1924 in New York City. Her mother Augusta Leonora (née Davis) was an artist and an illustrator, and her father Kenneth Keith Pointer was an artist. One of her maternal great-grandfathers, Jacob Barrett Cohen, was from a Jewish family that had lived in the United States since the 1700s.


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Pointer was previously married to film and stage director Jules Irving, former artistic director of Lincoln Center, from 1947 until his death in 1979; they are the parents of Katie Irving, director David Irving, and actress Amy Irving. In 1980, she married actor/director/producer Robert Symonds, who had been Jules Irving's producing partner at Lincoln Center. She appeared several times in stage productions with Symonds, and they remained married until the latter's death in 2007. Her granddaughter is artist and photographer Austin Irving


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Pointer has been a performer, since thee late 1940s starting her career in theatre and appearing on Broadway, and she featured in the TV series "China Smith" (The New Adventures of China Smith) in 1954. After a long hiatus she seemed to have caught the acting bug again, in the early 1970s and has been a regular performing ever since.


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Pointer' first major starring role was on the TV soap opera "Where the Heart Is" as Adrienne Harris Rainey from 1972 and 1973


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Pointer has appeared in many films, including "Carrie" (1976), in which she played the onscreen mother of Amy Irving's character; "The Onion Field" (1979); "Mommie Dearest" (1981); "" (1983); "" (1987); David Lynch's "Blue Velvet"; and "Coyote Moon" (1999). In addition to "Carrie", she has played onscreen mother to Amy Irving in "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980) and "Carried Away" (1996). They were both in the films "The Competition" in 1980 and "Micki & Maude" in 1984.


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: Pointer appeared in three films that her son David Irving directed: "Rumpelstiltskin" (a 1987 musical version, which starred her daughter), "Good-bye, Cruel World", and ""


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: She has made many guest appearances on television, including "Adam-12", "L.A. Law", "The A-Team", "Judging Amy", "The Rockford Files", and "Cold Case".


title: Priscilla Pointer

text: From 1981 to 1983, Pointer had a recurring role on the soap opera "Dallas" as Rebecca Barnes Wentworth, the mother of Cliff Barnes (Ken Kercheval), Pamela Barnes Ewing (Victoria Principal), and Katherine Wentworth (Morgan Brittany).


title: Case-hardening

text: Case-hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal object while allowing the metal deeper underneath to remain soft, thus forming a thin layer of harder metal at the surface. For iron or steel with low carbon content, which has poor to no hardenability of its own, the case-hardening process involves infusing additional carbon or nitrogen into the surface layer. Case-hardening is usually done after the part has been formed into its final shape, but can also be done to increase the hardening element content of bars to be used in a pattern welding or similar process. The term face hardening is also used to describe this technique, when discussing modern armour.


title: Case-hardening

text: Hardening is desirable for metal components that are subject to sliding contact with hard or abrasive materials, as the hardened metal is more resistant to surface wear. However, because hardened metal is usually more brittle than softer metal, through-hardening (that is, hardening the metal uniformly throughout the piece) is not always a suitable choice. In such circumstances, case-hardening can produce a component that will not fracture (because of the soft core that can absorb stresses without cracking), but also provides adequate wear resistance on the hardened surface.


title: Case-hardening

text: Early iron smelting made use of bloomeries which produced two layers of metal: one with a very low carbon content which is worked into wrought iron, and one with a high carbon outer layer. Since the high carbon iron is "hot short", meaning it fractures and crumbles when forged, it was not useful without more smelting. As a result, it went largely unused in the west until the popularization of the finery forge. The wrought iron, with nearly no carbon in it, was very malleable and ductile but not very hard.


title: Case-hardening

text: Case-hardening involves packing the low-carbon iron within a substance high in carbon, then heating this pack to encourage carbon migration into the surface of the iron. This forms a thin surface layer of higher carbon steel, with the carbon content gradually decreasing deeper from the surface. The resulting product combines much of the toughness of a low-carbon steel core, with the hardness and wear resistance of the outer high-carbon steel.


title: Case-hardening

text: The traditional method of applying the carbon to the surface of the iron involved packing the iron in a mixture of ground bone and charcoal or a combination of leather, hooves, salt and urine, all inside a well-sealed box (the "case"). This carburizing package is then heated to a high temperature but still under the melting point of the iron and left at that temperature for a length of time. The longer the package is held at the high temperature, the deeper the carbon will diffuse into the surface. Different depths of hardening are desirable for different purposes: sharp tools need deep hardening to allow grinding and resharpening without exposing the soft core, while machine parts like gears might need only shallow hardening for increased wear resistance.


title: Case-hardening

text: The resulting case-hardened part may show distinct surface discoloration, if the carbon material is mixed organic matter as described above. The steel darkens significantly, and shows a mottled pattern of black, blue, and purple caused by the various compounds formed from impurities in the bone and charcoal. This oxide surface works similarly to bluing, providing a degree of corrosion resistance, as well as an attractive finish. "Case colouring" refers to this pattern and is commonly encountered as a decorative finish on firearms.


title: Case-hardening

text: Case-hardened steel combines extreme hardness and extreme toughness, something which is not readily matched by homogeneous alloys since hard steel alone tends to be brittle.


title: Case-hardening

text: Carbon itself is solid at case-hardening temperatures and so is immobile. Transport to the surface of the steel was as gaseous carbon monoxide, generated by the breakdown of the carburising compound and the oxygen packed into the sealed box. This takes place with pure carbon but too slowly to be workable. Although oxygen is required for this process it is re-circulated through the CO cycle and so can be carried out inside a sealed box (the "case"). The sealing is necessary to stop the CO either leaking out or being oxidised to CO by excess outside air.


title: Case-hardening

text: Adding an easily decomposed carbonate "energiser" such as barium carbonate breaks down to BaO + CO and this encourages the reaction


title: Case-hardening

text: It is a common knowledge fallacy that case-hardening was done with bone but this is misleading. Although bone was used, the main carbon donor was hoof and horn. Bone contains some carbonates but is mainly calcium phosphate (as hydroxylapatite). This does not have the beneficial effect of encouraging CO production and it can also introduce phosphorus as an impurity into the steel alloy.


title: Case-hardening

text: Both carbon and alloy steels are suitable for case-hardening; typically mild steels are used, with low carbon content, usually less than 0.3% (see plain-carbon steel for more information). These mild steels are not normally hardenable due to the low quantity of carbon, so the surface of the steel is chemically altered to increase the hardenability. Case-hardened steel is formed by diffusing carbon (carburization), nitrogen (nitriding) and/or boron (boriding) into the outer layer of the steel at high temperature, and then heat treating the surface layer to the desired hardness.


title: Case-hardening

text: The term "case-hardening" is derived from the practicalities of the carburization process itself, which is essentially the same as the ancient process. The steel work piece is placed inside a case packed tight with a carbon-based case-hardening compound. This is collectively known as a carburizing pack. The pack is put inside a hot furnace for a variable length of time. Time and temperature determines how deep into the surface the hardening extends. However, the depth of hardening is ultimately limited by the inability of carbon to diffuse deeply into solid steel, and a typical depth of surface hardening with this method is up to 1.5 mm. Other techniques are also used in modern carburizing, such as heating in a carbon-rich atmosphere. Small items may be case-hardened by repeated heating with a torch and quenching in a carbon rich medium, such as the commercial products "Kasenit" / "Casenite" or "Cherry Red". Older formulations of these compounds contain potentially toxic cyanide compounds, while the more recent types such as Cherry Red do not.


title: Case-hardening

text: Flame or induction hardening are processes in which the surface of the steel is heated very rapidly to high temperatures (by direct application of an oxy-gas flame, or by induction heating) then cooled rapidly, generally using water; this creates a "case" of martensite on the surface. A carbon content of 0.3–0.6 wt% C is needed for this type of hardening. Unlike other methods, flame or induction hardening does not change chemical composition of the material. Because it is merely a localized heat-treatment process, they are typically only useful on high-carbon steels that will respond sufficiently to quench hardening.


title: Case-hardening

text: Typical uses are for the shackle of a lock, where the outer layer is hardened to be file resistant, and mechanical gears, where hard gear mesh surfaces are needed to maintain a long service life while toughness is required to maintain durability and resistance to catastrophic failure.


title: Case-hardening

text: Flame hardening uses direct impingement of an oxy-gas flame onto a defined surface area. The result of the hardening process is controlled by four factors:


title: Case-hardening

text: Carburizing is a process used to case-harden steel with a carbon content between 0.1 and 0.3 wt% C. In this process iron is introduced to a carbon rich environment at elevated temperatures for a certain amount of time, and then quenched so that the carbon is locked in the structure; one of the simpler procedures is repeatedly to heat a part with an acetylene torch set with a fuel-rich flame and quench it in a carbon-rich fluid such as oil.


title: Case-hardening

text: Carburization is a diffusion-controlled process, so the longer the steel is held in the carbon-rich environment the greater the carbon penetration will be and the higher the carbon content. The carburized section will have a carbon content high enough that it can be hardened again through flame or induction hardening.


title: Case-hardening

text: It is possible to carburize only a portion of a part, either by protecting the rest by a process such as copper plating, or by applying a carburizing medium to only a section of the part.


title: Case-hardening

text: The carbon can come from a solid, liquid or gaseous source; if it comes from a solid source the process is called pack carburizing. Packing low carbon steel parts with a carbonaceous material and heating for some time diffuses carbon into the outer layers. A heating period of a few hours might form a high-carbon layer about one millimeter thick.


title: Case-hardening

text: Liquid carburizing involves placing parts in a bath of a molten carbon-containing material, often a metal cyanide; gas carburizing involves placing the parts in a furnace maintained with a methane-rich interior.


title: Case-hardening

text: Nitriding heats the steel part to in an atmosphere of ammonia gas and dissociated ammonia. The time the part spends in this environment dictates the depth of the case. The hardness is achieved by the formation of nitrides. Nitride forming elements must be present for this method to work; these elements include chromium, molybdenum, and aluminum. The advantage of this process is that it causes little distortion, so the part can be case-hardened after being quenched, tempered and machined.


title: Case-hardening

text: Cyaniding is a case-hardening process that is fast and efficient; it is mainly used on low-carbon steels. The part is heated to 871–954 °C (1600–1750 °F) in a bath of sodium cyanide and then is quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any residual cyanide.