title: Toronto Star

text: Like its competitor "The Globe and Mail", the "Star" covers "a spectrum of opinion that is best described as urban and Central Canadian" in character. The "Star" is generally centrist and centre-left, and is more socially liberal than "The Globe and Mail". The paper has aligned itself over the years with the progressive "Atkinson principles" named for publisher Joseph E. Atkinson, who was editor and publisher of the paper for 50 years. These principles included social justice and social welfare provision, as well as individual rights and civil liberties. In 1984, scholar Wilfred H. Kesterton described the "Star" as "perpetually indignant" because of its social consciousness. When Atkinson's son Joseph Story Atkinson became president of the "Star" in 1957, he said, "From its inception in 1892, the "Star" has been a champion of social and economic reform, a defender of minority rights, a foe of discrimination, a friend of organized labour and a staunch advocate of Canadian nationhood."


title: Toronto Star

text: Another of the "Atkinson principles" has been a "strong, united and independent Canada"; in a 1927 editorial, the paper wrote, "We believe in the British connection as much as anybody does but on a self-respecting basis of equality, of citizenship, and not on the old basis of one country belonging to the other." The paper was historically wary of American influence, and during the debates over the North American Free Trade Agreement, the paper was frequently critical of free trade and expressed concerns about Canadian sovereignty. The paper has been traditionally supportive of official bilingualism and maintaining Canadian unity in opposition to Quebec separatism.


title: Toronto Star

text: In the 1980s, Michael Farber wrote in the "Montreal Gazette" that the "Star"s coverage was Toronto-centric to the point that any story was said to carry an explanation as to "What it means to Metro." Conversely, Canadian sociologist Elke Winter wrote in 2011 that the "Toronto Star" was less "Toronto-centric" than its rival, "The Globe and Mail", writing that the "Star" "consciously reports for and from Canada's most multicultural city" and catered to a diverse readership.


title: Toronto Star

text: The advent of the "National Post" in 1998 shook up the Toronto newspaper market. In the upheaval that followed, editorial spending increased and there was much turnover of editors and publishers.


title: Toronto Star

text: In the 50 years to 1972, the "Star" endorsed the Liberal Party in each federal general election. In the fifteen federal elections between 1968 and 2019, the "Star" has endorsed the Liberal Party eleven times, the New Democratic Party twice, and the Progressive Conservative Party twice.


title: Toronto Star

text: Elections in which the "Star" did not endorse the Liberals took place in 1972 and 1974 (when it endorsed the Progressive Conservatives), and 1979 and 2011 (when it endorsed the NDP). In the 2011 election, the "Star" endorsed the NDP under Jack Layton, but to avoid vote splitting that could inadvertently help the Conservatives under Stephen Harper, which it saw as the worst outcome for the country, the paper also recommended Canadians vote strategically by voting for "the progressive candidate best placed to win" in certain ridings. For the 2015 election, the "Star" endorsed the Liberal Party under Justin Trudeau, and did so again in the 2019 federal election.


title: Toronto Star

text: In Toronto's non-partisan mayoral elections, the "Star" endorsed George Smitherman in 2010 and John Tory in 2014 and 2018.


title: Toronto Star

text: The "Star" is one of the few Canadian newspapers that employs a "public editor" (ombudsman) and was the first to do so. Its newsroom policy and journalistic standards guide is also published online.


title: Toronto Star

text: The "Star" states that it favours an inclusive, "big tent" approach, not wishing to attract one group of readers at the expense of others. It publishes regular features on real estate (including condominiums), individual neighbourhoods (and street name etymologies), shopping, cooking, dining, alcoholic beverages (right down to having an exclusive on the anti-competitive practices of the Beer Store that led to major reforms on the sale of alcohol in Ontario grocery stores in 2015 by Premier Kathleen Wynne and Ed Clark), automobiles (as Wheels), and travel destinations.


title: Toronto Star

text: The "Star" has maintained a website where it publishes its content since 1996. On October 2012, the "Star" announced its intention to implement a paywall on its website, thestar.com, which was made effective on August 13, 2013. Readers with daily home delivery had free access to all its digital content. Those without a digital subscription can view up to ten articles a month. The paywall does not apply to its sister sites, such as wheels.ca (automotive news and classifieds). However, during 2015, the "Star" announced that it would end its paywall, which it did on April 1, 2015. In June 2018, the "Star" announced it was implementing a paywall again.


title: Toronto Star

text: On September 15, 2015, the "Toronto Star" released the Toronto Star Touch tablet app, which was a free interactive news app with interactive advertisements. It was discontinued in 2017. At launch, it was only available for the iPad, which uses iOS. Based on a similar app for Montreal-based "La Presse" released in 2013, Star Touch is the first such app for any English-language news organization, quality-wise. In slightly over 50 days since launch, the app had reached the 100,000-download milestone. The Android version was launched on December 1, 2015. The iOS version is rated 12+ by Apple's App Store guidelines and the Android version is rated Mature 17+ by the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB).


title: Toronto Star

text: The "Toronto Star" has seen, like most Canadian daily newspapers, a decline in circulation. Its total circulation dropped by percent to 318,763 copies daily from 2009 to 2015.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In ballistics, the ballistic coefficient (BC, C) of a body is a measure of its ability to overcome air resistance in flight. It is inversely proportional to the negative acceleration: a high number indicates a low negative acceleration—the drag on the body is small in proportion to its mass. BC can be expressed with the units kilograms per square meter (kg/m) or pounds per square inch (lb/in) (where 1 lb/in corresponds to ).


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The formula for calculating the ballistic coefficient for small and large arms projectiles "only" is as follows:


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The coefficient of form, "i", can be derived by 6 methods and applied differently depending on the trajectory models used: G model, Beugless/Coxe; 3 Sky Screen; 4 Sky Screen; target zeroing; Doppler radar.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: This formula is for calculating the ballistic coefficient within the small arms shooting community, but is redundant with "C":


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1537, Niccolò Tartaglia performed test firing to determine the maximum angle and range for a shot. His conclusion was near 45 degrees. He noted that the shot trajectory was continuously curved.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1636, Galileo Galilei published results in "Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences". He found that a falling body had a constant acceleration. This allowed Galileo to show that a bullet's trajectory was a curve.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Circa 1665, Sir Isaac Newton derived the law of air resistance. Newton's experiments on drag were through air and fluids. He showed that drag on shot increases proportionately with the density of the air (or the fluid), cross sectional area, and the square of the speed. Newton's experiments were only at low velocities to about .


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1718, John Keill challenged the Continental Mathematica, ""To find the curve that a projectile may describe in the air, on behalf of the simplest assumption of gravity, and the density of the medium uniform, on the other hand, in the duplicate ratio of the velocity of the resistance"". This challenge supposes that air resistance increases exponentially to the velocity of a projectile. Keill gave no solution for his challenge. Johann Bernoulli took up this challenge and soon thereafter solved the problem and air resistance varied as "any power" of velocity; known as the Bernoulli equation. This is the precursor to the concept of the "standard projectile".


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1742, Benjamin Robins invented the ballistic pendulum. This was a simple mechanical device that could measure a projectile's velocity. Robins reported muzzle velocities ranging from to . In his book published that same year "New Principles of Gunnery", he uses numerical integration from Euler's method and found that air resistance varies as the square of the velocity, but insisted that it changes at the speed of sound.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1753, Leonhard Euler showed how theoretical trajectories might be calculated using his method as applied to the Bernoulli equation, but only for resistance varying as the square of the velocity.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1864, the Electro-ballistic chronograph was invented, and by 1867 one electro-ballistic chronograph was claimed by its inventor to be able to resolve one ten-millionth of a second, but the absolute accuracy is unknown.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Many countries and their militaries carried out test firings from the mid eighteenth century on using large ordnance to determine the drag characteristics of each individual projectile. These individual test firings were logged and reported in extensive ballistics tables.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Of the test firing, most notably were: Francis Bashforth at Woolwich Marshes & Shoeburyness, England (1864-1889) with velocities to and M. Krupp (1865–1880) of Friedrich Krupp AG at Meppen, Germany, Friedrich Krupp AG continued these test firings to 1930; to a lesser extent General Nikolai V. Mayevski, then a Colonel (1868–1869) at St. Petersburg, Russia; the Commission d'Experience de Gâvre (1873 to 1889) at Le Gâvre, France with velocities to and The British Royal Artillery (1904–1906).


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The test projectiles (shot) used, vary from spherical, spheroidal, ogival; being hollow, solid and cored in design with the elongated ogival-headed projectiles having 1, 1½, 2 and 3 caliber radii. These projectiles varied in size from, at to at


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Many militaries up until the 1860s used calculus to compute the projectile trajectory. The numerical computations necessary to calculate just a single trajectory was lengthy, tedious and done by hand. So, investigations to develop a theoretical drag model began. The investigations led to a major simplification in the experimental treatment of drag. This was the concept of a "standard projectile". The ballistic tables are made up for a factitious projectile being defined as: "a factitious weight and with a specific shape and specific dimensions in a ratio of calibers." This simplifies calculation for the ballistic coefficient of a standard model projectile, which could mathematically move through the standard atmosphere with the same ability as any actual projectile could move through the actual atmosphere.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1870, Bashforth publishes a report containing his ballistic tables. Bashforth found that the drag of his test projectiles varied with the square of velocity ("v") from to and with the cube of velocity ("v") from to . As of his 1880 report, he found that drag varied by "v" from to . Bashforth used rifled guns of , , and ; smooth-bore guns of similar caliber for firing spherical shot and howitzers propelled elongated projectiles having an ogival-head of 1½ caliber radius.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Bashforth uses "b" as the variable for ballistic coefficient. When "b" is equal to or less than "v", then "b" is equal to "P" for the drag of a projectile. It would be found that air does not deflect off the front of a projectile in the same direction, when there are of differing shapes. This prompted the introduction of a second factor to "b", the coefficient of form ("i"). This is particularly true at high velocities, greater than . Hence, Bashforth introduced the "undetermined multiplier" of any power called the "k" factor that compensate for this unknown effects of drag above ; "k" > "i". Bashforth then integrated "k" and "i" as "K".


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Although Bashforth did not conceive the "restricted zone", he showed mathematically there were 5 restricted zones. Bashforth did not propose a standard projectile, but was well aware of the concept.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1872, Mayevski published his report "Trité Balistique Extérieure", which included the Mayevski model. Using his ballistic tables along with Bashforth's tables from the 1870 report, Mayevski created an analytical math formula that calculated the air resistances of a projectile in terms of log A and the value "n". Although Mayevski's math used a differing approach than Bashforth, the resulting calculation of air resistance was the same. Mayevski proposed the restricted zone concept and found there to be six restricted zones for projectiles.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Circa 1886, Mayevski published the results from a discussion of experiments made by M. Krupp (1880). Though the ogival-headed projectiles used varied greatly in caliber, they had essentially the same proportions as the standard projectile, being mostly 3 caliber in length, with an ogive of 2 calibers radius. Giving the standard projectile dimensionally as and .


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1880, Colonel Francesco Siacci published his work "Balistica". Siacci found as did those who came before him that the resistance and density of the air becomes greater and greater as a projectile displaced the air at higher and higher velocities.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Siacci's method was for flat-fire trajectories with angles of departure of less than 20 degrees. He found that the angle of departure is sufficiently small to allow for air density to remain the same and was able to reduce the ballistics tables to easily tabulated quadrants giving distance, time, inclination and altitude of the projectile. Using Bashforth's "k" and Mayevski's tables, Siacci created a four-zone model. Siacci used Mayevski's standard projectile. From this method and standard projectile, Siacci formulated a shortcut.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Siacci found that within a low-velocity restricted zone, projectiles of similar shape, and velocity in the same air density behave similarly; formula_10 or formula_11. Siacci used the variable formula_12 for ballistic coefficient. Meaning, air density is the generally the same for flat-fire trajectories, thus sectional density is equal to the ballistic coefficient and air density can be dropped. Then as the velocity rises to Bashforth's formula_13 for high velocity when formula_12 requires the introduction of formula_15. Following within today's currently used ballistic trajectory tables for an average ballistic coefficient: formula_16 would equal formula_17 equals formula_18 as formula_19.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Siacci wrote that within any restricted zone, "C" being the same for two or more projectiles, the trajectories differences will be minor. Therefore, "C" agrees with an average curve, and this average curve applies for all projectiles. Therefore, a single trajectory can be computed for the standard projectile without having to resort to tedious calculus methods, and then a trajectory for any actual bullet with known "C" can be computed from the standard trajectory with just simple algebra.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The aforementioned ballistics tables are generally: functions, air density, projectile time at range, range, degree of projectile departure, weight and diameter to facilitate the calculation of ballistic formulae. These formulae produce the projectile velocity at range, drag and trajectories. The modern day commercially published ballistic tables or software computed ballistics tables for small arms, sporting ammunition are exterior ballistic, trajectory tables.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The 1870 Bashforth tables were to . Mayevski, using his tables, supplemented by the Bashforth tables (to 6 restricted zones) and the Krupp tables. Mayevski conceived a 7th restricted zone and extended the Bashforth tables to . Mayevski converted Bashforth's data from Imperial units of measure to metric units of measure (now in SI units of measure). In 1884, James Ingalls published his tables in the U.S. Army Artillery Circular M using the Mayevski tables. Ingalls extended Mayevski's ballistics tables to within an 8th restricted zone, but still with the same "n" value (1.55) as Mayevski's 7th restricted zone. Ingalls, converted Mayevski's results back to Imperial units. The British Royal Artillery results were very similar to those of Mayevski's and extended their tables to within the 8th restricted zone changing the "n" value from 1.55 to 1.67. These ballistic tables were published in 1909 and almost identical to those of Ingalls. In 1971 the Sierra Bullet company calculated their ballistic tables to 9 restricted zones but only within .


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In 1881, the Commission d'Experience de Gâvre did a comprehensive survey of data available from their tests as well as other countries. After adopting a standard atmospheric condition for the drag data the Gavre drag function was adopted. This drag function was known as the Gavre function and the standard projectile adopted was the Type 1 projectile. Thereafter, the Type 1 standard projectile was renamed by Ballistics Section of Aberdeen Proving Grounds in Maryland, USA as G after the Commission d'Experience de Gâvre. For practical purposes the subscript 1 in G is generally written in normal font size as G1.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The general form for the calculations of trajectory adopted for the G model is the Siacci method. The standard model projectile is a "fictitious projectile" used as the mathematical basis for the calculation of actual projectile's trajectory when an initial velocity is known. The G1 model projectile adopted is in dimensionless measures of 2 caliber radius ogival-head and 3.28 caliber in length. By calculation this leaves the body length 1.96 caliber and head, 1.32 caliber long.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Over the years there has been some confusion as to adopted size, weight and radius ogival-head of the G1 standard projectile. This misconception may be explained by Colonel Ingalls in the 1886 publication, Exterior Ballistics in the Plan Fire; page 15, "In the following tables the first and second columns give the velocities and corresponding resistance, in pounds, to an elongated one inch in diameter and having an ogival head of one and a half calibers. They were deduced from Bashforth's experiments by Professor A. G. Greenhill, and are taken from his papers published in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution, Number 2, Volume XIII." Further it is discussed that said projectile's weight was one pound.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: For the purposes of mathematical convenience for any standard projectile (G) the "C" is 1.00. Where as the projectile's sectional density (SD) is dimensionless with a mass of 1 divided by the square of the diameter of 1 caliber equaling an SD of 1. Then the standard projectile is assigned a coefficient of form of 1. Following that formula_20. "C", as a general rule, within flat-fire trajectory, is carried out to 2 decimal points. "C" is commonly found within commercial publications to be carried out to 3 decimal points as few sporting, small arms projectiles rise to the level of 1.00 for a ballistic coefficient.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: When using the Siacci method for different G models, the formula used to compute the trajectories is the same. What differs is retardation factors found through testing of actual projectiles that are similar in shape to the standard project reference. This creates slightly different set of retardation factors between differing G models. When the correct G model retardation factors are applied within the Siacci mathematical formula for the same G model "C", a corrected trajectory can be calculated for any G model.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Another method of determining trajectory and ballistic coefficient was developed and published by Wallace H. Coxe and Edgar Beugless of DuPont in 1936. This method is by shape comparison an logarithmic scale as drawn on 10 charts. The method estimates the ballistic coefficient related to the drag model of the Ingalls tables. When matching an actual projectile against the drawn caliber radii of Chart No. 1, it will provide "i" and by using Chart No. 2, "C "can be quickly calculated. Coxe and Beugless used the variable "C" for ballistic coefficient.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The Siacci method was abandoned by the end of the World War I for artillery fire. But the U.S. Army Ordnance Corps continued using the Siacci method into the middle of the 20th century for direct (flat-fire) tank gunnery. The development of the electromechanical analog computer contributed to the calculation of aerial bombing trajectories during World War II. After World War II the advent of the silicon semiconductor based digital computer made it possible to create trajectories for the guided missiles/bombs, intercontinental ballistic missiles and space vehicles.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Between World War I and II the U.S. Army Ballistics research laboratories at Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Maryland, USA developed the standard models for G2, G5, G6. In 1965, Winchester Western published a set of ballistics tables for G1, G5, G6 and GL. In 1971 Sierra Bullet Company retested all their bullets and concluded that the G5 model was not the best model for their boat tail bullets and started using the G1 model. This was fortunate, as the entire commercial sporting and firearms industries had based their calculations on the G1 model. The G1 model and Mayevski/Siacci Method continue to be the industry standard today. This benefit allows for comparison of all ballistic tables for trajectory within the commercial sporting and firearms industry.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In recent years there have been vast advancements in the calculation of flat-fire trajectories with the advent of Doppler radar and the personal computer and handheld computing devices. Also, the newer methodology proposed by Dr. Arthur Pejsa and the use of the G7 model used by Mr. Bryan Litz, ballistic engineer for Berger Bullets, LLC for calculating boat tailed spitzer rifle bullet trajectories and 6 Dof model based software have improved the prediction of flat-fire trajectories.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Most ballistic mathematical models and hence tables or software take for granted that one specific drag function correctly describes the drag and hence the flight characteristics of a bullet related to its ballistic coefficient. Those models do not differentiate between wadcutter, flat-based, spitzer, boat-tail, very-low-drag, etc. bullet types or shapes. They assume one invariable drag function as indicated by the published BC. Several different drag curve models optimized for several standard projectile shapes are available, however.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Since these standard projectile shapes differ significantly the G"x" BC will also differ significantly from the G"y" BC for an identical bullet. To illustrate this the bullet manufacturer Berger has published the G1 and G7 BCs for most of their target, tactical, varmint and hunting bullets. Other bullet manufacturers like Lapua and Nosler also published the G1 and G7 BCs for most of their target bullets. How much a projectile deviates from the applied reference projectile is mathematically expressed by the form factor ("i"). The applied reference projectile shape always has a form factor ("i") of exactly 1. When a particular projectile has a sub 1 form factor ("i") this indicates that the particular projectile exhibits lower drag than the applied reference projectile shape. A form factor ("i") greater than 1 indicates the particular projectile exhibits more drag than the applied reference projectile shape. In general the G1 model yields comparatively high BC values and is often used by the sporting ammunition industry.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Variations in BC claims for exactly the same projectiles can be explained by differences in the ambient air density used to compute specific values or differing range-speed measurements on which the stated G1 BC averages are based. Also, the BC changes during a projectile's flight, and stated BCs are always averages for particular range-speed regimes. Further explanation about the variable nature of a projectile's G1 BC during flight can be found at the external ballistics article. The external ballistics article implies that knowing how a BC was determined is almost as important as knowing the stated BC value itself.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: For the precise establishment of BCs (or perhaps the scientifically better expressed drag coefficients), Doppler radar-measurements are required. The normal shooting or aerodynamics enthusiast, however, has no access to such expensive professional measurement devices. Weibel 1000e or Infinition BR-1001 Doppler radars are used by governments, professional ballisticians, defense forces, and a few ammunition manufacturers to obtain exact real-world data on the flight behavior of projectiles of interest.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Doppler radar measurement results for a lathe turned monolithic solid .50 BMG very-low-drag bullet (Lost River J40 , monolithic solid bullet / twist rate 1:) look like this:


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The initial rise in the BC value is attributed to a projectile's always present yaw and precession out of the bore. The test results were obtained from many shots, not just a single shot. The bullet was assigned 1.062 lb/in (746.7 kg/m) for its BC number by the bullet's manufacturer, Lost River Ballistic Technologies.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Measurements on other bullets can give totally different results. How different speed regimes affect several 8.6 mm (.338 in calibre) rifle bullets made by the Finnish ammunition manufacturer Lapua can be seen in the .338 Lapua Magnum product brochure which states Doppler radar established BC data.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Sporting bullets, with a calibre "d" ranging from , have "C" in the range 0.12 lb/in to slightly over 1.00 lb/in (84 kg/m to 703 kg/m). Those bullets with the higher BCs are the most aerodynamic, and those with low BCs are the least. Very-low-drag bullets with "C" ≥ 1.10 lb/in (over 773 kg/m) can be designed and produced on CNC precision lathes out of mono-metal rods, but they often have to be fired from custom made full bore rifles with special barrels.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Ammunition makers often offer several bullet weights and types for a given cartridge. Heavy-for-caliber pointed (spitzer) bullets with a boattail design have BCs at the higher end of the normal range, whereas lighter bullets with square tails and blunt noses have lower BCs. The 6 mm and 6.5 mm cartridges are probably the most well known for having high BCs and are often used in long range target matches of – . The 6 and 6.5 have relatively light recoil compared to high BC bullets of greater caliber and tend to be shot by the winner in matches where accuracy is key. Examples include the 6mm PPC, 6mm Norma BR, 6×47mm SM, 6.5×55mm Swedish Mauser, 6.5×47mm Lapua, 6.5 Creedmoor, 6.5 Grendel, .260 Remington, and the 6.5-284. The 6.5 mm is also a popular hunting caliber in Europe.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In the United States, hunting cartridges such as the .25-06 Remington (a 6.35 mm caliber), the .270 Winchester (a 6.8 mm caliber), and the .284 Winchester (a 7 mm caliber) are used when high BCs and moderate recoil are desired. The .30-06 Springfield and .308 Winchester cartridges also offer several high-BC loads, although the bullet weights are on the heavy side for the available case capacity, and thus are velocity limited by the maximum allowable pressure.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In the larger caliber category, the .338 Lapua Magnum and the .50 BMG are popular with very high BC bullets for shooting beyond 1,000 meters. Newer chamberings in the larger caliber category are the .375 and .408 Cheyenne Tactical and the .416 Barrett.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: For many years, bullet manufacturers were the main source of ballistic coefficients for use in trajectory calculations. However, in the past decade or so, it has been shown that ballistic coefficient measurements by independent parties can often be more accurate than manufacturer specifications. Since ballistic coefficients depend on the specific firearm and other conditions that vary, it is notable that methods have been developed for individual users to measure their own ballistic coefficients.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: Satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO) with high ballistic coefficients experience smaller perturbations to their orbits due to atmospheric drag.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: The ballistic coefficient of an atmospheric reentry vehicle has a significant effect on its behavior. A very high ballistic coefficient vehicle would lose velocity very slowly and would impact the Earth's surface at higher speeds. In contrast, a low ballistic coefficient vehicle would reach subsonic speeds before reaching the ground.


title: Ballistic coefficient

text: In general, reentry vehicles carrying human beings or other sensitive payloads back to Earth from space have high drag and a correspondingly low ballistic coefficient (less than approx. 100 lb/ft).<br>Vehicles that carry nuclear weapons launched by an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), by contrast, have a high ballistic coefficient, ranging between 100 and 5000 lb/ft, enabling a significantly faster descent from space to the surface. This in turn makes the weapon less affected by crosswinds or other weather phenomena, and harder to track, intercept, or otherwise defend against.


title: God of the gaps

text: "God of the gaps" is a theological perspective in which gaps in scientific knowledge are taken to be evidence or proof of God's existence.


title: God of the gaps

text: From the 1880s, Friedrich Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", Part Two, "On Priests", said "... into every gap they put their delusion, their stopgap, which they called God".


title: God of the gaps

text: The concept, although not the exact wording, goes back to Henry Drummond, a 19th-century evangelist lecturer, from his 1893 Lowell Lectures on "The Ascent of Man". He chastises those Christians who point to the things that science has not explained—"gaps which they will fill up with God"—and urges them to embrace all nature as God's, as the work of "an immanent God, which is the God of Evolution, is infinitely grander than the occasional wonder-worker, who is the God of an old theology."


title: God of the gaps

text: In 1933, Ernest Barnes, the Bishop of Birmingham, used the phrase in a discussion of general relativity's implication of a Big Bang:


title: God of the gaps

text: During World War II the German theologian and martyr Dietrich Bonhoeffer expressed the concept in similar terms in letters he wrote while in a Nazi prison. Bonhoeffer wrote, for example:


title: God of the gaps

text: Coulson was a mathematics professor at Oxford University as well as a Methodist church leader, often appearing in the religious programs of British Broadcasting Corporation. His book got national attention, was reissued as a paperback, and was reprinted several times, most recently in 1971.


title: God of the gaps

text: The term was then used in a 1971 book and a 1978 article, by Richard Bube. He articulated the concept in greater detail in "Man come of Age: Bonhoeffer’s Response to the God-of-the-Gaps" (1978). Bube attributed modern crises in religious faith in part to the inexorable shrinking of the God-of-the-gaps as scientific knowledge progressed. As humans progressively increased their understanding of nature, the previous "realm" of God seemed to many persons and religions to be getting smaller and smaller by comparison. Bube maintained that Darwin's "Origin of Species" was the "death knell" of the God-of-the-gaps. Bube also maintained that the God-of-the-gaps was not the same as the God of the Bible (that is, he was not making an argument against God per se, but rather asserting there was a fundamental problem with the perception of God as existing in the gaps of present-day knowledge).


title: God of the gaps

text: The term "God of the gaps" is sometimes used in describing the incremental retreat of religious explanations of physical phenomena in the face of increasingly comprehensive scientific explanations for those phenomena. Dorothy Dinnerstein includes psychological explanations for developmental distortions leading to a person believing in a deity, particularly a male deity.


title: God of the gaps

text: The expression, "God of the Gaps," contains a real truth. It is erroneous if it is taken to mean that God is not immanent in natural law but is only to be observed in mysteries unexplained by law. No significant Christian group has believed this view. It is true, however, if it be taken to emphasize that God is not only immanent in natural law but also is active in the numerous phenomena associated with the supernatural and the spiritual. There are gaps in a physical-chemical explanation of this world, and there always will be. Because science has learned many marvelous secrets of nature, it cannot be concluded that it can explain all phenomena. Meaning, soul, spirits, and life are subjects incapable of physical-chemical explanation or formation.


title: God of the gaps

text: The term "God-of-the-gaps fallacy" can refer to a position that assumes an act of God as the explanation for an unknown phenomenon, which according to the users of the term, is a variant of an argument from ignorance fallacy. Such an argument is sometimes reduced to the following form:


title: God of the gaps

text: One example of such an argument, which uses God as an explanation of one of the current gaps in biological science, is as follows:


title: God of the gaps

text: "Because current science can't figure out exactly how life started, it must be God who caused life to start." Critics of intelligent design creationism, for example, have accused proponents of using this basic type of argument.


title: God of the gaps

text: God-of-the-gaps arguments have been discouraged by some theologians who assert that such arguments tend to relegate God to the leftovers of science: as scientific knowledge increases, the dominion of God decreases.


title: God of the gaps

text: The term was invented as a criticism of people who perceive that God only acts in the gaps, and who restrict God's activity to such "gaps". It has also been argued that the God-of-the-gaps view is predicated on the assumption that any event which can be explained by science automatically excludes God; that if God did not do something via direct action, that he had no role in it at all.


title: God of the gaps

text: The "God of the gaps" argument, as traditionally advanced by scholarly Christians, was intended as a criticism against weak or tenuous faith, not as a statement against theism or belief in God.


title: God of the gaps

text: According to John Habgood in "The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology", the phrase is generally derogatory, and is inherently a direct criticism of a tendency to postulate acts of God to explain phenomena for which science has yet to give a satisfactory account. Habgood also states:


title: God of the gaps

text: It is theologically more satisfactory to look for evidence of God's actions within natural processes rather than apart from them, in much the same way that the meaning of a book transcends, but is not independent of, the paper and ink of which it is comprised.


title: God of the gaps

text: It has been criticized by both theologians and scientists, who say that it is a logical fallacy to base belief in God on gaps in scientific knowledge. In this vein, Richard Dawkins, an atheist, dedicates a chapter of his book "The God Delusion" to criticism of the God-of-the-gaps argument.


title: God of the gaps

text: Other scientists holding religious beliefs, such as Francis Collins, reject a God-of-the-gaps while embracing the idea of a God who fine tuned the universe precisely so human life could exist.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Trials of Mana, also known by its Japanese title is a 1995 action role-playing game developed and published by Square (now Square Enix) for the Super Famicom. It is the sequel to the 1993 game "Secret of Mana", and is the third installment in the "Mana" series. Set in a high fantasy world, the game follows three heroes as they attempt to claim the legendary Mana Sword and prevent the Benevodons from being unleashed and destroying the world. It features three main plotlines and six different possible main characters, each with their own storylines, and allows two players to play simultaneously. "Trials of Mana" builds on the gameplay of its predecessor with multiple enhancements, including the use of a time progression system with transitions from day to night and weekday to weekday in game time, and a wide range of character classes to choose from, which provides each character with an exclusive set of skills and status progression.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The game was designed by series creator Koichi Ishii, directed by veteran Square designer Hiromichi Tanaka, and produced by Tetsuhisa Tsuruzono. Artwork was produced by manga and anime artist Nobuteru Yūki, while the music was composed by "Secret of Mana" composer Hiroki Kikuta. Although the game was only published in Japan, English-speaking players had been able to play "Seiken Densetsu 3" due to an unofficial English fan translation released in 1999. "Seiken Densetsu 3" received considerable acclaim from reviewers, who praised the graphics as among the best ever made for the Super Famicom and the gameplay as an improved version of its predecessor's. The plot received mixed reviews by critics, who found the overlapping stories to be interesting and to enhance replayability, but the characters and plotlines themselves to be flat and clichéd. Overall, the game is considered by some critics to be a Super Famicom classic.


title: Trials of Mana

text: In June 2017, the game was included in the "Seiken Densetsu Collection" release for the Nintendo Switch in Japan; the collection was released in June 2019 in North America and the PAL region as "Collection of Mana" with "Seiken Densetsu 3" titled "Trials of Mana". A 3D remake of the same name was announced alongside it, and released worldwide in April 2020 for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, and PlayStation 4.


title: Trials of Mana

text: "Trials of Mana" has similar gameplay to its predecessor, "Secret of Mana". Like many other role-playing games of the 16-bit era, the game displays a top-down perspective, in which the three player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures. Control may be passed between each of the characters at any time; the companions not currently selected are controlled by artificial intelligence. The game may be played simultaneously by two players, as opposed to the three of "Secret of Mana". There are six possible player characters. At the beginning of the game, the player chooses which three of them will be playable and which one they will start with; the other two playable characters will join the party when met. The remaining three characters act as non-playable characters (NPCs) when encountered.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Each character can use one type of weapon, in addition to magical spells. The effectiveness of spells depends on the magical ability of the character and the element of the spell in relation to the enemy. When in battle mode, attacking monsters fills a gauge that allows the player to use character-specific special attacks. Upon collecting enough experience points in battle, each character can increase in level to gain improved character statistics such as strength and evasion. Options such as changing equipment, casting spells, or checking status are performed by cycling through the game's Ring Commands—a circular menu which hovers over the controlled party member. The game is paused whenever the Ring Command menu is activated. Within the Ring, the player has nine slots for storing items; additional items can be placed into item storage, which is inaccessible in combat.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Character level progression is coordinated by the player, as a choice is given as to which statistic to raise by a point at every level up. A "class" system is also present. Once a character reaches level 18, the player can visit one of several Mana Stones located throughout the game and choose to upgrade them to one of two classes for each character—either a class aligned to "Light" or a class aligned to "Dark"—which provides a different set of skills and different improvements to character statistics. A second class change may be optionally performed at level 38, again split between a light and a dark choice, if the player has obtained a required rare item for the target class. The class changes do not affect the plot of the game, only gameplay.


title: Trials of Mana

text: "Trials of Mana" also employs a calendar function into its gameplay. A week cycles much more quickly than an actual one, with a day passing in a matter of minutes. Each day of the week is represented by a different elemental spirit. On that spirit's day, magic of that element will be slightly stronger. An in-game day is also divided into day and night. Certain events only happen during certain times of day, such as a nighttime-only black market selling particularly rare items. Enemies encountered in the field also change during certain time periods, and some may be sleeping if the characters approach them at night. In addition, the character Kevin transforms into a werewolf when he fights at night, greatly increasing his attack power. Using an inn's services allows the player to "skip" the game's clock to that day's evening, or the following morning.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The story takes place in a fictional world where Mana represents an ethereal, but finite, energy source. Some time in the past, the Mana Goddess created the game's world by forging the powerful Sword of Mana and defeating eight monsters of destruction, the Benevodons—"God Beasts" in earlier translations—with it, sealing them within eight Mana Stones, before turning herself into the Mana Tree and falling asleep. The game is set at a time when Mana starts to fade and peace has ended, as several people plot to unleash the Benevodons from the stones so as to gain ultimate power. The game is not a direct sequel to the events in "Secret of Mana"; according to series creator Koichi Ishii in 2006, the "Mana" games do not take place in exactly the same world, and characters or elements that appear in different games are best considered alternate versions of each other. Instead, the connections between each title are more abstract than story-based. Despite this statement, the 2007 game "Heroes of Mana" is a direct prequel to "Trials of Mana", taking place 19 years before the latter's story.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The characters (and their individual stories) are grouped into three main sub-plots. Duran and Angela oppose the Crimson Wizard and the Dragon Lord, Hawkeye and Riesz oppose Belladonna and the Dark Majesty, Kevin and Charlotte oppose Goremand and the Masked Mage. The main storyline is determined by the first character chosen, though there is significantly more character interaction and dialogue if the other member of the pair is also in the party.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The story begins in a different place for each playable character. With the exception of Charlotte, the main character is soon told (or otherwise decides) to seek the advice of the Priest of Light in the Holy City Wendel. They arrive at the city of Jadd soon after the Beastmen have invaded. Due to the Beastmen's werewolf powers, they are able to make an escape by night. The main character—now including Charlotte—on the way to Wendel stays overnight in Astoria where they are woken by a bright light. Following it, it reveals itself to be a Faerie from the Sanctuary of Mana, exhausted by her journey. Out of desperation, the Faerie chooses the main character to be her host and tells them to get to Wendel. There, while they explain their grievances to the Priest of Light, the Faerie interrupts and explains that the Mana Tree is dying, and that the Sanctuary is in danger. The Priest explains that if the Tree dies, the Benevodons will reawaken and destroy the world. He goes on to explain further that, because the Faerie has chosen the main character as its host, they must travel to the Sanctuary to draw the Sword of Mana from the foot of the Mana Tree. They can then restore peace to the world, and have their wishes granted by the Mana Goddess if the sword is drawn before the Tree dies. A great deal of power is needed to open the gate to the Sanctuary. The Faerie does not have the strength to do it, and the ancient spell which would do so by unlocking the power in the Mana Stones also takes the caster's life. The Stones' guarding elemental spirits, however, will to be able to open the gate if their powers are combined


title: Trials of Mana

text: After journeying across the world to get the spirits, meeting the other two members of the party, thwarting the invasion attempts of Nevarl and Altena, discovering the powers of the Fire and Water Mana Stones, and learning the disappearance of the Mana Stone of Darkness along the way, the main character tries to open the gate to the Sanctuary of Mana with the spirits' assistance. The first attempt fails, but the second succeeds; the Faerie realizes that it was opened because someone else released the power from all the Mana Stones. The characters travel into the Sanctuary and the main character claims the Mana Sword. It is then discovered that the main character's adversaries—the Crimson Wizard and the Darkshine Knight for Angela and Duran; Malocchio and Isabella for Riesz and Hawkeye; or Goremand and a mind-controlled Heath, for Kevin and Charlotte—have defeated the other two sets of primary enemies. The remaining adversaries capture the Faerie and will only release her in exchange for the Mana Sword. The trade is made, and once the enemy receives the Sword, the Mana Stones shatter and the Benevodons are released


title: Trials of Mana

text: As The characters must then defeat the Benevodons before they can gather and destroy the world. However, after doing this they realize killing the Benevodons has given more power to their main enemy, who were their own personal enemies were working for—the Dragon Lord for Duran and Angela, the Dark Majesty for Hawkeye and Riesz, and the Masked Mage for Kevin and Charlotte. The already powerful villain absorbs the power of the Sword of Mana and the Benevodons in order to become a god, but is halted by the Mana Goddess blocking some of its power. After defeating the villain's minions, the characters go and defeat their main enemy, but are unable to stop him from destroying the Mana Tree and eliminating all Mana from the world. The Faerie then fuses with what is left of the Mana Tree; she will be reborn as the Mana Goddess in a thousand years, but until then Mana will not exist in the world. As the game ends, the characters go back to their own homelands


title: Trials of Mana

text: "Seiken Densetsu 3" was designed by series creator Koichi Ishii. The game was directed by Hiromichi Tanaka and produced by Tetsuhisa Tsuruzono. Tanaka had previously worked on several titles for Square, including as a designer on the first three "Final Fantasy" titles. Manga and anime artist Nobuteru Yūki was responsible for the character concept artwork, based on designs by Ishii. Production began in 1993, beginning with a lengthy period of trial-and-error where several prototype designs were created and scrapped. As the next generation of console hardware was close to release, the team were unable to "prolong" production or keep its existence quiet as they had done with "Secret of Mana". The team also had difficulties keeping staff, as many were being brought into the teams of other Super Famicom titles such as "Chrono Trigger" and "Romancing SaGa 3" to get them finished. Programmers in particular were in demand, and Tanaka remembered "fighting" with Hironobu Sakaguchi for staff. A downloadable demo saw a limited release on July 1, 1995 for the Super Famicom's Satellaview broadcast peripheral.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The original intent was for a "continuation" of "Secret of Mana", but the team ultimately scrapped all they had produced for the previous game and built "Trials of Mana" from scratch to become a more action-oriented title. The team wanted to get as close as possible to 3D graphics, with the design and background teams working in tandem to create multiple graphical layers. Some cut content from "Secret of Mana", particularly monster designs, was reused for "Trials of Mana". The final product was very large, with the team pushing the Super Famicom cartridge to capacity. A part cut from "Trials of Mana" before release was the end boss in the volcano dungeon; while planned from the outset, the team were short on time and so had to drop it.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The theme of the game is "independence". Ishii explained this as meaning he wanted the characters to have a sense of camaraderie through sharing each other's problems. The story kept a light tone, mostly due to Tanaka's insistence and Yūki's artwork. Each character was designed around both gameplay and narrative archetypes, providing players with variety and having quirks related to how they were raised. Duran was portrayed as a typical serious heroic figure, with Hawkeye being his direct opposite. Kevin was included as the team wanted a transforming character. Charlotte was compared to Popoi from "Secret of Mana", as she had a cheerful demeanour despite a dark past. Angela appears selfish and brash due to the neglect from her mother, while Riesz's narrative focuses on her "brother complex" due to losing her own mother at a young age. The artwork was designed to emulate a picture book more than anything realistic, emphasised with the use of soft colors. Much of the basic narrative was conceived by Tanaka, though due to hardware limitations and production time, the amount of variation between individual storylines was limited.


title: Trials of Mana

text: During the game's development and after its release in Japan on September 30, 1995, "Seiken Densetsu 3" became known abroad as "Secret of Mana 2", though a preview in "Next Generation" in August 1995 called it by its original name, despite still stating it to be a sequel to "Secret of Mana". The preview noted the six characters, calendar system, and a game world "three to four times" the size of the previous game, though it also reported that the game would be playable by three players, not two. Square stated in a 1995 issue of its North American newsletter that they planned to release the game during the second half of the year. A second preview in "Next Generation" in February 1996, calling the game "Secret of Mana 2", stated that the game's North American release had been canceled by Square's American branch due to programming bugs that they deemed impossible to fix in a timely manner.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Before 2019, "Seiken Densetsu 3" was not released outside Japan. "Retro Gamer" stated in 2011 that localizing the game for North America or Europe "would have cost a fortune", and that the rise of the competing PlayStation and Sega Saturn consoles diminished the benefits of spending so much on a Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) game. Another proposed reason was lackluster sales of "Secret of Mana" overseas. "Nintendo Power", a few months after "Seiken Densetsu 3" was released in Japan, said that the probability of a North American release for the game was low due to issues of "a technical nature" and that it would have been far too costly to produce at the time. This is further supported by Brian Fehdrau, lead programmer for Square's contemporary game "Secret of Evermore", who mentioned that "Seiken Densetsu 3" had some software bugs, hindering its likelihood of being certified for release by Nintendo of America without extensive work. In 2020, series producer Masaru Oyamada revealed that the size of the game meant there was no spare capacity on the cartridge for localization data.


title: Trials of Mana

text: There was an apparent misconception among video game fans that the SNES title "Secret of Evermore" was released in lieu of an English language version of "Seiken Densetsu 3" in 1995. "Secret of Evermore" was developed by a new team at Square's office in Redmond, Washington called Square Soft. According to Fehdrau, no one who worked on the "Evermore" project would have been involved in a translation of "Seiken Densetsu 3"; the Redmond team was specifically hired to create "Evermore". In 1999, a fan translation project for "Seiken Densetsu 3" led by Neill Corlett was successfully completed and made available on the internet as an unofficial patch, which could be applied to ROMs of the game when played with an emulator or played on a Super NES console with a development kit or backup device.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Following the Japanese release of the "Seiken Densetsu Collection", a compilation of the first three games of the "Mana" series, for the Nintendo Switch on June 1, 2017, staff at Square Enix became aware of overseas interest for the compilation. During the development for the upcoming remake, members of Square Enix's Western teams suggested that the original title be made available as well. In order to localize the game, a revisiting of the original development environment for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System was done, which required assistance from Nintendo. There was little trouble with localizing the title due to the expanded storage capacities of the Switch. Work on localizing the game to English and other European languages took about a year. Ishii requested that the title include a word with the number "3" in it for the remake. Square Enix decided on ""Trials of Mana"" because it referred to the trials of the protagonists, only three of six characters could be selected evolving into "triangle stories", and it included the prefix "tri" bearing the number "3" in accordance with Ishii's wishes. The localized game, now titled "Trials of Mana", was finally brought overseas as part of the "Collection of Mana", which was released on June 11, 2019 in North America and the PAL region.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The score for "Seiken Densetsu 3" was composed by Hiroki Kikuta, who had previously composed the music for "Secret of Mana" as his first video game score. Kikuta performed the sound selection, editing, effect design, and data encoding himself. Just as he did for "Secret of Mana", Kikuta spent nearly 24 hours a day in his office, alternating between composing and editing to create a soundtrack that would be, according to him, "immersive" and "three-dimensional". Similarly, rather than use premade MIDI samples of instruments like most game music composers of the time, Kikuta made his own MIDI samples that matched the hardware capabilities of the Super Famicom so that he would know exactly how the pieces would sound on the system's hardware instead of having to deal with audio hardware differences between the original MIDI sampler and the SNES. The soundtrack's music has been described by Freddie W. of RPGFan as "bouncy, energetic, flowing, and serene", and is noted for its use of piano and drums. He further called it a "more refined and matured" version of the "Secret of Mana" soundtrack.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The 1995 soundtrack album "Seiken Densetsu 3 Original Sound Version" collects 60 tracks of music from "Seiken Densetsu 3". It was published by NTT Publishing, and republished by Square Enix in 2004. The main theme from "Secret of Mana", "Angel's Fear", is also featured in "Seiken Densetsu 3" as a part of "Where Angels Fear to Tread". In addition to the original soundtrack album, an arranged album of music from "Secret of Mana" and "Seiken Densetsu 3" was produced in 1993 as "Secret of Mana+". The music in the album was all composed and arranged by Kikuta. "Secret of Mana+" contains a single track, titled "Secret of Mana", that incorporates themes from the music of both "Secret of Mana" and "Seiken Densetsu 3", which was still under development at the time. The style of the album has been described by critics as "experimental", using "strange sounds" such as waterfalls, bird calls, cell phone sounds, and "typing" sounds. "Secret of Mana+" was originally published by NTT Publishing/Square, and was reprinted by NTT Publishing in 1995 and 2004.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The track "Meridian Child" from the original soundtrack was performed by the Kanagawa Philharmonic Orchestra for the fifth Orchestral Game Concert in 1996. "Meridian Child" was again performed on February 6, 2011, when the Eminence Symphony Orchestra played a concert in Tokyo as part of the "Game Music Laboratory" concert series as a tribute to the music of Kenji Ito and Hiroki Kikuta. One of the companion books of sheet music for the "Mana" series, the first edition of "Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music", included pieces from "Seiken Densetsu 3", rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos, though intended to sound like the originals.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Due to its Japanese exclusivity, most of the English-language reviews for "Seiken Densetsu 3" were published years after the initial release. One contemporary English-language review was in 1995 in "GameFan", which covered import games and rated the game highly. The Japanese "Famitsu" review also rated the game highly, though slightly lower than "Secret of Mana". The Brazilian "SuperGamePower" magazine also gave it a positive contemporary review, noting it as having some of the best graphics of any game on the SNES. Critics have also rated the game highly in retrospective reviews, published mostly after the release of the fan translation patch in 2000. The graphics were praised; a review from "1UP.com" called the game "absolutely gorgeous", which they attributed to its position towards the end of the era of 2D SNES games, but before developers tried to start working with prerendered 3D graphics. A review by Chris Parsons of "RPGamer" agreed, terming the graphics "awesome" and positively comparing some of the effects to PlayStation RPGs, which the "Cubed3" review by Adam Riley did as well. A preview by "Next Generation" written after the release of the game in Japan stated that the detailed graphics "puts just about every other recent 32-bit RPG to shame", while the review by Corbie Dillard of "Nintendo Life" also noted the game as one of the best graphically on the SNES and called out the unique visual styles of each area in the game as of particular note. The game's music was also generally praised; "Nintendo Life"s Dillard called it "spectacular from start to finish", while "Cubed3"s Riley said it was "one of the most sonically pleasing out of the whole SNES lifetime" and "RPGamer"s Parsons said that "a wonderful job was done in the composition of the music". The "Next Generation" preview praised both the quality of the soundtrack and the musical continuity from the "Secret of Mana" soundtrack.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The gameplay was highly rated by most reviewers, though the combat system had detractors. Dillard of "Nintendo Life" felt that the gameplay was as good as that of "Secret of Mana" and it had "a much more strategic feel to it". The "1UP.com" and "Cubed3" reviews also brought up the day and time system as interesting additions, though the "1UP.com" reviewer felt that the combat was not "quite as tight" as in "Secret of Mana". The "Next Generation" preview, while acknowledging that several flaws in the "Secret of Mana" combat system had been corrected and praising the boss battles, felt that the computer-controlled characters showed no sense of tactics, resulting in a free-for-all. A review by "JeuxVideo.com" also noted several improvements in the combat system over the prior game, but felt that battles could turn into a chaotic mass of attacks and numbers. Parsons of "RPGamer" also called out the Ring system as being flawed, as he found it frustrating that the menu could not be brought up while a character was performing an action, making boss battles hectic and difficult. The "JeuxVideo.com" reviewer also took issue with this restriction.


title: Trials of Mana

text: The plot received mixed reviews; while several reviewers praised the system of choosing different main characters, especially its effect on replayability, "Cubed3"s Riley felt that it meant that the story "can be quite confusing". Parsons noted that the interactions with the characters that were not chosen often left plot holes, as their motivations were not explained. The "Famitsu" review praised the replayability of the branching narrative. The "Next Generation" preview, while praising the multiple storylines as an innovation in the genre, felt that it had been attached to a "magic-and-monsters fantasy-formula" plot. The "1UP.com" reviewer agreed, saying that the plot was not "too terribly engaging", suffering from clichés and flat characters.


title: Trials of Mana

text: Overall, the game is regarded by many as a SNES classic; "Nintendo Life"s Dillard stated that it was "easily one of the best RPGs to come out of the 16-bit era", while the "1UP.com" reviewer said that if it had been officially translated into English it "very likely would have become a fondly remembered classic".


title: Trials of Mana

text: A remake of the game, released under the official localized title, was announced at E3 2019 for a worldwide release for the PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, and Windows PC in early 2020. It was released worldwide on April 24 of that year. Beginning production in 2017, the remake was produced with the aim of staying true to the original while reimagining it using 3D graphics and with an expanded, modernized gameplay system.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Elasmosaurus (;) is a genus of plesiosaur that lived in North America during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous period, about 80.5million years ago. The first specimen was discovered in 1867 near Fort Wallace, Kansas, US, and was sent to the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope, who named it E.platyurus in 1868. The generic name means "thin-plate reptile", and the specific name means "flat-tailed". Cope originally reconstructed the skeleton of "Elasmosaurus" with the skull at the end of the tail, an error which was made light of by the paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, and became part of their "Bone Wars" rivalry. Only one incomplete "Elasmosaurus" skeleton is definitely known, consisting of a fragmentary skull, the spine, and the pectoral and pelvic girdles, and a single species is recognized today; other species are now considered invalid or have been moved to other genera.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Measuring in length and in body mass, "Elasmosaurus" would have had a streamlined body with paddle-like limbs, a short tail, a small head, and an extremely long neck. The neck alone was around long. Along with its relative "Albertonectes", it was one of the longest-necked animals to have lived, with the second largest number of neck vertebrae known, 72, 4 less than "Albertonectes". The skull would have been slender and triangular, with large, fang-like teeth at the front, and smaller teeth towards the back. It had six teeth in each premaxilla of the upper jaw, and may have had 14 teeth in the maxilla and 19 in the dentary of the lower jaw. Most of the neck vertebrae were compressed sideways, and bore a longitudinal crest or keel along the sides.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: The family Elasmosauridae was based on the genus "Elasmosaurus", the first recognized member of this group of long-necked plesiosaurs. Elasmosaurids were well adapted for aquatic life, and used their flippers for swimming. Contrary to earlier depictions, their necks were not very flexible, and could not be held high above the water surface. It is unknown what their long necks were used for, but they may have had a function in feeding. Elasmosaurids probably ate small fish and marine invertebrates, seizing them with their long teeth, and may have used gastroliths (stomach stones) to help digest their food. "Elasmosaurus" is known from the Pierre Shale formation, which represents marine deposits from the Western Interior Seaway.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: In early 1867, the American army surgeon Theophilus Hunt Turner and the army scout William Comstock explored the rocks around Fort Wallace, Kansas, where they were stationed during the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad. Approximately northeast of Fort Wallace, near McAllaster, Turner discovered the bones of a large fossil reptile in a ravine in the Pierre Shale formation, and though he had no paleontological experience, he recognized the remains as belonging to an "extinct monster". In June, Turner gave three fossil vertebrae to the American scientist John LeConte, a member of the railway survey, to take back east to be identified. In December, LeConte delivered some of the vertebrae to the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP, known since 2011 as the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University). Recognizing them as the remains of a plesiosaur, larger than any he had seen in Europe, Cope wrote to Turner asking him to deliver the rest of the specimen, at the ANSP's expense.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: In December 1867 Turner and others from Fort Wallace returned to the site and recovered much of the vertebral column, as well as concretions that contained other bones; the material had a combined weight of . The fossils were dug or pried out of the relatively soft shale with picks and shovels, loaded on a horse-drawn wagon, and transported back to Fort Wallace. Cope sent instructions on how to pack the bones, which were thereafter sent in hay-padded crates on a military wagon east to the railroad, which had not yet reached the fort. The specimen arrived in Philadelphia by rail in March 1868, whereafter Cope examined it hurriedly; he reported on it at the March ANSP meeting, during which he named it "Elasmosaurus platyurus". The generic name "Elasmosaurus" means "thin-plate reptile", in reference to the "plate" bones of the sternal and pelvic regions, and the specific name "platyurus" means "flat-tailed", in reference to the compressed "tail" (actually the neck) and laminae of the vertebrae there.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Cope requested that Turner search for more parts of the "Elasmosaurus" specimen, and was sent more fossils during August or September 1868. The ANSP thanked Turner for his "very valuable gift" at their meeting in December 1868, and Turner visited the museum during spring, at a time when Cope was absent. Turner died unexpectedly at Fort Wallace on July27, 1869, without seeing the completion of the work he began, but Cope continued to write him, unaware of his death until 1870. The circumstances around Turner's discovery of the type specimen were not covered in Cope's report, and remained unknown until Turner's letters were published in 1987. "Elasmosaurus" was the first major fossil discovery in Kansas (and the largest from there at the time), and marked the beginning of a fossil collecting rush that sent thousands of fossils from Kansas to prominent museums on the American east coast. "Elasmosaurus" was one of few plesiosaurs known from the New World at the time, and the first recognized member of the long-necked family of plesiosaurs, the Elasmosauridae.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: In 1869 Cope scientifically described and figured "Elasmosaurus", and the preprint version of the manuscript contained a reconstruction of the skeleton which he had earlier presented during his report at an ANSP meeting in September 1868. The reconstruction showed "Elasmosaurus" with a short neck and a long tail, unlike other plesiosaurs, and Cope was also unsure whether it had hind limbs. At an ANSP meeting a year and a half later, in March 1870, the American paleontologist Joseph Leidy (Cope's mentor) noted that Cope's reconstruction of "Elasmosaurus" showed the skull at the wrong end of the vertebral column, at the end of the tail instead of the neck. Cope had apparently concluded that the tail vertebrae belonged to the neck, since the jaws had been found at that end of the skeleton, even though the opposite end terminated in the axis and atlas bones that are found in the neck. Leidy also concluded that "Elasmosaurus" was identical to "Discosaurus", a plesiosaur he had named in 1851.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: To hide his mistake, Cope attempted to recall all copies of the preprint article, and printed a corrected version with a new skeletal reconstruction that placed the head on the neck (though it reversed the orientation of the individual vertebrae) and different wording in 1870. In a reply to Leidy, Cope claimed that he had been misled by the fact that Leidy had arranged the vertebrae of "Cimoliasaurus" in the reverse order in his 1851 description of that genus, and pointed out that his reconstruction had been corrected. Cope also rejected the idea that "Elasmosaurus" and "Discosaurus" were identical, and noted that the latter and "Cimoliasaurus" did not have any distinguishing features. Though Cope had tried to destroy the preprints, one copy came to the attention of the American paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh, who made light of the mistake. This led to antagonism between Cope, who was embarrassed by the mistake, and Marsh, who brought up the mistake repeatedly for decades. Marsh returned to the issue during their controversy in the "New York Herald" in the 1890s (Marsh claimed he had pointed out the error to Cope immediately), when their dispute gained widespread public attention. The argument was part of the "Bone Wars" rivalry between the two, and is well known in the history of paleontology.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Because of Cope's reputation as a brilliant paleontologist, it has been questioned why he would make such an obvious anatomical error. It has been suggested that, as a unique specimen in 1868, the original "Elasmosaurus" may have been hard to interpret based on the knowledge available at the time. Also, Cope initially thought it consisted of two specimens of different animalsin an 1868 letter to LeConte, Cope had referred to the supposed "smaller specimen" as "Discosaurus carinatus". Cope was only in his late twenties and not formally trained in paleontology, and may have been influenced by Leidy's mistake of reversing the vertebral column of "Cimoliasaurus". In 2002 the American art historian Jane P. Davidson noted that the fact that other scientists early on had pointed out Leidy's error argues against this explanation, adding that Cope was not convinced he had made a mistake. Plesiosaur anatomy was sufficiently well known at the time that Cope should not have made the mistake, according to Davidson. Cope did little work on the specimen since his 1870 description, and it was kept in storage for nearly 30 years. It was only redescribed in detail in 2005 by the German paleontologist Sven Sachs.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Today, the incomplete holotype specimen, cataloged as ANSP 10081, is the only definite specimen of "Elasmosaurus". It was long exhibited, but is now stored in a cabinet with other assigned fragments. The specimen consists of the premaxillae, part of the hind-section of the right maxilla, two maxilla fragments with teeth, the front part of the dentaries, three more jaw fragments, two cranial fragments of indeterminable identity, 72 neck vertebrae, including the atlas and axis, 3pectoral vertebrae, 6back vertebrae, 4sacral vertebrae, 18 tail vertebrae, as well as rib fragments. In 2013 an incomplete neck vertebra centrum of the holotype that had been mentioned by Cope but thought to have been lost was rediscovered in storage by Sachs, and the neck vertebra count was revised from 71 to 72. In 1986 a three-dimensional reconstruction of the holotype skeleton was completed and is now displayed at the ANSP. This cast was later copied by the company Triebold Paleontology Incorporated, and replicas were provided to other museums. The replica at the Fort Wallace Museum measures about in length.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Though Cope described and figured the pectoral and pelvic girdles of "Elasmosaurus" in 1869 and 1875, these elements were noted as missing from the collection by the American paleontologist Samuel Wendell Williston in 1906. Cope had loaned these elements to the English sculptor Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins to help prepare them out of their surrounding concretions. At the time, Hawkins was working on a "Paleozoic Museum" in New York's Central Park, where a reconstruction of "Elasmosaurus" was to appear, an American equivalent to his life-sized Crystal Palace Dinosaurs in London. In May 1871 much of the exhibit material in Hawkins' workshop was destroyed by vandals (working for the New York politician William M. "Boss" Tweed) and their fragments buried; it is possible that the girdle elements of "Elasmosaurus" were at the workshop and were likewise destroyed. Nothing was subsequently mentioned about their loss by Hawkins or Cope. In 2018, Davidson and Everhart documented the events leading up to the disappearance of these fossils, and suggested that a photo and drawing of Waterhouse's workshop from 1869 appear to show concretions on the floor that may have been the unprepared girdles of "Elasmosaurus". They also noted that conceptual sketches of the Palaeozoic Museum show that the model "Elasmosaurus" was originally envisioned with a long "tail", though later updated with a long neck. Davidson and Everhart concluded that the girdle fossils were most likely destroyed in Hawkins' workshop.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Fossils that may have belonged to the holotype were found by the American geologist Benjamin Franklin Mudge in 1871, but have probably been lost since. Additional plesiosaur fossils were recovered near the original locality in 1954, 1991, 1994, and 1998, including back vertebrae, ribs, gastralia (belly ribs), and gastroliths. As none of these elements overlap with those of the holotype specimen, in 2005 the American paleontologist Michael J. Everhart concluded they belonged to the same individual, and that the parts had been separated before burial of the carcass. He also noted that a small stone wedged in the neural canal of one of the tail vertebrae of the holotype may be a gastrolith, based on its polished appearance. In 2007 the Colombian paleontologists Leslie Noè and Marcela Gómez-Pérez expressed doubt that the additional elements belonged to the type specimen, or even to "Elasmosaurus", due to lack of evidence. They explained that elements missing from the holotype may have been lost to weathering or simply not collected, and that parts may have been lost or damaged during transportation or preparation. Gastroliths may also not have been recognized as such during collection, since such stones were not reported from a plesiosaur until ten years after.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: In 2017 Sachs and Joachim Ladwig suggested that a fragmentary elasmosaurid skeleton from the upper Campanian of Kronsmoor in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany, and housed in the Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld, may have belonged to "Elasmosaurus". Additional parts of the same skeleton are housed at the Institute for Geology of the University of Hamburg, as well as in private collections. Combined, the specimen consists of neck, back and tail vertebrae, phalanges, a tooth, limb elements, 110 gastroliths, and unidentifiable fragments.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Though the only known specimen of "Elasmosaurus" (holotype specimen ANSP10081) is fragmentary and missing many elements, related elasmosaurids show it would have had a compact, streamlined body, long, paddle-like limbs, a short tail, a proportionately small head, and an extremely long neck. The neck of "Elasmosaurus" is estimated at in length; thus, "Elasmosaurus" and its relative "Albertonectes" were some of the longest-necked animals ever to have lived, with the largest number of neck vertebrae of any known vertebrate animals. In spite of their many neck vertebrae, the necks of elasmosaurids were less than half as long as those of the longest-necked sauropod dinosaurs. Initially, in his 1869 description of "Elasmosaurus", Cope estimated the length of the animal by summing up vertebral lengths and estimations of missing parts, resulting in a total length of ; he believed that the living animal would have been slightly larger due to cartilage present between the vertebral bodies, and was estimated at roughly . However, in 1952, the American paleontologist Samuel Welles estimated the body length to have been . An "Elasmosaurus" of this length would have measured in body mass.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Like other elasmosaurids, "Elasmosaurus" would have had a slender, triangular skull. The snout was rounded and almost formed a semi-circle when viewed from above, and the premaxillae (which form the front of the upper jaw) bore a low keel at the midline. It is uncertain how many teeth "Elasmosaurus" had, due to the fragmentary state of the fossils. It probably had six teeth in each premaxilla, and the teeth preserved there were formed like large fangs. The number of premaxillary teeth distinguished "Elasmosaurus" from primitive plesiosauroids and most other elasmosaurids, which usually had fewer. The two teeth at the front were smaller than the succeeding ones, and were located between the first two teeth in the dentaries of the lower jaws. The known teeth of the front part of the lower jaw were large fangs, and the teeth at the back of the jaws appear to have been smaller. The dentition of elasmosaurids was generally heterodont (irregular throughout the jaws), with the teeth becoming progressively smaller from front to back. The maxillae (largest tooth bearing bone of the upper jaw) of elasmosaurids usually contained 14teeth, whereas the dentaries (the main part of the lower jaws) usually contained 17 to 19. The teeth interlocked, and their tooth crowns were slender and rounded in cross-section. The mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the lower jaw connected) was well ossified, with no visible suture.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: The pectoral and pelvic girdles of the holotype specimen were noted as missing by 1906, but observations about these elements were since made based on the original descriptions and figures from the late 19thcentury. The shoulder blades (scapulae) were fused and met at the midline, bearing no trace of a median bar. The upper processes of the shoulder blades were very broad, and the "necks" of the shoulder blades were long. The pectoral girdle had a long bar at the middle, a supposedly advanced feature thought to be absent from juvenile plesiosaurs. The ischia (a pair of bones that formed part of the pelvis) were joined at the middle, so that a medial bar was present along the length of the pelvis, a feature usually not found in plesiosaurs. Like other elasmosaurids (and plesiosaurs in general), "Elasmosaurus" would have had large, paddle-like limbs with very long digits. The paddles at the front (the pectoral paddles) were longer than those at the back (the pelvic paddles).


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Unlike those of many other long-necked animals, the individual neck vertebrae were not particularly elongated; rather, the extreme neck length was achieved by a much increased number of vertebrae. "Elasmosaurus" differed from all other plesiosaurs by having 72 neck (or cervical) vertebrae; more may have been present but were later lost to erosion or after excavation. Only "Albertonectes" had more neck vertebrae, 75, and the two are the only plesiosaurs with a count higher than 70; more than 60 vertebrae is very derived (or "advanced") for plesiosaurs.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: The atlas and axis bone complex, consisting of the first two neck vertebrae and articulated with the back of the skull, was long, low, and horizontally rectangular in side-view. The centra, or "bodies", of these vertebrae were co-ossified in the holotype specimen, which indicates it was an adult. The neural arches of these vertebrae were very thin and rather high, which gave the neural canal (the opening through the middle of the vertebrae) a triangular outline when seen from the back. The lower part of the neural canal was narrow towards the back by the axis, where it was half the breadth of the centrum. It became broader towards the front, where it was almost the same breadth as the centrum of the atlas. The neural arches were also more robust there than in the axis, and the neural canal was higher. The neural spine was low and directed upwards and back. The centra of the atlas and axis were of equal length, and had a quadratic shape in side view. The surface (or facet) where the axis articulated with the next vertebra had an oval outline, and an excavation for the neural canal in the middle of its upper edge. A distinct keel ran along the lower middle of the atlas and axis vertebrae.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Most of the neck vertebrae were compressed sideways, especially at the middle of the neck. A crest (also termed ridge or keel) ran longitudinally along the side of the neck vertebrae (a feature typical of elasmosaurids), visible from the third to the fifty-fifth vertebrae, at the hind part of the neck. This crest was positioned at the middle of the centrum in the front vertebrae, and at the upper half of the centrum from the 19th vertebra and onwards. The crest would have served to anchor the musculature of the neck. The centra differed in shape depending on the position of the vertebrae in the neck; that of the third vertebra was about as long as it was broad, but the centra became longer than broad from the fourth vertebra and onwards. The centra became more elongated at the middle of the neck, but became shorter again at the back of the neck, with the length and breadth being about equal at the 61st vertebra, and those of the hindmost vertebrae being broader than long. The articular surfaces of the vertebrae in the front of the neck were broad oval, and moderately deepened, with rounded, thickened edges, with an excavation (or cavity) at the upper and lower sides. Further back in the front part of the neck, around the 25th vertebra, the lower edge of the articular facets became more concave, and the facet shaped like a quadrate with rounded edges. By the 63rd vertebra, the articular facet was also quadratic in shape with rounded edges, whereas the centra of the hindmost vertebrae had a broad oval outline.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: The neural arches of the neck vertebrae were well fused to the centra, leaving no visible sutures, and the neural canal was narrow in the front vertebrae, becoming more prominently developed in the hind vertebrae, where it was as broad as high, and almost circular. The pre-and post-zygapophyses of the neck vertebrae, processes that articulated adjacent vertebrae so they fit together, were of equal length; the former reached entirely over the level of the centrum whereas the latter reached only with their back half. The neural spines of the neck vertebrae appear to have been low, and almost semi-circular by the 20th vertebra. The facets where the neck ribs articulated with the neck vertebrae were placed on the lower sides of the centra, but were only placed higher in the last three vertebrae, reaching around the middle of the sides. The neck ribs were semicircular to quadratic in side view, and were directed rather straight down. The bottom of each neck vertebrae had pairs of nutritive foramina (openings) at the middle, separated by a ridge, which became progressively more prominent and thickened towards the back of the neck.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: The vertebrae that transitioned between the neck and back (or dorsal) vertebrae in the pectoral region of plesiosaurs, close to the front margin of the forelimb girdle, are often termed pectoral vertebrae. "Elasmosaurus" had three pectoral vertebrae, which is a common number for elasmosaurids. The rib facets of the pectoral vertebrae were triangular in shape and situated on transverse processes, and the centra bore pairs of nutritive foramina in the middle of the lower sides. The back vertebrae had rib facets level with the neural canal, and the front and back part of the transverse processes here had distinct ridges on their margins. Here the rib facets where placed higher than the transverse processes, separating the two, and were oval to rectangular in outline. The pre-zygapophyses here were shorter than those in the neck and pectoral vertebrae, and only reached above the level of the centrum with the front third of their length. The post-zygapophyses reached over the level of the centrum with the back half of their length. Back vertebrae are not useful for distinguishing between elasmosaurids, since they are not diagnostic at the genus level.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: "Elasmosaurus" had four sacral vertebrae (the fused vertebrae that form the sacrum connected to the pelvis), a number typical of elasmosaurids. The transverse processes here were very short, and the rib facets increased in size from the first to the fourth sacral vertebra. A ridge ran along the top of these vertebrae, and the lower sides of the centra were rounded, and bore pairs of nutritive foramina, separated by low ridges. The first tail (or caudal) vertebra could be distinguished by the preceding sacral vertebra by having smaller rib facets, and by being positioned in the lower half of the centrum. These vertebrae were almost circular in shape, and the first two bore a narrow keel in the middle of the upper side. The rib facets of the tail vertebrae were located on the lower side of the centra, and their oval shape became larger and broader from the third vertebra and onwards, but became smaller from the 14th vertebra. Here, the pre-zygapophyses also reached over the level of the centra for most of their length, while the post-zygapophyses reached over this level by half their length. The lower part of the centra were rounded from the first to the third tail vertebrae, but concave from the fourth to the 18th. The usual number of tail vertebrae in elasmosaurids is 30. Since the last tail-vertebrae of elasmosaurids were fused into a structure similar to the pygostyle of birds, it is possible this supported a tail-fin, but the shape it would have had is unknown.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Following the description of the type species, "E. platyurus", a number of other "Elasmosaurus" species were described by Cope, Williston, and other authors. However, none of these species are still definitely referable to the genus "Elasmosaurus" today, and most of them either have been moved to genera of their own or are considered dubious names, "nomina dubia"that is, with no distinguishing features, and therefore of questionable validity.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Accompanying his 1869 description of "E. platyurus", Cope named another species of "Elasmosaurus", "E.orientalis", based on two dorsal vertebrae from New Jersey. He distinguished "E.orientalis" from "E.platyurus" by the more strongly developed processes known as parapophyses on the vertebrae, in which he considered it to approach closer to "Cimoliasaurus"; however, he still assigned it to "Elasmosaurus" on account of its large size and angled sides. The first of these vertebrae was used as a doorstop in a tailor's shop, whereas the other was found in a pit by Samuel Lockwood, a superintendent. Cope gave the name "orientalis" to the new species, on account of it possibly having a more easterly distribution than "E.platyurus". Leidy subsequently moved "E.orientalis" to the now dubious genus "Discosaurus" in the following year. In 1952 Welles considered the species a "nomen dubium", given how fragmentary it was.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: In 1869 Cope also published an article about the fossil reptiles of New Jersey, wherein he described "E.orientalis" as an animal with a "long neck". Yet, in an accompanying illustration Cope showed a short-necked "Elasmosaurus" confronting a "Dryptosaurus" (then "Laelaps"), with a plesiosaur-like "Mosasaurus" and other animals in the background. According to Davidson, it is uncertain which species of "Elasmosaurus" is depicted, but if it is "E.orientalis", the short neck contradicts Cope's own text, and if "E.platyurus", he showed the animal with a short neck after acknowledging this was incorrect. Davidson has suggested that even though Leidy had pointed out Cope's error in 1868, Cope may not have accepted this. In an 1870 reply to Leidy, Cope himself stated that the generic placement of "E.orientalis" was in doubt, and that he had illustrated it with a short neck due to believing this was the condition of "Cimoliasaurus". If more remains showed "E.orientalis" to have had a long neck like "Elasmosaurus", he stated the image may instead represent "Cimoliasaurus" better.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: In the same 1869 publication wherein he named "E. platyurus" and "E.orientalis", Cope assigned an additional species, "E.constrictus", based on a partial centrum from a neck vertebra found in the Turonian-aged clay deposits at Steyning, Sussex, in the United Kingdom. It was described by the British paleontologist Richard Owen as "Plesiosaurus constrictus" in 1850; Owen named the species after the extremely narrow breadth of the vertebra between the pleurapophyses, or the processes that articulate between the ribs. He considered this to be partially an artifact of preservation, but could not understand how the compression affected only the central portion and not the articular ends of the centrum. Cope recognized this as a natural condition, and considered "constrictus" to be "a species of "Elasmosaurus" or an ally". In 1962 Welles considered "P.constrictus" to be a "nomen dubium", given its fragmentary nature. Per Ove Persson retained it as valid in 1963, noting the longitudinal ridge on the sides of the centra as an elasmosaurid trait. In 1995 Nathalie Bardet and Pascal Godefroit also recognized it as an elasmosaurid, albeit indeterminate.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Cope discovered another elasmosaurid skeleton in 1876. He named it as a new species, "E.serpentinus", in 1877, and differentiated it by the lack of compression in the rear neck vertebrae, the presence of few sessile ribs among the first few dorsals, and the presence of "weak angles" below the front tail vertebrae. Cope had also discovered another large skeleton that bore great resemblance to the known remains of "E.orientalis" from the black shale of the "Cretaceous bed No.4"; he excavated it with the help of George B. Cledenning and Capt. Nicholas Buesen. In 1943 Welles removed "E.serpentinus" from "Elasmosaurus", and placed it in a new genus, "Hydralmosaurus". Subsequently, all "Hydralmosaurus" specimens were moved to "Styxosaurus" in 2016, rendering the former a "nomen dubium". Williston published a figure of another "E. serpentinus" specimen in 1914; Elmer Riggs formally described it in 1939. Welles moved this specimen to the new genus and species "Alzadasaurus riggsi" in 1943. Kenneth Carpenter reassigned it to "Thalassomedon haningtoni" in 1999; Sachs, Johan Lindgren, and Benjamin Kear noted that the remains represented a juvenile and were significantly distorted, and preferred to retain it as a "nomen dubium" in 2016.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Subsequently, a series of 19 neck and back vertebrae from the Big Bend region of the Missouripart of the Pierre Shale formationwere found by John H. Charles. Cope, upon receiving the bones at the Academy of Natural Sciences, considered them yet another species of "Elasmosaurus". The vertebrae were, according to Cope, the shortest among members of the genus (approaching "Cimoliasaurus" in this condition), but he still considered them as belonging to "Elasmosaurus" due to their compressed form. He named it "E.intermedius" in 1894. However, in his 1906 revision of North American plesiosaurs, Williston regarded the vertebrae as "all more or less mutilated", and found no distinct differences between the remains of "E.intermedius" and "E.platyurus". In 1952 Welles opined that, if "E.intermedius" was valid, "it must be referred to a pliosaurian genus"; however, he proceeded to label it a "nomen dubium" in 1962. Three shorter vertebrae found alongside "E.intermedius", assigned by Cope to the new genus and species "Embaphias circulosus", were also considered by Welles to be a "nomen dubium" in 1962.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Williston named a number of other new "Elasmosaurus" species in his 1906 revision. In 1874 he and Mudge discovered a specimen in Plum Creek, Kansas. While he initially assigned it in 1890 to a new species of "Cimoliasaurus", "C.snowii", he subsequently recognized the elasmosaurid nature of its humerus and coracoids. Thus, he renamed the species "E.snowii". A second specimen, discovered by Elias West in 1890, was also assigned by him to "E.snowii". In 1943 Welles moved "E.snowii" to its own genus, "Styxosaurus", where the species has remained. However, the West specimen was assigned to "Thalassiosaurus ischiadicus" (see below) by Welles in 1952; Carpenter returned it to "S.snowii" in 1999. Williston also reassigned the species "E.ischiadicus" from the genus "Polycotylus", where he had initially placed it when he named it in 1903. The type remains were discovered by him in the same 1874 expedition with Mudge. Williston assigned another specimen discovered by Mudge and H.A. Brous in 1876. In 1943 both specimens were assigned to the new genus "Thalassiosaurus" by Welles, who then assigned the latter to the new genus and species "Alzadasaurus kansasensis" in 1952. Glenn Storrs considered both to be indeterminate elasmosaurids in 1999; in the same year, Carpenter assigned both to "Styxosaurus snowii".


title: Elasmosaurus

text: An elasmosaurid specimen was found by Handel Martin in Logan County, Kansas in 1889. Williston named this as a new species, "E.(?)marshii". He bore reservations about its referral to the genus, and he recognized that it possibly pertained to another genus. In 1943 Welles moved "E.(?)marshii" to a genus of its own, "Thalassonomosaurus"; however, Carpenter sunk "T.marshii" into "Styxosaurus snowii" in 1999. Another species, "E.nobilis", was named by Williston from very large remains discovered by Mudge in 1874 in Jewell County, Kansas. Welles named "E.nobilis" as a species of "Thalassonomosaurus", "T.nobilis", in 1943, but it too was considered to be part of "S.snowii" by Carpenter. Finally, two exceptionally large dorsal vertebrae collected by Charles Sternberg in 1895 were named "E.sternbergii" by Williston, but were considered indeterminate by Storrs. Williston mentioned three additional "Elasmosaurus" species, which he would figure and describe at a later date. He again made reference to a new species of "Elasmosaurus", from Kansas, in 1908.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Several Russian species, based on poorly preserved vertebral remains, were assigned to "Elasmosaurus" by N.N. Bogolubov in 1911. One was "E.helmerseni", which was first described by W.Kiprijanoff in 1882 from Maloje Serdoba, Saratov, as "Plesiosaurus helmerseni". Some material from Scania, Sweden, was assigned to "P. helmerseni" in 1885 by H.Schröder. Vertebral and limb remains from Kursk initially assigned by Kiprijanoff to "P.helmerseni" were also moved by Bogolubov to the new species "E.kurskensis", which he considered to be "identical with "Elasmosaurus" or related to it". He also named "E.orskensis", based on "very large" neck and tail vertebra remains from Konopljanka, Orenburg; and "E.serdobensis", based on a single neck vertebra from Maloje Serdoba. However, the validity of all these species has been questioned. Welles considered "E.kurskensis" as an indeterminate plesiosaur in 1962. Persson noted in a 1959 review of the Swedish ""E."helmerseni" material that, while the species was probably closely related to "Elasmosaurus" proper, it was too fragmentary for this hypothesis to be assessed; he later remarked in 1963 that, regarding the latter three species, "their generic and specific definition is questionable", although he declined to specifically label them as invalid on account of not having seen the fossil material. Similarly, in 1999, Evgeniy Pervushov, Maxim Arkhangelsky, and A.V. Ivanov considered "E.helmerseni" to be an indeterminate elasmosaurid. In 2000 Storrs, Archangelsky, and Vladimir Efimov concurred with Welles on "E.kurskensis", and labelled "E.orskensis" and "E.serdobensis" as indeterminate elasmosaurids.


title: Elasmosaurus

text: Two additional Russian species were described by subsequent authors. A.N. Riabinin described a single phalanx from a flipper in 1915 as "E.(?)sachalinensis"; the species was named after the island of Sakhalin, where N.N. Tikhonovich found it in 1909. However, this specimen cannot be identified more specifically than an indeterminate elasmosaurid, which was followed by Persson and Pervushov and colleagues. Storrs, Arkhangelsky, and Efimov were less specific, labelling it as an indeterminate plesiosaur; this classification was followed by Alexander Averianov and V.K. Popov in 2005. Then, in 1916, P.A. Pravoslavlev named "E.amalitskii" from the Don River region, based on a specimen containing vertebrae, limb girdles, and limb bones. Persson considered it a valid species, and a relatively large member of the elasmosaurids; however, like "E.(?)sachalinensis", Pervushov and colleagues considered "E.amalitskii" an indeterminate elasmosaurid.