title: Blindsight

text: In a 1995 experiment, researchers attempted to show that monkeys with lesions in or even wholly removed striate cortexes also experienced blindsight. To study this, they had the monkeys complete tasks similar to those commonly used for human subjects. The monkeys were placed in front of a monitor and taught to indicate whether a stationary object or nothing was present in their visual field when a tone was played. Then the monkeys performed the same task except the stationary objects were presented outside of their visual field. The monkeys performed very similar to human participants and were unable to perceive the presence of stationary objects outside of their visual field.


title: Blindsight

text: Another 1995 study by the same group sought to prove that monkeys could also be conscious of movement in their deficit visual field despite not being consciously aware of the presence of an object there. To do this, researchers used another standard test for humans which was similar to the previous study except moving objects were presented in the deficit visual field. Starting from the center of the deficit visual field, the object would either move up, down, or to the right. The monkeys performed identically to humans on the test, getting them right almost every time. This showed that the monkey's ability to detect movement is separate from their ability to consciously detect an object in their deficit visual field, and gave further evidence for the claim that damage to the striate cortex plays a large role in causing the disorder.


title: Blindsight

text: Several years later, another study compared and contrasted the data collected from monkeys and that of a specific human patient with blindsight, GY. GY's striate cortical region was damaged through trauma at the age of eight, though for the most part he retained full functionality, GY was not consciously aware of anything in his right visual field. In the monkeys, the striate cortex of the left hemisphere was surgically removed. By comparing the test results of both GY and the monkeys, the researchers concluded that similar patterns of responses to stimuli in the "blind" visual field can be found in both species.


title: Blindsight

text: Lawrence Weiskrantz and colleagues showed in the early 1970s that if forced to guess about whether a stimulus is present in their blind field, some observers do better than chance. This ability to detect stimuli that the observer is not conscious of can extend to discrimination of the type of stimulus (for example, whether an 'X' or 'O' has been presented in the blind field).


title: Blindsight

text: Electrophysiological evidence from the late 1970s has shown that there is no direct retinal input from S-cones to the superior colliculus, implying that the perception of color information should be impaired. However, more recent evidence point to a pathway from S-cones to the superior colliculus, opposing previous research and supporting the idea that some chromatic processing mechanisms are intact in blindsight.


title: Blindsight

text: Patients shown images on their blind side of people expressing emotions correctly guessed the emotion most of the time. The movement of facial muscles used in smiling and frowning were measured and reacted in ways that matched the kind of emotion in the unseen image. Therefore, the emotions were recognized without involving conscious sight.


title: Blindsight

text: A 2011 study found that a young woman with a unilateral lesion of area V1 could scale her grasping movement as she reached out to pick up objects of different sizes placed in her blind field, even though she could not report the sizes of the objects. Similarly, another patient with unilateral lesion of area V1 could avoid obstacles placed in his blind field when he reached toward a target that was visible in his intact visual field. Even though he avoided the obstacles, he never reported seeing them.


title: Blindsight

text: A study reported in 2008 asked patient GY to "mis"state where in his visual field a distinctive stimulus was presented. If the stimulus was in the upper part of his visual field, he was to say it was in the lower part, and "vice versa". He was able to misstate, as requested, in his left visual field (with normal conscious vision); but he tended to fail in the task—to state the location correctly—when the stimulus was in his blindsight (right) visual field.


title: Blindsight

text: > This failure rate worsened when the stimulus was clearer, indicating that failure was not simply due to unreliability of blindsight.


title: Blindsight

text: Researchers applied the same type of tests that were used to study blindsight in animals to a patient referred to as "DB". The normal techniques used to assess visual acuity in humans involved asking them to verbally describe some visually recognizable aspect of an object or objects. DB was given forced-choice tasks to complete instead. The results of DB's guesses showed that DB was able to determine shape and detect movement at some unconscious level, despite not being visually aware of this. DB themselves chalked up the accuracy of their guesses to be merely coincidental.


title: Blindsight

text: The discovery of the condition known as blindsight raised questions about how different types of visual information, even unconscious information, may be affected and sometimes even unaffected by damage to different areas of the visual cortex. Previous studies had already demonstrated that even without conscious awareness of visual stimuli, humans could still determine certain visual features such as presence in the visual field, shape, orientation and movement. But, in a newer study evidence showed that if damage to the visual cortex occurs in areas above the primary visual cortex, the conscious awareness of visual stimuli itself is not damaged. Blindsight shows that even when the primary visual cortex is damaged or removed a person can still perform actions guided by unconscious visual information. Despite damage occurring in the area necessary for conscious awareness of visual information, other functions of the processing of these visual percepts are still available to the individual. The same also goes for damage to other areas of the visual cortex. If an area of the cortex that is responsible for a certain function is damaged, it will only result in the loss of that particular function or aspect, functions that other parts of the visual cortex are responsible for remain intact.


title: Blindsight

text: Alexander and Cowey investigated how contrasting stimuli brightness affects blindsight patients' ability to discern movement. Prior studies have already shown that blindsight patients are able to detect motion even though they claim they do not see any visual percepts in their blind fields. The study subjects were two patients who suffered from hemianopsia—blindness in more than half of their visual field. Both subjects had displayed the ability to accurately determine the presence of visual stimuli in their blind hemifields without acknowledging an actual visual percept previously.


title: Blindsight

text: To test the effect of brightness on the subject's ability to determine motion they used a white background with a series of colored dots. The contrast of the brightness of the dots compared to the white background was altered in each trial to determine if the participants performed better or worse when there was a larger discrepancy in brightness or not. The subjects focused on the display for two equal length time intervals and where asked whether they thought the dots were moving during the first or the second time interval.


title: Blindsight

text: When the contrast in brightness between the background and the dots was higher, both of the subjects could discern motion more accurately than they would have statistically through guesswork. However, one subject was not able to accurately determine whether or not blue dots were moving regardless of the brightness contrast, but he/she was able to do so with every other color dot. When the contrast was highest subjects were able to tell whether or not the dots were moving with very high rates of accuracy. Even when the dots were white, but still of a different brightness from the background, subjects could still determine whether they were moving. But, regardless of the dots' color, subjects could not tell when they were in motion when the white background and the dots were of similar brightness.


title: Blindsight

text: Kentridge, Heywood, and Weiskrantz used the phenomenon of blindsight to investigate the connection between visual attention and visual awareness. They wanted to see if their subject—who exhibited blindsight in other studies—could react more quickly when their attention was cued without the ability to be visually aware of it. The researchers aimed to show that being conscious of a stimulus and paying attention to it was not the same thing.


title: Blindsight

text: To test the relationship between attention and awareness, they had the participant try to determine where a target was and whether it was oriented horizontally or vertically on a computer screen. The target line would appear at one of two different locations and would be oriented in one of two directions. Before the target would appear an arrow would become visible on the screen, sometimes pointing to the correct position of the target line and less frequently not. This arrow was the cue for the subject. The participant would press a key to indicate whether the line was horizontal or vertical, and could then also indicate to an observer whether or not he/she actually had a feeling that any object was there or not—even if they couldn't see anything. The participant was able to accurately determine the orientation of the line when the target was cued by an arrow before the appearance of the target, even though these visual stimuli did not equal awareness in the subject who had no vision in that area of his/her visual field. The study showed that even without the ability to be visually aware of a stimulus the participant could still focus his/her attention on this object.


title: Blindsight

text: In 2003, a patient known as "TN" lost use of his primary visual cortex, area V1. He had two successive strokes, which knocked out the region in both his left and right hemispheres. After his strokes, ordinary tests of TN's sight turned up nothing. He could not even detect large objects moving right in front of his eyes. Researchers eventually began to notice that TN exhibited signs of blindsight and in 2008 decided to test their theory. They took TN into a hallway and asked him to walk through it without using the cane he always carried after having the strokes. TN was not aware at the time, but the researchers had placed various obstacles in the hallway to test if he could avoid them without conscious use of his sight. To the researchers' delight, he moved around every obstacle with ease, at one point even pressing himself up against the wall to squeeze past a trashcan placed in his way. After navigating through the hallway, TN reported that he was just walking the way he wanted to, not because he knew anything was there.


title: Blindsight

text: In another case study, a girl brought her grandfather in to see a neuropsychologist. The girl's grandfather, Mr. J., had suffered a stroke that had left him completely blind apart from a tiny spot in the middle of his visual field. The neuropsychologist, Dr. M., performed an exercise with him. The doctor helped Mr. J. to a chair, had him sit down, and then asked to borrow his cane. The doctor then asked, "Mr. J., please look straight ahead. Keep looking that way, and don't move your eyes or turn your head. I know that you can see a little bit straight ahead of you, and I don't want you to use that piece of vision for what I'm going to ask you to do. Fine. Now, I'd like you to reach out with your right hand [and] point to what I'm holding." Mr. J. then replied, "But I don't see anything—I'm blind!" The doctor then said, "I know, but please try, anyway." Mr. J then shrugged and pointed, and was surprised when his finger encountered the end of the cane which the doctor was pointing toward him. After this, Mr. J. said that "it was just luck". The doctor then turned the cane around so that the handle side was pointing towards Mr. J. He then asked for Mr. J. to grab hold of the cane. Mr. J. reached out with an open hand and grabbed hold of the cane. After this, the doctor said, "Good. Now put your hand down, please." The doctor then rotated the cane 90 degrees, so that the handle was oriented vertically. The doctor then asked Mr. J. to reach for the cane again. Mr. J. did this, turning his wrist so that his hand matched the orientation of the handle. This case study shows that, although (on a conscious level) Mr. J. was completely unaware of any visual abilities that he may have had, he was able to orient his grabbing motions as if he had no visual impairments.


title: Blindsight

text: Visual processing in the brain goes through a series of stages. Destruction of the primary visual cortex leads to blindness in the part of the visual field that corresponds to the damaged cortical representation. The area of blindness – known as a scotoma – is in the visual field opposite the damaged hemisphere and can vary from a small area up to the entire hemifield. Visual processing occurs in the brain in a hierarchical series of stages (with much crosstalk and feedback between areas). The route from the retina through V1 is not the only visual pathway into the cortex, though it is by far the largest; it is commonly thought that the residual performance of people exhibiting blindsight is due to preserved pathways into the extrastriate cortex that bypass V1. However both physiological evidence in monkeys and behavioral and imaging evidence in humans shows that activity in these extrastriate areas, and especially in V5, is apparently sufficient to support visual awareness in the absence of V1.


title: Blindsight

text: To put it in a more complex way, recent physiological findings suggest that visual processing takes place along several independent, parallel pathways. One system processes information about shape, one about color, and one about movement, location and spatial organization. This information moves through an area of the brain called the lateral geniculate nucleus, located in the thalamus, and on to be processed in the primary visual cortex, area V1 (also known as the striate cortex because of its striped appearance). People with damage to V1 report no conscious vision, no visual imagery, and no visual images in their dreams. However, some of these people still experience the blindsight phenomenon, though this too is controversial, with some studies showing a limited amount of consciousness without V1 or projections relating to it.


title: Blindsight

text: The superior colliculus and prefrontal cortex also have a major role in awareness of a visual stimulus.


title: Blindsight

text: Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions defines the LGN as "one of two elevations of the lateral posterior thalamus receiving visual impulses from the retina via the optic nerves and tracts and relaying the impulses to the calcarine (visual) cortex".


title: Blindsight

text: What is seen in the left and right visual field is taken in by each eye and brought back to the optic disc via the nerve fibres of the retina. From the optic disc, visual information travels through the optic nerve and into the optic chiasm. Visual information then enters the optic tract and travels to four different areas of the brain including the superior colliculus, pretectum of the mid brain, the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, and the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN). Most axons from the LGN will then travel to the primary visual cortex.


title: Blindsight

text: Injury to the primary visual cortex, including lesions and other trauma, leads to the loss of visual experience. However, the residual vision that is left cannot be attributed to V1. According to Schmid et al., "thalamic lateral geniculate nucleus has a causal role in V1-independent processing of visual information". This information was found through experiments using fMRI during activation and inactivation of the LGN and the contribution the LGN has on visual experience in monkeys with a V1 lesion. These researchers concluded that the magnocellular system of the LGN is less affected by the removal of V1, which suggests that it is because of this system in the LGN that blindsight occurs. Furthermore, once the LGN was inactivated, virtually all of the extrastriate areas of the brain no longer showed a response on the fMRI. The information leads to a qualitative assessment that included "scotoma stimulation, with the LGN intact had fMRI activation of ~20% of that under normal conditions". This finding agrees with the information obtained from, and fMRI images of, patients with blindsight. The same study also supported the conclusion that the LGN plays a substantial role in blindsight. Specifically, while injury to V1 does create a loss of vision, the LGN is less affected and may result in the residual vision that remains, causing the "sight" in blindsight.


title: Blindsight

text: Functional magnetic resonance imaging has launched has also been employed to conduct brain scans in normal, healthy human volunteers to attempt to demonstrate that visual motion can bypass V1, through a connection from the LGN to the human middle temporal complex. Their findings concluded that there was an indeed a connection of visual motion information that went directly from the LGN to the V5/hMT+ bypassing V1 completely. Evidence also suggests that, following a traumatic injury to V1, there is still a direct pathway from the retina through the LGN to the extrastriate visual areas. The extrastriate visual areas include parts of the occipital lobe that surround V1. In non-human primates, these often include V2, V3, and V4.


title: Blindsight

text: In a study conducted in primates, after partial ablation of area V1, areas V2 and V3 were still excited by visual stimulus. Other evidence suggests that "the LGN projections that survive V1 removal are relatively sparse in density, but are nevertheless widespread and probably encompass all extrastriate visual areas," including V2, V4, V5 and the inferotemporal cortex region.


title: Wargasm (band)

text: Wargasm (stylised as 𝐖𝐀𝐑𝐆𝐀𝐒𝐌) are a British electronic rock duo from London. Formed in 2018 by musician Sam Matlock and model Milkie Way (née, Rachel Hastings), they have released 11 solo singles including "Spit." which has gained 5 million streams on Spotify, and over 400 thousand views on YouTube. "Alternative Press" listed them as a defining part of the 2020s wave of nu metal, and "NME" listed them as one of 2021's essential emerging artists. The pair also took home “Best UK Breakthrough” at The Heavy Music Awards in 2021 and have received widespread acclaim from "Kerrang!" and "Revolver". Their debut full-length release, "Explicit: The Mixxxtape", was released on September 9, 2022.


title: Wargasm (band)

text: Sam Matlock and Milkie Way had first met when Way was working as a concert photographer, and photographed Matlock's previous band Dead!. After the 2018 disbandment of Dead!, Matlock approached Way, who was working as a model in Tokyo at the time, to begin a new project. This led to the formation of Wargasm, taking their name from the L7 song of the same name. At first the pair began writing pop punk songs, however by the time their debut single "Post Modern Rhapsody" was released on 22 August 2019, they had departed from this sound. They played their first live performance the following week. On 6 November, they released the single "God Of War".


title: Wargasm (band)

text: On 20 February 2020, they released the single "Gold Gold Gold". The following day, they released a cover of "Lapdance" by N.E.R.D. On 5 June they released the single "Spit". On 3 September it was announced that their song "God of War" would be used as the theme for "NXT UK". On 26 September, they released the single "Backyard Bastards", a music video was then released for the song on 5 October. On 14 November, they released the single "Rage All Over". During the COVID-19 pandemic, Way took charge as fellow musician Yungblud's guitarist, filling in for Adam Warrington.


title: Wargasm (band)

text: On 23 April 2021, they released the single "Your Patron Saints". On 14 June, they released the single "Pyro Pyro". On 19 June, they performed at the 2021 Download Festival Pilot. On 20 August, they released the single "Salma Hayek". On the same day, Kerrang! released a video of them performing for their "K! Pit" live series. On 27 August, they performed at the 2021 Reading and Leeds Festivals on Friday and Saturday respectively. On 30 August, they performed at ALT+LDN festival. They were featured on Death Blooms' single "Shut Up", which was released on 31 August 2021. Their debut UK headline tour will take place between 17 and 24 November 2021. Following the band's performance at Scala on 5 November 2021, band member Sam Matlock was allegedly assaulted by security staff. A complaint was filed with Security Industry Authority. The band has indicated they no longer consider the club a safe venue, especially for women.


title: Wargasm (band)

text: On 7 January 2022, Wargasm announced they will be supporting fellow UK band Neck Deep’s 2022 UK tour. On 16 March 2022, Wargasm announced they will be supporting Limp Bizkit on their North American "Still Sucks" tour. On 6 May 2022, Matlock and Way announced that Wargasm had signed to slowplay and Republic Records, and would be releasing their debut full-length release - "Explicit: The Mixxxtape" - that coming summer. The lead single, "D.R.I.L.D.O.", was initially announced for Friday, 13 May, but was pushed back a week for unknown reasons. This full length release then enabled them to go on tour across the United Kingdom playing shows in cities such as London, Belfast and Dublin, most notably their show at the O2 Forum Kentish Town, which is their biggest headline show to date. These shows then contributed to the music video for their song "Super Fiend" released on December 12th 2022, using shots of the crowd and live performances on stage for scenes in the video.


title: Wargasm (band)

text: Critics have categorised the band's music as electro-punk, post-hardcore and nu metal. Their music makes use of elements of riot grrrl, heavy metal, dubstep, screamo, pop, electronic and hip hop music. NME writer Ali Shutler described their music "cyberpunk". Their music often makes use of screamed vocals, electronic and psychedelic sounds, aggressive guitar riffs, and distorted bass. Songs often feature Matlock and Way trading off vocals duties mid verse.


title: Wargasm (band)

text: "Alternative Press" writer Giedrė Matulaitytė described their music as an "eclectic blend of punk/riot grrrl attitude, hardcore energy, grunge pessimism and murky nü-metal groove", and Ali Cooper described them as "If you take all the limitless energy of a pulsing nightclub and throw it into the pit". "Metal Hammer" writer Yasmine Summan described it as "catchy nu metal riffs, throw in a bit of riot grrrl flare and wash it down with a healthy dosage of post-apocalyptic angst" and Jack Saunders described them as "the Prodigy and Slipknot at the same time."


title: Wargasm (band)

text: They have cited influences including L7, Limp Bizkit, Loathe, SHVPES and Poppy. When asked on an interview with "Fred Perry clothing" what songs' lyrics inspired them, Matlock answered "Custer" by Slipknot and Way answered "Smack A B*tch - Remix" by Rico Nasty.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: The Crazies (also known as Code Name: Trixie) is a 1973 American science fiction horror film written and directed by George A. Romero. It stars Lane Carroll, Will McMillan, and Harold Wayne Jones as residents of a small American town that accidentally become afflicted by a military biological weapon. Filmed in Evans City in Western Pennsylvania, "The Crazies" was a box office failure upon release, but has since become a cult film. A remake of the film was released in 2010.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: In Evans City, Pennsylvania, a man kills his wife and burns down his farmhouse. Firefighters David and Clank — both Vietnam War veterans — are called to the scene. David's pregnant girlfriend, a nurse named Judy, is called to the office of Dr. Brookmyre, where the two children of the arsonist are being treated for burns.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: Heavily armed U.S. troops led by Major Ryder take over Dr. Brookmyre's office. Days earlier, an Army plane carrying a bioweapon had crash-landed near the town, infecting the water supply with a virus code-named "Trixie" which is highly contagious and causes victims to either die or become hysterical and homicidally insane.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: Government officials send Colonel Peckem and Dr. Watts, who worked on the creation of the virus, to Evans City to contain the virus and work towards a cure. Martial law is declared in Evans City and a quarantine is placed on the town. Army soldiers forcibly move the townspeople into a high school, rousting many from their homes, and shoot anyone attempting to escape. Bombers armed with nuclear weapons are dispatched to destroy the town if necessary.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: David, Judy, Clank, teenager Kathy Fulton and her father Artie, try to find a way to escape the town. After spending the night hiding in a country club, the group attempts to escape through the nearby woods, eluding soldiers both on the ground and in an overhead helicopter. They overpower several soldiers in a house. One of the soldiers discloses what he knows about the virus to David, but when one of the soldiers reaches for his gun, Clank opens fire and kills the soldiers. David confides Judy about what he knows about the virus and tells her that Kathy, Artie, and probably Clank are infected.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: After Clank beats him for attempting to have sex with Kathy, Artie hangs himself. Kathy wanders outside and is killed by soldiers. Realizing he is infected, Clank kills several soldiers to give David and Judy time to escape. He is then shot and killed. The next night, Judy, now visibly infected, is killed by armed civilians. Angry and frightened, David surrenders to the military. After being taken into custody, David eventually realizes that he is immune to the virus, but he keeps the knowledge to himself.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: Dr. Watts develops a potential cure for the virus but when he tries to take samples to Peckem and Ryder, he is killed and the samples are destroyed in a stampede of infected townspeople breaking free from quarantine. Depressed and distraught by his experiences in Evans City, Colonel Peckem is ordered to relocate to Louisville, where symptoms of the virus have been reported.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: According to Romero, this project began life with Paul McCollough, who authored a screenplay entitled "The Mad People". The script dealt with a military bioweapon that was accidentally released into a small town, with the military subsequently trying to cover up the incident and the townspeople revolting. Romero revealed that the military subplot was only featured in the first act of the script, and the rest of the film focused on the survivors and their attempts to cope with what was happening. The director called McCollough's script "very existential and heady".


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: The screenplay was read by Lee Hessel, a producer who owned Cambist Films and with whom Romero had previously worked on "There's Always Vanilla". Hessel expressed interest in it and offered to finance it as Romero's next film, but only if the director would be willing to rewrite McCollough's screenplay to focus on what Hessel considered the most interesting ingredient of the story, namely the military takeover of the town, which occurred in the first 10 to 20 pages. Romero agreed and rewrote the script, and he was given a budget of approximately $270,000.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: The film was shot in and around Evans City and Zelienople, both small towns in Pennsylvania about 30 miles north of Pittsburgh. Romero has spoken of how the majority of people in the towns were very cooperative and happy to help with the production.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: On February 23, 2010, the film was released on Blu-ray by Blue Underground, the same company who first issued a DVD release on April 29, 2003. It was later re-released with a new 4K restoration by Arrow Video as part of a boxset entitled George A. Romero: Between Night and Dawn. It was later released separately on March 13, 2018.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: The film did not have a wide release, instead playing in a limited number of theaters before opening in a different market. Romero later claimed he felt that the major reason "The Crazies" failed at the box office was due to poor distribution. He stated that Hessel made a true attempt to adequately market the film, including releasing it under a variety of titles in different parts of the country, but that it never managed to catch the public's eye.


title: The Crazies (1973 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "The Crazies" holds an approval rating of 65% with an average rating of 5.44/10, based on 23 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Crazies" isn't top-shelf Romero, but its blend of genre thrills and social subtext should still be enough to satisfy discerning horror fans." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 63 out of 100, based on 6 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Darren Woods

text: Darren W. Woods (born 1964/65) is an American businessman, and the chief executive officer (CEO) and chairman of ExxonMobil since January 1, 2017.


title: Darren Woods

text: Woods was born in Wichita, Kansas. He earned a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from Texas A&M University, followed by an MBA from Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management.


title: Darren Woods

text: Woods joined Exxon in 1992. He had worked for Exxon for 24 years prior to being promoted to CEO following Rex Tillerson's nomination by President Donald Trump to be the next United States Secretary of State. While his predecessor was involved in deal making and exploration, Woods is a veteran of the refining side of the oil business. Prior to becoming CEO, Woods ran the refining and chemical divisions of the company, which delivered the majority of ExxonMobil's $7.8 billion net income in 2016.


title: Darren Woods

text: At an investor meeting in New York in 2017, Woods outlined his growth plan including drilling in the Permian Basin of Texas and New Mexico and the Bakken shale formation in North Dakota. He also spoke briefly about the company's operations in Russia, expressing an optimistic outlook regarding Exxon's Sakhalin project on Russia's eastern coast.


title: Darren Woods

text: Woods has said that the combination of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has "shattered the Peak Oil myth". Woods has publicly endorsed the Paris climate accord. The accord commits nations to cutting greenhouse gas emissions. In May 2017, Woods wrote a personal letter to President Trump to urge that the U.S. remain a party to the agreement. He says that by remaining a party to the accords the U.S. will have a seat at the table to "ensure a level playing field" and support "the most cost-effective greenhouse gas reduction options".


title: Darren Woods

text: On October 5, 2020, Bloomberg News reported that Exxon was set to increase its annual carbon emissions by about 17%, or about as much as the annual output of Greece. The emissions expansion would be built off an investment plan reportedly signed off by Woods. Exxon said its internal projections are "a preliminary, internal assessment of estimated cumulative emission growth through 2025 and did not include the [additional] mitigation and abatement measures that would have been evaluated in the planning process. Furthermore, the projections identified in the leaked documents have significantly changed, a fact that was not fully explained or prominently featured in the article."


title: Darren Woods

text: In 2022, Woods was named one of the US' top 'climate villains' by The Guardian after "Exxon lobbyists were captured on video revealing the company’s efforts to obstruct climate legislation in Congress."


title: Darren Woods

text: In 2021, Woods denied that Exxon had covered up its own research about Big Oil's contribution to the climate crisis. The chair of the Congressional committee taking Woods' testimony likened Woods' denial to the decades' long lies by the American tobacco industry denying that nicotine is addictive. Woods also declined to make a pledge to stop lobbying against climate initiatives.


title: County of Edessa

text: The County of Edessa (Latin: "Comitatus Edessanus") was one of the Crusader states in the 12th century. Its seat was the city of Edessa (present-day Şanlıurfa, Turkey).


title: County of Edessa

text: In the late Byzantine period, Edessa became the centre of intellectual life within the Syriac Orthodox Church. As such it also became the centre for the translation of Ancient Greek philosophy into Syriac, which provided a stepping stone for the subsequent translations into Arabic. When the Crusades arrived, it was still important enough to tempt a side-expedition after the siege of Antioch.


title: County of Edessa

text: Baldwin of Boulogne, the first Count of Edessa, became King of Jerusalem, and subsequent counts were his cousins. Unlike the other Crusader states, the County was landlocked. It was remote from the other states and was not on particularly good terms with its closest neighbor, the Principality of Antioch. Half of the county, including its capital, was located east of the Euphrates, far to the east, rendering it particularly vulnerable. The west part of the Euphrates was controlled from the stronghold of Turbessel. The eastern border of Edessa was the Tigris, but the County may not have extended quite that far.


title: County of Edessa

text: The fall of Edessa in 1144 was the first major setback for Outremer and provoked the Second Crusade. All the later Crusades, however, were troubled by strategic uncertainties and disagreements. The Second Crusade did not even try to recover Edessa, calculating it to be strategically better to take Damascus. But the campaign failed and Edessa was lost for the Christians.


title: County of Edessa

text: In 1098, Baldwin of Boulogne left the main Crusading army, which was travelling south towards Antioch and Jerusalem. He went first south into Cilicia, then east to Edessa, where he convinced its lord, Thoros, to adopt him as son and heir. He also married Thoros' daughter, Arda of Armenia, who eventually became the first queen of Jerusalem. Thoros was a Christian of Armenian origin but of Greek Orthodox religion and largely disliked by his Armenian Orthodox subjects, which led to his removal from power in March 1098.


title: County of Edessa

text: Different sources claim he was assassinated or abdicated, but it is unknown if Baldwin had any part in this. Nonetheless, Baldwin succeeded Thoros as ruler, taking the title of count (having been Count of Verdun as a vassal of his brother in Europe).


title: County of Edessa

text: In 1100, Baldwin became King of Jerusalem when his brother, Godfrey of Bouillon, died. The County of Edessa passed to his cousin Baldwin of Bourcq. He was joined by Joscelin of Courtenay, who became lord of the fortress of Turbessel on the Euphrates, an important outpost against the Seljuk Turks.


title: County of Edessa

text: The Frankish lords formed a good rapport with their Armenian subjects, and there were frequent intermarriages; the first three counts all married Armenians. Count Baldwin's wife had died in Marash in 1097, and after he succeeded to Edessa he married Arda, a granddaughter of the Armenian Roupenid Prince Constantine. Baldwin of Bourcq married Morphia, a daughter of Gabriel of Melitene, and Joscelin of Courtenay married a daughter of Constantine.


title: County of Edessa

text: Baldwin II quickly became involved in the affairs of northern Syria and Asia Minor. He helped secure the ransom of Bohemond I of Antioch from the Danishmends in 1103, and, with Antioch, attacked the Byzantine Empire in Cilicia in 1104.


title: County of Edessa

text: Later in 1104, Edessa was attacked by Mosul, and both Baldwin and Joscelin were taken prisoner after their defeat at the Battle of Harran. Bohemond's cousin Tancred became regent in Edessa (although Richard of Salerno actually governed the territory), until Baldwin and Joscelin were ransomed in 1108. Baldwin had to fight to regain control of the city; Tancred was eventually defeated, though Baldwin had to ally with some of the local Muslim rulers.


title: County of Edessa

text: In 1110, all lands east of the Euphrates were lost to Mawdud of Mosul. This was not followed by an assault on Edessa itself as the Muslim rulers were more concerned with consolidating their own power.


title: County of Edessa

text: Baldwin II became King of Jerusalem (also as Baldwin II) when Baldwin I died in 1118. Although Eustace of Boulogne had a better claim as the late Baldwin's brother, he was in France and did not want the title. Edessa was given to Joscelin in 1119. Joscelin was taken prisoner once again in 1122; when Baldwin came to rescue him, he too was captured, and Jerusalem was left without its king. Joscelin escaped in 1123, and obtained Baldwin's release the next year.


title: County of Edessa

text: Joscelin was gravely injured during a siege in 1131 and was succeeded by his son Joscelin II. By this time, Zengi had united Aleppo and Mosul and began to threaten Edessa.


title: County of Edessa

text: Meanwhile, Joscelin II paid little attention to the security of his county, and argued with the counts of Tripoli who then refused to come to his aid. Zengi besieged the city in 1144, capturing it on December 24 of that year. Joscelin continued to rule his lands west of the Euphrates, and he also managed to take advantage of the death of Zengi in September 1146 to regain and briefly hold his old capital. The city was again lost in November, and Joscelin barely escaped. In 1150 he was captured by Zengi's son Nur ad-Din, and was kept a prisoner in Aleppo until he died in 1159. His wife sold Turbessel and what was left of the County to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Comnenus, but these lands were conquered by Nur ad-Din and the Sultan of Rum within a year. Edessa was the first Crusader state to be created, and also the first to be lost.


title: County of Edessa

text: Edessa was one of the largest of the Crusader states in terms of territory but had one of the smallest populations. Edessa itself had about 10,000 inhabitants. The rest of the county consisted mostly of fortresses. The county's territory extended from Antioch in the west to across the Euphrates in the east at its greatest extent. It also often occupied land as far north as Armenia proper. To the south and east were the powerful Muslim cities of Aleppo and Mosul, and the Jazira (northern Iraq). The inhabitants were mostly Syriac Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox Christians, with some Greek Orthodox Christians and Arab Muslims. Although the numbers of Latins always remained small, there was a Roman Catholic Patriarch. The fall of the city was the catalyst for the Second Crusade in 1146.


title: County of Edessa

text: Turbessel was firstly the lordship of Joscelin I when he was not yet the Count of Edessa. It controlled the area west of the Euphrates, and held the border against Antioch. It then was a special holding of Courtenay counts of Edessa, and again became their seat after the loss of the city of Edessa. It was sold with the remaining parts of the County to the Byzantines just before it was conquered by Muslims. After the sale, the wife and family of Joscelin II moved with the proceeds to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, near Acre.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Deliberative democracy or discursive democracy is a form of democracy in which deliberation is central to decision-making. It adopts elements of both consensus decision-making and majority rule. Deliberative democracy differs from traditional democratic theory in that authentic deliberation, not mere voting, is the primary source of legitimacy for the law. Deliberative democracy is closely related to consultative democracy, in which public consultation with citizens is central to democratic processes.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: While deliberative democracy is generally seen as some form of an amalgam of representative democracy and direct democracy, the actual relationship is usually open to dispute. Some practitioners and theorists use the term to encompass representative bodies whose members authentically and practically deliberate on legislation without unequal distributions of power, while others use the term exclusively to refer to decision-making directly by lay citizens, as in direct democracy.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: The term "deliberative democracy" was originally coined by Joseph M. Bessette in his 1980 work "Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government".


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. "Authentic deliberation" is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: The roots of deliberative democracy can be traced back to Aristotle and his notion of politics; however, the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas' work on communicative rationality and the public sphere is often identified as a major work in this area.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Deliberative democracy can be practiced by decision-makers in both representative democracies and direct democracies. In "elitist deliberative democracy," principles of deliberative democracy apply to elite societal decision-making bodies, such as legislatures and courts; in "populist deliberative democracy," principles of deliberative democracy apply to groups of lay citizens who are empowered to make decisions. One purpose of populist deliberative democracy can be to use deliberation among a group of lay citizens to distill a more authentic public opinion about societal issues but not directly create binding law; devices such as the deliberative opinion poll have been designed to achieve this goal. Another purpose of populist deliberative democracy can be to serve as a form of direct democracy, where deliberation among a group of lay citizens forms a "public will" and directly creates binding law. If political decisions are made by deliberation but not by the people themselves or their elected representatives, then there is no democratic element; this deliberative process is called "elite deliberation". According to Fishkin, this process attempts to indirectly filter the mass public opinion because representatives are better equipped with the knowledge of the common good than ordinary citizens.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: James Fishkin, who has designed practical implementations of deliberative democracy for over 15 years in various countries, describes five characteristics essential for legitimate deliberation:


title: Deliberative democracy

text: In Fishkin's definition of deliberative democracy, lay citizens must participate in the decision-making process, thus making it a subtype of direct democracy.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Joshua Cohen, a student of John Rawls, outlined conditions that he thinks constitute the root principles of the theory of deliberative democracy, in the article "Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy" in the 1989 book "The Good Polity". He outlines five main features of deliberative democracy, which include:


title: Deliberative democracy

text: This can be construed as the idea that in the legislative process, we "owe" one another reasons for our proposals.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Cohen presents deliberative democracy as more than a theory of legitimacy, and forms a body of substantive rights around it based on achieving "ideal deliberation":


title: Deliberative democracy

text: In "Democracy and Liberty", an essay published in 1998, Cohen reiterated many of these points, also emphasizing the concept of "reasonable pluralism" – the acceptance of different, incompatible worldviews and the importance of good faith deliberative efforts to ensure that as far as possible the holders of these views can live together on terms acceptable to all.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Amy Gutmann and Dennis F. Thompson's definition captures the elements that are found in most conceptions of deliberative democracy. They define it as "a form of government in which free and equal citizens and their representatives justify decisions in a process in which they give one another reasons that are mutually acceptable and generally accessible, with the aim of reaching decisions that are binding on all at present but open to challenge in the future".


title: Deliberative democracy

text: They state that deliberative democracy has four requirements, which refer to the kind of reasons that citizens and their representatives are expected to give to one another:


title: Deliberative democracy

text: A claimed strength of deliberative democratic models is that they are more easily able to incorporate scientific opinion and base policy on outputs of ongoing research, because:


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Deliberative ideals often include "face-to-face discussion, the implementation of good public policy, decisionmaking competence, and critical mass." According to proponents such as James Fearon, another strength of deliberative democratic models is that they tend, more than any other model, to generate ideal conditions of impartiality, rationality and knowledge of the relevant facts. The more these conditions are fulfilled, the greater the likelihood that the decisions reached are morally correct. Deliberative democracy takes on the role of an "epistemic democracy" in this way, as it thus has an "epistemic" value: it allows participants to deduce what is morally correct. This view has been prominently held by Carlos Nino.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Studies by James Fishkin and others have found that deliberative democracy tends to produce outcomes which are superior to those in other forms of democracy. Deliberative democracy produces less partisanship and more sympathy with opposing views; more respect for evidence-based reasoning rather than opinion; a greater commitment to the decisions taken by those involved; and a greater chance for widely shared consensus to emerge, thus promoting social cohesion between people from different backgrounds. Fishkin cites extensive empirical support for the increase in public spiritedness that is often caused by participation in deliberation, and says theoretical support can be traced back to foundational democratic thinkers such as John Stuart Mill and Alexis de Tocqueville. Former diplomat Carne Ross writes that in 2011 that the debates arising from deliberative democracy are also much more civil, collaborative, and evidence-based than the debates in traditional town hall meetings or in internet forums. For Ross, the key reason for this is that in deliberative democracy citizens are empowered by knowledge that their debates will have a measurable impact on society.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Efforts to promote public participation have been widely critiqued. There is particular concern regarding the potential capture of the public into the sphere of influence of governance stakeholders, leaving communities frustrated by public participation initiatives, marginalized and ignored.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: A claimed failure of most theories of deliberative democracy is that they do not address the problems of voting. James Fishkin's 1991 work, "Democracy and Deliberation", introduced a way to apply the theory of deliberative democracy to real-world decision making, by way of what he calls the deliberative opinion poll. In the deliberative opinion poll, a statistically representative sample of the nation or a community is gathered to discuss an issue in conditions that further deliberation. The group is then polled, and the results of the poll and the actual deliberation can be used both as a recommending force and in certain circumstances, to replace a vote. Dozens of deliberative opinion polls have been conducted across the United States since his book was published.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: The political philosopher Charles Blattberg has criticized deliberative democracy on four grounds: (i) the rules for deliberation that deliberative theorists affirm interfere with, rather than facilitate, good practical reasoning; (ii) deliberative democracy is ideologically biased in favor of liberalism as well as republican over parliamentary democratic systems; (iii) deliberative democrats assert a too-sharp division between just and rational deliberation on the one hand and self-interested and coercive bargaining or negotiation on the other; and (iv) deliberative democrats encourage an adversarial relationship between state and society, one that undermines solidarity between citizens.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: A criticism of deliberation is that potentially it allows those most skilled in rhetoric to sway the decision in their favour. This criticism has been made since deliberative democracy first arose in Ancient Athens.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Deliberative theories of democracy have often been contrasted with agonistic models of democracy. Theorists of agonism such as Chantal Mouffe, Ernesto Laclau, and William E. Connolly, reject the possibility of reaching consensus through deliberation. In particular, Mouffe questions the empirical attainability of consensus in post-Cold War democracies.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Firstly, the consensus on the superiority of neoliberalism – which was believed to have been forged with the collapse of the USSR and the delegitimisation of communism as an ideological antidote to capitalism – is no longer as strong as it was in the wake of the dissolution of the USSR. Realising the failures of neoliberalism, such as massive economic inequality and the exploitations arising from capitalist practices, there is greater division on the issue of how best to organise societies globally today. Secondly, with the rise of identity politics in the West, people are less reliant on traditional parties for political representation, often believing that they have lost their ability to take their interests into account.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Together, agonistic theorists question whether consensus as a democratic approach is even appropriate because of its inability to embrace difference. To them, difference is an inerradicable condition of human existence; to pursue consensus is to assimilate identities into a universal category of neoliberal subjectivity, which can lead to various forms of coercion and exclusion. Accordingly, the lack of closure in politics, the "ongoing confrontation," is to be seen not as a sign of failure but a testament to the vibrancy of democracies.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Some academics do not think a clear-cut opposition between deliberative and agonistic theories can be identified. For example, drawing on the work of Hannah Arendt, Shmuel Lederman laments the fact that "deliberation and agonism have become almost two different schools of thought" that are discussed as "mutually exclusive conceptions of politics". Similarly, Giuseppe Ballacci argue that agonism and deliberation are not only compatible but mutually dependent: "a properly understood agonism requires the use of deliberative skills but also that even a strongly deliberative politics could not be completely exempt from some of the consequences of agonism".


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Consensus-based decision making similar to deliberative democracy is characteristic of the hunter-gatherer band societies thought to predominate in pre-historical times. As some of these societies became more complex with developments like division of labour, community-based decision making was displaced by various forms of authoritarian rule. The first example of democracy arose in Greece as Athenian democracy during the sixth century BC. Athenian democracy was both "deliberative" and largely "direct": some decisions were made by representatives but most were made by "the people" directly. Athenian democracy came to an end in 322BC. When democracy was revived as a political system about 2000 years later, decisions were made by representatives rather than directly by the people. In a sense, this revived version was deliberative from its beginnings; for example, in 1774 Edmund Burke made a famous speech where he called Great Britain's parliament a deliberative assembly. Similarly, the Founding Fathers of the United States considered deliberation an essential part of the government they created in the late 18th century.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: The deliberative element of democracy was not widely studied by academics until the late 20th century. Although some of the seminal work was done in the 1970s and 80s, it was only in 1990 that deliberative democracy began to attract substantial attention from political scientists. According to Professor John Dryzek, early work on deliberative democracy was part of efforts to develop a theory of democratic legitimacy. Theorists such as Carne Ross advocate deliberative democracy as a complete alternative to representative democracy. The more common view, held by contributors such as James Fishkin, is that direct deliberative democracy can be complementary to traditional representative democracy. Since 1994, hundreds of implementations of direct deliberative democracy have taken place throughout the world. For example, lay citizens have used deliberative democracy to determine local budget allocations in various cities and to undertake major public projects, such as the rebuilding of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Deliberative democracy recognizes a conflict of interest between the citizen participating, those affected or victimized by the process being undertaken, and the group-entity that organizes the decision. Thus it usually involves an extensive outreach effort to include marginalized, isolated, ignored groups in decisions, and to extensively document dissent, grounds for dissent, and future predictions of consequences of actions. It focuses as much on the process as the results. In this form it is a complete theory of civics.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: On the other hand, many practitioners of deliberative democracy attempt to be as neutral and open-ended as possible, inviting (or even randomly selecting) people who represent a wide range of views and providing them with balanced materials to guide their discussions. Examples include National Issues Forums, Choices for the 21st Century, study circles, deliberative opinion polls, the Citizens' Initiative Review, and the 21st-century town meetings convened by AmericaSpeaks, among others. In these cases, deliberative democracy is not connected to left-wing politics but is intended to create a conversation among people of different philosophies and beliefs.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: In Canada, there have been two prominent applications of deliberative democratic models. In 2004, the British Columbia Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform convened a policy jury to consider alternatives to the first-past-the-post electoral systems. In 2007, the Ontario Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform convened to consider alternative electoral systems in that province. Similarly, three of Ontario's Local Health Integration Networks (LHIN) have referred their budget priorities to a policy jury for advice and refinement.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: The Green Party of the United States refers to its particular proposals for grassroots democracy and electoral reform by this name. Although not always the case, participation in deliberation has often been found to shift participants opinions in favour of Green positions, and can even cause a favourable change of voting intention. For example, with Europolis 2009, at the time one of the largest deliberative assemblies ever held, which set out to assess the public's view on a wide range of issues and included representatives from all 27 EU member nations, the share of citizens intending to vote for the Greens increased from 8% to 18%.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: According to Professor Stephen Tierney, perhaps the earliest notable example of academic interest in the deliberative aspects of democracy occurred in John Rawls 1971 work "A Theory of Justice".


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Joseph M. Bessette coined the term "deliberative democracy" in his 1980 work "Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government", and went on to elaborate and defend the notion in "The Mild Voice of Reason" (1994). Others contributing to the notion of deliberative democracy include Carlos Nino, Jon Elster, Roberto Gargarella, John Gastil, Jürgen Habermas, David Held, Joshua Cohen, John Rawls, Amy Gutmann, Noëlle McAfee, John Dryzek, Rense Bos, James S. Fishkin, Jane Mansbridge, Jose Luis Marti, Dennis Thompson, Benny Hjern, Hal Koch, Seyla Benhabib, Ethan Leib, Charles Sabel, Jeffrey K. Tulis, David Estlund, Mariah Zeisberg, Jeffrey L. McNairn, Iris Marion Young and Robert B. Talisse.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Although political theorists took the lead in the study of deliberative democracy, political scientists have in recent years begun to investigate its processes. One of the main challenges currently is to discover more about the actual conditions under which the ideals of deliberative democracy are more or less likely to be realized.


title: Deliberative democracy

text: Most recently, scholarship has focused on the emergence of a 'systemic approach' to the study of deliberation. This suggests that the deliberative capacity of a democratic system needs to be understood through the interconnection of the variety of sites of deliberation which exist, rather than any single setting. Some studies have conducted experiments to examine how deliberative democracy addresses the problems of sustainability and underrepresentation of future generations.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: Ashley Elizabeth Atkinson (born August 6, 1977), known professionally as Ashlie Atkinson, is an American character actress who works in movies and television (with over 90 credits) – as well as in theater. Atkinson is known for her work as Ace on "Happy!", Peaches in the Netflix film "Juanita", Connie in the Spike Lee film "BlacKkKlansman", Mamie Fish on the HBO show The Gilded Age, and Janice in the fourth season of "Mr. Robot".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: Atkinson was born in Little Rock, Arkansas. Her father was a doctor and her mother was a nurse. Her family has lived in Arkansas for many generations.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 1995, Atkinson graduated from Pulaski Academy in Little Rock, Arkansas. Atkinson attended Barnard College of Columbia University in New York City for three semesters but in 1996, moved back to Arkansas and eventually transferred to Hendrix College, where she had previously attended a summer program through Arkansas Governor's School for drama. In 2001, Atkinson graduated from Hendrix College with a degree in theater arts.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2003, after moving back to New York City when she was 24, Atkinson graduated from the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre. While at the Neighborhood Playhouse, she studied the Meisner technique.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: While at the Neighborhood Playhouse School, director Jace Alexander saw Atkinson perform in a showcase there. This led to a 2004 guest starring appearance in the TV show "Law & Order" and a six-episode arc in the Denis Leary TV series, "Rescue Me".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: Atkinson then starred in a breakout role as Helen, the sweet-faced, plus-size librarian in Neil LaBute's 2004 off-Broadway play "Fat Pig". The role garnered her a Theatre World Award for Outstanding Off-Broadway Debut, as well as nominations for both a Lucille Lortel Award and an Outer Critics Circle Award.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2011, Atkinson hit the three guest star appearance in the "Law & Order" franchise, following her 2005 debut on the original "Law & Order" with a 2007 appearance on "", and then in 2011 both "Law & Order: Criminal Intent" and "".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2012, Atkinson guest starred on the TV series "Boardwalk Empire" as Gyp's wife, Gianconda Rosetti. She appeared on a 2012 episode of "30 Rock".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2013, Atkinson portrayed Rochelle Applebaum in the Martin Scorsese film "The Wolf of Wall Street".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2013 and 2014, Atkinson had a four episode arc in the TV show, "F to 7th". From 2013 to 2014, she was featured on the American remake of "Gavin and Stacey", called "Us & Them" in the role of Nessa.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2018, Atkinson played the role of Connie Kendrickson in the Academy Award-winning film "BlacKkKlansman", directed by Spike Lee. She had previously worked with Lee in the 2006 Denzel Washington film, "Inside Man". Atkinson also worked alongside Lee's sister Joie Lee, contributing sound work on his 2008 WWII drama, "Miracle at St. Anna". Also in 2018, Atkinson had a recurring role on the TV series, "One Dollar".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: From 2018 to 2019, Atkinson was Ace, Internal Affairs Detective, in four episodes of the Syfy TV show "Happy!", a live-action/adult animated black comedy/action-drama television series.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2019, Atkinson portrayed Mrs. Fosse in the mini-series "Fosse/Verdon". She had a two episode arc in the 2019 Allison Tolman thriller "Emergence" and played a trucker in the ensemble opposite Alfre Woodard in the Netflix movie, "Juanita".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: And also in 2019, Atkinson was on the fourth and final season of "Mr. Robot", playing the character Janice.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: From 2003, Atkinson is a former skater and long-time member of the 5-time world champion Gotham Girls roller derby team under the name of "Margaret Thrasher (Prime Minister of Your Demise)", although she has since retired.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2004, Atkinson appeared in the music video for the Kings of Leon song, "Four Kicks" off their album "Aha Shake Heartbreak".


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2006, Atkinson became the face of a fictional character called Chunky Pam. Her character, Chunky Pam, was featured in three videos: in a Christmas promotion for MTV called "Merry X.X.X.L.M.A.S. (Pam I Am)", in a Valentine's Day promotion called "Pampered", and a one-off music video titled "Dirrrty Jerzy", in which she raps about being from New Jersey.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2017, Atkinson starred as Dakota "Dak" Prentiss in a 14-episode noir science fiction thriller audio drama podcast called "Steal the Stars", the story of two government employees guarding the biggest secret in the world: a crashed UFO.


title: Ashlie Atkinson

text: In 2015, Atkinson married gaffer, musician, and filmmaker Leon Chase. The couple were married at the Arkansas music venue the White Water Tavern and live in Brooklyn.


title: Man and Superman

text: Man and Superman is a four-act drama written by George Bernard Shaw in 1903. The series was written in response to a call for Shaw to write a play based on the Don Juan theme. "Man and Superman" opened at the Royal Court Theatre in London on 21 May 1905 as a four-act play produced by the Stage Society, and then by John Eugene Vedrenne and Harley Granville-Barker on 23 May, without Act III ("Don Juan in Hell"). A part of the third act, "Don Juan in Hell" (Act 3, Scene 2), was performed when the drama was staged on 4 June 1907 at the Royal Court. The play was not performed in its entirety until 1915, when the Travelling Repertory Company played it at the Lyceum Theatre, Edinburgh.


title: Man and Superman

text: Mr. Whitefield has recently died, and his will indicates that his daughter Ann should be left in the care of two men, Roebuck Ramsden and John Tanner. Ramsden, a venerable old man, distrusts John Tanner, an eloquent youth with revolutionary ideas, whom Shaw's stage directions describe as "prodigiously fluent of speech, restless, excitable (mark the snorting nostril and the restless blue eye, just the thirty-secondth of an inch too wide open), possibly a little mad". In spite of what Ramsden says, Ann accepts Tanner as her guardian, though Tanner does not want the position at all. She also challenges Tanner's revolutionary beliefs with her own ideas. Despite Tanner's professed dedication to anarchy, he is unable to disarm Ann's charm, and she ultimately persuades him to marry her, choosing him over her more persistent suitor, a young man, Tanner's friend, named Octavius Robinson.


title: Man and Superman

text: The long third act of the play, which shows Don Juan himself having a conversation with several characters in Hell, is often cut. Charles A. Berst observes of Act III:


title: Man and Superman

text: Paradoxically, the act is both extraneous and central to the drama which surrounds it. It can be dispensed with, and usually is, on grounds that it is just too long to include in an already full-length play. More significantly, it is in some aspects a digression, operates in a different mode from the rest of the material, delays the immediate well-made story line, and much of its subject matter is already implicit in the rest of the play. The play performs well without it.


title: Man and Superman

text: "Don Juan in Hell" consists of a philosophical debate between Don Juan (played by the same actor who plays Jack Tanner), and the Devil, with Doña Ana (Ann) and the Statue of Don Gonzalo, Ana's father (Roebuck Ramsden) looking on. This third act is often performed separately as a play in its own right, most famously during the 1950s in a concert version, featuring Charles Boyer as Don Juan, Charles Laughton as the Devil, Cedric Hardwicke as the Commander and Agnes Moorehead as Doña Ana. This version was also released as a spoken word album on LP, but is yet to appear on CD. In 1974–1975, Kurt Kasznar, Myrna Loy, Edward Mulhare and Ricardo Montalban toured nationwide in John Houseman's reprise of the production, playing 158 cities in six months.


title: Man and Superman

text: Although "Man and Superman" can be performed as a light comedy of manners, Shaw intended the drama to be something much deeper, as suggested by the title, which comes from Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical ideas about the "Übermensch" (although Shaw distances himself from Nietzsche by placing the philosopher at the very end of a long list of influences). As Shaw notes in his "Epistle Dedicatory" (dedication to theatre critic Arthur Bingham Walkley) he wrote the play as "a pretext for a propaganda of our own views of life". The plot centres on John Tanner, author of "The Revolutionist's Handbook and Pocket Companion", which is published with the play as a 58-page appendix. Both in the play and in the "Handbook" Shaw takes Nietzsche's theme that mankind is evolving, through natural selection, towards "superman" and develops the argument to suggest that the prime mover in selection is the woman: Ann Whitefield makes persistent efforts to entice Tanner to marry her yet he remains a bachelor. As Shaw himself puts it: "Don Juan had changed his sex and become Dona Juana, breaking out of the Doll's House and asserting herself as an individual". This is an explicit, intended reversal of Tirso de Molina's play "The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest", more widely known as the source of Da Ponte's "Don Giovanni"; here Ann, representing Doña Ana, is the predator – "Don Juan is the quarry instead of the huntsman", as Shaw notes.


title: Man and Superman

text: Ann is referred to as "the Life Force" and represents Shaw's view that in every culture, it is the women who force the men to marry them rather than the men who take the initiative. Sally Peters Vogt proposes: "Thematically, the fluid Don Juan myth becomes a favorable milieu for Creative Evolution", and that "the legend ... becomes in "Man and Superman" the vehicle through which Shaw communicates his cosmic philosophy".


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1917 the Abbey Theatre produced the play for 7 performances. The production was directed by J. Augustus Keogh.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1925 the Abbey Theatre produced the play for 7 performances. The production was directed by Michael J. Dolan.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1927 the Abbey Theatre produced the play for 7 performances. The production was directed by Lennox Robinson.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1946. the BBC Third Programme broadcast the entire play for the first time. The production was directed by Peter Watts. It starred John Garside, Leonard Sachs, Sebastian Shaw, Grizelda Hervey amongst others.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1968 the BBC adapted the play for television as a "Play of the Month". Only a short sequence from this play still exists.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1981, London's National Theatre staged a production, with the "Don Juan in Hell" act included, directed by Christopher Morahan and starring Daniel Massey as Jack Tanner and Penelope Wilton as Ann Whitefield.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1982, a television version with Peter O'Toole in the starring role and Barry Morse as The Devil was first broadcast in the United Kingdom.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1990, South Coast Repertory in Costa Mesa, California staged a production, with the "Don Juan in Hell" act included, directed by Martin Benson and starring John de Lancie as Jack Tanner and his wife Marnie Mosiman as Ann Whitefield.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 1996, to celebrate BBC Radio 3's 50th Anniversary, Sir Peter Hall directed an audio production with Ralph Fiennes as Jack Tanner, Judi Dench as Mrs. Whitefield, John Wood as Mendoza, Juliet Stevenson as Ann Whitefield, Nicholas Le Provost as Octavius Robinson and Jack Davenport as Hector Malone.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 2012, the Irish Repertory Theatre and Gingold Theatrical Group presented a revival directed and adapted by David Staller.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 2015, London's National Theatre staged a production, with the "Don Juan in Hell" act included, directed by Simon Godwin and starring Ralph Fiennes as Jack Tanner and Indira Varma as Ann Whitefield.


title: Man and Superman

text: In 2019 Canada's Shaw Festival staged the full production with Martha Burns as Mendoza/The Devil, Gray Powell as Jack Tanner and Sara Topham as Ann.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: Thomas John Dempsey (January 12, 1947April 4, 2020) was an American professional football player who was a placekicker in the National Football League (NFL) for the New Orleans Saints, Philadelphia Eagles, Los Angeles Rams, Houston Oilers and Buffalo Bills. Unlike the "soccer style" approach which was becoming more and more widely used during his career, Dempsey's kicking style was the then-standard straight-toe style. With the Saints in 1970, he made a 63-yard field goal, setting an NFL record which stood for over 40 years.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: Dempsey was born in Milwaukee and attended high school and college in Southern California. He attended high school at San Dieguito High School and played college football at Palomar College. He was born with no toes on his right foot and no fingers on his right hand. Dempsey wore a custom, flat-front kicking shoe that had no toe box.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: Dempsey is most widely known for kicking a 63-yard field goal as time expired to give the Saints a 19–17 win over the Detroit Lions on November 8, 1970, at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans. Prior to 1974, the goal posts in the NFL were on the goal lines instead of the end lines. With time running out in the game, the Saints attempted a field goal with holder Joe Scarpati spotting at the Saints' own 37-yard line. The snap from Jackie Burkett was good, and Dempsey made the field goal as the ball fell just beyond the bar. The win was one of only two for the Saints in that dismal season.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: With the kick, Dempsey broke Bert Rechichar's NFL record for longest field goal by seven yards. His record was tied three times—by Jason Elam in 1998, Sebastian Janikowski in 2011 and David Akers in 2012—before it was broken on December 8, 2013,


title: Tom Dempsey

text: by Matt Prater, who hit a 64-yard field goal. On Sunday, September 26, 2021, Justin Tucker of the Baltimore Ravens broke that record with a 66-yard field goal as time expired to beat the Detroit Lions. This walk-off kick eclipsed both Dempsey's and Graham Gano's 63-yarder in 2018 as the longest field goal to win a game on its final play.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: Dempsey was born without toes on his right foot and no fingers on his right hand. He wore a modified shoe with a flattened and enlarged toe surface. The custom made, $200 () shoe generated controversy about whether such a shoe gave a player an unfair advantage. When reporters would ask him if he thought it was unfair, he said, "Unfair, eh? How 'bout you try kickin' a 63 yard field goal to win it with 2 seconds left an' yer wearin' a square shoe, oh yeah, and no toes either." Additionally, when an analysis of his kick was carried out by ESPN "Sport Science", it was found that his modified shoe had offered him no advantage. In fact, it was found that the smaller contact area could have increased, not reduced, the margin for error.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: The league made two rule changes in the subsequent years to discourage further long field goal attempts. The first was in 1974, which moved the goal posts from the goal line to the back of the end zone, adding ten yards to the kick distance, and awarded the ball to the defense on a missed kick at the spot where the ball was snapped. This was changed in 1994 to the spot of the kick. Then, in 1977, the NFL added a rule, informally known as the "Tom Dempsey Rule", that "any shoe that is worn by a player with an artificial limb on his kicking leg must have a kicking surface that conforms to that of a normal kicking shoe."


title: Tom Dempsey

text: Since Dempsey was the only kicker to make a field goal from more than sixty yards prior to the relocation of the goal posts, he remains the only player in NFL history to successfully kick a field goal from beyond his own team's 40-yard line.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: In 1983, Dempsey was inducted into the American Football Association's Semi-Pro Football Hall of Fame.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: After retiring from football he resided with his wife Carlene, who taught history at Kehoe-France, a private school in Metairie, Louisiana, a suburb of New Orleans. His house was flooded during Hurricane Katrina in 2005.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: In January 2013, Dempsey revealed he had dementia. Psychiatrist Daniel Amen made the initial diagnosis of damage to Dempsey's brain. During medical examinations and scans, Amen found three holes in the brain, along with other damage.


title: Tom Dempsey

text: On March 30, 2020, Dempsey tested positive for COVID-19 during the pandemic. He was one of 15 residents at a New Orleans senior residence to test positive for the virus. Dempsey died on April 4, of complications from COVID-19.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: East Africa Protectorate (also known as British East Africa) was an area in the African Great Lakes occupying roughly the same terrain as present-day Kenya from the Indian Ocean inland to the border with Uganda in the west. Controlled by Britain in the late 19th century, it grew out of British commercial interests in the area in the 1880s and remained a protectorate until 1920 when it became the Colony of Kenya, save for an independent coastal strip that became the Kenya Protectorate.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: European missionaries began settling in the area from Mombasa to Mount Kilimanjaro in the 1840s, nominally under the protection of the Sultanate of Zanzibar. In 1886, the British government encouraged William Mackinnon, who already had an agreement with the Sultan and whose shipping company traded extensively in the African Great Lakes, to establish British influence in the region. He formed a British East Africa Association which led to the Imperial British East Africa Company being chartered in 1888 and given the original grant to administer the dependency. It administered about of coastline stretching from the River Jubba via Mombasa to German East Africa which were leased from the Sultan. The British "sphere of influence", agreed at the Berlin Conference of 1885, extended up the coast and inland across the future Kenya. Mombasa was the administrative centre at this time.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: However, the company began to fail, and on 1 July 1895, the British government proclaimed a protectorate, the administration being transferred to the Foreign Office. In 1902 administration was again transferred to the Colonial Office. In 1897 Lord Delamere, the pioneer of white settlement, arrived in the Kenya highlands, which was then part of the Protectorate. Lord Delamere was impressed by the agricultural possibilities of the area. In 1902, the boundaries of the Protectorate were extended to include what was previously the Eastern Province of Uganda. Also, in 1902, the East Africa Syndicate received a grant of to promote white settlement in the Highlands. Lord Delamere now commenced extensive farming operations, and in 1905, when a large number of new settlers arrived from England and South Africa, the Protectorate was transferred from the authority of the Foreign Office to that of the Colonial Office. The capital was shifted from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1905. A regular Government and Legislature were constituted by Order in Council in 1906. This constituted the administrator a governor and provided for legislative and executive councils. Lieutenant Colonel J. Hayes Sadler was the first governor and commander in chief. There were occasional troubles with local tribes but the country was opened up by the Government and the colonists with little bloodshed. After the First World War, more farmers arrived from England and South Africa, and by 1919 the European population was estimated at 9,000 settlers.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: On 23 July 1920, the inland areas of the Protectorate were annexed as British dominions by Order in Council. That part of the former Protectorate was thereby constituted as the Colony of Kenya. The remaining coastal strip (with the exception of Witu), remained a Protectorate under an agreement with the Sultan of Zanzibar. That coastal strip, remaining under the sovereignty of the Sultan of Zanzibar, was constituted as the Protectorate of Kenya in 1920. The East Africa Protectorate was bounded to the north by the Abyssinian empire and the Huwan, a semi-independent vassal state of the Ethiopian empire; to the east by the Italian Geledi, to the south by German East Africa; to the west by the Uganda Protectorate.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: After 1896, immigrants from India came to the area as moneylenders, traders, and artisans. Racial segregation was normalised, with the Europeans assigning the Highlands to themselves. Other restrictions included commercial and residential segregation in the towns, and restrictions on Indian immigration. Nevertheless, the Indians rapidly grew to outnumber the Europeans by more than two to one by 1919. India was a crown colony whose citizens enjoyed certain privileges but it was unclear whether the Ishmael Indians in the African Great Lakes were to be recognised as citizens of the British Empire or as a subject race.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: In April 1902, the first application for land in British East Africa was made by the East Africa Syndicate – a company in which financiers belonging to the British South Africa Company were interested – which sought a grant of , and this was followed by other applications for considerable areas, many of which came from prospective settlers in South Africa. In 1903, Joseph Chamberlain, then serving as Secretary of State for the Colonies, offered at Uasin Gishu in British East Africa to Zionist settlers as part of the Uganda Scheme. However, opposition to the scheme at the Sixth Zionist Congress led to the plan falling through and Chamberlain swiftly withdrew the offer. In April 1903, Major Frederick Russell Burnham, an American scout then serving as a director of the East African Syndicate, sent an expedition consisting of John Weston Brooke, John Charles Blick, Mr. Bittlebank and Mr. Brown, to assess the mineral wealth of the region. The party, known as the "Four B.'s", travelled from Nairobi via Mount Elgon northwards to the western shores of Lake Rudolf, experiencing plenty of privations from want of water, and of the danger from encounters with the Maasai. With the arrival in 1903 of hundreds of prospective settlers, chiefly from South Africa, questions were raised concerning the preservation for the Maasai of their rights of pasturage, and the decision was made to entertain no more applications for large areas of land.


title: East Africa Protectorate

text: In the process of carrying out this policy of colonisation a dispute arose between Sir Charles Eliot, Commissioner of British East Africa, and Lord Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary. The East Africa Syndicate had applied for and been pledged the lease of of land. Lansdowne, believing himself bound by the pledges, decided the applications should be approved. In a separate matter, two South African applicants who were each attempting to lease were declined by Lansdowne, and he refused Eliot permission to conclude the transactions. In view of this Eliot resigned his post, giving his reason in a public telegram to the Prime Minister, dated Mombasa, 21 June 1904, stating: "Lord Lansdowne ordered me to refuse grants of land to certain private persons while giving a monopoly of land on unduly advantageous terms to the East Africa Syndicate. I have refused to execute these instructions, which I consider unjust and impolitic." Sir Donald William Stewart, the chief commissioner of Ashanti (Ghana), was announced as Sir Charles' successor on the day the telegram was sent.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis use disorder (CUD), also known as cannabis addiction or marijuana addiction, is defined in the fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and ICD-10 as the continued use of cannabis despite clinically significant impairment.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis use is associated with comorbid mental health problems, such as mood and anxiety disorders, and discontinuing cannabis use is difficult for some users. Psychiatric comorbidities are often present in dependent cannabis users including a range of personality disorders.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Based on annual survey data, some high school seniors who report smoking daily (nearly 7%, according to one study) may function at a lower rate in school than students that do not. The sedating and anxiolytic properties of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in some users might make the use of cannabis an attempt to self-medicate personality or psychiatric disorders.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Prolonged cannabis use produces both pharmacokinetic changes (how the drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted) and pharmacodynamic changes (how the drug interacts with target cells) to the body. These changes require the user to consume higher doses of the drug to achieve a common desirable effect (known as a higher tolerance), reinforcing the body's metabolic systems for eliminating the drug more efficiently and further down-regulating cannabinoid receptors in the brain.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis users have shown decreased reactivity to dopamine, suggesting a possible link to a dampening of the reward system of the brain and an increase in negative emotion and addiction severity.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis users can develop tolerance to the effects of THC. Tolerance to the behavioral and psychological effects of THC has been demonstrated in adolescent humans and animals. The mechanisms that create this tolerance to THC are thought to involve changes in cannabinoid receptor function.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis dependence develops in about 9% of users, significantly less than that of heroin, cocaine, alcohol, and prescribed anxiolytics, but slightly higher than that for psilocybin, mescaline, or LSD. Of those who use cannabis daily, 10–20% develop dependence.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis withdrawal symptoms occur in one-half of people in treatment for cannabis use disorders. Symptoms may include dysphoria, anxiety, irritability, depression, restlessness, disturbed sleep, gastrointestinal symptoms, and decreased appetite. It is often paired with rhythmic movement disorder. Most symptoms begin during the first week of abstinence and resolve after a few weeks. About 12% of heavy cannabis users showed cannabis withdrawal as defined by the DSM-5, and this was associated with significant disability as well as mood, anxiety and personality disorders.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis addiction is often due to prolonged and increasing use of the drug. Increasing the strength of the cannabis taken and an increasing use of more effective methods of delivery often increase the progression of cannabis dependency. It can also be caused by being prone to becoming addicted to substances, which can either be genetically or environmentally acquired.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Certain factors are considered to heighten the risk of developing cannabis dependence and longitudinal studies over a number of years have enabled researchers to track aspects of social and psychological development concurrently with cannabis use. Increasing evidence is being shown for the elevation of associated problems by the frequency and age at which cannabis is used, with young and frequent users being at most risk.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: The main factors in Australia, for example, related to a heightened risk for developing problems with cannabis use include frequent use at a young age; personal maladjustment; emotional distress; poor parenting; school drop-out; affiliation with drug-using peers; moving away from home at an early age; daily cigarette smoking; and ready access to cannabis. The researchers concluded there is emerging evidence that positive experiences to early cannabis use are a significant predictor of late dependence and that genetic predisposition plays a role in the development of problematic use.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: A number of groups have been identified as being at greater risk of developing cannabis dependence and, in Australia, for example, have been found to include adolescent populations, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and people with mental health conditions.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: The endocannabinoid system is directly involved in adolescent brain development. Adolescent cannabis users are therefore particularly vulnerable to the potential adverse effects of cannabis use. Adolescent cannabis use is associated with increased cannabis misuse as an adult, issues with memory and concentration, long-term cognitive complications, and poor psychiatric outcomes including social anxiety, suicidality and addiction.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: There are a lot of reasons why adolescents start a smoking habit. According to a study completed by Bill Sanders, influence from friends, difficult household problems, and experimentation are some of the reasons why this population starts to smoke marijuana. This segment of population seems to be one of the most influenceable group there is. They want to follow the group and look "cool", "hip" and accepted by their friends. This fear of rejection plays a big role in their decision to smoke pot. However it does not seem to be the most important factor. According to a study from Canada, the lack of knowledge about cannabis seems to be the main reason why adolescents start to smoke. The authors observed a high correlation between adolescents that knew about the mental and physical harms of cannabis and their consumption. Of the 1045 young participants in the study, those who could name the least number of negative effects about this drug were usually the ones who were consuming it. They were not isolated cases either. Actually, the study showed that the proportion of teenagers who saw cannabis as a high-risk drug and the ones who thought the contrary was about the same.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: There is an association between smoking cannabis during pregnancy and low birth weight. Smoking cannabis during pregnancy can lower the amount of oxygen delivered to the developing fetus, which can restrict fetal growth. The active ingredient in cannabis (D9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC) is fat soluble and can enter into breastmilk during lactation. THC in breastmilk can then subsequently be taken up by a breastfeeding infant, as shown by the presence of THC in the infant's feces. However, the evidence for long-term effects of exposure to THC through breastmilk is unclear.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis use disorder is recognized in the fifth version of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM-5), which also added cannabis withdrawal as a new condition.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: In the 2013 revision for the DSM-5, DSM-IV abuse and dependence were combined into cannabis use disorder. The legal problems criterion (from cannabis abuse) has been removed, and the craving criterion was newly added, resulting in a total of eleven criteria: hazardous use, social/interpersonal problems, neglected major roles, withdrawal, tolerance, used larger amounts/longer, repeated attempts to quit/control use, much time spent using, physical/psychological problems related to use, activities given up and craving. For a diagnosis of DSM-5 cannabis use disorder, at least two of these criteria need to be present in the last twelve-month period. Additionally, three severity levels have been defined: mild (two or three criteria), moderate (four or five criteria) and severe (six or more criteria) cannabis use disorder.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Cannabis use disorder is also recognized in the eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), adding more subdivisions including time intervals of pattern of use (episodic, continuous, or unspecified) and dependence (current, early full remission, sustained partial remission, sustained full remission, or unspecified) compared to the 10th revision.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: A 2019 meta-analysis found that 34% of people with cannabis-induced psychosis transitioned to schizophrenia. This was found to be comparatively higher than hallucinogens (26%) and amphetamines (22%).


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: To screen for cannabis-related problems, several methods are used. Scales specific to cannabis, which provides the benefit of being cost efficient compared to extensive diagnostic interviews, include the Cannabis Abuse Screening Test (CAST), Cannabis Use Identification Test (CUDIT), and Cannabis Use Problems Identification Test (CUPIT). Scales for general drug use disorders are also used, including the Severity Dependence Scale (SDS), Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT), and Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). However, there are no gold standard and both older and newer scales are still in use. To quantify cannabis use, methods such as Timeline Follow-Back (TLFB) and Cannabis Use Daily (CUD) are used. These methods measure general consumption and not grams of psychoactive substance as the concentration of THC may vary among drug users.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Clinicians differentiate between casual users who have difficulty with drug screens, and daily heavy users, to a chronic user who uses multiple times a day. In the US, , cannabis is the most commonly identified illicit substance used by people admitted to treatment facilities. Demand for treatment for cannabis use disorder increased internationally between 1995 and 2002. In the United States, the average adult who seeks treatment has consumed cannabis for over 10 years almost daily and has attempted to quit six or more times.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Treatment options for cannabis dependence are far fewer than for opiate or alcohol dependence. Most treatment falls into the categories of psychological or psychotherapeutic, intervention, pharmacological intervention or treatment through peer support and environmental approaches. No medications have been found effective for cannabis dependence, but psychotherapeutic models hold promise. Screening and brief intervention sessions can be given in a variety of settings, particularly at doctor's offices, which is of importance as most cannabis users seeking help will do so from their general practitioner rather than a drug treatment service agency.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: The most commonly accessed forms of treatment in Australia are 12-step programmes, physicians, rehabilitation programmes, and detox services, with inpatient and outpatient services equally accessed. In the EU approximately 20% of all primary admissions and 29% of all new drug clients in 2005, had primary cannabis problems. And in all countries that reported data between 1999 and 2005 the number of people seeking treatment for cannabis use increased.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Psychological intervention includes cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), motivational enhancement therapy (MET), contingency management (CM), supportive-expressive psychotherapy (SEP), family and systems interventions, and twelve-step programs.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: Evaluations of Marijuana Anonymous programs, modelled on the 12-step lines of Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous, have shown small beneficial effects for general drug use reduction. In 2006, the Wisconsin Initiative to Promote Healthy Lifestyles implemented a program that helps primary care physicians identify and address marijuana use problems in patients.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: As of 2020, there is no single medication that has been proven effective for treating cannabis use disorder; research is focused on three treatment approaches: agonist substitution, antagonist, and modulation of other neurotransmitter systems. More broadly, the goal of medication therapy for cannabis use disorder centers around targeting the stages of the addiction: acute intoxication/binge, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: For the treatment of the withdrawal/negative affect symptom domain of cannabis use disorder, medications may work by alleviating restlessness, irritable or depressed mood, anxiety, and insomnia. Bupropion, which is a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor, has been studied for the treatment of withdrawal with largely poor results. Atomoxetine has also shown poor results, and is as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, though it does increase the release of dopamine through downstream effects in the prefrontal cortex (an area of the brain responsible for planning complex tasks and behavior). Venlafaxine, a serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor, has also been studied for cannabis use disorder, with the thought that the serotonergic component may be useful for the depressed mood or anxious dimensions of the withdrawal symptom domain. While venlafaxine has been shown to improve mood for people with cannabis use disorder, a clinical trial in this population actually found worse cannabis abstinence rates compared to placebo. It is worth noting that venlafaxine is sometimes poorly tolerated, and infrequent use or abrupt discontinuation of its use can lead to withdrawal symptoms from the medication itself, including irritability, dysphoria, and insomnia. It is possible that venlafaxine use actually exacerbated cannabis withdrawal symptoms, leading people to use more cannabis than placebo to alleviate their discomfort. Mirtazapine, which increases serotonin and norepinephrine, has also failed to improve abstinence rates in people with cannabis use disorder.


title: Cannabis use disorder

text: People sometimes use cannabis to cope with their anxiety, and cannabis withdrawal can lead to symptoms of anxiety. Buspirone, a serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT1A) agonist, has shown limited efficacy for treating anxiety in people with cannabis use disorder, though there may be better efficacy in males than in females. Fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, has failed to show efficacy in adolescents with both cannabis use disorder and depression. SSRIs are a class of antidepressant drugs that are also used for the treatment of anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder. Vilazodone, which has both SSRI and 5-HT1A agonism properties, also failed to increase abstinence rates in people with cannabis use disorder.