title: Scottish Government

text: All Ministers and officials have access to Scotland House at Victoria Embankment in London, when necessary. Dover House on Whitehall is now used by the Scotland Office and the devolved Scottish Ministers no longer use it.


title: Scottish Government

text: The Scottish Government also operates local offices and specialist facilities around Scotland, for example those used by Rural Payments & Services and Marine Scotland.


title: Scottish Government

text: The Scottish Government has a European Union representative office, located at Rond-Point Robert Schuman in Brussels, Belgium, which forms a part of the United Kingdom Permanent Representation to the European Union. The Scottish Government also maintains offices within the British Embassy in Washington, D.C., as well as the British Embassy in Berlin and has accredited representatives within the British Embassy in Beijing.


title: Jessica Keenan Wynn

text: Jessica Keenan Wynn (born Jessica Keenan Armstrong; 12 June 1986) is an American actress and singer. She is known for her roles as Heather Chandler in the off-Broadway production of "" and Young Tanya in "Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again".


title: Jessica Keenan Wynn

text: Wynn is the daughter of Edwyna "Wynnie" Wynn and Roger Armstrong. Her legal surname is Armstrong, but she changed it to carry on the Wynn name.


title: Jessica Keenan Wynn

text: She is the niece of actor Ned Wynn and screenwriter Tracy Keenan Wynn; the granddaughter of Keenan Wynn, whom she was named after; the great-granddaughter of comedian Ed Wynn; and the great-great-granddaughter of Frank Keenan, all of whom were prominent actors.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The 2011 Money in the Bank was the second annual Money in the Bank professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. It took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. This was the last Money in the Bank held under the first brand extension, which ended in August, but was reinstated in July 2016.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The event featured six matches, including two Money in the Bank ladder matches. Alberto Del Rio won the match for wrestlers from the Raw brand to earn a WWE Championship match at a time of his choosing within the next year, while Daniel Bryan won the match for wrestlers from the SmackDown brand for the same opportunity for the World Heavyweight Championship. In other prominent matches, Christian defeated Randy Orton by disqualification and as per the match stipulation, he won the World Heavyweight Championship. In the main event, Chicago native CM Punk defeated John Cena to win the WWE Championship at his hometown.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Money in the Bank was broadcast globally and received positive reviews from critics, with the main event receiving the most praise. For pay-per-view buys, 195,000 customers paid to watch the event compared with 165,000 for the previous year.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In 2010, WWE established Money in the Bank as a gimmick pay-per-view (PPV) and it was held in July—in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with "WWE" becoming an orphaned initialism. The concept of the show came from WWE's established Money in the Bank ladder match that was originally held at WrestleMania from 2005 to 2010. The match features multiple wrestlers using ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring. The briefcase contains a contract that guarantees the winner a match for a world championship at any time within the next year. For 2011, two Money in the Bank ladder matches occurred. One was exclusive to wrestlers from the Raw brand while the other was exclusive to those from SmackDown. Raw's match granted a contract for a WWE Championship match while SmackDown's granted a World Heavyweight Championship match contract. The event took place on July 17, 2011, at the Allstate Arena in the Chicago suburb of Rosemont, Illinois. It was the second event under the Money in the Bank chronology and the last to occur under the first brand split, which ended in August. Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from US$25 to $300.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre-determined by the hosting promotion, WWE. Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE's weekly television shows "Raw" and "SmackDown" with the Raw and SmackDown brands—storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs. These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event, which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE's 2011 pay-per-view schedule, Capitol Punishment.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The main event featured John Cena defending the WWE Championship against CM Punk. Punk defeated Cena in a non-title match on the June 13, 2011 episode of "Raw" (after a distraction from R-Truth on Cena), and then became the number one contender by winning a triple threat Falls Count Anywhere match against Alberto Del Rio and Rey Mysterio on the June 20 episode of "Raw". After the match, Punk revealed that his WWE contract would expire at midnight on July 17, immediately after the Money in the Bank PPV ended; Punk vowed to win the championship and leave the company with it. On the next episode of "Raw", Punk cost Cena a tables match against R-Truth, then delivered a worked shoot promo saying that he, rather than Cena, was "the best in the world"; he also berated WWE for not promoting him properly. Punk called Cena an "ass-kisser" and insulted WWE management—including chairman Vince McMahon and executive John Laurinaitis. In addition to saying that he was breaking the fourth wall by talking to the camera, Punk proposed that he could defend the WWE Championship by wrestling in other companies such as Ring of Honor and New Japan Pro-Wrestling after leaving the company with the title. As a result, Punk was given a storyline suspension and stripped of his championship match. Cena confronted McMahon and threatened to walk out on him and return the WWE Championship if Punk were not reinstated. McMahon relented on the condition that if Cena lost the title, he would be fired. On the following episode of "Raw", McMahon tried to persuade Punk to sign a new contract to ensure the WWE Championship would stay in WWE; McMahon agreed to Punk's demands and apologized to Punk before Cena interrupted the proceedings. The segment resulted in Cena punching Punk, so Punk tore up the agreed contract.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The main feud from SmackDown was Randy Orton defending the World Heavyweight Championship against Christian. The storyline started on the May 6 episode of "SmackDown", when Orton defeated Christian to become the champion less than a week after Christian had won the title. Christian would then invoke his rematch clause against Orton at Over the Limit, in which he lost. At Capitol Punishment on June 19, Orton defeated Christian to retain the title again by pinning him, after the referee failed to notice his foot under the bottom rope. On the June 24 episode of "SmackDown", Christian demanded another attempt at the title from SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long; his demand was granted with the proviso that he could defeat Kane. Christian lost the match against Kane by disqualification after interference from Mark Henry. Long then made a tag team match for later that same episode, pitting the team of Christian and Henry against Kane and Orton with a similar stipulation, where Henry pinned Orton to win the match. Afterward, Long offered Henry an attempt at the championship if Henry could defeat Orton again. Henry lost the match by countout after Christian engineered a distraction. This set up a match between Orton and Christian for the title at Money in the Bank. On the July 8 episode of "SmackDown", Christian's lawyers in the storyline added a stipulation to the match that if Orton was disqualified or there was "poor officiating", he would lose the title to Christian.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of "Raw" with no qualifying matches; these were Alberto Del Rio, Alex Riley, Evan Bourne, Jack Swagger, Kofi Kingston, Rey Mysterio, R-Truth, and The Miz. The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 "SmackDown" as Cody Rhodes, Daniel Bryan, Heath Slater, Justin Gabriel, Kane, Sheamus, Sin Cara, and Wade Barrett.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The feud between Big Show and Mark Henry started on the June 17 episode of "SmackDown", when Big Show was forced to face Henry in a match. Big Show knocked out Henry before the bout began, creating a rivalry between the two. Henry interfered in Big Show's matches with Alberto Del Rio at Capitol Punishment and on the June 27 episode of "Raw" in a steel cage match. Henry versus Big Show was later announced for Money in the Bank.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: When Brie Bella lost her Divas Championship to Kelly Kelly on the June 20 episode of "Raw", a title rematch was announced for Money in the Bank. Kelly had been feuding with the Bella Twins (Nikki and Brie Bella) since May 2011.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The event, featuring commentary by Michael Cole, Jerry Lawler and Booker T, began with the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match. During the bout, Sheamus slammed Sin Cara through a ladder propped between the ring apron and the announcers' table with a powerbomb. The ladder was bent in half and Cara was stretchered away from ringside. Near the end of the match, Barrett, Rhodes and Bryan were the only three in the ring. Bryan put Rhodes in a guillotine choke submission hold on top of the ladder in the middle of the ring while Barrett sneaked up the other side of the ladder. After Bryan knocked Rhodes off the ladder, Barrett got Bryan onto his shoulders and tried to throw him off. Bryan countered with repeated elbow strikes to Barrett's head. Bryan then kicked Barrett in the head and unhooked the briefcase to win the contest.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In the show's second match, Kelly Kelly defeated Brie Bella to retain the Divas Championship. Kelly won the bout after performing her K2 maneuver on Brie.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In the show's third match, Mark Henry defeated Big Show. Henry gained a two-count after a World's Strongest Slam on Big Show. Henry then performed the move again and two running splashes for the pinfall victory. After the match, Henry wrapped a chair around Big Show's ankle and jumped on it, causing an injury to Big Show.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The next match was the Raw Money in the Bank match, where all the wrestlers brought ladders. During the match, Evan Bourne performed his signature Air Bourne aerial maneuver, diving from a ladder and landing on the other wrestlers at ringside. Bourne and Miz went for the briefcase but Del Rio toppled their ladder, and Miz was taken backstage with a knee injury. The seven remaining wrestlers simultaneously climbed four ladders in the ring, but fell off one by one. With nobody left in the ring, Miz hopped down to the ring and climbed the ladder with one leg, but Mysterio stopped him by slamming him off the ladder with a sunset flip powerbomb. As Mysterio and Del Rio battled on top of the ladders for the briefcase, Del Rio distracted Mysterio by unmasking him and then pushing him onto another ladder, which tipped over and sent both wrestlers to the mat. Del Rio regrouped and unhooked the briefcase to win the match.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In the show's fifth match, Randy Orton defended his World Heavyweight Championship against Christian, with the condition that Christian would win the title if Orton were disqualified or if there was poor officiating. Christian opened the bout by bringing a steel chair into the ring and trying to goad Orton into getting disqualified. Orton balked and threw the chair to the floor. Christian performed his signature Killswitch, but Orton kicked out of the pin at the two count. As Orton was prepared to perform his signature RKO move, Christian spat in his face. An enraged Orton kicked Christian in the groin and was disqualified, so Christian became the new champion. Afterwards, Orton viciously attacked Christian and gave him two RKOs onto the announcers' table.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: The final match was for the WWE Championship between Champion John Cena and CM Punk. WWE Chairman Vince McMahon had threatened to have Cena fired if he did not retain the title. During the match, two separate signature Attitude Adjustment moves by Cena failed to score the victory. More than 30 minutes into the match, Punk performed his Go to Sleep maneuver, striking Cena's ribs and causing Cena to fall out of the ring. As Punk rolled Cena back into the ring, McMahon and John Laurinaitis emerged from backstage and distracted Punk, resulting in Cena placing Punk in the STF submission hold. Punk did not submit, but McMahon signaled the referee to award Cena the match and sent Laurinaitis to ring the bell. This was reminiscent of the Montreal Screwjob in 1997, where a conspiracy orchestrated by McMahon led to Bret Hart losing his WWF Championship to Shawn Michaels by submission despite Hart never submitting.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Not wanting a tainted victory, Cena broke the hold and attacked Laurinaitis. As Cena returned to the ring, Punk performed a Go to Sleep on Cena and pinned him to win the WWE Championship. McMahon ordered the winner of the Raw Money in the Bank match, Alberto Del Rio, to cash in his contract on Punk. When Del Rio ran out and tried to cash in his contract for an immediate WWE Championship match, Punk performed a roundhouse kick on Del Rio before he could do so. After blowing a kiss to a distraught McMahon, Punk fled the arena and left as WWE Champion.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: During the event, WWE announced that its attendance was 14,815. It was later reported that 12,000 attendees had paid, earning WWE $750,000. The event drew 195,000 pay-per-view purchases, which was an increase of 18.2% from the 165,000 of the previous year's event. This contributed to WWE's PPV revenue of $15.8 million for the third quarter of 2011 compared with $13.6 million for the third quarter of 2010. The 2012 Money in the Bank event received 188,000 purchases, a drop of 3.6%.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Money in the Bank received positive reviews from critics. Dave Meltzer of the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" awarded the Cena–Punk main event five stars out of five, the first WWE match to receive such a rating. It was the first match in any promotion in over five years to receive the full five stars, and is the first of three "main roster" (excluding NXT and NXT UK) matches to receive five stars in the 21st century, with the second occurring nearly 11 years later and the third happening a few months after the second. The "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" later awarded the event the Best Major Show of 2011, over other professional wrestling events by companies including Pro Wrestling Guerrilla and New Japan Pro-Wrestling, as well as over a kickboxing event by K-1 and mixed martial arts events by Ultimate Fighting Championship. The main event won the Observer award for Match of the Year.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Alex Roberts of the "Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter" attended the event. He criticized the ladder matches as "dangerous spectacles" where many wrestlers "took plenty of painful-looking bumps" but often failed to score "a corresponding crowd reaction". He also stated that the apparent injuries suffered by Sin Cara and the Miz in those matches had unnerved the audience. In contrast, Roberts felt that the two world title matches, which focused on "in-ring psychology and storytelling", were much more "memorable" or even "legendary". Regarding the main event, Roberts said, "even a match-ending run-in bypassed the expected convoluted machinations and played perfectly to the narrative at hand". At the end of 2011, Nathan Kyght of the "Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter" ranked Money in the Bank the best of 34 pay-per-views in 2011, including those from WWE, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling, Ring of Honor, and Dragon Gate USA.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Wade Keller, also from the "Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter", awarded the Cena–Punk bout five stars out of five, and said the "athleticism wasn't at the A+ level, but everything else that equals magic in pro wrestling happened in the last 40 minutes". Keller awarded the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match four stars and said there were "lots of good workers taking a lot of big bumps, but also selling them, during the course of the match". For the Orton–Christian match, Keller said that it was "paced well, executed well, and the finish played into the personalities and storyline of this feud". Regarding the outcome of the Henry–Big Show match, Keller commented that it was "interesting to see WWE really truly get behind Henry for the first time after all of this time".


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Dave Hillhouse at the Canadian Online Explorer's said Money in the Bank featured "exactly what a main event is supposed to be. A match that overshadows every other bout on the card, that has you, no matter how good each other contest is, looking forward to an ending just to be one step closer to the final contest." Hillhouse rated the main event eight out of ten and the overall event six out of ten. When the Canadian Online Explorer polled its readers on the event, 26% did not watch the event, 5% thought it was disappointing, 6% thought it was okay and 63% thought it was great.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In 2013, WWE released a list of their "15 best pay-per-views ever", with 2011's Money in the Bank ranked the second best. WWE also released "the 50 greatest WWE Championship Matches ever" in 2013, with the Cena–Punk match from the event ranked fourth. In 2019, Troy L. Smith of "cleveland.com" released a list of the "50 greatest wrestling pay-per-views of all time" from every professional wrestling promotion in the world, with 2011's Money in the Bank ranked at number four.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Money in the Bank 2011 was released on DVD by WWE Home Video on August 16, 2011; it included Matt Striker interviewing Daniel Bryan as extra content. Eric Cohen of About.com awarded the DVD five stars out of five, and said the event was one of the greatest PPV events of all time and warranted his highest possible recommendation. "DVD Talk" gave a "Highly Recommended" rating to the DVD, despite "an average technical presentation (no Blu-ray option, either) and no real bonus features".


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: After CM Punk left the Allstate Arena with the WWE Championship belt, celebrity website TMZ pictured him showing off his newly won title belt on the streets of Chicago with Colt Cabana and Ace Steel.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: To crown a new WWE Champion, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon started an eight-man tournament on the July 18 episode of "Raw", which included all the participants of the Raw Money in the Bank ladder match except Evan Bourne, whose place was filled by Dolph Ziggler. The Miz and Rey Mysterio made it to the tournament finals, which McMahon postponed so he could fire John Cena as a result of the conditions imposed on the Money in the Bank match. Triple H interrupted and announced that the WWE Board of Directors had removed McMahon from power in a vote of no confidence, and that Triple H was to take over the day-to-day operations of WWE. Before leaving, Triple H refused to fire Cena.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: On July 21, Punk gatecrashed the joint WWE–Mattel panel at the San Diego Comic-Con International with title belt in hand. He confronted Triple H and took exception to WWE attempting to crown a new WWE Champion. Two days later, Punk made a surprise appearance at a show hosted by the All American Wrestling company without his title belt to endorse Gregory Iron, a wrestler with cerebral palsy, as an inspiration for overcoming his impediment.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: On the July 25 episode of "Raw", Mysterio won the tournament to become the new WWE Champion, and immediately had to fend off Alberto Del Rio to prevent him from cashing in his Money in the Bank. Triple H, now Chief Operating Officer, decreed that Mysterio was to face ex-champion Cena later that night for the title; Cena won and again became WWE Champion. After the match, Punk made an unannounced return to WWE with the old WWE Championship belt to confront Cena, resulting in a situation where two wrestlers claimed the rights to the championship. Cena and Punk later fought in a match at SummerSlam on August 14 to crown the undisputed WWE Champion, which Punk won controversially as Triple H didn't see Cena's leg was on the rope and it was actually a rope break. As Punk celebrated, Kevin Nash made his WWE return and assaulted him. Del Rio then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and pinned Punk to become the new champion after kicking Punk in the head. Punk regained the WWE Championship from Del Rio at Survivor Series in November 2011; starting a 434-day reign until The Rock beat him at the 2013 Royal Rumble event.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: After losing the World Heavyweight Championship to Christian, Randy Orton was granted a rematch at SummerSlam, where he won a No Holds Barred match to win the title. Meanwhile, in the storyline, Mark Henry went on to crush Kane and Vladimir Kozlov's ankles with steel chairs. He defeated Orton at Night of Champions in September to become World Heavyweight Champion for the first time. Big Show returned from injury in October 2011 to feud with Henry over his title. Daniel Bryan initially declared that he would only cash in his Money in the Bank contract for a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII. However, on the November 25 episode of "SmackDown", Bryan cashed in the briefcase after Henry had been knocked out by Big Show to become the World Heavyweight Champion. The match was voided by General Manager Theodore Long as Henry was not medically cleared to compete, and the briefcase was returned to Bryan. At WWE's PPV in December 2011, Henry lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Big Show. After the match, Henry assaulted Big Show which allowed Bryan to cash in his contract and pin Big Show to win the title. Bryan held on to his title long enough to have a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII in April 2012, where he lost his championship to Sheamus.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: Kelly Kelly's next contender for the Divas Championship was Beth Phoenix; Kelly defeated Phoenix to retain her title at SummerSlam, and Night of Champions, but Phoenix ultimately beat Kelly for the title at Hell in a Cell in October 2011.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: John Laurinaitis continued to appear on television after Money in the Bank. In October 2011, he was appointed Raw General Manager, replacing Triple H as the on-screen authority figure. During Laurinaitis' rule, he feuded with CM Punk and later with John Cena, until he was fired in the storyline at No Way Out in June 2012.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In later Money in the Bank events, John Cena, Randy Orton and Sheamus won Money in the Bank ladder matches in 2012, 2013 and 2015 respectively. Cena cashed in on CM Punk and won via disqualification; thus Punk retained the WWE Championship. Orton cashed in on Daniel Bryan and captured the WWE Championship. Sheamus cashed in on Roman Reigns and captured the WWE World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Money in the Bank (2011)

text: In WWE's documentary "CM Punk: Best in the World" released in 2012, it was documented from the out-of-universe perspective that a disenchanted Punk rejected signing a new contract with WWE for more than a year leading up to Money in the Bank. After being persuaded by Joey Mercury and Lars Frederiksen that he could only help wrestlers underappreciated by WWE (like himself) if he stayed, Punk signed a new contract with WWE about an hour before capturing the WWE Championship from Cena, while the pay-per-view event was ongoing.


title: Fiona O'Shaughnessy

text: O'Shaughnessy was born in Galway. Her family moved to Reading, Berkshire, when she was 9. She returned to Galway a decade later where she pursued a career in theatre.


title: Fiona O'Shaughnessy

text: O'Shaughnessy's most notable stage role to date is that of Salome for the Gate Theatre in Dublin. Other stage work has included "The Shaughraun" for the Abbey Theatre in Dublin, which transferred to the West End's Albery Theatre in 2005. In 2006 she appeared in the UK premiere of "Blackwater Angel" by Jim Nolan at the Finborough Theatre, London. Other work for the Gate Theatre includes "Arms and the Man", "Oliver", "The Importance of Being Earnest", "Pride and Prejudice", "Blythe Spirit", "Present Laughter" (which toured in Charleston, South Carolina), "See You Next Tuesday", and "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof". She played Cate in the Irish debut of Sarah Kane's play "Blasted".


title: Fiona O'Shaughnessy

text: Her film roles include Clara in "Goldfish Memory", "The Halo Effect", and "The Stronger". Other theatre work includes playing Hilde Wangle in "Lady from the Sea" and Petra Stockman in "Enemy of the People" at the Arcola Theatre, London, and Amy in 'The Night Alive' at The Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles. She starred as Jessica Hyde in the television series "Utopia". In 2015, she starred with David Troughton in the comedy romantic horror film "Nina Forever".


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: Cove Rangers Football Club is a senior Scottish football club currently playing in the Scottish Championship. They are based in the Cove Bay area of Aberdeen and play their football at Balmoral Stadium, having left their former home at Allan Park in April 2015.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: Cove were formed in 1922 and played in the local amateur leagues until 1985, when they became a junior team. However, the club applied and were accepted to the senior Highland Football League in 1986, where they played until winning promotion to Scottish Football League division 2 in May 2019, after beating Berwick Rangers 7–0 on aggregate in the pyramid playoff. They have also racked up a formidable reputation in the lower rounds of the Scottish Cup, reaching the 3rd round three times. In 2001 they won their first Highland League championship – but even more impressively won the 'treble' of Highland League, Aberdeenshire Shield and Scottish Qualifying Cup.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In the 2007–08 season, Cove reached round four of the Scottish Cup for the first time, beating Brora Rangers away 5–0, Keith 3–0 and Edinburgh University 1–0 on the way, before losing 4–2 to Ross County.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: However, the south Aberdeen side claimed their second ever Highland League Championship with a 3–0 home win against Lossiemouth on 3 May 2008.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: Cove Rangers were one of the clubs who prepared an application for entry into the Scottish Football League following Gretna relinquishing their league status on 3 June 2008. The other clubs were Annan Athletic, Preston Athletic and Spartans. Annan Athletic were eventually awarded the place, due to their superior facilities.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: One of the club's most famous players is the young Scottish midfielder Paul Coutts who joined English League One club Peterborough United during the summer of 2008 for a nominal fee. Coutts won the club's "Young Player of the Year" award for the 2008–09 season and won eight caps for the Scotland under-21 squad, after being touted for a call up by his former manager Darren Ferguson.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In 2016 the club regained their Highland League crown. Due to the introduction of the 'pyramid system' in Scottish football, Cove elected to say goodbye to their Allan Park home due to the stadium not meeting SPFL minimum stadia requirements. This in turn meant the club played all of their games at an away ground with Inverurie Locos, Formartine United and Banks O'Dee offering the use of their facilities so the club could compete. Cove went on to win the league and advance to the first play-off game against the winner of the Lowland League, Edinburgh City. The tie was won by City 4–1 on aggregate who subsequently progressed to Scottish League Two after beating East Stirlingshire in the second playoff tie.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In the 2018–19 season they were promoted to SPFL League Two for the first time in their history after defeating Berwick Rangers 7–0 on aggregate in the League Two play-off.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In their first season in the SPFL, they won League Two after the season was terminated early due to the Coronavirus pandemic. This resulted in back-to-back promotions for Cove, with the club gaining promotion to SPFL League One for the first time.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In their first League One campaign, Cove narrowly lost out on promotion by 4 points to eventual winners Partick Thistle, finishing 3rd in the League and losing 4–3 on aggregate to Airdrieonians in the Play-offs.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In the following season, Cove won the League One title by 7 points, only losing 3 league games all season, securing promotion to the Scottish Championship for the first time in their history.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: From 1948 to 2015, Cove played at Allan Park, which was located in Cove. The ground had a capacity of 2300 spectators, with 200 on seats or benches. Its largest attendance was 2,100, in the league playoff in 2008–09 vs Deveronvale which they won 3–1 to lift the league title for the third year running. Allan Park was named after a local farmer, who sold the club the land on which they built the ground in 1948.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: On Friday, 30 July 2010, an article was placed in the local Aberdeen paper, the "Evening Express" that Stewart Milne, the chairman of Aberdeen F.C., had bought Allan Park. This scheme was thrown into doubt, however, when Aberdeen City Council rejected an application by the two clubs to build a new ground for Cove Rangers that Aberdeen would also have used as a training ground. Nevertheless, on 18 April 2015, Cove Rangers played their final game at Allan Park following progress being made with Aberdeen City Council in terms of planning permission. In this game Cove marked their departure with a 4–0 victory over Fort William. Allan Park had been bought by housing developers for a figure believed to be around the £3m mark. The sale also included a social club, also owned by the football club, which closed its doors the following day.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: Cove then began construction of their revised new stadium. The new facility, known as 'Balmoral Stadium' is located next to a new secondary school, with the merging of Kincorth and Torry Academies into one larger school. In a clause made by Aberdeen City Council, this new school will have access to the new stadium's artificial pitch.


title: Cove Rangers F.C.

text: In July 2018, Cove moved into the Balmoral Stadium, having played home games at Inverurie Loco Works' ground in the intervening period. The first match at the Balmoral Stadium took place on 16 July 2018, but had to be abandoned after a Cove player was seriously injured.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: The Socialist incumbent president François Mitterrand, who had been in office since 1981, did not stand for a third term. He was 78, had terminal cancer, and his party had lost the 1993 French legislative election in a landslide defeat. Since then, he had been "cohabiting" with a right-wing cabinet led by Prime Minister Edouard Balladur, a member of the neo-Gaullist RPR party. Balladur had promised the RPR leader, Jacques Chirac, that he would not run for the presidency, but as polls showed him doing well and he had the support of many right-wing politicians, he decided to run. The competition within the right between Balladur and Chirac was a major feature of the campaign.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: Meanwhile, the left was weakened by scandals and disappointments regarding Mitterrand's presidency along with the unemployment rate hovering around 10%. In June 1994, former Prime Minister Michel Rocard was dismissed as leader of the Socialist Party (PS) after the party's poor showing in the European Parliament elections. Then, Jacques Delors decided not to stand as a candidate because he disagreed with the re-alignment on the left orchestrated by new party leader Henri Emmanuelli. This left the field wide open for numerous potential candidacies: among those who are known to have considered a run, or were strongly urged by others, are Jack Lang, Pierre Joxe, Laurent Fabius, Ségolène Royal and Robert Badinter. Former party leader and education minister Lionel Jospin was chosen by PS members as the party's candidate in a primary election pitting him against Emmanuelli. He promised to restore the credibility and moral reputation of his party, but his chances of winning were seen as being thin. The economy was also still struggling with a depression which began in mid-1990, and the government's policies were widely blamed for both the recession and its slow recovery.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: The French Communist Party (PCF) tried to stop its electoral decline. Its new leader Robert Hue campaigned against "king money" and wanted to represent a renewed communism. He was faced with competition for the far left vote by the Trotskyist candidacy of Arlette Laguiller, who ran for the fourth time. Both of these candidates had a better result than their parties had in 1988, but came nowhere near being able to participate in the next round. In choosing Dominique Voynet, the Greens opted for their integration with the left.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: On the far-right, Jean-Marie Le Pen tried to repeat his surprising result that he obtained in the 1988 presidential election. His main rival for the far-right vote was Philippe de Villiers, candidate of the eurosceptic parliamentary right. Both candidates primarily focused over the financial situation.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: In January 1995, when he announced his candidacy, Balladur was the favourite of the political right. According to the SOFRES polls institute, he held an advantage of 14 points over Chirac (32% against 18% for the first round). He took advantage of his "positive assessment" as Prime Minister and advocated a moderately liberal economic policy. Chirac denounced the "social fracture" and criticised the "dominant thought", targeting Balladur. Chirac argued that "the pay slip is not the enemy of employment". Indeed, unemployment was the main theme of the campaign. From the start of March, Chirac gained ground on Balladur in the polls.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: Another factor that contributed to Balladur's fall in popularity was the revelation of a bugging scandal which had implicated Balladur.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: Chirac's campaign slogan was "La France pour tous" ("France for everyone"); Balladur's "Believe in France"; and Jospin's "A clear vote for a more just France".


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: Lionel Jospin won the first round, in what appeared to be an electoral recovery for the Socialist Party. His right-wing challenger for the runoff vote on 7 May was Jacques Chirac and not Edouard Balladur. Defeated, Balladur endorsed the RPR candidate. Jean-Marie Le Pen repeated his good result of the previous presidential election.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: During the TV debate between the two finalists, they disagreed about the presidential term. Jospin wanted to reduce it to five years whereas Chirac was in favour of the seven-year term. The PS candidate responded: "The choice is five years with me or seven years with Jacques Chirac, which will be very long". Eventually, the presidential term was reduced to five years after the 2002 election.


title: 1995 French presidential election

text: Chirac was elected President and Balladur resigned as prime minister. Foreign minister Alain Juppé succeeded him.


title: David Stockton

text: David Stockton (born June 24, 1991) is an American professional basketball player for the Fort Wayne Mad Ants of the NBA G League. He played college basketball for Gonzaga University and is the son of Hall of Fame point guard John Stockton.


title: David Stockton

text: Stockton attended Gonzaga Preparatory School in Spokane, Washington. As a senior in 2008–09, he averaged 12.4 points in 20 games as he helped lead the Bullpups to a 24-6 record. He led all scorers with 22 points as Gonzaga Prep defeated Inglemoor 72-64 in overtime to claim fourth place in the 2009 Washington State Class 4A Basketball Tournament. He also quarterbacked Prep's football team to an 8-2 record as senior.


title: David Stockton

text: After redshirting the 2009–10 season, Stockton joined the Gonzaga Bulldogs for his freshman season in 2010–11. He appeared in 34 of 35 games off the bench as he averaged 4.2 points, 1.3 rebounds and 2.1 assists in 15.6 minutes per game.


title: David Stockton

text: In his sophomore season, Stockton started his first career game in the season opener against Eastern Washington, before coming off the bench for the rest of the season. In 33 games, he averaged 3.7 points, 1.0 rebounds and 2.4 assists in 16.8 minutes per game.


title: David Stockton

text: In his junior season, Stockton appeared in all 35 games with his lone start coming against Lewis-Clark State College. He scored a season-high 13 points against the Warriors to best his 12-point performance opening-night against Southern Utah. He averaged 3.7 points, 1.7 rebounds, 3.4 assists and 1.5 steals in 18.7 minutes per game.


title: David Stockton

text: In his senior season, Stockton was named to the 2014 WCC All-Tournament Team after helping Gonzaga win the tournament. In 36 games (all starts), he averaged 7.4 points, 2.4 rebounds, 4.2 assists and 1.5 steals in 27.8 minutes per game.


title: David Stockton

text: After going undrafted in the 2014 NBA draft, Stockton joined the Phoenix Suns for the 2014 NBA Summer League. On September 29, 2014, he signed with the Washington Wizards. However, he was later waived by the Wizards on October 3. On November 1, he was selected by the Maine Red Claws in the third round of the 2014 NBA Development League Draft. He was later traded to the Reno Bighorns on draft night.


title: David Stockton

text: On February 20, 2015, Stockton signed a 10-day contract with the Sacramento Kings. The next day, he made his NBA debut, recording one point, two rebounds and one assist in the Kings' 126–99 loss to the Los Angeles Clippers. Following the expiry of his contract on March 1, the Kings decided to not re-sign Stockton to a second 10-day contract. On March 2, he was reacquired by Reno, and four days later, he tied the NBA Development League record for most assists in a game with 22 against the Texas Legends. On March 22, Stockton recorded his first career triple-double after recording 36 points, 10 rebounds and 14 assists in a 128-113 win over the Idaho Stampede. On April 12, he returned to the Kings, signing with them through the 2015–16 season.


title: David Stockton

text: In July 2015, Stockton joined the Kings for the 2015 NBA Summer League. On October 22, he was waived by the Kings after appearing in three preseason games. On November 27, he was reacquired by the Reno Bighorns.


title: David Stockton

text: On July 23, 2016, Stockton signed a three-year deal with Croatian club Cedevita Zagreb. In early November 2016, he left Cedevita in order to sign in New Zealand.


title: David Stockton

text: On November 10, 2016, Stockton signed with the New Zealand Breakers for the rest of the 2016–17 NBL season, as an injury replacement player for Ben Woodside. He made his debut for the Breakers on November 18, scoring an equal game-high 17 points in 24 minutes off the bench in a 100–85 win over the Illawarra Hawks. On December 2, he recorded a game-high 24 points and 10 assists in a 95–91 loss to Illawarra. He averaged 15 points and 6.5 assists per game over his first four outings with the Breakers, but over his next six games, his numbers dropped considerably, as he failed to record double digits in either points or assists. On January 7, 2017, he was released by the Breakers due to what the club cited as an ongoing back injury. In 10 games, he averaged 8.3 points, 2.7 rebounds and 4.2 assists per game.


title: David Stockton

text: In July 2017, Stockton joined the Phoenix Suns for the 2017 NBA Summer League. He signed with the Sacramento Kings on October 10, 2017, and then waived five days later. On October 22, he was named in the Reno Bighorns 2017–18 training camp roster.


title: David Stockton

text: On March 17, 2018, Stockton signed a 10-day contract with the Utah Jazz. With his father John Stockton in attendance, he made his debut for the Jazz on March 25, scoring two points off free throws in a 110–91 win over the Golden State Warriors. He signed a second 10-day contract on March 27, and a rest-of-season contract on April 6.


title: David Stockton

text: On October 4, 2019, Stockton signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. He was waived in training camp but added to the roster of the Lakers' G League affiliate, the South Bay Lakers. On November 30, 2019, Stockton posted 30 points, 10 assists, five rebounds and four steals in a loss to the Rio Grande Valley Vipers. He missed two games in December with a hamstring injury. Stockton averaged 15.3 points, 2.6 rebounds, 6.9 assists and 1.2 steals per game.


title: David Stockton

text: On October 26, 2020, Stockton signed with the Mets de Guaynabo of Puerto Rico's Baloncesto Superior Nacional.


title: David Stockton

text: On January 11, 2021, the Memphis Hustle acquired Stockton's returning player rights from the South Bay Lakers in exchange for the returning rights to Dusty Hannahs. On January 26, 2021, Stockton signed with the Hustle.


title: David Stockton

text: On October 15, 2021, Stockton signed with the Memphis Grizzlies, but was waived the next day. On October 23, he re-signed with the Memphis Hustle. Stockton was removed from the team on February 14, 2022. He was reacquired by the Hustle on February 28.


title: David Stockton

text: Stockton is the son of John and Nada Stockton. His father played 19 years for the Utah Jazz and entered the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame in 2009. His great-grandfather, Houston Stockton, played football for Gonzaga from 1922 to 1924, going undefeated his senior year of 1924 as he earned All-America honorable mention honors. His eldest brother, Houston Jr., played football for University of Montana, and older brother, Michael, currently plays professionally.


title: David Stockton

text: Stockton is eligible for a Croatian passport, because his mother Nada is of Montenegrin and Croatian descent. She is a daughter of American politician Mike Stepovich.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Vehicle weight is a measurement of wheeled motor vehicles; either an actual measured weight of the vehicle under defined conditions or a gross weight rating for its weight carrying capacity.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Curb weight (U.S. English) or kerb weight (British English) is the total mass of a vehicle with standard equipment and all necessary operating consumables such as motor oil, transmission oil, brake fluid, coolant, air conditioning refrigerant, and sometimes a full tank of fuel, while not loaded with either passengers or cargo. The gross vehicle weight is larger and includes the maximum payload of passengers and cargo.


title: Vehicle weight

text: This definition may differ from definitions used by governmental regulatory agencies or other organizations. For example, many European Union manufacturers include the weight of a driver and luggage to follow European Directive 95/48/EC. Organizations may also define curb weight with fixed levels of fuel and other variables to equalize the value for the comparison of different vehicles.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency regulations define curb weight as follows: Curb weight means the actual or the manufacturer's estimated weight of the vehicle in operational status with all standard equipment, and weight of fuel at nominal tank capacity, and the weight of optional equipment computed in accordance with §86.1832–01; incomplete light-duty trucks shall have the curb weight specified by the manufacturer.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Dry weight is the weight of a vehicle without any consumables, passengers, or cargo. It is significantly less than the weight of a vehicle in a driveable condition and therefore rarely used. Quoting a dry weight can make a car's weight and power-to-weight figures appear far more favorable than those of rival cars using curb weight.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The difference between dry weight and curb weight depends on many variables such as the capacity of the fuel tank. There is no standard for dry weight, so it's open to interpretations.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Some vehicle manufacturers have used the term "shipping weight", which refers to the vehicle in as-built, no-option condition. This would include engine oil, coolant, brake fluid and at least some small quantity of fuel, as vehicles have traditionally been driven off the assembly line and these fluids were necessary to do so.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The dry weight of a motorcycle excludes some or all of the following: gasoline (or other fuel), engine oil, coolant, brake fluid, or battery.


title: Vehicle weight

text: There is no standardized way to test the dry weight of a motorcycle. Inconsistencies will almost always be found between a motorcycle manufacturer's published dry weight and motorcycle press and media outlet's published dry weight. This is due to different testing techniques, differences in what is being excluded, and a lack of defining how testing was conducted by the organization doing the testing.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR), or gross vehicle mass (GVM), is the maximum operating weight/mass of a vehicle as specified by the manufacturer including the vehicle's chassis, body, engine, engine fluids, fuel, accessories, driver, passengers and cargo but excluding that of any trailers.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The weight of a vehicle is influenced by passengers, cargo, even fuel level, so a number of terms are used to express the weight of a vehicle in a designated state. Gross combined weight rating (GCWR) refers to the total mass of a vehicle including all trailers. GVWR and GCWR are used to specify weight limitations and restrictions. Gross trailer weight rating specifies the maximum weight of a trailer and the gross axle weight rating specifies the maximum weight on any particular axle.


title: Vehicle weight

text: A car driver licence is limited to driving vehicles up to a maximum GVM of . Beyond this, a different class of licence is required. A vehicle with a GVM up to 4,500 kg is termed a "light" vehicle, while those over 4,500 kg are termed "heavy" vehicles.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Many models of small trucks are manufactured to have a GVM rating of but sold with the option of a GVM of just under 4,500 kg so that they can be driven on a car licence.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Many minor roads, including some in rural areas and some in suburban areas, have GVM restrictions such as 5,000 kg or 8,000 kg. These restrictions may be applied for technical reasons such as load limited bridges, or as a method of reducing the number of heavy vehicles on local roads.


title: Vehicle weight

text: A standard car driving licence issued by an EU country (i.e. class B) limits the licence-holder to driving vehicles with a "maximum authorised mass" (i.e. GVWR) of . This includes holders of UK class B driving licences who passed their driving tests on or after 1 January 1997.


title: Vehicle weight

text: A UK driving licence holder who passed his or her class B driving test in or before 1996 is limited to driving vehicles with a GVWR of or less, including minibuses not used for hire or reward.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Anyone looking to drive a heavy goods vehicle (i.e. any vehicle other than those used for passenger transport) with a GVWR of over must obtain a class C licence. Anyone looking to drive any vehicle with a GVWR of up to must obtain a class C1 licence. Anyone with a class C licence can drive class C1 vehicles.


title: Vehicle weight

text: In the United States, two important GVWR limitations are . Vehicles over 6,000 lb are restricted from some city roadways, although it is not always clear if this restriction is for actual curb weight or GVWR. Commercial vehicles over the 8,500 lb threshold are required to have insurance under the Motor Carrier Act of 1980 and .


title: Vehicle weight

text: Vehicles or combinations with a GVWR over generally require a Commercial Driver License (CDL) or a Non-Commercial Class "A" or "B" license. A CDL is also required for certain vehicles under 26,000 lb GVWR, such as buses and for-hire passenger vehicles of 16 or more passengers, all vehicles transporting placarded hazardous materials or wastes regardless of weight or load class, and any vehicle towing a trailer with a Gross Trailer Weight over where the combined weight is greater than 26,000 lbs.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Laws vary from state to state, but typically vehicles over 10,000 lb are required to stop at weigh stations. Sometimes large passenger or non-commercial vehicles such as RVs are exempt from this. Additionally, many states use the GVWR for registration purposes, where over a certain weight such as 8,000 lb, a mill rate is applied to the GVWR to arrive at a registration fee.


title: Vehicle weight

text: On vehicles designed for the North American market, the GVWR can be found alongside other vehicle technical specifications on the Vehicle ID Plate that is usually located on the interior of the B-pillar according to U.S. or Canadian Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS). (inside driver door near door latch).


title: Vehicle weight

text: Most U.S. and Australian commercial trucks are required by licensing authorities to have this information printed on the outside of the vehicle, and for it to be clearly visible from a specified distance.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The gross trailer weight rating (GTWR) is the total mass of a road trailer that is loaded to capacity, including the weight of the trailer itself, plus fluids and cargo, that a vehicle is rated to tow by the manufacturer. In the United States and Canada, the static tongue load, the weight of the trailer as measured at the trailer coupling, is generally recommended to be 10–15% of the GTWR.


title: Vehicle weight

text: In the United States and Canada, there are four main weight classes of trailer hitches as defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE):


title: Vehicle weight

text: The gross combined weight rating or gross combination weight rating (GCWR), also referred to as the gross combination mass (GCM), gross train weight (GTW), is the maximum allowable combined mass of a road vehicle, the passengers and cargo in the tow vehicle, plus the mass of the trailer and cargo in the trailer. This rating is set by the vehicle manufacturer.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The GCWR is a function of the torque output of the engine, the capacity and ratios of the transmission, the capacity of the driving axles and tires, the capacity of the radiator, and the ability of the chassis to withstand that torque.


title: Vehicle weight

text: The gross axle weight rating (GAWR) is the maximum distributed weight that may be supported by an axle of a road vehicle. Typically, GAWR is followed by either the letters FR or RR, which indicate front or rear axles respectively.


title: Vehicle weight

text: Road damage rises steeply with axle weight, and is estimated "as a rule of thumb... for reasonably strong pavement surfaces" to be proportional to the fourth power of the axle weight. This means that doubling the axle weight will increase road damage (2x2x2x2)=16 times. For this reason, trucks with a high axle weight are heavily taxed in most countries.


title: Vehicle weight

text: In the EU and U.S. legal maximum load restrictions are placed on weight, independent of the manufacturer's rating. In the EU a tractor can generally have on a single axle, with suspension type and number of tires often allowing slightly higher loads. In the U.S. weight restrictions are generally on a single axle, and (less than two single axles) on a tandem. The primary factor is distance between axle centerlines, also used to measure bridge formulas. A bridge formula does not reduce axle load allowance, rather gross vehicle weight (GVW), which can affect load distribution and actual axle weights.


title: Bill Pickett

text: Willie M. Pickett (December 5, 1870 – April 2, 1932) was a cowboy, rodeo, Wild West show performer and actor. In 1989, Pickett was inducted into the ProRodeo Hall of Fame.


title: Bill Pickett

text: Pickett was born in the Jenks Branch community of Williamson County, Texas in 1870. (Jenks Branch, also known as the Miller Community, is in western Williamson County, five miles southeast of Liberty Hill, and near the Travis County line.) He was the second of 13 children born to Thomas Jefferson Pickett, a former enslaved person, and Mary "Janie" Gilbert. Pickett had four brothers and eight sisters. The family's ancestry was African-American and Cherokee. By 1888, the family had moved to Taylor, Texas.


title: Bill Pickett

text: In 1890, Pickett married Maggie Turner, the formerly enslaved daughter of a white southern plantation owner. The couple had nine children.


title: Bill Pickett

text: Pickett left school in the 5th grade to become a ranch hand; he soon began to ride horses and watch the longhorn steers of his native Texas.


title: Bill Pickett

text: He invented the technique of bulldogging, the skill of grabbing cattle by the horns and wrestling them to the ground. It was known among cattlemen that, with the help of a trained bulldog, a stray steer could be caught. Bill Pickett had seen this happen on many occasions. He also thought that if a bulldog could do this feat, so could he. Pickett practiced his stunt by riding hard, springing from his horse, and wrestling the steer to the ground. Pickett's method for bulldogging was biting a cow on the lip and then falling backward. He also helped cowboys with bulldogging. This method eventually lost popularity as the sport morphed into the steer wrestling that is practiced in rodeos.


title: Bill Pickett

text: Pickett soon became known for his tricks and stunts at local country fairs. With his four brothers, he established The Pickett Brothers Bronco Busters and Rough Riders Association. The name Bill Pickett soon became synonymous with successful rodeos. He did his bulldogging act, traveling about in Texas, Arizona, Wyoming, and Oklahoma.


title: Bill Pickett

text: In 1905, Pickett joined the 101 Ranch Wild West Show that featured the likes of Buffalo Bill, Will Rogers, Tom Mix, Bee Ho Gray, and Zach and Lucille Mulhall; he performed under the name "The Dusky Demon." Pickett was soon a popular performer who toured around the world and appeared in early motion pictures, such as a movie created by Richard E. Norman. Pickett's ethnicity resulted in his not being able to appear at many rodeos, so he often was forced to claim that he was of Comanche heritage in order to perform. In 1921, he appeared in the films "The Bull-Dogger" and "The Crimson Skull".


title: Bill Pickett

text: In 1932, after having retired from Wild West shows, Bill Pickett was kicked in the head by a bronco. After a multi-day coma he died on April 2, 1932; he was buried on the 101 Ranch. He is buried near a 15-foot stone monument to the friendship of Ponca Tribal Chief White Eagle and the Miller Brothers on Monument Hill, also known as the White Eagle Monument to the locals, less than a quarter of a mile to the northeast of Marland, Oklahoma.


title: Bill Pickett

text: In 1971, Pickett was inducted into the Rodeo Hall of Fame of the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum. In 1989, Pickett was inducted into the ProRodeo Hall of Fame.


title: Bill Pickett

text: Concert promoter Lu Vason founded the Bill Pickett Invitational Rodeo in 1984. The touring rodeo celebrates Black cowboys.


title: Bill Pickett

text: In 1987, a statue of Pickett performing his signature "bulldogging" maneuver, made by artist Lisa Perry, was presented to the city of Fort Worth, Texas. The statue is installed in the Fort Worth Stockyards Historic District.


title: Bill Pickett

text: The United States Postal Service chose to include Bill Pickett in the Legends of the West commemorative sheet unveiled in December 1993. One month later, the Pickett family informed the Postal Service that the likeness was incorrect. Its source material was a misidentified photograph of Bill Pickett's brother and fellow cowboy star, Ben Pickett. In October 1994, the USPS released corrected stamps based on the poster for "The Bull-Dogger". In They Die by Dawn (2013), Bill Pickett is portrayed by Bokeem Woodbine.


title: Bill Pickett

text: In March 2015, the Taylor City Council announced that a street that leads to the rodeo arena will be renamed to honor Bill Pickett.


title: Bill Pickett

text: On June 2, 2017 a new statue of Bill Pickett was unveiled in his hometown of Taylor, Texas. It is prominently displayed at the intersection of 2nd and Main Streets in the downtown.


title: Bill Pickett

text: On August 6, 2018, Bill Pickett was inducted into the Jim Thorpe Association's Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame.


title: Bill Pickett

text: In the 2021 film "The Harder They Fall" directed by Jeymes Samuel, his role was played by actor Edi Gathegi.


title: Bill Pickett

text: Pickett is referenced in season 4 episode 5 of "Baywatch" when the African American cop character played by Gregory Alan Williams wants to ride a horse to capture criminals, bringing up that Pickett was the "first Cowboy."


title: Drum brake

text: A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press outward against a rotating cylinder-shaped part called a brake drum.


title: Drum brake

text: The term "drum brake" usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum. When shoes press on the outside of the drum, it is usually called a "clasp brake". Where the drum is pinched between two shoes, similar to a conventional disc brake, it is sometimes called a "pinch drum brake", though such brakes are relatively rare. A related type called a band brake uses a flexible belt or "band" wrapping around the outside of a drum.


title: Drum brake

text: The modern automobile drum brake was first used in a car made by Maybach in 1900, although the principle was only later patented in 1902 by Louis Renault. He used woven asbestos lining for the drum brake lining, as no alternative dissipated heat like the asbestos lining, though Maybach had used a less sophisticated drum brake. In the first drum brakes, levers and rods or cables operated the shoes mechanically. From the mid-1930s, oil pressure in a small wheel cylinder and pistons (as in the picture) operated the brakes, though some vehicles continued with purely mechanical systems for decades. Some designs have two wheel cylinders.


title: Drum brake

text: As the shoes in drum brakes wear, brakes required regular manual adjustment until the introduction of self-adjusting drum brakes in the 1950s. Drum brakes are also prone to brake fade with repeated use.


title: Drum brake

text: Jaguar Cars fielded three cars equipped with disc brakes at Le Mans in 1953, where they won, in large part due to their superior braking over drum-equipped rivals. This spelled the beginning of the end for drum brakes in passenger cars. From the 1960s to the 1980s, disc brakes gradually replaced drum brakes on the front wheels of cars (which receive the majority of braking force). Now practically all cars use disc brakes on the front wheels, and many use disc brakes on all four wheels.


title: Drum brake

text: In the United States, the Jeep CJ-5 (manufactured by AM General) was the final automobile (produced for the United States Postal Service) to use front drum brakes when it was phased out in 1986. However, drum brakes are still often used on the rear wheels, and for parking brakes. Some vehicles utilize a "drum-in-hat" parking brake, where the brake shoes are arranged inside the center portion (hat) of a disc brake rotor, which acts as the drum.


title: Drum brake

text: Early brake shoes contained asbestos. When working on brake systems of older cars, care must be taken not to inhale any dust present in the brake assembly. After the United States Federal Government began to regulate asbestos production, brake manufacturers had to switch to non-asbestos linings. Owners initially complained of poor braking with the replacements, but brake technology eventually advanced to compensate. A majority of daily-driven older vehicles have been fitted with asbestos-free linings. Many other countries have also prohibited the use of asbestos in brakes.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel cylinder, and various springs and pins.


title: Drum brake

text: The backing plate provides a base for the other components. The back plate also increases the rigidity of whole set-up, supports the housing, and protects it from foreign materials like dust and other road debris. It absorbs the torque from the braking action, and that is why back plate is also called the "Torque Plate". Since all braking operations exert pressure on the backing plate, it must be strong and wear-resistant. Levers for emergency or parking brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were also added in recent years.


title: Drum brake

text: The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-conductive and wear-resistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver applies the brakes, the lining pushes radially against the inner surface of the drum, and the ensuing friction slows or stops rotation of the wheel and axle, and thus the vehicle. This friction generates substantial heat.


title: Drum brake

text: One wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two pistons operate the shoes, one at each end of the wheel cylinder. The leading shoe (closest to the front of the vehicle) is known as the primary shoe. The trailing shoe is known as the secondary shoe. Hydraulic pressure from the master cylinder acts on the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing them against the drum. When the driver releases the brakes, the brake shoe springs restore the shoes to their original (disengaged) position. The parts of the wheel cylinder are shown to the right.


title: Drum brake

text: Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of steel welded together. The friction material is either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. The crescent-shaped piece is called the Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for return springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage and self-adjusting components.


title: Drum brake

text: All the application force of the wheel cylinder is applied through the web to the lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining table generally has three “V"-shaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs. The nibs rest against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed.


title: Drum brake

text: Each brake assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary. The primary shoe is located toward the front of the vehicle and has the lining positioned differently from the secondary shoe. Quite often, the two shoes are interchangeable, so close inspection for any variation is important.


title: Drum brake

text: Linings must be resistant to heat and wear and have a high friction coefficient unaffected by fluctuations in temperature and humidity.


title: Drum brake

text: Materials that make up the brake shoe lining include, friction modifiers (which can include graphite and cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass, aluminium and other metals that resist heat fade, binders, curing agents and fillers such as rubber chips to reduce brake noise.


title: Drum brake

text: In the UK two common grades of brake shoe material used to be available. DON 202 was a high friction material that did not require a brake power servo. The disadvantage was that the lining was prone to fading on steep hills. A harder lining, the famous VG95 was produced but this required a brake servo. The other snag was that the parking brake would often fail the annual MOT test unless the high friction linings were installed just for the test.


title: Drum brake

text: When the brakes are applied, brake fluid is forced under pressure from the master cylinder into the wheel cylinder, which in turn pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled to the wheel. Hence the speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their rest position.


title: Drum brake

text: As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the drum. In systems fitted with automatic adjusters, when the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are closer to the drum. Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to the drum. Typically the adjusters only operate when the vehicle is going in reverse and the brakes are engaged.


title: Drum brake

text: On vehicles without automatic adjusters, it is required to periodically manually adjust the brakes to take up any excess gap between the shoes and the drum.


title: Drum brake

text: The parking (or emergency) brake system controls the brakes through a series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely bypasses the hydraulic system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total brake failure. Here the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the brake and is directly connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of bypassing the wheel cylinder and controlling the brakes directly.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic, better known as "self-energizing." The rotation of the drum can drag either one or both of the shoes into the friction surface, causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the force holding them together. This increases the stopping power without any additional effort being expended by the driver, but it does make it harder for the driver to modulate the brake's sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive to brake fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of brake assist.


title: Drum brake

text: Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the hydraulic pressure acting on the pads is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of the disc. Disc brake systems usually have


title: Drum brake

text: servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the driver's pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and smaller brakes for motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes are typically described as either leading/trailing (also called "single leading") or twin leading.


title: Drum brake

text: Rear drum brakes are typically of a leading/trailing design (for non-servo systems), or primary/secondary (for duo servo systems), the shoes being moved by a single double-acting hydraulic cylinder and hinged at the same point. In this design, one of the brake shoes always experiences the self-applying effect, irrespective of whether the vehicle is moving forwards or backwards. This is particularly useful on the rear brakes, where the parking brake (handbrake or footbrake) must exert enough force to stop the vehicle from traveling backwards and hold it on a slope. Provided the contact area of the brake shoes is large enough, which isn't always the case, the self-applying effect can securely hold a vehicle when the weight is transferred to the rear brakes due to the incline of a slope or the reverse direction of motion. A further advantage of using a single hydraulic cylinder on the rear is that the opposite pivot may be made in the form of a double-lobed cam that is rotated by the action of the parking brake system.


title: Drum brake

text: Front drum brakes may be of either design in practice, but the twin leading design is more effective. This design uses two actuating cylinders arranged so that both shoes use the self-applying characteristic when the vehicle is moving forwards. The brake shoes pivot at opposite points to each other. This gives the maximum possible braking when moving forwards, but is not so effective when the vehicle is traveling in reverse.


title: Drum brake

text: The optimum arrangement of twin leading front brakes with leading/trailing brakes on the rear allows more braking force at the front of the vehicle when it is moving forwards, with less at the rear. This helps prevent the rear wheels from locking up, but still provides adequate braking at the rear.


title: Drum brake

text: Because aluminum wears more easily than iron, aluminum drums frequently have an iron or steel liner on the inner surface of the drum, bonded or riveted to the aluminum outer shell.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes are used in most heavy duty trucks, buses, some medium and light duty trucks, and a few cars, dirt bikes, and ATVs. Drum brakes are often applied to the rear wheels since most of the stopping force is generated by the front brakes of the vehicle and therefore the heat generated in the rear is significantly less. Drum brakes allow simple incorporation of a parking brake.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes are also occasionally fitted as the parking (and emergency) brake even when the rear wheels use disc brakes as the main brakes. Many rear disc braking systems use a parking brake in which the piston in the caliper is actuated by a cam or screw. This compresses the pads against the rotor. However, this type of system becomes "much" more complicated when the rear disc brakes use fixed, multi-piston calipers. In this situation, a small drum is usually fitted within or as part of the brake disc. This type of brake is also known as a banksia brake.


title: Drum brake

text: In hybrid vehicle and electric vehicle applications, wear on braking systems is greatly reduced by energy recovering motor-generators (see regenerative braking), so some hybrid vehicles such as the GMC Yukon Hybrid, Toyota Prius (except the third generation) and Volkswagen ID.3 and ID.4 use drum brakes at the rear wheels.


title: Drum brake

text: Disc brakes rely on pliability of caliper seals and slight runout to release pads, leading to drag, fuel mileage loss, and disc scoring. Drum brake return springs give more positive action and, adjusted correctly, often have less drag when released. It is however possible to design special seals that retract the piston on a disc brake.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes emit less particulate matter (PM) than disc brakes, as the wear-particles are mostly sealed in. They are not better in this regard than frictionless brakes though.


title: Drum brake

text: Certain heavier duty drum brake systems compensate for load when determining wheel cylinder pressure; a feature rare when discs are employed (Hydropneumatic suspension systems as employed on Citroën vehicles adjust brake pressure depending on load regardless of if drum or discs are used). One such vehicle is the Jeep Comanche. The Comanche can automatically send more pressure to the rear drums depending on the size of the load. Most other brands have used load sensing valves in the hydraulics to the rear axle for decades.


title: Drum brake

text: Due to the fact that a drum brake's friction contact area is at the circumference of the brake, a drum brake can provide more braking force than an equal diameter disc brake. The increased friction contact area of drum brake shoes on the drum allows drum brake shoes to last longer than disc brake pads used in a brake system of similar dimensions and braking force. Drum brakes retain heat and are more complex than disc brakes but are often the more economical and powerful brake type to use in rear brake applications due to the low heat generation of rear brakes, a drum brake's self-applying nature, larger friction surface contact area, and long life wear characteristics (%life used/kW of braking power).


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes have also been built onto the transmission's driveshaft as parking brakes (e.g., Chryslers through 1962). This provides the advantage that it is completely independent of the service brakes—but suffers a severe disadvantage in that, when used with a bumper jack (common in that era) on the rear, and without proper wheel blocks, the differential's action can allow the vehicle to roll off the jack.


title: Drum brake

text: Land Rover have used a drum brake on the gearbox output shaft for over fifty years. The advantage is that all four wheels can be braked with the parking brake.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes, like most other brakes, convert kinetic energy into heat by friction. This heat should dissipate into the surrounding air, but can just as easily transfer to other braking system components. Brake drums must be large to cope with the massive forces involved, and must be able to absorb and dissipate a lot of heat. Heat transfer to air can be aided by incorporating cooling fins onto the drum. However, excessive heating can occur due to heavy or repeated braking, which can cause the drum to distort, leading to vibration under braking.


title: Drum brake

text: The other consequence of overheating is brake fade. This is due to one of several processes or more usually an accumulation of all of them.


title: Drum brake

text: Brake fade is not always due to overheating. Water between the friction surfaces and the drum can act as a lubricant and reduce braking efficiency. The water tends to stay until heated sufficiently to vaporize, at which point braking efficiency returns. All friction braking systems have a maximum theoretical rate of energy conversion. Once that rate is reached, applying greater pedal pressure doesn't change it—in fact, the effects mentioned can substantially reduce it. Ultimately, this is what brake fade is, regardless of the mechanisms of its causes. Disc brakes are not immune to any of these processes, but they deal with heat and water more effectively than drums.


title: Drum brake

text: Drum brakes can be grabby if the drum surface gets light rust or if the brake is cold and damp, giving the pad material greater friction. Grabbing can be so severe that the tires skid and continue to skid even when the pedal is released. Grab is the opposite of fade: when the pad friction goes up, the self-assisting nature of the brakes causes application force to go up. If the pad friction and self-amplification are high enough, the brake stays engaged due to self-application, even when the external application force is released.


title: Drum brake

text: While disc brake rotors can be machined to clean the friction surface (i.e., 'turning'), the same generally cannot be done with brake drums. Machining the friction surface of a brake drum increases the diameter, which might require oversized shoes to maintain proper contact with the drum. However, since oversized shoes are generally unavailable for most applications, worn or damaged drums generally must be replaced.


title: Drum brake

text: It is quite simple to machine brake drums if one has a slow running lathe (one rule of thumb is that cast iron should not be machined faster than fifty feet per minute). Usually it is only necessary to machine away the ridge that forms that makes brake drum removal difficult, especially if the brakes are self-adjusting. In severe cases the ridge can make the brake drum captive, however most drum brake designs provide a way to externally release the self-adjusting mechanism in order to ease drum removal and service.


title: Drum brake

text: Another disadvantage of drum brakes is their relative complexity. A person must have a general understanding of how drum brakes work and take simple steps to ensure the brakes are reassembled correctly when doing work on drum brakes. And, as a result of this increased complexity (compared to disc brakes), maintenance of drum brakes is generally more time-consuming. Also, the greater number of parts results in a greater number of failure modes compared to disc brakes. Springs can break from fatigue if not replaced along with worn brake shoes. And the drum and shoes can become damaged from scoring if various components (such as broken springs or self-adjusters) break and become loose inside the drum.


title: Drum brake

text: Catastrophic failure of hardware such as springs and adjusters can also cause unintended brake application or even wheel lockup. If springs break, the shoes will be free to fall against the rotating drum, essentially causing the brakes to be applied. Because of the self-energizing qualities of drum brakes, the unrestrained shoes can even potentially cause the brakes to grab to the point of locking up the wheel. Also, broken pieces of springs and other hardware (like adjusters) can become lodged between the shoes and drum, resulting in unintended application of the brakes (and, as stated above, damage to brake components). For these reasons, brake hardware (such as springs and clips) should always be replaced with brake shoes.


title: Drum brake

text: Also, drum brakes do not apply immediately when the wheel cylinders are pressurized, because the force of the return springs must be overcome before the shoes start to move towards the drum. This means that the very common hybrid disc/drum systems only brake with the discs on light pedal pressure unless extra hardware is added. In practice, a metering valve prevents hydraulic pressure from reaching the front calipers until pressure rises enough to overcome the return springs in the drum brakes. If the metering valve were left out, the vehicle would stop only with the front discs until return spring pressure on the rear shoes were overcome.


title: Drum brake

text: When asbestos was common in drum brakes, there was a danger workers repairing or replacing them would breathe asbestos fibers, which can cause mesothelioma. Asbestos fibers would break off or become separated over time and with the high temperatures induced by braking. Wet brushes and aerosol sprays were commonly used to reduce dust. Safety regulators sometimes recommended using vacuum hoses to suck away the dust, or enclosures with interior lighting and space to use tools inside them, but these were rare and cumbersome. Distinctive shoes designed to protect against asbestos were also recommended. There is evidence that auto mechanics had disproportionate levels of mesothelioma.


title: Drum brake

text: Those who do maintenance work on brakes can also be exposed to the solvents 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 2-butoxyethanol (a main ingredient in Greasoff No. 19). Exposure to these solvents can cause irritation, including to the eyes and mucous membranes. Exposure to 1-1-1-trichloroethane vapors can cause central nervous system damage, dizziness, incoordination, drowsiness, and increased reaction time.


title: Drum brake

text: Before 1984, it was common to re-arc brake shoes to match the arc within brake drums. This practice was controversial however, as it removed friction material from the brakes, reduced the life of the shoes and created hazardous asbestos dust. After 1984, the current design theory was altered, to use shoes for the proper diameter drum, and to simply replace the brake drum when necessary, rather than re-arc the shoes.


title: Tiffin

text: Tiffin is an Indian English word for a type of meal. It refers to a light breakfast or a light tea-time meal at about 3 p.m., consisting of typical tea-time foods. In certain parts of India, it can also refer to the midday luncheon or, in some regions of the Indian subcontinent, a between-meal snack. When used in place of the word "lunch", however, it does not necessarily mean a light meal.


title: Tiffin

text: In the British Raj, tiffin was used to denote the British custom of afternoon tea that had been supplanted by the Indian practice of having a light meal at that hour. It is derived from "tiffing", an English colloquial term meaning to take a little drink. By 1867 it had become naturalised among Anglo-Indians in northern British India to mean luncheon.


title: Tiffin

text: In South India and in Nepal, tiffin is generally a snack between meals: dosas, idlis, vadas etc. In other parts of India, such as Mumbai, the word mostly refers to a packed lunch of some sort. In Mumbai, it is often delivered to them by dabbawalas, sometimes known as "tiffin wallahs", who use a complex system to get thousands of tiffin carriers to their destinations. In most of India, a school-going child's lunch box is fondly called a tiffin box.


title: Tiffin

text: When used in place of the word "lunch", tiffin often consists of rice, lentils, curry, vegetables, chapatis or "spicy meats". In addition, the lunch boxes are themselves called tiffin carriers, tiffin-boxes or just tiffins.


title: Brand management

text: In marketing, brand management begins with an analysis on how a brand is currently perceived in the market, proceeds to planning how the brand should be perceived if it is to achieve its objectives and continues with ensuring that the brand is perceived as planned and secures its objectives. Developing a good relationship with target markets is essential for brand management. Tangible elements of brand management include the product itself; its look, price, and packaging, etc. The intangible elements are the experiences that the target markets share with the brand, and also the relationships they have with the brand. A brand manager would oversee all aspects of the consumer's brand association as well as relationships with members of the supply chain.


title: Brand management

text: In 2001, Hislop defined branding as "the process of creating a relationship or a connection between a company's product and emotional perception of the customer for the purpose of generating segregation among competition and building loyalty among customers". In 2004 and 2008, Kapferer and Keller respectively defined it as a fulfillment in customer expectations and consistent customer satisfaction.


title: Brand management

text: Brand management uses an array of marketing tools and techniques in order to increase the perceived value of a product (see: Brand equity). Based on the aims of the established marketing strategy, brand management enables the price of products to grow and builds loyal customers through positive associations and images or a strong awareness of the brand.


title: Brand management

text: Brand management is the process of identifying the core value of a particular brand and reflecting the core value among the targeted customers. In modern terms, a brand could be corporate, product, service, or person. Brand management builds brand credibility and credible brands only can build brand loyalty, bounce back from circumstantial crisis, and can benefit from price-sensitive customers.


title: Brand management

text: The earliest origins of branding can be traced to pre-historic times. The practice may have first begun with the branding of farm animals in the middle East in the neolithic period. Stone Age and Bronze Age cave paintings depict images of branded cattle. Egyptian funerary artwork also depicts branded animals. Over time, the practice was extended to marking personal property such as pottery or tools, and eventually some type of brand or insignia was attached to goods intended for trade.


title: Brand management

text: Around 4,000 years ago, producers began by attaching simple stone seals to products which, over time, were transformed into clay seals bearing impressed images, often associated with the producer's personal identity thus giving the product a personality. Bevan and Wengrow have argued that branding became necessary following the urban revolution in ancient Mesopotamia in the 4th century BCE, when large-scale economies started mass-producing commodities such as alcoholic drinks, cosmetics and textiles. These ancient societies imposed strict forms of quality control over commodities, and also needed to convey value to the consumer through branding. Diana Twede has argued that the "consumer packaging functions of protection, utility and communication have been necessary whenever packages were the object of transactions" (p. 107). She has shown that amphorae used in Mediterranean trade between 1500 and 500 BCE exhibited a wide variety of shapes and markings, which provided information for purchasers during exchange. Systematic use of stamped labels dates appears to date from around the fourth century BCE. In a largely pre-literate society, the shape of the amphora and its pictorial markings functioned as a brand, conveying information about the contents, region of origin and even the identity of the producer which were understood to convey information about product quality.


title: Brand management

text: A number of archaeological research studies have found extensive evidence of branding, packaging and labelling in antiquity. Archaeologists have identified some 1,000 different Roman potters' marks of the early Roman Empire, suggesting that branding was a relatively widespread practice.


title: Brand management

text: In Pompeii (circa 35 CE), Umbricius Scauras, a manufacturer of fish sauce (also known as garum) was branding his amphora which travelled across the entire Mediterranean. Mosaic patterns in the atrium of his house were decorated with images of amphora bearing his personal brand and quality claims. The mosaic comprises four different amphora, one at each corner of the atrium, and bearing labels as follows:


title: Brand management

text: Scauras' fish sauce was known to be of very high quality across the Mediterranean and its reputation travelled as far away as modern France. Curtis has described this mosaic as "an advertisement... and a rare, unequivocal example of a motif inspired by a patron, rather than by the artist".


title: Brand management

text: In Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum, archaeological evidence also points to evidence of branding and labelling in relatively common use. Wine jars, for example, were stamped with names, such as "Lassius" and "L. Eumachius;" probably references to the name of the producer. Carbonized loaves of bread, found at Herculaneum, indicate that some bakers stamped their bread with the producer's name and other information including the use, price or intended recipient. These markings demonstrate the public's need for product information in an increasingly complex marketplace.


title: Brand management

text: In the East, evidence of branding also dates to an early period. Recent research suggests that Chinese merchants made extensive use of branding, packaging, advertising and retail signage. From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding was used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 AD. Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite (p. 212). The rise of a consumer culture led to the commercial investment in carefully managed company image, retail signage, symbolic brands, trademark protection and the brand concepts of baoji, hao, lei, gongpin, piazi and pinpai, which roughly equate with Western concepts of family status, quality grading, and upholding traditional Chinese values (p. 219). Eckhardt and Bengtsson's analysis suggests that brands emerged in China as a result of the social needs and tensions implicit in consumer culture, in which brands provide social status and stratification. Thus, the evolution of brands in China stands in sharp contrast to the West where manufacturers pushed brands onto the market in order to differentiate, increase market share and ultimately profits (pp 218–219). In Japan, branding has a long heritage. For many Japanese businesses, a "mon" or seal is an East Asian form of brand or trademark.


title: Brand management

text: Not all historians agree that the distinctive packages and markings used in antiquity can be compared with modern brands or labels. Moore and Reid, for example, have argued that the distinctive shapes and markings in ancient containers should be termed "proto-brands" rather than seen as modern brands according to our modern understanding. A proto-brand is one that possesses at least one of three characteristics; "place" – information about the origin of manufacture-expressed by a mark, signature or even by the physical properties of the raw materials including the packaging materials, "performs a basic marketing function" such as storage, transportation and assortment; and "quality attributes"- information about the product's quality expressed by the name of the manufacturer, place of origin or ingredients or any other generally accepted indicator of quality.


title: Brand management

text: The impetus for more widespread branding was often provided by government laws, requiring producers to meet minimum quality specifications or to standardize weights and measures, which in turn, was driven by public concerns about quality and fairness in exchange. The use of hallmarks, applied to precious metal objects, was well in place by the 4th century CE in Byzantium. Evidence of marked silver bars dates to around 350 CE, and represents one of the oldest known forms of consumer protection. Hundreds of silver objects, including chalices, cups, plates, rings and bullion, all bearing hallmarks from the early Byzantine period, have been found and documented. Hallmarks for silver and gold were introduced in Britain in 1300.


title: Brand management

text: In Medieval Europe, branding was applied to a broader range of goods and services. Craft guilds, which sprang up across Europe around this time, codified and reinforced, systems of marking products to ensure quality and standards. Bread-makers, silversmiths and goldsmiths all marked their wares during this period. By 1266, English bakers were required by law to put a symbol on each product they sold. Bricui et al. have argued that the number of different forms of brands blossomed from the 14th century following the period of European discovery and expansion. Some individual brand marks have been in continuous use for centuries. The brand, Staffelter Hof, for example, dates to 862 or earlier and the company still produces wine under its name today.


title: Brand management

text: The granting a royal charter to tradesmen, markets and fairs was practiced across Europe from the early Medieval period. At a time when concerns about product quality were major public issues, a royal endorsement provided the public with a signal that the holder supplied goods worthy of use in the Royal household, and by implication inspired public confidence. In the 15th century, a "Royal warrant of appointment" replaced the royal charter in England. The Lord Chamberlain of England formally appointed tradespeople as suppliers to the Royal household. The printer, William Caxton, for example, was one of the earliest recipients of a Royal Warrant when he became the King's printer in 1476. By the 18th-century, mass market manufacturers such as Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew Boulton, recognized the value of supplying royalty, often at prices well below cost, for the sake of the publicity and kudos it generated. Many manufacturers began actively displaying the royal arms on their premises, packaging and labelling. By 1840, the rules surrounding the display of royal arms were tightened to prevent fraudulent claims. By the early 19th century, the number of Royal Warrants granted rose rapidly when Queen Victoria granted some 2,000 royal warrants during her reign of 64 years.


title: Brand management

text: By the eighteenth century, as standards of living improved and an emerging middle class began to demand more luxury goods and services, the retail landscape underwent major changes. Retailers were tending to specialize in specific goods or services and began to exhibit a variety of modern marketing techniques. Stores not only began to brand themselves, but also displayed branded goods, both in the glazed shop windows to attract passers-by and display counters to appeal to patrons inside the store. Branding was more widely used in the 19th century, following the industrial revolution, and the development of new professions like marketing, manufacturing and business management formalized the study of brands and branding as a key business activity. Branding is a way of differentiating product from mere commodities, and therefore the use of branding expanded with each advance in transportation, communication, and trade. The modern discipline of brand management is considered to have been started by a memo at Procter & Gamble by Neil H. McElroy.


title: Brand management

text: With the rise of mass media in the early 20th century, companies soon adopted techniques that would allow their advertising messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s. Many of the earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a "soap opera." Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these "advertising spots," as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.


title: Brand management

text: From the first decades of the 20th century, advertisers began to focus on developing brand personality, brand image and brand identity—concepts. The British advertising agency, W. S. Crawford's Ltd, began to use the concept of 'product personality' and the 'advertising idea' arguing that in order to stimulate sales and create a 'buying habit', advertising had to 'build a definitive association of ideas round the goods'. In the US, advertising agency, J. Walter Thompson company (JWT), was pioneering similar concepts of brand personality and brand image. The notion of a 'brand personality' was developed independently and simultaneously in both the US and Britain. For example, in 1915 JWT acquired the advertising account for Lux soap and recommended that the traditional positioning as a product for woolen garments should be broadened so that consumers would see it as a soap for use on all fine fabrics in the household. To implement, Lux was repositioned with a more up-market posture, and began a long association with expensive clothing and high fashion. Cano has argued that the positioning strategy JWT used for Lux exhibited an insightful understanding of the way that consumers mentally construct brand images. JWT recognized that advertising effectively manipulated socially shared symbols. In the case of Lux, the brand disconnected from images of household drudgery, and connected with images of leisure and fashion.


title: Brand management

text: By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense. Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of most enduring campaigns of the 20th century. Esso's "Put a Tiger in Your Tank" campaign was based on a tiger mascot used in Scandinavia at the turn of last century, and first appeared as a global advertising slogan in the 1950s and 60s, and subsequently reappeared in the 1990s. Throughout the late 20th century, brand advertisers began to imbue goods and services with a personality, based on the insight that consumers searched for brands with personalities that matched their own.


title: Brand management

text: Interbrand's 2020 top-10 global brands are Apple, Amazon, Microsoft, Google, Samsung, Coca-Cola, Toyota, Mercedes-Benz, McDonald's, and Disney.