title: Embalming chemicals

text: Despite genuine concerns, formaldehyde is a naturally occurring substance, of which human beings produce approximately 1.5 oz a day as a normal part of a healthy metabolism. Formaldehyde also occurs naturally in many fruits, such as bananas, apples, and carrots, and does not bioaccumulate in either plants or animals.


title: Embalming chemicals

text: Formaldehyde works to fixate the tissue of the deceased. This is the characteristic that also makes concentrated formaldehyde hazardous when not handled using appropriate personal protective equipment. The carbon atom in formaldehyde, CHO, carries a slight positive charge due to the high electronegativity of the oxygen double bonded with the carbon. The electropositive carbon will react with a negatively charged molecule and other electron-rich species. As a result, the carbon in the formaldehyde molecule bonds with electron-rich nitrogen groups called amines found in plant and animal tissue. This leads to formaldehyde cross-linking, bonding proteins with other proteins and DNA, rendering them dysfunctional or no longer useful. This is the reason for usage of formaldehyde as a preservative, as it thus prevents cellular decay and renders the tissue unsuitable for use as a nutrient source for bacteria.


title: Embalming chemicals

text: Formaldehyde is carcinogenic in humans and animals at excessive levels because the cross-linking can cause DNA to keep cells from halting the replication process. This unwarranted replication of cells can lead to cancer. Unicellular organisms found in the soil and groundwater are also quite sensitive to cross-linking, experiencing damage at a concentration of 0.3 mg to 22 mg per liter. Formaldehyde also affects aquatic invertebrates, with crustaceans being the most sensitive type. The range of concentration damaging them is 0.4 mg to 20 mg per liter.


title: Embalming chemicals

text: Formaldehyde released from the cremation of embalmed bodies enters the atmosphere and can remain suspended for up to 250 hours. It is readily soluble in water so it will bond with moisture in the atmosphere and rain down onto plants, animals, and water supplies below. As a result, formaldehyde content in precipitation can range from 110 μg to 1380 μg per liter. These concerns notwithstanding formaldehyde, as a ubiquitous chemical produced by living beings, is eminently biodegradable by both sunlight in air and bacteria in soil and water.


title: Embalming chemicals

text: The growth of the environment movement has caused some people to consider green burials where there are either no aldehyde-based chemicals used in the embalming process, or there is no embalming process at all. Embalming fluid meeting specific criteria for such burials is commercially available, and although it is not as effective as aldehyde-based solutions, is approved by the Green Burial Association of America. Only the Champion Company has created and distribute their 4th generation of fluids called “Enigma”, created in the early 2000’s. All of Champion’s enigma products have been approved by the green Burial Council.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: The First Empire of Haiti, officially known as the Empire of Haiti (; ), was an elective monarchy in North America. Haiti was controlled by France before declaring independence on 1 January 1804. The Governor-General of Haiti, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, created the empire on 22 September 1804. After being proclaimed emperor by the Generals of the Haitian Revolution Army, he held his coronation ceremony on 6 October and took the name Jacques I. The constitution of 20 May 1805, set out the way the empire was to be governed, with the country split into six military divisions. The general of each division corresponded directly with the emperor or the general in chief appointed by the emperor. The constitution also set out the succession to the throne, with the crown being elective and the reigning emperor having the power to appoint his successor. The constitution also banned white people, with the exception of naturalised Germans and Poles, from owning property inside the empire.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: Jacques I was assassinated on 17 October 1806. Two members of his administration, Alexandre Pétion and Henri Christophe, then assumed power, which led to a split in the country – with Pétion leading the southern Republic of Haiti and Christophe leading the northern State of Haiti (later Kingdom of Haiti). Some 43 years later, on 26 August 1849, President Faustin Soulouque re-established an Empire in Haiti that lasted until 15 January 1859.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: On 8 October 1804, he was crowned Emperor under the name of Jacques I of Haiti, in Cap-Haïtien under the title His Majesty Jacques I, Emperor.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: At the end of February 1805, Jean-Jacques Dessalines and his troops left in two directions: one part towards the north (Dajabón-Santiago-La Vega-Saint Domingue) commanded by Henri Christophe, and another towards the south (Hinche-San Juan de la Maguana-Azua-Baní-Saint-Domingue) commanded by Dessalines himself.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: On 25 February 1805, Dessalines at the head of 30,000 men captured Santiago. On the southern road, the Haitian emperor realized that the inhabitants of San Juan de la Maguana and Baní had evacuated their city to protect themselves, so he reckoned that the indigenous population did not deserve his clemency. On March 6, while approaching the capital, he ordered to set fire to the city of San Carlos on the outskirts of Santo Domingo and to begin the siege of the city. On March 25, Dessalines ordered the total extermination of the population under his control. These populations were then deported to the large cities of Haiti where they were killed in public places by being crushed (by horses or beasts of burden) and quartered.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: Three days later, three frigates and two French brigantines arrived in Santo Domingo. Dessalines abandoned the siege of Santo Domingo and retreated to Haiti. In April 1805, Dessalines, Christophe and their troops razed Santiago, Moca, La Vega, Azua, San Juan de la Maguana, Baní, among others, and massacred the inhabitants who had not fled to the Central Cordillera. Approximately 10,000 people were thus killed. These massacres laid the foundation for two centuries of animosity between the two countries.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: The French kept the eastern part until the Spanish victory at Palo Hincado on 7 November 1808, and the surrender of Santo Domingo on 9 July 1809; the Spanish emerged victorious thanks to assistance from the British.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: At the same time, Dessalines officialized the French language, even though the vast majority of the population spoke only Creole.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: He confiscated the settlers' lands and gave the best to his officers. To revive the economy, he decreed forced labor for farmers with a regulation harder than that of Toussaint. The people took up arms again against this dictatorship.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: It was in Marchand, on 16 October 1806, that Dessalines learned of the revolt. Unaware that Christophe had been proclaimed head of the insurrection, he wrote to him to be ready to enter the countryside. To General Pétion, who also took part in the conspiracy, he gave the order to march on Les Cayes at the head of the troops of the Second Western Division.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: On 17 October 1806, Jean-Jacques Dessalines was assassinated in Pont-Rouge, north of Port-au-Prince, by his collaborators, Alexandre Pétion, Jean-Pierre Boyer, André Rigaud and Bruno Blanchet.


title: First Empire of Haiti

text: After Dessalines' assassination, the country split in two under the authority of his former generals: Henri Christophe, elected president with limited powers, tried to impose himself, but clashed with Alexandre Pétion, who defended the capital Port-au-Prince. Christophe returned to Cap-Haïtien, in the north, where he became president for life. In the south, the senate elected Pétion as president of the Republic.


title: Dropout Boogie

text: Dropout Boogie is the eleventh studio album by American rock duo the Black Keys. It was released on May 13, 2022, by Easy Eye Sound and Nonesuch Records. The album was preceded by the release of two singles: the lead single "Wild Child", which was released on March 10, 2022, in conjunction with the album announcement, and "It Ain't Over", which was released on April 27, 2022.


title: Dropout Boogie

text: "Dropout Boogie" received favorable reviews from music critics and is nominated for Best Rock Album at the 65th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Dropout Boogie

text: Work for "Dropout Boogie" began in summer of 2021, which initially saw the Black Keys plan ideas for the album as a duo before recruiting multiple musicians to collaborate with them such as Greg Cartwright of Reigning Sound and Billy Gibbons of ZZ Top, the latter a longtime friend of the duo. The album was recorded at Dan Auerbach's Easy Eye Sound studio in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Dropout Boogie

text: The album's lead single "Wild Child" was released on March 10, 2022. The song topped "Billboard"s Adult Alternative Airplay chart. The second single from the album, "It Ain't Over", was released on April 27, 2022.


title: Dropout Boogie

text: To promote the album, the Black Keys will embark on the Dropout Boogie Tour, which consisted of 32 dates across the United States with Band of Horses as a supporting act alongside Ceramic Animal, Early James, and the Velveteers as opening acts on select dates.


title: Dropout Boogie

text: Upon release, "Dropout Boogie" received positive acclaim from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized score out of 100 based on reviews from mainstream publications, the album has a score of 73 based on 12 critical reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Tufnell Park

text: Tufnell Park Road, a straight of was sometimes conjectured by historians to follow the line of a Roman track. There is no evidence of Roman activity in the area and a supposed Roman camp marked on Dent's 1805 parish map has been shown by Museum of London Archaeology excavations to probably be a misidentified medieval moated site. The road has for centuries been an east–west connector between the roads from the hearts of Islington and Camden which converge into a major northern route at Archway market place, across 500 metres of Dartmouth Park district to the north.


title: Tufnell Park

text: North-east of Tufnell Park Road the housing is closer to Upper Holloway railway station and so is popularly considered to be Upper Holloway district. On all other sides of the road is Tufnell Park based on nearest rail/tube station.


title: Tufnell Park

text: The road which Tufnell Park Road links have been greatly alleviated from sole principal status by diverting in the 20th century the A1 through Edgware where the M1 also runs instead of its old route through High Barnet, converging the route with the straighter A41 road from Marylebone. The A1 road in the east of Tufnell Park is therefore less arterial which reinforces the loss of its old name "the Great North Road", a historical coaching road. It specifically serves vehicles driven between the A1 or M1 and the City of London.


title: Tufnell Park

text: Rising north of here at Mercers Road, Hackney Brook, culverted today, ran south to cross Holloway Road near Tufnell Park Road and then flowed to Lowman Road, where it turned north-east and ran along Gillespie Road to leave the traditional bounds of Islington at Mountgrove Road.


title: Tufnell Park

text: For centuries this northern part of the ancient parish of Islington was part of many square miles renowned for dairy farms which kept the City of London and neighbouring north and west parts supplied with milk. It kept a rural air well into the 19th century in its important role as a base for a number of dairies supplying the capital. In 1753 the area became the property of William Tufnell who was granted the manor of Barnsbury by his father-in-law Sir William Halton. The manor house (now demolished) stood on the site of the large Odeon cinema at the end of Tufnell Park Road where it meets the A1 (Holloway Road). The manor's gateposts survive along the west of Tufnell Park Road. Tufnell petitioned Parliament for authority to develop his estate but the Building Leases he was granted were left unused; his family had a set of rural estates nationwide.


title: Tufnell Park

text: The Tufnell Park estate passed to his brother George Foster Tufnell, MP for Beverley (died 1798), then to George's son William Tufnell (died 1809), MP for Colchester, who married in 1804 heiress Mary Carleton (daughter of Thomas Carleton of South Carleton d.1829). Both are buried at St Mary's Islington, hence her maiden name appearing as two street names in N7.


title: Tufnell Park

text: The manor then passed to Henry Tufnell (d. 1854), MP for Ipswich and Devonport, Liberal chief whip whose three marriages included two daughters of earls.


title: Tufnell Park

text: The sparse remnants of the freehold passed to Henry Archibald Tufnell (d 1898) who died with no children, and then to Lt Col Edward Tufnell (d. 1909) HM Inspector of Schools, Factory Commissioner, Director Greenwich Hospital.


title: Tufnell Park

text: Serious building began in 1845 with a scheme sponsored by Henry Tufnell and designed by John Shaw Jr., who had laid out the Eton Estate in Chalk Farm. This initial work was largely limited to the area around Carleton Road. In 1865 the scheme was taken up by George Truefitt who developed most of the local villas and St. George's Church (1865), built for Anglican secessionists. The housing stock was of a solid nature, and Tufnell Park kept its good name until the end of the century. Charles Booth in his survey of "London Life and Labour" reported that the older streets (Anson Road and Carleton Road) housed a mixture of retired merchants and music hall artistes who were rich enough to holiday abroad over winter. He believed that second wave of building around Celia, Hugo, Corinne, Huddleston and Archibald Roads threatened to create a metropolis "from which the rich would soon be going". The private girls' school established at the corner of Carleton and Brecknock Roads ceased in 1878 after many of its pupils drowned in the disaster.


title: Tufnell Park

text: Whereas arterial roads and railway lines sliced through Kentish Town and Camden in the 19th century, one neat east–west double track skirts the district. Junction Road railway station was an 1872-1943 direct link with central London, superseded in 1907 by the building of the tube station Tufnell Park. The shabby genteel reputation of Tufnell Park made it a standard comic reference in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. George and Weedon Grossmith locate their aspirational Mr Pooter in Tufnell Park (Upper Holloway) in "Diary of a Nobody". Julian and Sandy the camp BBC home service comedians frequently referenced Tufnell Park as did "The Guardian" newspaper's Biff cartoon in the 1980s. Between 1999 and 2001, Tufnell Park was the location for Channel 4's comedy drama, "Spaced".


title: Tufnell Park

text: The focal point of defining the area is Tufnell Park on the Northern line (a London Underground station).


title: Tufnell Park

text: The nearest London Overground and Thameslink stations are the same distance from the centre of the area (as defined by nearest station), in neighbouring districts equally named after their stations:


title: Tufnell Park

text: This space provide Islington's only full-size grass football pitch, shared by clubs. Adjoining this former home ground of Tufnell Park F.C., sectioned off are:


title: Mean Creek

text: Mean Creek is a 2004 American coming-of-age psychological drama film written and directed by Jacob Aaron Estes and starring Rory Culkin, Ryan Kelley, Scott Mechlowicz, Trevor Morgan, Josh Peck, and Carly Schroeder. It was produced by Susan Johnson, Rick Rosenthal, and Hagai Shaham.


title: Mean Creek

text: The film is about a group of teenagers who devise a plan to get revenge on an overweight, troubled bully on a boating trip. When their plan goes too far, they have to deal with the unexpected consequences of their actions. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 15, 2004, and was later screened at the Cannes Film Festival on May 14, 2004. It was then given a limited release in major US cities on August 20, 2004, mostly playing at art house theaters.


title: Mean Creek

text: Small and quiet Sam admits to his older brother Rocky that the school bully George has hurt him because he moved George's video camera while George was filming himself playing basketball. Rocky tells his friends, reserved Clyde and troubled Marty, and they devise a plan for revenge. Part of the prank entails taking George on a boating trip to celebrate Sam's fictional birthday. Then, they will get him to strip in a game of truth or dare, throw him in the river, and make him run home naked.


title: Mean Creek

text: Sam invites his new girlfriend Millie along and all five of them are driven to the river by Marty. During the ride, George reveals a different side by being genuinely pleased to be invited; the group also learns he is dyslexic. However, Sam does not tell Millie the real plan until they arrive near the river. Millie refuses to continue until Sam promises to call the plan off. Sam tells Rocky, who then tells Clyde and Marty. Although Clyde has no problem, Marty is very reluctant. Throughout the trip, George clumsily attempts to fit in with the group. Despite this, he also gets confrontational when questioned about his motives (or lack thereof). The group soon realizes that although George is annoying, he is very lonely and just wants to be socially accepted.


title: Mean Creek

text: On the boat, Marty deviates from the others' plan and initiates a game of truth or dare, though the rest decide to go along. After George shoots Marty with a water gun in good fun, he makes a funny quip about Marty's father, not remembering that it is a sore subject as Marty's father committed suicide years before. This sets off Marty, who exposes the whole plan and starts to ridicule George. Angered and humiliated, George launches into a vulgar tirade against everyone else, ending by crudely mocking Marty's deceased father and Clyde's two gay fathers. As Rocky tries to stop the fight, he accidentally pushes George off the boat.


title: Mean Creek

text: Unable to swim, George struggles to remain afloat in the water. As the others regard the scene in terror, George accidentally hits his head with his video camera and does not come to the surface. Rocky dives into the water and finds George, who is face down in the shallow water close to the shore. Millie attempts to give George CPR, but is too late as George is already dead. The group is traumatized and in fear of being incarcerated. They dig a hole and bury George's body.


title: Mean Creek

text: Clyde's plan is to explain that it was an accident but Marty threatens him, reminding Clyde that George's camera (now lost in the water) contains Marty's taped confession of the original plan and the authorities will find out if the camera is discovered. As they had already tricked George into not telling his mother where he was going, she would not know of their involvement. They later gather at Sam and Rocky's house. Sam, Rocky, Clyde, and Millie are willing to accept the consequences for their actions as opposed to having George's death hanging over their heads. Marty refuses to turn himself in and feels betrayed.


title: Mean Creek

text: Marty storms out and convinces his brother to give him his gun and car. He robs a gas station and drives off, becoming a fugitive. Meanwhile, the others go to George's house and confess to his mother. Sam is later seen in an interrogation room, telling the story to the police, who later find and view the tape from George's video camera. In a final scene, audio of George explaining his dream of becoming a filmmaker and documenting his life in hopes those who see it will finally understand him plays in the background. The police force, Sam, his father, and George's mother find the location of the corpse. As the sheriff exhumes George's body, Sam watches on in regret and George's mother cries with sorrow.


title: Mean Creek

text: "Mean Creek" was originally conceived by director Jacob Aaron Estes around 1996 and 1997. At the time, Estes felt that there were very few films about kids dealing with a tragedy, a genre he had always admired both as a kid and as an adult student of film. The film was independently financed with a budget of $500,000, although about $350,000 of it was spent off screen or donated. It was shot mostly in Clackamas County, Oregon, including the cities of Boring, Sandy, and Estacada, though footage on the river was filmed on the Lewis River in southwest Washington.


title: Mean Creek

text: "Mean Creek" received a limited release in North America in four theaters and grossed $29,170 with an average of $7,292 per theater. The film earned $603,951 domestically and $198,997 internationally for a total of $802,948. Based on a $500,000 budget, the film can be considered a modest box office success.


title: Mean Creek

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Mean Creek" has an 89% approval rating based on 124 reviews with an average rating of 7.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads ""Mean Creek" is an uncomfortably riveting glimpse into the casual cruelty of youth." Additionally, the film also holds a 74/100 score on Metacritic based on 31 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Mean Creek

text: Roger Ebert praised the acting and concept of teenagers making conscious moral decisions and wrote ""Mean Creek" joins a small group of films including "River's Edge" and "Bully" which deal accurately and painfully with the consequences of peer-driven behavior. Kids who would not possibly act by themselves form groups that cannot stop themselves. This movie would be an invaluable tool for moral education in schools, for discussions of situational ethics and refusing to go along with the crowd."


title: Kogi State

text: Kogi State is a state in the North Central region of Nigeria, bordered to the west by the states of Ekiti and Kwara, to the north by the Federal Capital Territory, to the northeast by Nasarawa State, to the northwest by Niger State, to the southwest by the Edo and Ondo states, to the southeast by the states of Anambra and Enugu, and to the east by Benue State. It is the only state in Nigeria to border ten other states. Named for the Hausa word for river ("kogi)." Kogi State was formed from parts of Benue State, Niger State, and Kwara State on 27 August 1991. The state is nicknamed the "Confluence State" due to the fact that the confluence of the River Niger and the River Benue occurs next to its capital, Lokoja.


title: Kogi State

text: Of the 36 states of Nigeria, Kogi is the thirteenth largest in area and twentieth most populous with an estimated population of about 4.5 million as of 2016. Geographically, the state is within the tropical Guinean forest–savanna mosaic ecoregion. Important geographic features include the key rivers with the Niger flowing from the northwest and the Benue coming from the northeast before the two rivers meet in Kogi's centre and bisect the state southward.


title: Kogi State

text: Kogi State has been inhabited for years by various ethnic groups, including the Ebira, Gbagyi, and Nupe (mainly the Bassa Nge, Kakanda, and Kupa subgroups) in the state's centre; the Agatu, Basa-Komo, Idoma, Igala, and Igbo in the east; and the Yoruba (mainly the Okun, Ogori, Oworo, and Magongo subgroups) in the west. Kogi is also religiously diverse as about 45% of the state's population are Muslim with about 40% being Christian and the remaining 15% following traditional ethnic religions minorities.


title: Kogi State

text: In the pre-colonial period, the area that is now Kogi State was split up between various states with some states being tiny and village-based as others were part of larger empires like the Nupe Kingdom which held much of now-western Kogi State until the early 1800s when the Fulani jihad annexed the kingdom and placed the area under the Sokoto Caliphate. In the 1900s and 1910s, British expeditions occupied the area and incorporated them into the Northern Nigeria Protectorate with its capital as Lokoja until 1903. The protectorate later merged into British Nigeria before becoming independent as Nigeria in 1960. Originally, modern-day Kogi State was a part of the post-independence Northern Region until 1967 when the region was split and the area became part of the North-Western State, Kwara State, and Benue-Plateau State. After Benue-Plateau and the North-Western states were split in 1976, Kogi became a part of the new Benue and Niger states along with Kwara. Western Benue State, southeastern Kwara State, and far southern Niger State were broken off to form the new Kogi State.


title: Kogi State

text: Economically, Kogi State is largely based around agriculture, mainly of coffee, cashew, groundnut, cocoa, oil palm, and yam crops. Other key industries are crude oil extraction and the livestock herding of cattle, goats, and sheep. Kogi has both the 23rd highest Human Development Index and GDP in the country.


title: Kogi State

text: The climate of the state has an annual rainfall total of between 1,100mm and 1,300mm. The rainy season lasts from April to October each year while the dry season last from November to march. The dry season is very dusty and cold as a result of the north - easterly winds, which bring in the harmattan. Between 2001 and 2014 the built up area increased by 10.68% and seven (7) adaptation strategies were employed by farmers in changing planting dates and change crop variety at 31%, 22% and 21% respectively in response to change in rainfall.


title: Kogi State

text: In October 2022, Kogi State witnessed one of the worst flood disaster in the history of the state. This is according to the state governor, Yahaya Bello, who said that "flooding has affected the nine LGAs which borders the Niger and Benue rivers to include, Lokoja, Kogi-Koto, Ajaokuta, Ofu, Igalamela-Odolu, Bassa, Idah, Ibaji and Omala".


title: Kogi State

text: The state was created in 1991 from parts of Kwara State and Benue State. Igala is the majority ethnic group in the state. The state as presently constituted, comprises the people of the Kabba Province of Northern Nigeria. One of the first "Qadi" in the Kogi State was Faruk Imam.


title: Kogi State

text: There are three main ethnic groups and languages in Kogi: Igala, Ebira, and Okun (a Yoruba Group) with others such as Bassa Nge of Bassa L.G.A, Kupa and Kakanda speakers, who are a people of Nupe extraction under Lokoja L.G.A., Bassa-Komo which is also of Bassa Local government area, Oworo people (A Yoruba Group), Igbo, Ogori Magongo, and Idoma.


title: Kogi State

text: The name "", was coined in Lokoja by Flora Shaw in the hill of Mount Patti, the future wife of Baron Lugard, a British colonial administrator, while gazing out at the river Niger .


title: Kogi State

text: Tourist attractions in Kogi State include the colonial relics (such as Lord Lugard House), Mount Patti, World War Cenotaph, the confluence of Rivers Niger and Benue, Ogidi (An African town with formations of Igneous Rock mountains and a traditional art & craft industry) and natural land features hills and terrains that serve as hiking trails .


title: Kogi State

text: Being a 2-hour drive from Abuja some tourists come for day trips. Kogi State Tourism and Hotels Company limited was established to promote tourism in the state. The state Government plans and Harness the high potentials of tourism including the development of historical landmarks at Lokoja.


title: Kogi State

text: Kogi State connects the Federal Capital Territory with 22 Southern States. Being in close proximity to the federal capital territory, Abuja International Airport serves as the national and international gateway for air travelers from and to the state. Good telecommunications services are available in the state.


title: Kogi State

text: Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. There are many Farm produce from the state notably coffee, cocoa, palm oil, cashews, groundnuts, maize, cassava, yam, rice and melon.


title: Kogi State

text: Mineral resources include coal, limestone, iron, petroleum and tin. The state is home to the largest iron and steel industry in Nigeria known as Ajaokuta Steel Company Limited and one of the largest cement factories in Africa, the Obajana Cement Factory.


title: Kogi State

text: Kogi state is home to the Federal University (Lokoja), Kogi State University Anyigba, Confluence University of Science and Technology Osara, Federal Polytechnic Idah,Kogi State Polytechnic (Lokoja), Federal College of Education (Okene), College of Education (Ankpa), College of Agriculture Kabba, Kogi state college of education, technical (Kabba) and the Private Salem University, Lokoja. There are a college of nursing and midwifery in Anyigba and Obangede, School of health tech in Idah and ECWA School of Nursing in Egbe.


title: Kogi State

text: Kogi State has produced sprinters such as Sunday Bada and other sportsmen, who have contributed to the growth of sports worldwide. Kogi United and Babanawa F.C. are football teams based in the state. Other sports, such as swimming, handball, and table tennis are actively promoted in the state. The Kogi state Sports Council had a track record of Directors and great personnel team Who at one time or the other had worked with the vision of putting the State fully on the world map. Among them are personalities like Mr. Francis Umoru, Mr. Mohammed Emeje, "Mr. Benjamin O. Ameje", Mr. A. Ogido, Mr. Joel J. Abu and others.


title: Kogi State

text: Among other sportsmen produce by the state is Shola Ameobi, an Ayetoro Gbede born Ijumu, English footballer, currently playing for Bolton Wanderers as a striker, late Sunday Bada 400 Metres Olympic Champion from Ogidi in Ijumu Local Govt. of the state.


title: Kogi State

text: Three Senators have always represented Kogi state since the return of democracy in 1999 at Senate with Kogi East, Kogi West and Kogi Central producing one each.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson () is an unincorporated community and a census-designated place in Baltimore County, Maryland, United States. The population was 55,197 as of the 2010 census. It is the county seat of Baltimore County and the second-most populous unincorporated county seat in the United States (after Ellicott City, the seat of nearby Howard County, southwest of Baltimore).


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The first inhabitants of the future Towson and central Baltimore County region were the Susquehannock people, who hunted in the area. Their region included all of Baltimore County, though their primary settlement was farther northeast along the Susquehanna River.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson was settled in 1752 when Pennsylvania brothers, William and Thomas Towson, began farming an area of Sater's Hill, northeast of the present-day York and Joppa Roads. William's son, Ezekiel, opened the Towson Hotel to serve the growing number of farmers bringing their produce and livestock to the port of Baltimore. He built the hotel at current-day Shealy Avenue and York Road, near the area's main crossroads. The village became known as "Towsontown".


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The property in West Towson came from two land grants: 400-acre Gott's Hope in 1719, and Gunner's Range in 1706.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: In 1790, businessman Capt. Charles Ridgely completed the Hampton Mansion just north of Towsontown, the largest private house in America at the time. The Ridgelys lived there for six generations, until 1948. It is now preserved as the Hampton National Historic Site and open to the public.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Grafton Marsh, a surgeon during the War of 1812, and his brother Josiah Marsh settled their families in a collection of early houses known as Gott's Hope that was part of a group along Joppa Road. They consolidated four of the structures into a larger dwelling that they called "Marshmont". The brothers went into business together as medical practitioners. Neither had any heirs but were joined in practice later by their nephew, Dr. Grafton Marsh Bosley, who eventually inherited the medical practice, the Marshmont compound, and a 140-acre farm. The farm extended west of York Road, south of Joppa Road, north of the Sheppard Pratt Hospital, and east of Woodbine Avenue. In 1869, Bosley and his wife Margaret Nicholson then built a new home in an area of the property known as "Highlands" or "Highland Park", which they named "Uplands".


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The ratification of the second Maryland Constitution of 1851 provided for the jurisdictional separation of the former Baltimore Town, founded in 1729. Baltimore Town had served as the county seat since 1767, now the City of Baltimore, since its incorporation in 1796–97 by the General Assembly of Maryland. Several tortured sets of negotiations occurred to divide the various assets of the city and the county, such as the downtown courthouse of 1805, the city/county jail of 1801 along the Jones Falls (at East Madison Street) and the almshouse, which was also jointly owned. After a series of elections and referendums, on February 13, 1854, Towson became, by popular vote, the choice of the remaining, now mostly rural, eastern, northern and western portions of the county as the new county seat of Baltimore County.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Baltimore County Courthouse, still in use by 2015, with its various annexes (and the separate county courts and administrative building), was originally designed by the local city architectural firm of Dixon, Balbirnie and Dixon. It was completed within a year, constructed of limestone and marble donated by the well-known Ridgely family of nearby Hampton Mansion, on land donated by Towson doctor Grafton Marsh Bosley. The courthouse was subsequently enlarged in 1910 through additional designs for north and south wings by well-known and regarded city architects, Baldwin & Pennington. Additional expansions later in 1926 and 1958 eventually created an H-shaped plan for the courthouse. An additional modernistic Baltimore County Courts Building, with room for the new charter government since 1956 and administration of a county executive and county council, plus administrative and executive departments, was erected in 1970–71 across a plaza to the west of the older historic courthouse.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The old Baltimore County Jail was built in 1855, and was later replaced in the 1980s by a new modern Baltimore County Detention Center, north of the town on Kenilworth Drive, with an addition constructed in the 2010s.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: From 1850 to 1874, another notable land owner, Amos Matthews, had a farm of that—with the exception of the largely natural parcel where the Kelso Home for Girls (currently Towson YMCA), was later erected —was wholly developed into the neighborhoods of West Towson, Southland Hills and other subdivisions, beginning in the middle 1920s.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: During the Civil War, Towson was the scene of two minor engagements. Many local citizens were sympathetic to the Southern Confederate cause, so much so that Ady's Hotel (later named the Towson Hotel) and the current site of the 1920s-era Towson Theatre (later the Recher Theatre), flew the Southern flag. The Union Army found it necessary to overtake the town by force on June 2, 1861. During the raid, the Union Army seized weapons from citizens at Ady's Hotel. A local paper, in jest, refers to the "strongly fortified and almost impregnable city of Towsontown" and downplays the need for the attack, stating, "the distinguished Straw, with only two hundred and fifty men, has taken a whole city and nearly frightened two old women out of their wits."


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The second engagement took place around July 12, 1864, between Union and Confederate forces. On July 10, 1864, a 135-man Confederate cavalry detachment attacked the Northern Central Railway to the north in nearby Cockeysville, under orders from Gen. Bradley T. Johnson, of Frederick, Maryland. The First and Second Maryland Cavalry, led by Baltimore County native and pre-war member of the Towson Horse Guards, Maj. Harry W. Gilmor, of Glen Ellen, attacked strategic targets throughout Baltimore and Harford counties, including cutting telegraph wires along Harford Road, capturing two trains and a Union general, and destroying a railroad bridge in Joppa, Maryland. Following what became known as Gilmor's Raid, the cavalry encamped in Towson overnight at Ady's Hotel, where his men rested and Gilmor met with friends.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The next day, a large federal cavalry unit was dispatched from Baltimore to overtake Gilmor's forces. Though outnumbered by more than two to one, the Confederate cavalry attacked the federal unit, breaking the federal unit and chasing them down York Road to around current-day Woodbourne Avenue, within Baltimore city limits. Gilmor's forces traveled south along York Road as far south as Govans, before heading west to rejoin Gen. Johnson's main force.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Towson fire of 1878 destroyed most of the 500 block along the York Turnpike, causing an estimated $38,000 in damage.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: During the summer of 1894, the Towson Water Company laid wooden pipes and installed fire hydrants connected to an artesian well near Aigburth Vale. On November 2, 1894, Towson was supplied with electric service through connection with the Mount Washington Electric Light and Power Company.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: At the beginning of the century, Towson remained largely a rural community. Land continued to be sold by the acre, rather than as home parcels. Most residences lay within Towson proper: no houses existed west of Central Avenue along Allegheny or Pennsylvania Avenues, and there were only three homes along the West Chesapeake Avenue corridor.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: In the 1910s, the Maryland State Normal School (MSNS) (now known as Towson University) was relocated to Towson. The Maryland Legislature had established the MSNS in 1865 as Maryland's first teacher-training school, or normal school. The institution officially opened its doors on January 15, 1866, however as time passed enrollment in the school grew exponentially, which rendered the facilities inadequate. In 1910, the General Assembly formed a committee to oversee site selection, budget, and design plans for a new campus. It settled on an site in Towson. The General Assembly financed the $600,000 move in 1912. Construction then began in 1913 on the Administration Building, now known as Stephens Hall. In September 1915, the new campus, comprising Stephens Hall, Newell Hall, and the power plant, began classes. The college underwent numerous name changes, settling on Towson University in 1997.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: As the growth of Baltimore's suburbs became more pronounced after World War II, considerable office development took place in Towson's central core area. Many of the large Victorian and colonial-style residences in the vicinity of the Court House were demolished in the 1980s and 1990s to make way for offices and parking.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: In 1839, Epsom Chapel became the first Christian house of worship in Towson, used by various denominations. Due to population growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, several churches were built to serve the community, such as Calvary Baptist Church, Immaculate Conception Catholic Church, Trinity Episcopal Church, First Methodist Church, and Towson Presbyterian Church. Epsom Chapel was demolished in 1950 when Goucher College sold a portion of its property for development of the Towson Plaza shopping center, now Towson Town Center. First Methodist Church moved in 1958 to land also acquired from Goucher College, and is now Towson United Methodist Church.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Author Robert Coston, who grew up in the area of Towson now called "Historic East Towson", recalled in an interview the unique African-American history of that area during the mid-century:


title: Towson, Maryland

text: I think that the Towson, Maryland area that I am familiar with differs from other parts of Maryland because of the proximity to one of the largest slave plantations in the country. The Ridgely Plantation which owned all of the property from Baltimore County to Baltimore City and other surrounding areas. ... This was a very unique place of which I have never heard of any equal to it. Every African American school age child in Baltimore County had to attend school at some point at Carver in East Towson. ... I realize now that as a youngster the older African Americans avoided talking about slavery or the nearby Ridgely Plantation because they themselves were not too far removed from slavery itself.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which is land and (1.06%) is water.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The community is located immediately north of Baltimore City, inside the Beltway (I-695), east of I-83 and along York Road. Its census boundaries include Pikesville to the west, Lutherville and Hampton to the north, Parkville to the east, and Baltimore to the south.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Major neighborhoods in Towson include: Anneslie, Idlewylde, Greenbriar, Southland Hills, Rodgers Forge, Stoneleigh, Wiltondale, Towson Manor Village, Hunt Crest Estates, Knollwood-Donnybrook, East Towson, Loch Raven Village and West Towson. Ruxton, which lies to the west, is sometimes considered a part of Towson. Eudowood is a Towson neighborhood named after Eudocia, the wife of Dr. John T. Stansbury, on whose former estate it is situated.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system Towson has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Maryland Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services is headquartered at Suite 1000 at 300 East Joppa Road in the Towson CDP. In addition, both the Baltimore County Public Schools, and the Baltimore County Police Department possess headquarters that are located in the Towson CDP.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 51,793 people, 21,063 households, and 11,331 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 3,688.7 people per square mile (1,424.3/km). There were 21,997 housing units at an average density of 1,566.6 per square mile (604.9/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 86.9% White, 7.53% African American, 0.10% Native American, 3.7% Asian, and 1.9% Hispanic.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: There were 21,063 households, out of which 23.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.2% were non-families. 36.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.87.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 17.4% under the age of 18, 17.5% from 18 to 24, 24.9% from 25 to 44, 20.1% from 45 to 64, and 20.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.8 males.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The median income for a household in the CDP was $53,775, and the median income for a family was $75,832 (these figures had risen to $64,313 and $98,744 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $49,554 versus $38,172 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $32,502. About 2.5% of families and 7.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.8% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Towson area has several bus lines operated by the Maryland Transit Administration. These include:


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson also has light rail service to downtown Baltimore and BWI Airport along its periphery via the Lutherville and Falls Road stops, though there are no stops actually in Towson.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson University and Goucher College also operate bus services for their students, and the Collegetown Shuttle has several stops in the area.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Towson Bike Beltway opened in September 2014. It includes the addition of bicycle lanes on several major streets encircling the downtown area. The main loop includes Bosley Avenue (which is part of Maryland Route 45 Bypass), Fairmount Avenue, and Goucher Boulevard; these three roads will receive full bike lanes. The rest of the loop, utilizing Hillen Road and Towsontown Boulevard, will receive signage alerting motorists to expect an increase in bicycle traffic on those roads. After this initial construction, several spurs are envisioned to branch from the main loop, with several reaching as far south as the Baltimore city line.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Railroad service began to Towson on April 17, 1882, with construction of the Baltimore & Delta Railway Company, soon renamed the Baltimore & Lehigh Railroad, and later reorganized as the Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad. The "Ma and Pa", as it was affectionately known locally, formerly operated between Baltimore and York, Pennsylvania, through Towson. Its passenger station was located just west of York Road on Susquehanna Avenue. Passenger service was discontinued on August 31, 1954, and the railroad line through Towson was finally abandoned altogether on June 11, 1958, leaving only the stone abutments where the tracks crossed York Road on a steel girder bridge. One passenger on the last passenger train recalled that many riders came from as far away as Boston and Washington, D.C., to participate in the historic event, along with members of the National Railway Historical Society. Historic Towson, a local group of history buffs, installed a bronze plaque on the west abutment in 1999, commemorating the defunct railroad's place in Towson's history.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson features some of Baltimore County's largest shopping centers as well as other popular venues of interest. These include:


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Hampton National Historic Site is operated by the U.S. National Park Service. The home and grounds were formerly the core of the vast Ridgely estate. The site includes the Ridgely's 18th-century Georgian manor house, gardens, grounds, and the original stone slave quarters. The National Park Service offers free admission and guided tours.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson Town Center is Baltimore County's largest indoor mall, with four stories of shops and a parking garage. Nearby is Allegheny Avenue, the main street of downtown Towson, with a variety of eateries and stores.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: A new outdoor mall, Towson Square, was under construction in 2013. After quick construction, the Square opened in October 2014.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Shops at Kenilworth, formerly known as Kenilworth Park and also as Kenilworth Bazaar, is a small indoor mall located on Kenilworth Drive.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson Place is a major shopping area near Joppa Road, Goucher Boulevard, and Putty Hill Avenue. Built on the site of the Eudowood Sanatarium, the original Eudowood Plaza shopping center was an open mall anchored by Montgomery Ward. Renovated in the early 1980s to an indoor mall and renamed Towson Marketplace, the location was then redeveloped in 1998 as an open-air collection of big box stores and other stores and restaurants, including a Walmart, Target, Marshall's and Bed Bath & Beyond. Towson Place is next to Calvert Hall College High School, a Roman Catholic Lasallian Christian Brothers secondary school which moved in 1960 to its suburban location from its original site, founded 1845 in the city's Mount Vernon-Belvedere neighborhood on Cathedral Street at West Mulberry Street.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson University's arena Towson Center and stadium Johnny Unitas Stadium are both main venues for Towson Tiger athletics and other events. SECU Arena, which opened in Spring 2013, now hosts the Towson Tiger Men's and Women's Basketball teams, Women's Gymnastics and Women's Volleyball teams.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson University is a public school in southern Towson. Its student population is greater than 20,000, making it the second largest institution in the University System of Maryland. TU is home to the largest business school in the state, with 2,500 students. It was founded in 1866 as the Maryland State Normal School for the training of teachers. Originally the school was located at several sites in the city. It underwent several name changes before moving in 1915 to an expansive campus just south of Towson on the west side of York Road. The administration and classroom structure, later named Stephens Hall, has a cupola in red brick with limestone trim in English Tudor/Elizabethan/Jacobethan architecture style, and was by several other similar campus buildings to the northeast in similar style.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Also located in Towson is Goucher College, a small private liberal arts school that was founded in 1885. Goucher was a women's college until it went coeducational in 1986. It was established as the Women's College of Baltimore, and its founders, pastors John Goucher, who would later become its namesake, and John B. Van Meter were closely affiliated with Methodist Episcopal Church. The school was originally based in Baltimore city and moved to its current campus in Towson in 1953. The old campus in Baltimore, which the school no longer owns or occupies, is now known as Old Goucher and is a registered historic district. The current 287-acre campus of the school in Towson was also notably registered as a historic district and in 2007 it was added to the National Register of Historic Places for its unique and innovative architecture.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson is served by the Baltimore County Public Schools district, and the Baltimore County Board of Education headquarters is also located there. There are three high schools. Towson High School, founded in 1873, was the first secondary school provided. It is the second oldest in the school system, and Towson's largest, with its most recent stone structure constructed in 1949. Loch Raven High School dates from 1972. The Carver Center for Arts and Technology is a local magnet school and vocational-technical secondary school in a newly constructed building. It was established in 1992 and known as the Central Technical High School. It was renamed for the African-American scientist George Washington Carver (1864–1943), and to remember the previous Carver High School in Towson. That school had served black residents of the county for several decades in the previously racially segregated public school system before the early 1960s, when the suburban county lagged behind fully integrating after the 1954 landmark "Brown vs. Board of Education" decision by the U.S. Supreme Court.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson is served by seven public elementary schools in the school district.: Rodgers Forge, Stoneleigh, Riderwood, Hampton, West Towson, Pleasant Plains and Cromwell Valley Regional Magnet School of Technology, which serves students from all over Baltimore County.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Towson is served by two public middle schools, Dumbarton Middle School and Loch Raven Technical Academy. Some students are also zoned to attend Ridgely Middle School in Lutherville further north.


title: Towson, Maryland

text: Also located in Towson is Ridge Ruxton School, a special education school serving the central area of Baltimore County, including Reisterstown, Owings Mills, Parkville, Cockeysville, and Hunt Valley. The school describes itself as offering "programs for students from three to twenty-one years of age who have been identified as developmentally delayed, intellectually limited, autistic-like, and/or multi-handicapped".


title: Towson, Maryland

text: The Towson area has a number of long-established private schools at the secondary school level, including Loyola Blakefield, Calvert Hall College High School, Concordia Preparatory School, and Notre Dame Preparatory School.


title: Bastion host

text: A bastion host is a special-purpose computer on a network specifically designed and configured to withstand attacks, so named by analogy to the military fortification. The computer generally hosts a single application or process, for example, a proxy server or load balancer, and all other services are removed or limited to reduce the threat to the computer. It is hardened in this manner primarily due to its location and purpose, which is either on the outside of a firewall or inside of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and usually involves access from untrusted networks or computers. These computers are also equipped with special networking interfaces to withstand high-bandwidth attacks through the internet.


title: Bastion host

text: The term is generally attributed to a 1990 article discussing firewalls by Marcus J. Ranum, who defined a bastion host as "a system identified by the firewall administrator as a critical strong point in the network security. Generally, bastion hosts will have some degree of extra attention paid to their security, may undergo regular audits, and may have modified software".


title: Bastion host

text: It has also been described as "any computer that is fully exposed to attack by being on the public side of the DMZ, unprotected by a firewall or filtering router. Firewalls and routers, anything that provides perimeter access control security can be considered bastion hosts. Other types of bastion hosts can include web, mail, DNS, and FTP servers. Due to their exposure, a great deal of effort must be put into designing and configuring bastion hosts to minimize the chances of penetration."


title: Bastion host

text: There are two common network configurations that include bastion hosts and their placement. The first requires two firewalls, with bastion hosts sitting between the first "outside world" firewall, and an inside firewall, in a DMZ. Often, smaller networks do not have multiple firewalls, so if only one firewall exists in a network, bastion hosts are commonly placed outside the firewall.


title: Hura crepitans

text: Hura crepitans, the sandbox tree, also known as possumwood and jabillo, is an evergreen tree of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae), native to tropical regions of North and South America including the Amazon rainforest. It is also present in parts of Tanzania, where it is considered an invasive species. It can be recognized by its smooth brown bark covered in many dark, pointed spines which have led to its being nicknamed monkey no-climb. Because its fruit explodes when ripe, it has also received the colloquial nickname the dynamite tree.


title: Hura crepitans

text: The sandbox tree can grow to , and its large ovate leaves grow to wide. They are monoecious, with red, un-petaled flowers. Male flowers grow on long spikes, while female flowers grow alone in leaf axils. The sandbox tree's fruits are large, pumpkin-shaped capsules, long, diameter, with 16 carpels arranged radially. Its seeds are flattened and about diameter. The capsules explode when ripe, splitting into segments and launching seeds at . One source states that ripe capsules catapult their seeds as far as . Another source states that seeds are thrown as far as from a tree, averaging about .


title: Hura crepitans

text: This tree prefers wet soil, and partial shade or partial to full sun. It is often cultivated for shade.


title: Hura crepitans

text: Fishermen have been said to use the milky, caustic sap from this tree to poison fish. The Caribs made arrow poison from its sap.


title: Hura crepitans

text: The wood is used for furniture under the name "hura". Before more modern forms of pens were invented, the trees' unripe seed capsules were sawn in half to make decorative pen sandboxes (also called pounce pots), hence the name 'sandbox tree'. It has been documented as a herbal remedy, and is available online.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon is an action-adventure video game which is the third and final installment in "The Legend of Spyro" trilogy, as well as the tenth anniversary game of the series. It was developed by Étranges Libellules, as opposed to Krome Studios, and published by Activision in North America and Vivendi Games/Sierra Entertainment in the PAL Regions for mobile, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Wii.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: Tantalus Media developed the Nintendo DS version, while The Mighty Troglodytes developed the mobile version. It is the end of the second Spyro continuity, with "" serving as the second reboot of the franchise after Sierra Entertainment's parent company Vivendi Games merged with video game publisher Activision to form the Activision Blizzard holding company on July 10, 2008.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: This is the first Spyro game that allows a player to fly at any time they want (free-fly mode). The game also features a co-op mode with Cynder. The co-op feature allows players to have the option of completing the game as either Spyro or Cynder, along with giving them the power to switch between Spyro and Cynder. In previous titles of the Legend of Spyro series, Spyro must travel through the level and defeat enemies in a linear fashion. However, this time players explore larger areas and collect items in order to progress through the game.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: Spyro retains his command of fire, electricity, ice and earth (all of which he now has access to from the start), while Cynder controls poison, fear, wind and shadow. Powers, that were given to her, when she was controlled by the Dark Master. Cynder is faster, yet weaker than Spyro.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: Along with the standard power-ups that gems can cause, Spyro and Cynder can both equip pieces of Dragon-armor, that they'd find. They also have another feature called melee combos. The more times, the player hits the enemy, the more blue Gems the players will earn. Blue Gems will power up Spyro and Cynder, allowing them to upgrade moves. Along with Blue Gems, there are also Red gems, which restore lost health. The green gems will give the dragons their magic, allowing to charge their element attacks. The Fury Gems, known from previous titles, have been replaced by dark crystals, that can drain magic, if they're not destroyed. The Fury-Meter now goes up, depending on the number of times, Spyro or Cynder score attacks on enemies. In addition to normal enemies, there are elite enemies, which are enemies, that are stronger than normal ones. Their masks give them invincibility to normal attacks. The player must use an element of a designated color, that matches the of the mask, in order to knock the mask off. Once kicked off, normal attacks and other elemental powers will be allowed.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: The game's story continues 3 years after the events of "". Spyro and Cynder, who are now teenagers, are broken free of their crystalline prison by mysterious enemies known as Grublins. The two are tethered together with mysterious green energy chains created by the Dark Master before being carried away while Sparx is found by Hunter of Avalar, who was watching them from the shadows. Meanwhile, Spyro and Cynder find themselves in a dark, volcano-like area. When they try to leave, they find out that they can't as they are chained to the platform they awoke on. After defeating several waves of Grublins and avoiding an earth Golem that attacks them soon after, Spyro and Cynder manage to escape the Catacombs with the help of Hunter, who is with Sparx. After reaching safety in Twilight Falls, Hunter reveals to Spyro, Cynder and Sparx that the Dark Master, Malefor, had returned to the realm shortly after the events of "The Legend of Spyro: The Eternal Night" and has covered the land in darkness ever since.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: Once they reach the Dragon City of Warfang, Spyro, Cynder and Hunter are separated as the city is under siege by Malefor's forces. After a long and fierce battle that ends in the siege driven back, the Golem returns and uses parts of the city to create an arm to replace the one it lost in the Catacombs. Spyro and Cynder defeat the Golem by destroying the Dark Crystal in its head, allowing Spyro, Cynder and the Dragon Guardians to finally reunite. The victory is short lived, as later that night, Malefor sends the citizens of Warfang a message: he has revived the Destroyer, an ancient creature whose purpose is to renew the world by bringing about its destruction. As they will be unable to catch up with the creature if they fly after it, the Fire Dragon Guardian Ignitus (the leader of the Dragon Guardians) hatches a plan to wait for it to circle back, and attack before it can complete its circle. Passing underground is the only way to intercept it in time. Cynder and Spyro are able to open the gates to the underground Ruins of Warfang, which leads the attack forces to the canyon where the Destroyer will complete the Ring of Annihilation, by destroying a nearby dam. They stall the Destroyer long enough to destroy its Dark Crystal heart, but it was an effort spent in vain. The Destroyer manages to complete the Belt of Fire and Ignitus orders everyone underground as he escorts Spyro and Cynder through the Belt of Fire. In order to get them to the Burned Lands, which will lead them to Malefor's lair, Ignitus sacrifices himself in the crossing. Spyro, overcome with grief; turns into his dark form and tries to go back and save him (which also threatened to harm Cynder with levitating rocks) but is stopped and comforted by Cynder. Cynder tells Spyro he's not alone and encourages him to continue the journey, as Ignitus wanted them to.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: After getting through the Burned Lands and the Floating Islands, Spyro and Cynder arrive at Malefor's lair and confront him. Malefor taunts Spyro by telling him that the destiny of all purple dragons is to bring about the world's destruction, which Spyro denies. During the confrontation, the evil dragon gets rid of the green chain that tethered Spyro and Cynder together throughout their trials, then corrupts Cynder back to his cause, Cynder attacks Spyro, only to break free from Malefor's control when Spyro refuses to fight, stating that Cynder has left him nothing to fight for. Angered by this turn of events, Malefor binds Spyro and Cynder together once again to kill them both before beginning their airborne battle. As Spyro and Cynder fly after Malefor, the Destroyer completes its circle, marking the end of the world. The three dragons fall into the volcano The Destroyer had entered and after fighting with Malefor, Spyro and Cynder plummet into the center of the earth as they continue their battle. Malefor proclaims that he is eternal, unable to be defeated, but is then sealed away in the world's core by the spirits of the ancestors and the green chain disappears soon after.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: Despite Malefor's defeat, the world is still falling apart, as Spyro and Cynder wonder if this is indeed the end. Ignitus' spirit returns and gives Spyro hope. With the chain that bound them together broken with Malefor's defeat, Spyro tells Cynder to flee while he stops the catastrophe, but she refuses to leave him. As Spyro prepares to unleash a powerful Fury wave, Cynder verbally reveals that she loves him. The world is rebuilt by Spyro's magic and the remaining Dragon Guardians, Hunter, Sparx and the survivors emerge from underground into the setting sun as stars in the sky formed into the figure of a dragon.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: After the credits, the Chronicler speaks to someone that a new age is beginning and with each new age. A worthy dragon is chosen to record the triumphs and failures of that era. His time is over, but the time of the new chronicler, Ignitus, has just begun. Before passing his mantle, the Chronicler informs Ignitus that though he has tried his best, he cannot find "any trace of Spyro" in the book that details dragons who have died. As Ignitus becomes the new Chronicler, he wonders where Spyro could be. Meanwhile, as the game closes, a glimpse of Spyro and Cynder can be seen flying together over the Valley of Avalar.


title: The Legend of Spyro: Dawn of the Dragon

text: The game received "mixed" reviews on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.


title: Camulodunum

text: Camulodunum (; ), the Ancient Roman name for what is now Colchester in Essex, was an important city in Roman Britain, and the first capital of the province. A temporary "strapline" in the 1960s identifying it as the "oldest recorded town in Britain" has become popular with residents and is still used on heritage roadsigns on trunk road approaches. Originally the site of the Brythonic-Celtic oppidum of Camulodunon (meaning "stronghold of Camulos"), capital of the Trinovantes and later the Catuvellauni tribes, it was first mentioned by name on coinage minted by the chieftain Tasciovanus some time between 20 and 10 BC. The Roman town began life as a Roman legionary base constructed in the AD 40s on the site of the Brythonic-Celtic fortress following its conquest by the Emperor Claudius. After the early town was destroyed during the Iceni rebellion in AD 60/61, it was rebuilt, reaching its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. During this time it was known by its official name Colonia Claudia Victricensis ('), often shortened to Colonia Victricensis"', and as "Camulodunum", a Latinised version of its original Brythonic name. The town was home to a large classical temple, two theatres (including Britain's largest), several Romano-British temples, Britain's only known chariot circus, Britain's first town walls, several large cemeteries and over 50 known mosaics and tessellated pavements. It may have reached a population of 30,000 at its height. It was not until the late 18th century that historians realised that Colchester's physical Brythonic and Roman remains were the city mentioned in ancient literature as "Camulodunum".


title: Camulodunum

text: The earliest Iron Age defensive site at Colchester is the Pitchbury Ramparts earthwork north of the town between West Bergholt and Great Horkesley. The main earthwork defences of the Brythonic Celtic oppidum of "Camulodunon" were built later, beginning in the 1st century BC but most date from the 1st century AD. They are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain. The defences consist of lines of ditches and ramparts, possibly palisaded with gateways, that mostly run parallel to each other in a north–south direction. The Iron Age settlement was protected by rivers on three sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River valley forming the southern boundary; the earthworks were mostly designed to close off the western gap between these two river valleys. Other earthworks close off eastern parts of the settlement. These earthworks gave the oppidum its Brythonic Celtic name – "Camulodunon" meant "the stronghold of Camulus", the British god of war. Together they enclose an area of , much larger than the area enclosed by the Iron Age defences at Wheathampstead ().


title: Camulodunum

text: The main sites within the bounds of these defences are the Gosbecks farmstead, the Sheepen industrial area and the Lexden burials. The Gosbecks site consists of a large, high-status farmstead, believed to be the home of the tribal chieftains of Camulodunon. Part of the Gosbecks complex is a large, square enclosure surrounded by a deep, wide ditch. This has been interpreted as part of a possible religious site, as during the Roman period a large temple was built in the middle of this enclosure. The Sheepen site, located around what is now St Helena School on the banks of the River Colne, was a large industrial and port zone, where extensive iron and leather working activity was carried out, as well as an important coin mint. Two coins minted at Sheepen, one found in Colchester in 1980 and another found at Canterbury in 1978, depict boats, and are the only known depictions of sailing vessels from Iron Age Britain. Amphorae containing imported goods from the continent have been found at Sheepen, as have pieces of imported Samian pottery.


title: Camulodunum

text: Just inside the earthworks, at Lexden, are located the burial mounds of the rulers of Camulodunon, which contain large amounts of grave goods including imported Roman material from Europe; the largest of these mounds is the Lexden tumulus. The Lexden area around the mounds contains several Iron Age cremation burial groups, including one containing the "Mirror burial", with other burials located around the Camulodunon site. A large cluster of cremations from St. Clares road and Fitzwalter Road close to the Lexden Tumulus date to 50–10 BC.


title: Camulodunum

text: Aside from these main activity areas, the 1,000 ha area enclosed by the defensive earthworks and rivers mainly consisted of a network of droveways, hollow ways, pastures and fields associated with cattle herding. Scattered roundhouses and burials have been discovered amongst these droveways. The defences were designed to protect the high status and industrial areas as well as prevent cattle rustling of valuable herds. Camulodunon was surrounded by farmsteads like those at Abbotstone near Colchester Zoo and at Birch Quarry, many of which continued to exist on into the Roman period until at least the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.


title: Camulodunum

text: Iron Age salt works (known as red hills) have been found in large numbers around the Essex coast, including several large concentrations located in the salt marshes close to Camulodunon in the Colne Estuary, on the Roman River near Fingringhoe, in Alresford Creek, on Mersea Island, the Pyefleet Channel, the Blackwater River and around the Tendring Peninsula. Two large groups existed at Peldon and Tolleshunt D'Arcy. Camulodunon may have been an at the centre of the local trade in this important preservative.


title: Camulodunum

text: Addedomarus, a king of the Trinovantes tribe (originally centred at Braughing), is the first identifiable ruler of Camulodunon, known from his inscribed coins dating to around 25–10 BC. For a brief period around 10 BC Tasciovanus, a king of the Catuvellauni already issuing coins from Verlamion, also issued coins from Camulodunon, suggesting that the Trinovantes' capital had been conquered by the Catuvellauni, but he was soon forced to withdraw, perhaps as a result of Roman pressure – his later coins are no longer marked with the Latin "REX" (for "king"), but with the Brythonic "RICON" – and Addedomarus was restored. His son Dubnovellaunus succeeded him, but was soon supplanted by Tasciovanus' son Cunobelinus. Cunobelinus then succeeded his father at Verlamion, beginning the dominance of the Catuvellauni over the south-east. Cunobelinus was friendly with Rome, marking his coins with the word "REX" and classical motifs rather than the traditional Gallo-Belgic designs. Archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods, probably through the Sheepen site port of Camulodunon, during his reign. He was probably one of the British kings that Strabo says sent embassies to Augustus. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain; the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Iron ingots, slave chains and storage vessels discovered at the Sheepen site appear to confirm this trade with the Empire.


title: Camulodunum

text: The Catuvellauni king Cunobelinus, ruling from his capital at Camulodunon, had subjugated a large area of southern and eastern Britain, and was called by the Roman historian Suetonius "King of the Britons". Under his rule Camulodunon had replaced Verlamion as the most important settlement in pre-Roman Britain. Around AD 40 he had fallen out with his son Adminius (acting as proxy ruler of the Cantiaci tribe in his father's name), who had fled to Rome for support. There he was received by the Emperor Gaius, who may have attempted an invasion of Britain to put Adminius on his father's throne. After Cunobelinus’ death (c. AD 40) his sons took power with the eldest, Togodumnus, ruling the Catuvellauni homeland around Verlamion, and Caratacus ruling from Camulodunon. Together these brothers began expanding their influence over other British tribes, including the Atrebates of the south coast. Verica, king of the Atrebates, which had branches on both sides of the English Channel and had been friends of Rome since Caesar's conquest, appealed to the Emperor Claudius for aid. At the time of this appeal in AD 43 the newly enthroned Emperor Claudius was in need of a military victory in order to secure his shaky position with the military, and saw this call for help as the perfect pretext. Aulus Plautius led the four Roman legions across to Britain with Camulodunon being their main target, defeating and killing Togodumnus near the Thames and then waiting for Claudius to cross the Channel. Claudius arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, leading the attack on Camulodunon. Caratacus fled the storming of the town, taking refuge with the Ordovices and Silures tribes in Wales and becoming a Welsh folk hero for his resistance to Rome. The Roman historian Suetonius and Claudius' triumphal arch state that after this battle the British kings who had been under Cunobelinus’ sons’ control surrendered without further bloodshed, Claudius accepting their submission in Camulodunon.


title: Camulodunum

text: As the stronghold of a major tribe in the south-east, Camulodunum held strategic importance. A Roman legionary fortress or "castrum", the first permanent legionary fortress to be built in Britain, was established within the confines of Camulodunon (which was Latinised as "Camulodunum") following the successful invasion in AD 43, and was home to the Twentieth Legion. A smaller fort was built against the Iron Age earthworks close to the Gosbecks high-status farmstead, and was home to the Ala Primae Thracum ("First Wing of Thracians", a cavalry regiment) and the Cohors Primae Vangionum ("First Cohort of Vangiones", a mixed cavalry-infantry unit from Gaul).


title: Camulodunum

text: The legionary fortress was larger than a standard "castrum", and included a large annex on its north-east side. It was protected by a large palisaded ditch and wall (Roman military "Vallum" and "Fossa"), along with new earthwork ditch and rampart defences, built to supplement the existing native defences. One of these was around the Sheepen site, which became the main Roman port for the fortress and later for the town, with another military river port at Fingringhoe. Archaeological excavations in 2008-2009 revealed that the Roman Sheepen site was more extensive than previously thought, and had a network of gravelled roads and timber-buildings, some of which contained timber-lined basements. A wooden paddle for a coracle was found preserved at the site. The fortress had two main metalled roads, a north–south "via principalis" and an east–west "via praetoria", as well as a "via sagularis" around the inside of the defensive walls. Along the roads leading out of the fortress settlements known as vici developed, home to native Britons who served the Roman garrison. The interior of the fortress consisted of long barrack blocks able to hold groups of eighty soldiers, known as a Century, with a large room for a Centurian at one end of each block. Larger buildings for military Tribunes have been excavated in the centre of the fort The walls of the military buildings were built on mortared plinths called "opus caementicium", with wooden and daub walls faced with keyed plaster. Roman military equipment and weapons have been found from the fortress, including swords, armour and harness fittings.


title: Camulodunum

text: After the legion was withdrawn in c. AD 49, the legionary defences were dismantled and the fortress converted into a town, with many of the barrack blocks converted into housing. Its official name became "Colonia Victricensis", with discharged Roman soldiers making up the population; a bronze military "diplomata" (document formalising a soldier's retirement, citizen rights and land rights) for a legionary soldier called "Saturninus" has been found at the Sheepen site. As a colonia (the only one in Britain at the time) its citizens held equal rights to Romans, and it was the principal city of Roman Britain. Tacitus wrote that the town was "a strong "colonia" of ex-soldiers established on conquered territory, to provide a protection against rebels and a centre for instructing the provincials in the procedures of the law". The Temple of Claudius, the largest classical style temple in Britain, was built there in the 50s and was dedicated to Emperor Claudius on his death in 54. The podium, or foundation of the temple, was incorporated into the Norman castle, and represents "the earliest substantial stone building of Roman date visible in the country". A monumental arch was built from tufa and Purbeck Marble at the western gate out of the town. Tombs lined the roads out of the town, with several belonging to military veterans giving insights into the military units stationed in Britain during the post-Conquest period, such as:


title: Camulodunum

text: The city was the capital of the Roman province of Britannia, and its temple (the only classical-style temple in Britain) was the centre of the Imperial Cult in the province. The Roman philosopher Seneca mentioned the temple when he mocked the province for its piety towards the Deified Claudius. The colonia was also initially home to the provincial Procurator of Britain. Aside from the Roman population, the city and surrounding territorium was also home to a large native population. Examples of cooperation between the two groups include the Romano-British Stanway Burials mounds and the warrior graves of native elites from the 50s. These graves represent members of the native aristocracy who have been Romanised.


title: Camulodunum

text: However tensions arose in 60/61 when the Roman authorities used the death of Prasutagus as a pretext for seizing the Iceni client state from his widow Boudica. The Iceni rebels were joined by the Trinovantes around Colonia Victricensis, who held several grudges against the Roman population of the town. These included the seizure of land for the colonia's veteran population, the use of labour to build the Temple of Claudius, and the sudden recall of loans given to the local elites by leading Romans (including Seneca and the Emperor), which had been needed to allow the locals to qualify for a position on the city council. The Procurator Catus Decianus was especially despised.


title: Camulodunum

text: As the symbol of Roman rule in Britain the city was the first target of the rebels, with its Temple seen in British eyes as the "arx aeternae dominationis" ("stronghold of everlasting domination") according to Tacitus. He wrote that it was undefended by fortifications when it was attacked with a garrison of only 200 members of the procurator's guard. He wrote of a last stand at the Temple of Claudius:


title: Camulodunum

text: The rebels destroyed the city and slaughtered its population. Archaeologists have found layers of ash in the site of the city, suggesting that Boudica ordered her rebel army to burn the city to the ground. A relief army consisting of the Legio IX Hispana led by Quintus Petillius Cerialis attempted to rescue the besieged citizens, but was destroyed outside of the town. After the Romans under governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus finally defeated the uprising, the Procurator of the province moved his seat to the newly established commercial settlement of Londinium (London).


title: Camulodunum

text: The destruction of the early town by the rebels has left a thick layer of ash, destroyed buildings and smashed pottery and glasswork across the town centre and at the Sheepen river port site outside the NW corner of the town. The destruction layer, also found at Verulamium (St Albans) and Londinium (London), is famous for the charred preservation of artefacts and furniture, including a samian store, a glass store, beds and mattresses, wall plaster, tessalated floors, a few human bones with wounds and even dates and plums. During excavations in 2014 at Williams and Griffin on the High Street a collection of gold and silver jewellery was discovered buried in the floor of a Roman building destroyed during the revolt. Known as the "Fenwick Treasure", it appears to have been buried just prior to the building's destruction by a victim of the Boudican attack. The layer is important to historians as it is one of the first archaeological contexts in Britain that can be given a definitive date, as well as to archaeologists as it provides a snapshot of artifacts from 60, allowing typologies of finds to be tied into a historical timeline, for example in Samian production. The rubble from the destruction was landscaped during the rebuilding of the town that took place in the years after the revolt.


title: Camulodunum

text: Following the destruction of the Colonia and Suetonius Paulinus’ crushing of the revolt the town was rebuilt on a larger scale and flourished, growing larger in size than its pre-Boudican levels (to 108 acres/45 ha) despite its loss of status to Londinium, reaching its peak in the Second and 3rd centuries. The town's official name was "Colonia Claudia Victricensis" (City of Claudius’ Victory), but it was known colloquially by contemporaries (such as on the monument of Gnaeus Munatius Aurelius Bassus in Rome - "see below") as "Camulodunum" or simply "Colonia".


title: Camulodunum

text: The colonia became a large industrial centre, and was the largest, and for a short time the only, place in the province of Britannia where samian ware was produced, along with glasswork and metalwork, and a coin mint. Roman brick making and wine growing also took place in the area. Colonia Victricensis contained many large townhouses, with dozens of mosaics and tessellated pavements found, along with hypocausts and sophisticated waterpipes and drains.


title: Camulodunum

text: The colonia is mentioned by name several times by contemporaries, including in Pliny's Natural History, Ptolemy's Geography, Tacitus' Annales, The Antonine Itinerary and the Ravenna Cosmography. The 2nd century tomb inscription for Gn. Munatius Bassus in Rome, which describes the name of the town and its Roman citizenship, reads:


title: Camulodunum

text: The city was one of the few Roman settlements in Britain designated as a "Colonia" rather than a "Municipia", meaning that in legal terms it was an extension of the city of Rome, not a provincial town. Its inhabitants therefore had Roman citizenship. Of the two provincial administrators the senatorial military governor was always located in areas of conflict, whilst the civilian Procurator's office had moved from Camulodunum to the new port of Londinium sometime around the Boudican Revolt. However the Colonia did retain the Imperial cult centre and priesthood at the Temple of Claudius. The colonia was at the centre of a large territorium containing many villa sites, including an important cluster around the Colne estuary.


title: Camulodunum

text: Following the rebuilding of the town after 60/1, new walls and a large defensive ditch were built around the colonia (the first town walls in Britain, predating other such walls in the province by at least 150 years). They were completed by 80, twenty years after the revolt. They were built with two external faces of alternating layers of tile and septaria mudstone containing a core of septaria boulders, with a 10 ft wide and 4 ft deep foundation trench, the whole structure taking up 45,000 cubic metres of stone, tile and mortar. They were 2,800m long and 2.4m thick, and survive up to a height of over 6m in the 21st Century. Later, in around 175-200 a large earth bank was built up against the inner face of the walls. The walls had between 12 and 24 towers and six large gates. The Balkerne Gate, in the centre of the Western section of the walls, was the main gate out of the town. It has a large fortified barbican that still stands as Britain's largest Roman gateway, which incorporated the earlier monumental arch built before the Iceni rebellion and was flanked by two possible temples, one of which may have contained the Venus statuette found during the 1973-76 excavations. Skulls showing signs of decapitation were found in the town ditch in front of the gate, interpreted as executions on public display. The North wall contained two gates, the modern North Gate and Duncan's Gate. The East wall had the modern East Gate, and the Southern wall had the modern South Gate and Head Gate. Drains were constructed in the wall to allow sewerage out of the colonia.


title: Camulodunum

text: The Cardo maximus, the main north–south street, ran between North Gate and Head Gate, whilst the Decumanus Maximus, the main east–west street, ran between Balkerne Gate and East Gate, and have their origins in the Legionary fortresses two main axial streets. They were well paved, had drainage channels and were fronted with houses and shops. Many included footways, a feature that is rare in other Roman British towns. The rest of the colonia was gridded into around forty blocks known as insula, with paved streets and colonnaded paths between. As well as a system of local roads leading to settlements around the colony, Camulodunum was linked to the rest of the Province by several major roads, including Stane Street, Camlet Way, Pye Road and the Via Devana.


title: Camulodunum

text: Within the town walls was located the Temple of Claudius in its large temple precinct with a monumental columned arcade. Parts of the temple precinct wall are still visible to the NW of the present castle, jutting out from beneath the Norman bailey rampart. The front of the precinct wall consisted of a large columned arcade screen extending the full width of the frontage. At the centre of this arcade stood the entranceway to the temple precinct, which took the form of a tufa-faced monumental arch that at 8 m wide was about 2 m wider than the one at the Eastern entrance to the town, which had been incorporated into Balkerne Gate.


title: Camulodunum

text: To the west of the temple on the modern Maidenburgh Street was a 3,000 seat capacity Roman theatre, which now has the Norman chapel of St Helena built into the corner of it, currently open to public viewing. Opposite the Temple, on the south side of the Decumanus Maximus, the remains of a possible Basilica have been identified. At least seven Romano-Celtic temples have been identified at Camulodunum, with the largest located at the Gosbecks area to the south of the town, built within the site of a former Iron-Age enclosure.


title: Camulodunum

text: A large portico with an eastern entrance ran all the way around the outside of the site, with a solid outer wall, a row of columns down the centre of the portico and a second row of columns around the inner side. In all there were about 260 columns placed 2 m apart, and reaching a height of at least 5 m. The portico ran around the outside of a deep, Iron-Age enclosure ditch, which separated the portico from the central space in the middle of the site. This central space contained a large Romano-Celtic temple, which stood off-centre, leading to suggestions that something else stood at the heart of the religious complex.


title: Camulodunum

text: Next to the Gosbecks temple stood a second 5,000 seat theatre, Britain's largest at 82 m in diameter. A group of four Romano-Celtic temples stood at the Sheepen industrial site, one of which was dedicated to Jupiter. "Temple I" at the Sheepen site was found to be enclosed by a large, buttressed precinct wall during excavations in 1935 and 2014.


title: Camulodunum

text: In 2005, the only known Roman circus in Britain was discovered on the southern outskirts of the colonia. It is about 450 metres long, with eight starting-gates, and it was built in the early 2nd century. It could accommodate at least 8,000 spectators and maybe up to as many as double that. The structure's gates are being opened to the public.


title: Camulodunum

text: Several temples and religious monuments in and around the colonia have evidence for the deity honoured by them:


title: Camulodunum

text: Marble from many of these public structures has been found, including Purbeck Marble and "giallo antico" (a rare yellow marble from Tunisia), as well as statutes, inscriptions and plaques.


title: Camulodunum

text: Several other public buildings have been postulated for which evidence is so far lacking, for example:


title: Camulodunum

text: The town's streets and walls feature many brick built drains, including several large examples in Castle Park and near St Botolph's Priory. As well as drains the colonia also possessed pipes for bringing pressurised water into the settlement. At the excavations at Balkerne Lane four lines of hollow wooden pipes, joined with iron collars were found bringing water from nearby springs, as well as evidence of a possible raised wooden aqueduct which may have been briefly in existence next to Balkerne Gate. Further pipes have been discovered across the town. The water would have been pressurised in reservoirs; it has been argued by archaeologist Philip Crummy that the pipes would have been fed by a "castellum divisiorum", a water tower with multiple outlets, and that in order to get water to where the pipes at Balkerne Lane were found some form of aqueduct or water-lifting wheel would have been need to bring it from springs West of the town. Within the town, a complicated system of chambers, water pipes and slots for possible water-wheels was found in Castle Park that were once described as a Mithraeum but that has now been reinterpreted as a reservoir system. A large overflow drain ran from the structure down to a culvert near Duncan's Gate where the excess water exited the town into the River Colne. Timber framed wells have also been discovered, and there are at least nine springs located within the walls of Camulodunum. Private baths have been found at some sites, and public baths were discovered in summer 2019.


title: Camulodunum

text: Many houses have been found in the colonia during archaeological excavations. Stone-founded buildings largely replaced timber ones in the course of the 2nd century, while average house size tended to increase in size up to a peak at around 250. They have painted plaster walls and tiled roofs, many with tessellated mosaic floors, hypocaust systems, private baths and courtyards. Latrine pits, with examples well over a metre deep, have been discovered next to some of the houses. Large houses were also found in the extramural suburbs outside of the town walls, with the Middleborough House beneath the old Cattle Market being the largest, containing many rooms, mosaics and basements. The Beryfield mosaic (of 180/200) from the SE corner of the colonia is the best preserved of the more than 50 mosaics found in the town.


title: Camulodunum

text: In keeping with Roman burial customs the cemeteries for adults of the colonia in the First, Second and Third centuries are all located outside of the walls along the main roads out of the town, with infants and neo-natals buried within the walls. The cemeteries, some of which are walled, initially contained cremation burials, with ashes placed within jars and urns depicting human faces or glass vessels; these jars were sometimes buried in "boxes" made from ceramic tiles and hypocaust flue blocks to protect the vessel. Some cremation pots have graffito on them, with PVERORVA ("remains of the boys") scratched on one, as do some glass vessels, such as one found with CN.A.ING.A.V.M. scratched on it (presumably the initials of the interred ashes). Later (post-c. 260) burials are inhumations, some in lead coffins decorated with patterns and images of scallop shells, and some with wooden superstructures above and around them. Examples of "bustum" burials (funerary pyre that is then covered with a mound) have been found, which are rare outside of Italy. Elaborate grave goods accompanied some of the burials. Many fragments of carved tombstones have been found in the cemeteries outside of the town, with several being near complete such as the "Colchester Sphinx". Some of the inscriptions on the tombs are almost fully intact, including:


title: Camulodunum

text: Other funerary monuments include the large tower-like ossuary containing the remains of cremated individuals and birds of prey, which was found at the junction between the road to London and the road to Gosbecks beneath the modern Colchester Royal Grammar School.


title: Camulodunum

text: Camulodunum was a centre for pottery production, peaking at around 200, and over 40 kilns have been in the town, including those found in the northern suburbs of the colonia around Middleborough and a large group at Warren Fields and Oak Drive on the southern outskirts of the Sheepen site. Many of the kilns are of the oval "Colchester type", whilst tile kilns have larger rectangular chambers. Camulodunum produced many types of pottery, including decorated Samian pottery, mortaria, buff wares, single-handled ring-necked flagons, and, until c. 250, colour-coated wares. In the late 1st century amphorae, called "Camulodunum Carrots" for their shape and colour, were made in the colonia, and are found in thin numbers across Britain. The Samian industry, copying the East Gaullish style, was active for a time in Camulodunum from 160 to about 200, with the names of several individual Samian potters identified as working in the colonia. Over 400 fragments of Samian moulds for producing the decorated pottery have been uncovered in the town, including 37 complete examples. A well-preserved Samian kiln was excavated by archaeologist M.R. Hull near Middleborough, just outside North Gate. It was 8 ft wide, with a 5m flue under a large circular kiln chamber, and had a complex system of ceramic pipes and tubes for regulating the oxidisation of the pottery to produce its distinctive red colour. Several of the potters operating in Camulodunum in the First, Second and Third centuries are identified as immigrants from the Rhine Valley and East Gaul, including the Samian potter "Minuso" from Trier who also operated in other British towns, "Miccio", the mortaria potter "G. Attius Marinus" and several men called "Sextus Valerius". Pottery made in Camulodunum can be found across the East of England, and as far away as Eboracum. One of the most famous examples of locally made pottery is the "Colchester Vase" (c. 200), which depicts combat between gladiators called Memnon and Valentinus.


title: Camulodunum

text: As well as pottery, ceramics produced in Camulodunum also include a large tile industry, oil lamps and figurines. The colonia was also a major centre of glass production, and glass moulds (including a complete example) have been discovered in the town. Glass was produced throughout the Roman period of Camulodunum, including in the late 4th century, and glass-making waste was discovered at Culver Street from the mid-1st century. Bone carving for ornamentation, metal working and jewellery making were also practiced, and a coin mint operated in the colonia. Archaeological excavations suggest that the period between 150 and 250 saw the largest number of active workshops in the colonia. The town was at the centre of a largely rural economy, with archaeological evidence of agricultural buildings in the colonia including the large buttressed tower granary found in the Southern part of the town, in use for much of the 2nd century, with a nearby corn-drying oven. Many ovens have been located in excavations around the town. A system of watermills appears to have operated along Salary Brook near Ardleigh to the north of the settlement, and other watermills may have operated on the Colne at the modern site of Middle Mill in Castle Park. Oysters from the Colne Estuary and Mersea Island have been an important food source throughout much of Colchester's history, and large dumps (some 0.5m thick) of oyster shells have been found at Balkerne Hill from the Roman period, along with mussels, whelks, cockles, carpet shells, winkle and scallop; fish imported from the River Colne and coast are represented by herring, plaice, flounder, eel, smelt, cod, haddock, gurnard, mullet, dragonet, dab, and sole. As well as the Sheepen river port, Roman roads lead to Mistley on the Essex bank of the River Stour and to a cluster of Roman-era buildings at West Mersea, both of which may also have possessed ports for the colonia. Imports of dates, wine (including Falernian wine), olive oil, jet, marble and other goods from across the Roman Empire have been found in Colchester, including a locally made amphora with an inscription suggesting that it held North African palm-tree fruit products. The trade in salt from local Red Hills also appears to have continued on from the Iron Age in the Roman period, but with more sophisticated evaporation kilns. Small numbers of tiles were imported from Eccles in Kent by Roman settlements in South-East Britain, including Camulodunum, for a brief time in the First Century, as was Kentish Ragstone for building.