title: Pony Canyon

text: As a video game producer, Pony Canyon brought the "Ultima" series from Origin Systems and the "Advanced Dungeons and Dragons" series from Strategic Simulations to Nintendo's Family Computer. Between 1986 and 1990, they produced remakes of the first four "Ultima" titles for the MSX2 and NES platforms. These remakes differed from the original versions, with rewritten game code and all-new graphics. Pony Canyon's video game library was generally released in North America by FCI. Pony Canyon has not released any video games since "Virtual View: Nemoto Harumi" for the PlayStation 2 in July 2003.


title: Pony Canyon

text: The company has occasionally been involved in film production. For example, they were a co-production company for the 1996 Indian erotic film "".


title: Pony Canyon

text: Following a merger with Nippon Broadcasting System, Fuji Television Network, Inc. became the major shareholder of Pony Canyon in 2006. The following year, Fuji Television made Pony Canyon its wholly owned subsidiary. Fuji Television was subsequently renamed Fuji Media Holdings in 2008. Despite associations with Fuji Television, not all of Pony Canyon's TV show and movie library has been broadcast on Fuji Television. Some of Pony Canyon's non-Fuji TV catalog includes "Doraemon" movies.


title: Pony Canyon

text: In September 2014, Pony Canyon opened a North American anime distribution label, Ponycan USA, which aims to license their titles for streaming and home video in US and Canada. Their home video releases will be distributed exclusively by Right Stuf Inc.


title: Pony Canyon

text: Below is a selected list of musical artists signed under the Pony Canyon label in the past and present.


title: Pony Canyon

text: Below is a list of anime series licensed for streaming and home video release in North America by Pony Canyon's Ponycan USA label.


title: Ramesh Tendulkar

text: Ramesh Tendulkar (18 December 1930 – 19 May 1999) was an Indian Marathi poet and novelist. He is the father of cricketer Sachin Tendulkar.


title: Ramesh Tendulkar

text: Tendulkar was born in Alibag, Maharashtra. He used to live at Thikrul Naka, Alibag. He completed his primary and secondary education from Konkan Education Society, Alibag. He went to Mumbai for pursuing his higher education. After completing his education, Tendulkar was a professor at Kirti M. Doongursee College, Mumbai in the 1960s.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The Battle of Legnica (), also known as the Battle of Liegnitz () or Battle of Wahlstatt (), was a battle between the Mongol Empire and combined European forces that took place at the village of Legnickie Pole ("Wahlstatt"), approximately southeast of the city of Legnica in the Duchy of Silesia on 9 April 1241.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: A combined force of Poles and Moravians under the command of Duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia, supported by feudal nobility and a few knights from military orders sent by Pope Gregory IX, attempted to halt the Mongol invasion of Poland. The battle took place two days before the Mongol victory over the Hungarians at the much larger Battle of Mohi.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: As with many historical battles, the exact details of force composition, tactics, and the actual course of the battle are lacking and sometimes contradictory.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The general historical view is that it was a crushing defeat for the Polish and Moravian forces where they suffered heavy casualties.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: One of the Mongol leaders, Kadan, was frequently confused with Ögedei's grandson Kaidu by medieval chroniclers, and thus Kaidu has often been mistakenly listed as leading the Mongol forces at Legnica.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The Mongols considered the Cumans to have submitted to their authority, but the Cumans fled westward and sought asylum within the Kingdom of Hungary. After King Béla IV of Hungary rejected Batu Khan's ultimatum to surrender the Cumans, Subutai began planning the Mongol invasion of Europe. Batu and Subutai were to lead two armies to attack Hungary itself, while a third under Baidar, Orda Khan and Kadan would attack Poland as a diversion to occupy northern European forces which might come to Hungary's aid.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: Orda's forces devastated northern Poland and the southwestern border of Lithuania. Baidar and Kadan ravaged the southern part of Poland: first they sacked Sandomierz in order to draw the Northern European armies away from Hungary; then on 3 March they defeated a Polish army in the battle of Tursko; then on 18 March they defeated another Polish army at Chmielnik; on 24 March they seized and burned Kraków, and a few days later they tried unsuccessfully to capture the Silesian capital of Wrocław (Breslau). While deciding whether or not to besiege Wrocław, Baidar and Kadan received reports that King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia was two days away with an army over twice the size of Henry's. The Mongols turned from Wrocław to intercept Henry's forces before the European armies could meet. The Mongols caught up with Henry near Legnica at Legnickie Pole (Polish for "Field of Legnica"), also known as Wahlstatt.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The Mongol diversionary force, a detachment (no less than one and no more than two "tumens") from the army of Subutai, demonstrated the advantages of the tactical mobility and speed of horse archers. The Mongol tactics were essentially a long series of feigned attacks and faked withdrawals from widely dispersed groups, which were designed to inflict a constant slow drain by ranged fire, disrupt the enemy formation and draw larger numbers away from the main body into ambush and flank attacks. These were standard Mongol tactics used in virtually all of their major battles; they were made possible by continual training and superb battlefield communication, which used a system of flags. The Mongol commander found the highest ground at the battle site, seized it and used it to communicate to his noyans and lesser commanders their orders for troop movement. The Mongol system was a stark contrast to the European systems, in which knights advanced with basically no communication with supporting forces.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The numbers involved are difficult to judge. European accounts vary as to Mongol numbers—some suggest more than 100,000 at Legnica alone. These are gross overestimates, given that this number is far larger than the entire Mongol force in all of Europe, as well as not taking into account the weaknesses of 13th-century Mongol logistical support in Western Eurasia. Current estimates suggest the Mongol force numbered, at most, 25,000 cavalry. The "Historia Tatarorum" by the Franciscan C. de Bridia Monachi suggests a Mongol force of 10,000 troops, which would have been reduced to around 8,000 after casualties suffered earlier in the campaign, at the Battle of Chmielnik, Battle of Tursko, and the Battle of Tarczek. A contemporary European account, the Ystoria Mongalorum, supports these numbers, placing the Mongol force that invaded Poland at 10,000 horsemen.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: According to James Chambers, Henry's force numbered at most 25,000 troops, most likely less, and had a large number of untrained and poorly equipped men, sometimes with no weapons other than the tools of their trade. Lesser trained forces included an army from Opole under Duke Mieszko II the Fat; Moravians led by Boleslav, son of the Margrave of Moravia Děpolt III; conscripts from Greater Poland; and volunteer Bavarian miners from not long before established town of Goldberg (Złotoryja). Henry's better trained troops were his own gathered in his Silesian realm, mercenaries, and very small contingents of French Knights Templar and other foreign volunteers.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: Historian Marek Cetwiński estimates the allied force to have been 2,000 strong, while Gerard Labuda estimates 7,000–8,000 soldiers in the Christian army.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: A contingent of Teutonic Knights of indeterminate number is traditionally believed to have joined the allied army. However, recent analysis of the 15th-century "Annals of Jan Długosz" by Labuda suggests that the German crusaders may have been added to the text after chronicler Długosz had completed the work. A legend that the Prussian Landmeister of the Teutonic Knights, Poppo von Osterna, was killed during the battle is false, as he died at Legnica years later while visiting his wife's nunnery. The Hospitallers have also been said to have participated in this battle, but this too seems to be a fabrication added in later accounts; neither Jan Długosz's accounts nor the letter sent to the King of France from the Templar Master of France, Ponce d'Aubon, mention them. Peter Jackson further points out that the only military order that fought at Legnica was the Templars. The Templar contribution was very small, estimated around 68–88 well-trained, well-armed soldiers; their letter to the king of France gives their losses as three brother knights, two sergeants and 500 'men'—according to their use of the term, probably peasants working their estates and thus neither better armed or trained than the rest of the army's infantry.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: Henry divided his forces into four sections: the Bavarian miners led by Boleslav of Moravia; the conscripts from Greater Poland along with some Cracovians led by Sulisław, the brother of the killed palatine of Kraków; the army of Opole under Mieszko; and, under Henry's personal command, the Silesians, Moravians, and Templars.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: According to Chambers' description of the battle, the Silesian cavalry initiated combat with the vanguard (mangudai) of the Mongol army. After the Silesians were repelled, the cavalry of Greater Poland, led by Sulisław, and the cavalry of Opole then attacked the Mongols. The Mongol vanguard retreated, inducing the allied cavalry to pursue, thereby separating them from the Polish infantry. Although the mangudai fled, Mongol light cavalry flanked the Polish forces. A smokescreen was used to hide the Mongol movements and confuse the Europeans. While the Mongol light cavalry attacked from the flanks and the heavy cavalry attacked from the front, Mongol archers peppered the Polish forces with arrows.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: Erik Hildinger indicates that the levies of Boleslav led the attack, instead of the Silesians. He adds that after the Polish cavalry began their pursuit during the Mongols' feigned retreat, a rider shouted "Run! Run!" (in Polish) to the Polish forces, confusing Mieszko, who ordered his Opole contingent to retreat from the battle. This withdrawal led Henry to order his own reserves and cavalry into the fight.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The Mongols had much success in the battle by feigning their retreat. After the Polish knights detached from the main body of allied forces in pursuit of the fleeing Mongols, the invaders were able to separate the knights from the infantry and defeat them one by one.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The "Annals of Jan Długosz" also describes the battle, although it was written in the 15th century, not when it actually occurred. The army of Henry II was almost destroyed—Henry and Boleslav of Moravia were killed and estimates of casualties range from 2,000 to 40,000, essentially the entire army. Ponce d'Aubon reported to King Louis IX of France that the military order lost 500 people, both in Legnica and subsequent raids on three Templar villages and two "towers" among them nine brothers, three knights, and two sergeants. This number likely included civilians of the villages. Mongol casualties are unknown; a perfect execution of their standard tactics would have minimized losses, but the Mongols endured sufficient casualties to dissuade them from attacking the Bohemian army.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The Mongols cut the right ear off each fallen European in order to count the dead; supposedly they filled nine sackfuls, though this has as much validity as European accounts of the numbers of Mongols. Henry was struck down and beheaded while attempting to flee the battlefield with three bodyguards, and the Mongols paraded his head on a spear before the town of Legnica.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, who had been a day's march away, fell back to gather reinforcements from Thuringia and Saxony upon learning of the defeat. He was overtaken by the Mongol vanguard at Kłodzko. However, his force was far larger and more powerful than the host at Legnica, and the Mongol detachment was routed by the Bohemian cavalry. As Baidar and Kadan's orders had been to serve as a diversion, they stayed to keep the Bohemian forces tied up, avoiding confrontation with the larger army while splitting up into bands and sacking minor towns and villages. Eventually, they turned away from Bohemia and Poland and headed southward to join Batu and Subutai, who had defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohi.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: Larger invasions of Poland, devoted primarily to looting, would be launched later. Led by Burundai, the Mongols successfully raided Poland in 1259–1260. They raided again under the leadership of Tulabuga and Nogai Khan, accompanied by vassal troops from Ruthenia, but were unsuccessful in 1287. Although the Mongols repeatedly expressed desire to conquer central Europe in ultimatums up to the 1270s, Poland and Hungary stayed outside of the Golden Horde's sphere of influence. The Russian lands to their east remained under the rule of the Golden Horde for the next two centuries.


title: Battle of Legnica

text: The Battle of Legnica is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription "LEGNICA 9 IV 1241".


title: Born of Osiris

text: Born of Osiris is an American progressive metalcore band formed in 2003 in Palatine, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. The band currently consists of lead vocalist Ronnie Canizaro, lead guitarist Lee McKinney, rhythm guitarist/bassist Nick Rossi, drummer Cameron Losch, and keyboardist/vocalist Joe Buras. Born of Osiris has played at various festivals including the Summer Slaughter Tour (2008, 2009, 2015 and 2018) and the Music as a Weapon Tour 4.


title: Born of Osiris

text: The group underwent several name changes, including Diminished (2003–2004), Your Heart Engraved (2004–2006), and Rosecrance (2006–2007), before finally settling on Born of Osiris in 2007, basing the name on the Egyptian deity Osiris and the tale of his son Horus.


title: Born of Osiris

text: In its early years, the band was part of the Northland Chicago metalcore scene along with other (now successfully signed) bands such as Veil of Maya, Monsters, Oceano, and For All I Am. The band members even all attend the same high school together at Fremd High School.


title: Born of Osiris

text: While known as Diminished in 2003, they released a five-song demo EP titled "Your Heart Engraved These Messages". This was the only release from the teenage band to feature two lead vocalists.


title: Born of Osiris

text: From that demo came their next name, Your Heart Engraved. Under that name, the band released a twelve-song demo known as "Youm Wara Youm". During that time, the band also released a satirical rap song titled "Stressed". The song was originally featured on the band's Myspace account.


title: Born of Osiris

text: The band changed names once again in 2006, this time to Rosecrance. They released a self-titled seven-track demo EP, containing re-recordings of songs off their second demo and two extra satirical rap songs, named "HopeYouDie" and "Paddy Wack". The latter was based on the nursery rhyme of the same name.


title: Born of Osiris

text: In 2007, the group settled on Born of Osiris as a suitable band name. The first Born of Osiris song released was "Narnia", which would later be retitled "The Takeover" on "The New Reign." "The New Reign" marked the end of their satirical rap songs and old post-hardcore/metalcore sound, and it marked the beginning of their critically acclaimed technical deathcore sound as well as the start of their stay with Sumerian Records.


title: Born of Osiris

text: In July 2009, the band released their debut album, "A Higher Place", which peaked at number 73 on the "Billboard" 200. They co-headlined a tour named The Night of the Living Shred with All Shall Perish, After the Burial, Caliban and Suffokate; Born of Osiris also supported Hatebreed on the Decimation of the Nation Tour 2, alongside Cannibal Corpse, Unearth and Hate Eternal.


title: Born of Osiris

text: In December 2009, they asked Jason Richardson of All Shall Perish to join Born of Osiris. This began a two-year period of member stability which resulted in the writing and release of their second full-length album, "The Discovery." Released on March 22, 2011, the album debuted at 87 on the "Billboard" 200.


title: Born of Osiris

text: In September 2011, members Cameron Losch, Joe Buras, and Lee McKinney recorded and mixed the self-titled first release by Virginia band Mind's I.


title: Born of Osiris

text: On December 21, 2011, Born of Osiris fired guitarist Jason Richardson. The official press release came three weeks later. Richardson immediately joined Salt Lake City deathcore act Chelsea Grin following his departure from the band. In response to the official statement released by the band, he wrote a scathing status update on his personal Facebook page, stating that the other band members frequently abused alcohol and prescription drugs. Richardson had served as a touring member with Chelsea Grin prior to him being kicked out of the band.


title: Born of Osiris

text: A video was posted, showing guitarist Lee McKinney rehearsing over a riff, which was believed to be part of a song to be featured on the next Born of Osiris release. He also had an eight string guitar built for him by the UK-based company Invictus Guitars, suggesting another direction that the next release will take.


title: Born of Osiris

text: Following this, McKinney started a side project called Mechanize (originally named Mecha but the name had to be changed for legal reasons), in which he produces original electronic music and remixes other artists. David Darocha has also started his own jewelry line called D A V I. Cameron Losch, Lee McKinney and former guitarist Jason Richardson were all instructors on the music teaching website Bandhappy, which was owned by Matt Halpern, the drummer of Born of Osiris's former labelmate Periphery. As of November 2014, however, Halpern had shut down the site to focus on Periphery.


title: Born of Osiris

text: On June 25, 2013, the Sumerian Records YouTube page uploaded a Born of Osiris song entitled "M∆chine" as well as an album titled "Tomorrow We Die ∆live", which was released August 20, 2013. They toured across North America on the 2013 Rockstar Mayhem Festival alongside groups like Five Finger Death Punch, Rob Zombie and Machine Head. Born of Osiris also supported Asking Alexandria on their Breakdown the Walls Tour alongside August Burns Red, Crown the Empire and We Came as Romans. The band also played on the Monster Energy Stage for the 2014 Vans Warped Tour and headlined in October 2014 to support Tomorrow We Die ∆live. Within the Ruins, ERRA, Betraying the Martyrs and Thy Art Is Murder all supported the band. The band also opened up for The Devil Wears Prada with The Word Alive and Secrets joining as support in early 2015. Mid-2015 saw the band open up for Arch Enemy on the 2015 annual Summer Slaughter tour. In September 2015 the band went to Russia to support Emmure on a small tour.


title: Born of Osiris

text: The new album, "Soul Sphere" was released on October 23, 2015. In February 2016, The band was the headliner for the Sumerian Records Ten Year Tour. Veil of Maya, After the Burial, ERRA and Bad Omens joined them on the lineup. A second leg of the tour started in May with Upon a Burning Body being added to the lineup, replacing Veil of Maya. The band played in Europe in September 2016, with Veil of Maya as a co-headliner and with Volumes and Black Crown Initiate joining as support.


title: Born of Osiris

text: At the turn of 2017, the band released a new song titled "Glorious Day", which is a re-recording of a track originally included on their 2004 demo, "Youm Wara Youm," and which was originally intended to appear on their 2007 EP "The New Reign."


title: Born of Osiris

text: Following the unrevealing of "Glorious Day", Born of Osiris announced that they were in the process of developing a new EP entitled "The Eternal Reign" — a re-recording of "The New Reign" EP. After this, the band toured to celebrate "The New Reign"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s tenth anniversary. The first half of the tour featured Volumes, Oceans Ate Alaska, and Within the Ruins and Fire From the Gods as support. The second half had Volumes return with Betraying the Martyrs and Widowmaker. "The Eternal Reign" was released in February 2017.


title: Born of Osiris

text: In 2018, the band departed on the Summer Slaughter tour. On July 16, 2018, they released the first single, titled "Silence the Echo," and announced the departure of longtime bassist, David Da Rocha, who has been featured in all Sumerian releases with the band. Nick Rossi of In Motives was introduced as his replacement. In 2018, Born of Osiris took part in the annual Summer Slaughter Tour, supporting Between the Buried and Me. Born of Osiris went on tour once again in the Fall of 2018, this time supporting Killswitch Engage. Crowbar and Death Ray Vision joined as support.


title: Born of Osiris

text: On November 16, 2018, the band released their second single, "The Accursed", from their fifth studio album, "The Simulation". The album was released on January 11, 2019. It was said to be the first of two Born of Osiris albums planned for release in 2019, though the second album was not released that year as previously announced. On February 7, 2019, the band embarked on an approximate one month-long tour to support "The Simulation" alongside Chelsea Grin, Make Them Suffer and Kingdom of Giants. Born of Osiris also returned to Australia in June 2019 co-headlining with Chelsea Grin. Diamond Construct joined as support.


title: Born of Osiris

text: On May 7, 2020, former guitarist Jason Richardson revealed that, after over nine years of attempting to claim his royalty fees for his work on "The Discovery", Sumerian Records had paid him the outstanding debt.


title: Born of Osiris

text: On March 18, 2021, the band released a new single called "White Nile" accompanied by a music video. On May 13, 2021, the band release a new single and music video entitled "Angel or Alien" and announced the release of a new album with the same name for July 2, 2021.


title: Olympiad

text: An olympiad (, "Olympiás") is a period of four years, particularly those associated with the ancient and modern Olympic Games.


title: Olympiad

text: Although the ancient Olympics were established during Greece's Archaic Era, it was not until Hippias that a consistent list was established and not until Ephorus in the Hellenistic period that the first recorded Olympic contest was used as a calendar epoch. Ancient authors agreed that other Olympics had been held before the race won by Coroebus but disagreed on how many; the convention was established to place Coroebus's victory at a time equivalent to the summer of 776  in the Gregorian calendar and to treat it as Year 1 of Olympiad 1. Olympiad 2 began with the next games in the summer of 772 .


title: Olympiad

text: Thus, for N less than 195, Olympiad N is reckoned as starting in the year formula_1  and ending four years later. For N greater than or equal to 195, Olympiad N started in  formula_2 and ended four years later. By extrapolation, the


title: Olympiad

text: In reference to the modern Olympics, their Olympiads are four year periods beginning on January 1 of the year of the Summer Games. Thus, the modern Olympiad I began 1 January 1896, Olympiad II began 1 January 1900, and so on. Olympiad XXXII began 1 January 2020. Because the Julian and Gregorian calendars go directly from 1  to  1, the cycle of modern Olympiads is ahead of the ancient cycle by one year.


title: Olympiad

text: Each olympiad started with the holding of the games, which originally began on the first or second full moon after the summer solstice. After the introduction of the Metonic cycle about 432 BC, the start of the games was determined slightly differently. Within each olympiad, time was reckoned by referring to its 1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th year. Ancient writers sometimes describe their Olympiads as lasting five years but do so by counting inclusively; in fact each comprised a four year period. For example, the first year of Olympiad 140 began in the summer of 220  and lasted until the middle of 219 . After the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years of Olympiad 140, the games in the summer of 216  would begin the first year of Olympiad 141.


title: Olympiad

text: The sophist Hippias was the first writer to compile a comprehensive list of the Olympic victors (, "olympioníkes"). Although his "Olympic Record" (, "Olympionikō̂n Anagraphḗ") is now entirely lost, it apparently formed the basis of all later Olympic dating. By the time of Eratosthenes, his dating of Coroebus's victory to 776  had been generally accepted. The panhellenic nature of the games, their regular schedule, and the improved victor list allowed Greek historians to use the Olympiads as a way of reckoning time that did not depend on the various calendars of the city-states. (See e.g. the Attic calendar of the Athenians.) The first to do so consistently was Timaeus of Tauromenium in the third century . Nevertheless, since for events of the early history of the games the reckoning was used in retrospect, some of the dates given by later historian for events before the 5th century  are very unreliable. In the 2nd century, Phlegon of Tralles summarized the events of each Olympiad in a book called "Olympiads"; fragments survive in the work of the Byzantine writer Photius. Christian chroniclers continued to use this Greek system of dating as a way of synchronizing biblical events with Greek and Roman history. In the 3rd century, Sextus Julius Africanus compiled a list of Olympic victors up to 217 , and this list has been preserved in the "Chronicle" of Eusebius.


title: Olympiad

text: Though the games were held without interruption, on more than one occasion they were held by others than the Eleians. The Eleians declared such games "Anolympiads" (non-Olympics), but it is assumed the winners were nevertheless recorded.


title: Olympiad

text: During the 3rd century, records of the games are so scanty that historians are not certain whether after 261 they were still held every four years. Some winners were recorded though, until the last Olympiad of  393. In 394, Roman Emperor Theodosius I outlawed the games at Olympia as pagan. Though it would have been possible to continue the reckoning by just counting four-year periods, by the middle of the 5th century reckoning by Olympiads had ceased.


title: Olympiad

text: The Summer Olympics are more correctly referred to as the Games of the Olympiad. The first poster to announce the games using this term was the one for the 1932 Summer Olympics, in Los Angeles, using the phrase: "Call to the games of the Xth Olympiad".


title: Olympiad

text: The modern Olympiad is a period of four years: the first Olympiad started on 1 January 1896, and an Olympiad starts on 1 January of the years evenly divisible by four.


title: Olympiad

text: This means that the count of the Olympiads continues, even if Olympic Games are cancelled: For instance, the regular intervals would have meant (summer) Olympic Games should have occurred in 1940 and 1944, but both were cancelled due to World War II.


title: Olympiad

text: Nonetheless, the count of the Olympiads continued: The 1936 Games were those of the XI Olympiad, while the next Summer Games were those of 1948, which were the Games of the XIV Olympiad. The current Olympiad is the XXXII of the modern era, which began on 1 January 2020.


title: Olympiad

text: Note, however, that the official numbering of the Winter Olympics does not count Olympiads, it counts only the Games themselves.


title: Olympiad

text: For example, the first Winter Games, in 1924, are not designated as "Winter Games of the VII Olympiad", but as the "I Winter Olympic Games". (The first Winter Games were termed as "Olympic" in a later year.)


title: Olympiad

text: The 1936 Summer Games were the "Games of the XI Olympiad". After the 1940 and 1944 Summer Games were canceled due to World War II, the Games resumed in 1948 as the "Games of the XIV Olympiad". However, the 1936 Winter Games were the "IV Winter Olympic Games", and on the resumption of the Winter Games in 1948, the event was designated the "V Winter Olympic Games".


title: Olympiad

text: The 2020 Summer Games were the "Games of the XXXII Olympiad". On 24 March 2020, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it was postponed to 2021 rather than cancelled, and thus becoming the first postponement in the 124-year history of the Olympics.


title: Olympiad

text: Some media people have from time to time referred to a particular (e.g., the "n"th) Winter Olympics as "the Games of the "n"th Winter Olympiad", perhaps believing it to be the correct formal name for the Winter Games by analogy with that of the Summer Games. Indeed, at least one IOC-published article has applied this nomenclature as well. This analogy is sometimes extended further by media references to "Summer Olympiads".


title: Olympiad

text: However, the IOC does not seem to make an official distinction between Olympiads for the summer and winter games, and such usage particularly for the Winter Olympics is not consistent with the numbering discussed above.


title: Olympiad

text: Some Olympic Committees often use the term "quadrennium", which it claims refers to the same four-year period. However, it indicates these quadrennia in calendar years, starting with the first year after the Summer Olympics and ending with the year the next Olympics are held. This would suggest a more precise period of four years, but, for example, the 2001–2004 Quadrennium would then not be exactly the same period as the XXVII Olympiad, which was 2000–2003.


title: Olympiad

text: A "Cultural Olympiad" is a concept protected by the International Olympic Committee and may be used only within the limits defined by an Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games. From one Games to the next, the scale of the Cultural Olympiad varies considerably, sometimes involving activity over the entire Olympiad and other times emphasizing specific periods within it. Baron Pierre de Coubertin established the principle of Olympic Art Competitions at a special congress in Paris in 1906, and the first official programme was presented during the 1912 Games in Stockholm. These competitions were also named the "Pentathlon of the Muses", as their purpose was to bring artists to present their work and compete for "art" medals across five categories: architecture, music, literature, sculpture and painting.


title: Olympiad

text: Nowadays, while there are no competitions as such, cultural and artistic practice is displayed via the Cultural Olympiad. The 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver presented the Cultural Olympiad Digital Edition. The 2012 Olympics included an extensive Cultural Olympiad with the London 2012 Festival in the host city, and events elsewhere including the World Shakespeare Festival produced by the RSC. The 2016 games' Cultural Olympiad was scaled back due to Brazil's recession; there was no published programme, with director Carla Camurati promising "secret" and "spontaneous" events such as flash mobs. Cultural events in time for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo were planned but subsequently cancelled due to pandemic restrictions in Japan and was replaced by an alternative virtual event instead.


title: Olympiad

text: The English term is still often used popularly to indicate the games themselves, a usage that is uncommon in ancient Greek (as an Olympiad is most often the time period "between" and including sets of games). It is also used to indicate international competitions other than physical sports. This includes international science olympiads, such as the International Geography Olympiad, International Mathematical Olympiad and the International Linguistics Olympiad and their associated national qualifying tests (e.g., the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad or the United Kingdom Linguistics Olympiad), and also events in mind-sports, such as the Science Olympiad, Mindsport Olympiad, Chess Olympiad, International History Olympiad and Computer Olympiad. In these cases "Olympiad" is used to indicate a regular event of international competition for top achieving participants; it does not necessarily indicate a four-year period.


title: Food irradiation

text: Food irradiation is the process of exposing food and food packaging to ionizing radiation, such as from gamma rays, x-rays, or electron beams. Food irradiation improves food safety and extends product shelf life (preservation) by effectively destroying organisms responsible for spoilage and foodborne illness, inhibits sprouting or ripening, and is a means of controlling insects and invasive pests.


title: Food irradiation

text: In the US, consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) have performed studies that confirm irradiation to be safe. In order for a food to be irradiated in the US, the FDA will still require that the specific food be thoroughly tested for irradiation safety.


title: Food irradiation

text: Food irradiation is permitted in over 60 countries, and about 500,000 metric tons of food are processed annually worldwide. The regulations for how food is to be irradiated, as well as the foods allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. In Austria, Germany, and many other countries of the European Union only dried herbs, spices, and seasonings can be processed with irradiation and only at a specific dose, while in Brazil all foods are allowed at any dose.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiation is used to reduce or eliminate pests and the risk of food-borne illnesses as well as prevent or slow spoilage and plant maturation or sprouting. Depending on the dose, some or all of the organisms, microorganisms, bacteria, and viruses present are destroyed, slowed, or rendered incapable of reproduction. When targeting bacteria, most foods are irradiated to significantly reduce the number of active microbes, not to sterilize all microbes in the product. Irradiation cannot return spoiled or over-ripe food to a fresh state. If this food was processed by irradiation, further spoilage would cease and ripening would slow, yet the irradiation would not destroy the toxins or repair the texture, color, or taste of the food.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiation slows the speed at which enzymes change the food. By reducing or removing spoilage organisms and slowing ripening and sprouting (e.g. potato, onion, and garlic) irradiation is used to reduce the amount of food that goes bad between harvest and final use. Shelf-stable products are created by irradiating foods in sealed packages, as irradiation reduces chance of spoilage, the packaging prevents re-contamination of the final product. Foods that can tolerate the higher doses of radiation required to do so can be sterilized. This is useful for people at high risk of infection in hospitals as well as situations where proper food storage is not feasible, such as rations for astronauts.


title: Food irradiation

text: Pests such as insects have been transported to new habitats through the trade in fresh produce and significantly affected agricultural production and the environment once they established themselves. To reduce this threat and enable trade across quarantine boundaries, food is irradiated using a technique called phytosanitary irradiation. Phytosanitary irradiation sterilizes the pests preventing breeding by treating the produce with low doses of irradiation (less than 1000 Gy). The higher doses required to destroy pests are not used due to either affecting the look or taste, or cannot be tolerated by fresh produce.


title: Food irradiation

text: The target material is exposed to a radiation source that is separated from the target material. The radiation source supplies energetic particles or waves. As these waves/particles enter the target material they collide with other particles. The higher the likelihood of these collisions over a distance are, the lower the penetration depth of the irradiation process is as the energy is more quickly depleted.


title: Food irradiation

text: Around the sites of these collisions chemical bonds are broken, creating short lived radicals (e.g. the hydroxyl radical, the hydrogen atom and solvated electrons). These radicals cause further chemical changes by bonding with and or stripping particles from nearby molecules. When collisions occur in cells, cell division is often suppressed, halting or slowing the processes that cause the food to mature.


title: Food irradiation

text: When the process damages DNA or RNA, effective reproduction becomes unlikely halting the population growth of viruses and organisms. The distribution of the dose of radiation varies from the food surface and the interior as it is absorbed as it moves through food and depends on the energy and density of the food and the type of radiation used.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiation leaves a product with qualities (sensory and chemical) that are more similar to unprocessed food than any preservation method that can achieve a similar degree of preservation.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiated food does not become radioactive; only power levels that are incapable of causing significant induced radioactivity are used for food irradiation. In the United States this limit is deemed to be 4 mega electron volts for electron beams and x-ray sources – cobalt-60 or caesium-137 sources are never energetic enough to be of concern. Particles below this energy can never be strong enough to modify the nucleus of the targeted atom in the food, regardless of how many particles hit the target material, and so radioactivity can not be induced.


title: Food irradiation

text: The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy absorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is used because, when the same substance is given the same dose, similar changes are observed in the target material(Gy or J/kg). Dosimeters are used to measure dose, and are small components that, when exposed to ionizing radiation, change measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Measuring dose (dosimetry) involves exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target material.


title: Food irradiation

text: For purposes of legislation doses are divided into low (up to 1 kGy), medium (1 kGy to 10 kGy), and high-dose applications (above 10 kGy). High-dose applications are above those currently permitted in the US for commercial food items by the FDA and other regulators around the world, though these doses are approved for non commercial applications, such as sterilizing frozen meat for NASA astronauts (doses of 44 kGy) and food for hospital patients.


title: Food irradiation

text: The ratio of the maximum dose permitted at the outer edge (D) to the minimum limit to achieve processing conditions (D) determines the uniformity of dose distribution. This ratio determines how uniform the irradiation process is.


title: Food irradiation

text: As ionising radiation passes through food, it creates a trail of chemical transformations due to radiolysis effects. Irradiation does not make foods radioactive, change food chemistry, compromise nutrient contents, or change the taste, texture, or appearance of food .


title: Food irradiation

text: Assessed rigorously over several decades, irradiation in commercial amounts to treat food has no negative impact on the sensory qualities and nutrient content of foods.


title: Food irradiation

text: Watercress ("Nasturtium officinale") is a rapidly growing aquatic or semi aquatic perennial plant. Because chemical agents do not provide efficient microbial reductions, watercress has been tested with gamma irradiation treatment in order to improve both safety and the shelf life of the product. It is traditionally used on horticultural products to prevent sprouting and post-packaging contamination, delay post-harvest ripening, maturation and senescence.


title: Food irradiation

text: Some who advocate against food irradiation argue the long term health effects & safety of irradiated food cannot be scientifically proven, despite hundreds of animal feeding studies of irradiated food performed since 1950. Endpoints include subchronic and chronic changes in metabolism, histopathology, function of most organs, reproductive effects, growth, teratogenicity, and mutagenicity.


title: Food irradiation

text: Up to the point where the food is processed by irradiation, the food is processed in the same way as all other food.


title: Food irradiation

text: For some forms of treatment, packaging is used to ensure the food stuffs never come in contact with radioactive substances and prevent re-contamination of the final product. Food processors and manufacturers today struggle with using affordable, efficient packaging materials for irradiation based processing. The implementation of irradiation on prepackaged foods has been found to impact foods by inducing specific chemical alterations to the food packaging material that migrates into the food. Cross-linking in various plastics can lead to physical and chemical modifications that can increase the overall molecular weight. On the other hand, chain scission is fragmentation of polymer chains that leads to a molecular weight reduction.


title: Food irradiation

text: To treat the food, it is exposed to a radioactive source for a set period of time to achieve a desired dose. Radiation may be emitted by a radioactive substance, or by X-ray and electron beam accelerators. Special precautions are taken to ensure the food stuffs never come in contact with the radioactive substances and that the personnel and the environment are protected from exposure radiation.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiation treatments are typically classified by dose (high, medium, and low), but are sometimes classified by the effects of the treatment (radappertization, radicidation and radurization). Food irradiation is sometimes referred to as "cold pasteurization" or "electronic pasteurization" because ionizing the food does not heat the food to high temperatures during the process, and the effect is similar to heat pasteurization. The term "cold pasteurization" is controversial because the term may be used to disguise the fact the food has been irradiated and pasteurization and irradiation are fundamentally different processes.


title: Food irradiation

text: Gamma irradiation is produced from the radioisotopes cobalt-60 and caesium-137, which are produced by neutron irradiation of cobalt-59 (the only stable isotope of cobalt) and as a nuclear fission product, respectively. Cobalt-60 is the most common source of gamma rays for food irradiation in commercial scale facilities as it is water insoluble and hence has little risk of environmental contamination by leakage into the water systems. As for transportation of the radiation source, cobalt-60 is transported in special trucks that prevent release of radiation and meet standards mentioned in the Regulations for Safe Transport of Radioactive Materials of the International Atomic Energy Act. The special trucks must meet high safety standards and pass extensive tests to be approved to ship radiation sources. Conversely, caesium-137, is water-soluble and poses a risk of environmental contamination. Insufficient quantities are available for large scale commercial use as the vast majority of Caesium-137 produced in nuclear reactors is not extracted from spent nuclear fuel. An incident where water-soluble caesium-137 leaked into the source storage pool requiring NRC intervention has led to near elimination of this radioisotope.


title: Food irradiation

text: Gamma irradiation is widely used due to its high penetration depth and dose uniformity, allowing for large-scale applications with high through puts. Additionally, gamma irradiation is significantly less expensive than using an X-ray source. In most designs, the radioisotope, contained in stainless steel pencils, is stored in a water-filled storage pool which absorbs the radiation energy when not in use. For treatment, the source is lifted out of the storage tank, and product contained in totes is passed around the pencils to achieve required processing.


title: Food irradiation

text: Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes to hours depending on dose. Low-dose applications such as disinfestation of fruit range between US$0.01/lbs and US$0.08/lbs while higher-dose applications can cost as much as US$0.20/lbs.


title: Food irradiation

text: Treatment of electron beams is created as a result of high energy electrons in an accelerator that generates electrons accelerated to 99% the speed of light. This system uses electrical energy and can be powered on and off. The high power correlates with a higher throughput and lower unit cost, but electron beams have low dose uniformity and a penetration depth of centimeters. Therefore, electron beam treatment works for products that have low thickness.


title: Food irradiation

text: X-rays are produced by bombardment of dense target material with high-energy accelerated electrons(this process is known as bremsstrahlung-conversion), giving rise to a continuous energy spectrum. Heavy metals, such as tantalum and tungsten, are used because of their high atomic numbers and high melting temperatures. Tantalum is usually preferred versus tungsten for industrial, large-area, high-power targets because it is more workable than tungsten and has a higher threshold energy for induced reactions. Like electron beams, x-rays do not require the use of radioactive materials and can be turned off when not in use. X-rays have high penetration depths and high dose uniformity but they are a very expensive source of irradiation as only 8% of the incident energy is converted into X-rays.


title: Food irradiation

text: UV-C does not penetrate as deeply as other methods. As such, its direct antimicrobial effect is limited to the surface only. Its DNA damage effect produces cyclobutane-type pyrimidine dimers. Besides the direct effects, UV-C also induces resistance even against pathogens not yet inoculated. Some of this induced resistance is understood, being the result of temporary inactivation of self-degradation enzymes like polygalacturonase and increased expression of enzymes associated with cell wall repair.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiation is a capital-intensive technology requiring a substantial initial investment, ranging from $1 million to $5 million. In the case of large research or contract irradiation facilities, major capital costs include a radiation source, hardware (irradiator, totes and conveyors, control systems, and other auxiliary equipment), land (1 to 1.5 acres), radiation shield, and warehouse. Operating costs include salaries (for fixed and variable labor), utilities, maintenance, taxes/insurance, cobalt-60 replenishment, general utilities, and miscellaneous operating costs. Perishable food items, like fruits, vegetables and meats would still require to be handled in the cold chain, so all other supply chain costs remain the same. Food manufacturers have not embraced food irradiation because the market does not support the increased price of irradiated foods, and because of potential consumer backlash due to irradiated foods.


title: Food irradiation

text: The cost of food irradiation is influenced by dose requirements, the food's tolerance of radiation, handling conditions, i.e., packaging and stacking requirements, construction costs, financing arrangements, and other variables particular to the situation.


title: Food irradiation

text: Irradiation has been approved by many countries. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, food irradiation has existed for decades. Food irradiation is used commercially and volumes are in general increasing at a slow rate, even in the European Union where all member countries allow the irradiation of dried herbs spices and vegetable seasonings, but only a few allow other foods to be sold as irradiated.


title: Food irradiation

text: Although there are some consumers who choose not to purchase irradiated food, a sufficient market has existed for retailers to have continuously stocked irradiated products for years. When labeled irradiated food is offered for retail sale, consumers buy it and re-purchase it, indicating a market for irradiated foods, although there is a continuing need for consumer education.


title: Food irradiation

text: Food scientists have concluded that any fresh or frozen food undergoing irradiation at specified doses is safe to consume, with some 60 countries using irradiation to maintain quality in their food supply.


title: Food irradiation

text: The Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard for irradiation of food, in particular under the WTO-agreement. Regardless of treatment source, all processing facilities must adhere to safety standards set by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Codex Code of Practice for the Radiation Processing of Food, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). More specifically, ISO 14470 and ISO 9001 provide in-depth information regarding safety in irradiation facilities.


title: Food irradiation

text: All commercial irradiation facilities contain safety systems which are designed to prevent exposure of personnel to radiation. The radiation source is constantly shielded by water, concrete, or metal. Irradiation facilities are designed with overlapping layers of protection, interlocks, and safeguards to prevent accidental radiation exposure. Additionally, "melt-downs" do not occur in facilities because the radiation source gives off radiation and decay heat; however, the heat is not sufficient to melt any material.


title: Food irradiation

text: The provisions of the Codex Alimentarius are that any "first generation" product must be labeled "irradiated" as any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provision is that even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient does not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is optional; several countries use a graphical version that differs from the Codex-version. The suggested rules for labeling is published at CODEX-STAN – 1 (2005), and includes the usage of the Radura symbol for all products that contain irradiated foods. The Radura symbol is not a designator of quality. The amount of pathogens remaining is based upon dose and the original content and the dose applied can vary on a product by product basis.


title: Food irradiation

text: The European Union follows the Codex's provision to label irradiated ingredients down to the last molecule of irradiated food. The European Union does not provide for the use of the Radura logo and relies exclusively on labeling by the appropriate phrases in the respective languages of the Member States. The European Union enforces its irradiation labeling laws by requiring its member countries to perform tests on a cross section of food items in the market-place and to report to the European Commission. The results are published annually on EUR-Lex.


title: Food irradiation

text: The US defines irradiated foods as foods in which the irradiation causes a material change in the food, or a material change in the consequences that may result from the use of the food. Therefore, food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement in the US. All irradiated foods must include a prominent Radura symbol followed in addition to the statement "treated with irradiation" or "treated by irradiation. Bulk foods must be individually labeled with the symbol and statement or, alternatively, the Radura and statement should be located next to the sale container.


title: Food irradiation

text: Under section 409 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, irradiation of prepackaged foods requires premarket approval for not only the irradiation source for a specific food but also for the food packaging material. Approved packaging materials include various plastic films, yet does not cover a variety of polymers and adhesive based materials that have been found to meet specific standards. The lack of packaging material approval limits manufacturers production and expansion of irradiated prepackaged foods.


title: Food irradiation

text: In 2003, the Codex Alimentarius removed any upper dose limit for food irradiation as well as clearances for specific foods, declaring that all are safe to irradiate. Countries such as Pakistan and Brazil have adopted the Codex without any reservation or restriction.


title: Food irradiation

text: Standards that describe calibration and operation for radiation dosimetry, as well as procedures to relate the measured dose to the effects achieved and to report and document such results, are maintained by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM international) and are also available as ISO/ASTM standards.


title: Food irradiation

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the agency responsible for regulation of radiation sources in the United States. Irradiation, as defined by the FDA is a "food additive" as opposed to a food process and therefore falls under the food additive regulations. Each food approved for irradiation has specific guidelines in terms of minimum and maximum dosage as determined safe by the FDA. Packaging materials containing the food processed by irradiation must also undergo approval. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) amends these rules for use with meat, poultry, and fresh fruit.


title: Food irradiation

text: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has approved the use of low-level irradiation as an alternative treatment to pesticides for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of insect pests, including fruit flies and seed weevils. Under bilateral agreements that allows less-developed countries to earn income through food exports agreements are made to allow them to irradiate fruits and vegetables at low doses to kill insects, so that the food can avoid quarantine.


title: Food irradiation

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the U.S. Department of Agriculture have approved irradiation of the following foods and purposes:


title: Food irradiation

text: European law stipulates that all member countries must allow the sale of irradiated dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings. However, these Directives allow Member States to maintain previous clearances food categories the EC's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) had previously approved (the approval body is now the European Food Safety Authority). Presently, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Netherlands, and Poland allow the sale of many different types of irradiated foods. Before individual items in an approved class can be added to the approved list, studies into the toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. It also states that irradiation shall not be used "as a substitute for hygiene or health practices or good manufacturing or agricultural practice". These Directives only control food irradiation for food retail and their conditions and controls are not applicable to the irradiation of food for patients requiring sterile diets. In 2021 the most common food items irradiated were frog legs at 65.1%, poultry 20.6% and dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetables seasoning.


title: Food irradiation

text: Due to the European Single Market, any food, even if irradiated, must be allowed to be marketed in any other member state even if a general ban of food irradiation prevails, under the condition that the food has been irradiated legally in the state of origin.


title: Food irradiation

text: Furthermore, imports into the EC are possible from third countries if the irradiation facility had been inspected and approved by the EC and the treatment is legal within the EC or some Member state.


title: Food irradiation

text: Interlocks and safeguards are mandated to minimize this risk. There have been radiation-related accidents, deaths, and injury at such facilities, many of them caused by operators overriding the safety related interlocks. In a radiation processing facility, radiation specific concerns are supervised by special authorities, while "Ordinary" occupational safety regulations are handled much like other businesses.


title: Food irradiation

text: The safety of irradiation facilities is regulated by the United Nations International Atomic Energy Agency and monitored by the different national Nuclear Regulatory Commissions. The regulators enforce a safety culture that mandates that all incidents that occur are documented and thoroughly analyzed to determine the cause and improvement potential. Such incidents are studied by personnel at multiple facilities, and improvements are mandated to retrofit existing facilities and future design.


title: Food irradiation

text: In the US the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the safety of the processing facility, and the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) regulates the safe transport of the radioactive sources.


title: Highest-paid NBA players by season

text: The highest-paid NBA players by season has recently eclipsed $40 million. Larry Bird was the first player to earn $5 million or more with a salary of $7,070,000 in the 1991-92 season. Magic Johnson became the first player to earn $10 million or more in the 94-95 season with a salary of $14,660,000. Patrick Ewing became the first player to earn $15 million or more in the 95-96 season with a salary of $18,724,000. Michael Jordan was the first NBA player to sign a contract worth over $20 million and in fact it exceeded $30 million as well in a season (1996-97) and (1997-98) where he earned $33,140,000; this was a record he had held for 20 years. Kobe Bryant became just the second player to reach $30 million when the 2013–14 season began. LeBron James became the third in the 2016–17 season. Stephen Curry became the first player to eclipse $40 million per year when he signed a record 5-year contract worth $201 million in 2017, starting with $34,682,550 in the 2017-18 season and ending with the largest earnings in the 2021-22 season with a record payout of $45,780,966, If his contract continues Curry is expected to be the first player to eclipse $50 million in the (2023-24) season.


title: Highest-paid NBA players by season

text: Beginning in the 1984–85 NBA season, the NBA's first salary cap was introduced. The NBA salary cap is the maximum dollar amount each NBA team can spend on its players for the season. However, the NBA uses a "soft" salary cap, which means that significant "salary exceptions" allow NBA teams to exceed their allotted amount in order to sign players. The salary cap is determined during the offseason, but as stated earlier, it is liable to change.


title: Highest-paid NBA players by season

text: An exception is necessary to sign a player for a contract that would exceed the salary cap threshold of the "soft cap". The Larry Bird exception, more commonly known as Bird Rights, allows teams to re-sign a current player only if he has played for that particular team for a minimum of three years. Another exception, known as the mid-level exception, allows for teams that are over the salary cap to sign one or more players as long as they do not exceed the total amount of the average NBA salary. Next, the bi-annual exception can be used by teams every other year to sign a free agent(s) for up to two years at an amount set by the NBA. Finally, the rookie player exception allows any NBA team to sign their first-round draft pick to a contract based upon a scale previously set forth by the NBA. Another option for teams would be to assign players to a league-assigned minimum salary contract for a maximum of two years.


title: Highest-paid NBA players by season

text: According to 2010–11 NBA season game performance, the league's best players were not its highest-paid players. Each year there are ten players selected to one of the two All-NBA Teams. Out of those ten players chosen that year, Kobe Bryant was the only player that was also among the game's ten highest-paid during the 2010–11 NBA season.


title: Malkuth

text: Unlike the other nine sephirot, it is an attribute of God which does not emanate from God directly. Rather it emanates from God's creation—when that creation reflects and evinces God's glory from within itself. The word can be translated as "kingdom/kingship".


title: Malkuth

text: Malkuth means Kingdom. It is associated with the realm of matter/earth and relates to the physical world, the planets and the Solar System. It is important not to think of this sephirah as "unspiritual". Even though Malkuth is the emanation "furthest" from the Divine Source, it is still on the Tree of Life and therefore has its own unique spiritual qualities. It is often said that Kether (the "highest" sephira) is in Malkuth and Malkuth is in Kether. As the receiving sphere of all the other sephiroth, Malkuth gives tangible form to the other emanations. The Divine energy comes down and finds its expression in this plane, and our purpose as human beings is to bring that energy back around the circuit again and back up the Tree.


title: Malkuth

text: Some occultists have also likened Malkuth to a cosmic filter, as it lies above the world of the Qliphoth, or the Tree of Death. The Qliphoth, being the world of chaos, is constructed from the imbalance of the original sephirot in the Tree of Life. For this reason Malkuth is associated with the feet and anus of the human body, the feet connecting the body to Earth, and the anus being the body's "filter" through which waste is excreted, just as Malkuth excretes unbalanced energy into the Qliphoth. Another way to understand this is that when one is sitting, as in a meditative state, it is the anus that makes physical contact with the Earth, whereas when one is standing or walking, it is the feet that come in contact with the Earth.


title: Malkuth

text: Malkuth is also associated with the World of Assiah, the material plane, and the "densest" of the Four Worlds of the Kabbalah. Because of this relation to Assiah, it is also related to the suit of Pentacles or Coins of the Tarot. Through Assiah, Malkuth is also related to the four Page cards in the Tarot as well. There is also a connection between Malkuth and the tenth card of each suit in Tarot as Malkuth is the tenth sephiroth. In the modern set of playing cards, Malkuth is related to the Suit of Diamonds' symbolizing material wealth, or the treasures found in the physical world. Malkuths association with the Page cards of the Tarot is reflected in the modern playing card deck as the Jacks of the deck. As Malkuth is directly associated with Assiah, Malkuth also represents the second He (ה) in the Tetragrammaton (יהוה), and is associated with the classical element of Earth.


title: Malkuth

text: The Names of God associated with Malkuth are Adonai Melekh and Adonai ha-Arets. The Archangel of this sphere is Sandalphon. The Ishim (Souls of Fire) is the Angelic order associated with Malkuth, and the planetary/astrological correspondence of Malkuth is the Earth. The Qliphah of Malkuth is represented by the demonic order "Nehemoth", ruled by the Archdemon Naamah. Symbols associated with this sphere are a Bride (a young woman on a throne with a veil over her face) and a double cubed altar. Where Binah is known as the Superior Mother, Malkuth is referred to as the Inferior Mother. It is also referred to as the Bride of Microprosopos, where the Macroprosopos is Kether.


title: Malkuth

text: From a Christian viewpoint this sphere is important since Jesus preached that people should "seek first the Kingdom of God". In some systems, it is equated with Da'at, knowledge in the sense of Gnosis, the invisible sephirah. In comparison with Eastern systems, Malkuth is a very similar archetypal idea to that of the Muladhara chakra. In Shakta Tantra, which is also associated with the Earth, this is the plane in which karma is expressed.


title: Malkuth

text: Although Malkuth is seen as the "lowest" sephiroth on the tree of life, it also contains within it the potential to reach the highest. This is exemplified in the Hermetic maxim 'As above so below', and "Kether is in Malkuth, and Malkuth is in Kether".


title: Malkuth

text: David Bowie's 1976 song "Station to Station" references the concept in the line "Here are we, one magical movement from Kether to Malkuth/There are you, you drive like a demon from station to station."


title: Malkuth

text: Swiss metal band Samael have released a song titled "From Malkuth to Kether" on their 1998 "Exodus" EP.


title: San Carlos, California

text: San Carlos (Spanish for "St. Charles") is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States. The population is 30,722 per the 2020 census.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Prior to the Spanish arrival in 1769, the land of San Carlos was occupied by a group of Native Americans who called themselves the Lamchins. While they considered themselves to have a separate identity from other local tribes, modern scholars consider them to be a part of the Ohlone or Costanoan tribes that inhabited the Bay Area.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The Lamchins referred to the area of their primary residenceprobably on the north bank of Pulgas creekas "Cachanihtac", which included their word for vermin. When the Spanish arrived, they translated this as "the fleas", or "las Pulgas", giving many places and roads their modern names.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The Native American life was one of traditional hunting and gathering. There was plentiful game and fowl available, and fish could be caught in the San Francisco Bay. There were also grasses, plants and oak trees (for acorns), and archaeological finds of mortars and pestles indicate that these source were processed for food. No doubt they also participated in the regional trading networks for goods that could not be gathered or grown locally.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The Lamchin permanent village is thought to have been between the modern streets of Alameda de las Pulgas and Cordilleras Avenue, near San Carlos Avenue.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In 1769, Gaspar de Portolá was the first westerner to reach the San Francisco Bay. While early historians placed his approach to the Bay from the Pacific Ocean as coming over the San Carlos hills, present researchers believe this "discovery" actually occurred in present-day Belmont.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The Spanish, with overwhelming military and economic advantages over the native population, quickly dominated the Bay Area. Initially, the missionaries invited local people to join them at Mission San Francisco de Asís ("Mission Dolores") and convert to Christianity. Facing the end of their way of life, the local population had little choice but to seek assistance from the missions and convert to Christianity. Traditional trade routes and alliances fell apart. The Lamchin were one of the first local peoples to move to the mission. The first Lamchin were baptized at the mission in 1777 and last 1794. A total of 139 Lamchin people appear in the mission's baptismal records.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Afterward, the land was deeded in large "ranchos", or ranches, to prominent and wealthy Spaniards, with no concern for the native populations that lived on them. The new ranch owners raised cattle on the lands, displacing the native game populations and disrupting the food supply of the indigenous population. As well, the Spanish strongly discouraged the Native Americans from their periodic controlled burns, which helped maintain the grasslands.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The land now occupied by the city of San Carlos was deeded as a single large rancho to Don José Darío Argüello. He and his family did not live there, but rather raised cattle and crops for money on "Rancho Cachinetac" (a Spanish derivation of "Cachanihtac"). José's son Luis Argüello was the first California-born governor of the state, and after his death in 1830 the remaining family moved to the ranch, now known as Rancho de las Pulgas. The family abode was located at the present-day intersection of Magnolia and Cedar streets.


title: San Carlos, California

text: While the California Gold Rush of 1849 found no gold nearby, disappointed Sierra Nevada prospectors made their way to the region, bringing the first non-Spanish western settlers. The Argüello family retained deed to their ranch through the transfer of governments to the United States, and, in the 1850s, began selling parcels of it through their agent S. M. Mezes.


title: San Carlos, California

text: While the port of Redwood City, to the south, and the town of Belmont, to the north, both grew quickly in the late 19th century, San Carlos' growth was much slower. Major portions were purchased by the Brittan Family, the Hull Family, the Ralston family and Timothy Guy Phelps.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Timothy Phelps, a wealthy politician, made an early attempt to further develop the San Carlos area. He paid for significant improvements such as sewer lines and street grading, and began to promote lot sales in what he immodestly called "The Town of Phelps".


title: San Carlos, California

text: Phelps' sales were largely unsuccessful, and he eventually sold much of his land to Nicholas T. Smith's San Carlos Land Development Company. Other developers were not overly fond of Phelps' eponymous efforts, and decided to rename the town. Some maps are existent referring to the area as "Lomitas" ("little hills" in Spanish) but eventually due to historical legend, the name "San Carlos" was chosen. As noted previously, it was believed that Portolá had first seen the San Francisco Bay on November 4 from the San Carlos hills. November 4 is the feast day of St. Charles. As well, the Spanish king at the time was Carlos III, and the first ship to sail into San Francisco bay was the "San Carlos".


title: San Carlos, California

text: The newly named regionnot yet incorporatedreceived a boost with the construction of the Peninsula Railroad Corridor in 1863, and the addition, of a station at San Carlos in 1888.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Growth remained slow through the turn of the 20th century, with most residents enjoying the short 35-minute train ride to San Francisco while living in a rural setting. The Hull family operated a dairy located at the modern intersection of Hull and Laurel. Many of the other residents which were not involved in agriculture were wealthy business and professional men who worked with the railroad or in San Francisco.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Despite the efforts of the developers, growth was very slow in this period, and San Carlos ended the 19th century with fewer than one hundred houses and families.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The turn of the 20th century saw the layout of the initial town streets. While "Old County Road" east of the railroad track had been in use as a stage line since at least 1850, the present-day layout west of the railroad track was constructed in the first years of 1900. Cedar, Elm, Laurel, Magnolia, Maple (renamed El Camino Real) and Walnut were put down in this time.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Growth remained slow through the first fifteen years of the new century, but in 1918 the town had grown enough to build a school at 600 Elm Street. One year previously Frederick Drake ("The Father of San Carlos") had purchased of real estate in San Carlos in foreclosure, and began marketing it. Growth came quickly, and the early 1920s saw Drake build an office at the southwest corner of Cypress (now San Carlos Ave) and El Camino Real, which is still existent, and is home to an AT&T Cellular store.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In the early 1920s, the cypresses along Cypress Ave. were removed, and the street widened and renamed San Carlos Ave. In 1923 the growing municipality founded a fire station, and in 1925 the founders voted to incorporate.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The Great Depression affected families in San Carlos, as it did everywhere, but growth continued, and population grew from approximately 600 at incorporation in 1925 to 5,000 in 1941.


title: San Carlos, California

text: While services such as stores increased in this period, by the beginning of World War II San Carlos was still known in the Bay Area as a rural community. Most of the land in the municipality was still used for agricultural purposes, and photographs of the time show a landscape with few houses separated by large fields.


title: San Carlos, California

text: During World War II, not long after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the American Kennel Club and a new group calling itself "Dogs for Defense" mobilized dog owners across the country to donate quality animals to the Quartermaster Corps. Dogs donated by a patriotic public to the Army saved the lives of a number of soldiers in combat.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In October 1942, the US Army and “Dogs for Defense” came to San Carlos. The 178-acre site, at the top of today's Club and Crestview Drives, which was locally known as the H and H Ranch, was selected to become the US Army War Dog Reception and Training Center (also known as Western Remount Area Reception and Training Center). It was established between October 15, 1942, and November 7, 1942.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The first enlisted men for the army post were temporarily housed in the San Carlos Fire Station (located on Laurel Street between San Carlos Ave. and Holly St.) from December 15 to 28, 1942. Each dog handler was given four dogs to train, and at the end of the course, the trainer selected the best one and shipped out. Dogs were trained for sentry, attack, scout, and messenger roles, and later to detect mines. 1,200 dogs could be accommodated at any one time.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The first army dog platoon to go overseas in the Pacific was the 25th Quartermaster Corps War Dog Platoon, under the command of 1st Lt. Bruce D. Walker. When they left San Carlos, on May 11, 1944, none of the handlers knew what their final destination would be. They left via San Francisco aboard the Liberty ship SS "John Isaacson" for assignments in the Pacific Theatre.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The facility closed in October 1944, with approximately 4,500 dogs going through the facility during the war.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In 1944, Dalmo Victor established the city's first large electronics plant, followed soon after by Eitel McCullough, Varian Associates (Later occupied by Tesla Motors and currently by Devil's Canyon Brewing Company), and Lenkurt Electric Company.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Establishment of these two firms was a factor in the quadrupling of San Carlos population in the decade after 1940. In 1950, when the population was 14,371, the city boasted a total of 89 industries: wholesalers, manufacturers and distributors, producing a variety of commodities from electronics to cosmetic. By 1958, the electronic industry comprised a substantial segment of the city's industrial area.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In the late 1940s when Bayshore was a two-lane road, the San Carlos Airport was moved from its former location between Brittan and San Carlos Avenues to its present site. The airport was bought by the county from Cal West Yacht Harbor in 1964 for $990,000.


title: San Carlos, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, of it is land and 0.05% is water.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The 2020 United States Census reported that San Carlos had a population of 30,722. The population density was . The racial makeup of San Carlos was 21,843 (71.1%) White, 215 (0.7%) African American, 31 (0.1%) Native American, 5,407 (17.6%) Asian, 61 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, and 2,519 (8.2%) Hispanic or Latino. 2,519 (8.2%) residents identified as being from two or more races.


title: San Carlos, California

text: There were 10,955 households, out of which 9,695 (88.5%) of its residents had been living in the household for more than one year. The average number of persons per household was 2.69.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The population was spread out, with 1,812 people (5.9%) under the age of 5, 5,530 (18.0%) aged 6 to 18, 20,584 (67.0%) aged 19 to 64, and 4,608 (15.0%) over the age of 65. For every 100 females, there were 91.9 males.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Out of residents aged 25 and older, 29,923 (97.4%) were high school graduates, and 20,983 (68.3%) had completed a bachelor's degree or higher.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The median value of an owner-occupied housing unit was $1,756,800, and the median gross rent was $2,423. The median household income was $189,739, second only to Hillsborough among cities of 10,000 or more residents in San Mateo County.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that San Carlos had a population of 28,406. The population density was . The racial makeup of San Carlos was 22,497 (79.2%) White, 233 (0.8%) African American, 65 (0.2%) Native American, 3,267 (11.5%) Asian, 70 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 827 (2.9%) from other races, and 1,447 (5.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2,855 persons (10.1%).


title: San Carlos, California

text: The Census reported that 28,315 people (99.7% of the population) lived in households, 79 (0.3%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 12 (0%) were institutionalized.


title: San Carlos, California

text: There were 11,524 households, out of which 3,854 (33.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 6,645 (57.7%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 830 (7.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 352 (3.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 481 (4.2%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 112 (1.0%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 2,972 households (25.8%) were made up of individuals, and 1,109 (9.6%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46. There were 7,827 families (67.9% of all households); the average family size was 2.99.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The population was spread out, with 6,699 people (23.6%) under the age of 18, 1,176 people (4.1%) aged 18 to 24, 7,657 people (27.0%) aged 25 to 44, 8,827 people (31.1%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,047 people (14.2%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.7 males.


title: San Carlos, California

text: There were 12,018 housing units at an average density of , of which 8,282 (71.9%) were owner-occupied, and 3,242 (28.1%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.3%. 21,635 people (76.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 6,680 people (23.5%) lived in rental housing units.


title: San Carlos, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 27,238 people, 11,455 households, and 7,606 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 11,691 housing units at an average density of .


title: San Carlos, California

text: There were 11,455 households, out of which 29.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.5% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% were non-families. 25.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 2.93.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.1% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 26.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males.


title: San Carlos, California

text: According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $99,110, and the median income for a family was $137,325. Males had a median income of $70,554 versus $51,760 for females. The per capita income for the city was $46,628. 2.7% of the population and 1.4% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 2.3% were under the age of 18 and 3.7% were 65 or older.


title: San Carlos, California

text: According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:


title: San Carlos, California

text: L-3 Communications manufactured gas-filled and vacuum tubes used among others in radar system and TV-emitters at their San Carlos plant. In 2016, the company announced they would be moving their operations to South California and Pennsylvania.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The San Carlos History Museum is dedicated to the display of the history of the town from early Native American history to the space age. This museum is open every Saturday from 1:00 PM to 4:00 PM. The Hiller Aviation Museum, a museum specializing in helicopter and aviation history, offers interactive exhibits and more than forty aircraft including a replica of the first aircraft to fly, a spy drone with a 200-foot wingspan, and the nose section of a Boeing 747.


title: San Carlos, California

text: San Carlos was also once home of the Circle Star Theater where performers such as Big Brother & the Holding Company, Richard Marx and Richard Pryor performed. It was torn down and replaced with office buildings.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Every May, the town hosts the "Hometown Days" carnival in Burton Park, the city's largest park. In October, the Chamber of Commerce hosts the San Carlos "Art & Wine Faire". October 2015 marked the 25th year it has been held. Sunday mornings during the summer Laurel street is home to a weekly farmer's market. San Carlos is home to a sculpture titled "Balancing Act" by artist James Moore, in front of Frank D. Harrington park on Laurel Street, which is often decorated for various holidays and local events.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The city is served by the San Carlos Public Library of the San Mateo County Libraries, a member of the Peninsula Library System.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The current mayor of San Carlos is Adam Rak. The three city council members are Laura Parmer-Lohan, Adam Rak, and John Dugan.


title: San Carlos, California

text: According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, San Carlos has 19,706 registered voters. Of those, 9,590 (48.7%) are registered Democrats, 3,657 (18.6%) are registered Republicans, and 5,699 (28.9%) have declined to state a political party.


title: San Carlos, California

text: The public schools in San Carlos are run by the San Carlos School District, although the school district boundaries do not cover the entire city of San Carlos. Within the city, there are several elementary schools (grades K–3), two upper elementary schools (grades 4–5), and two middle schools (grades 6–8). Since the 1982 closure of San Carlos High School, local students have attended Sequoia High School in Redwood City and Carlmont High School in Belmont.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In 1996, Vice President Al Gore came to speak at Arundel Elementary School in regards to Net Day 1996. Former president Bill Clinton came to Charter Learning Center in 1997 to recognize the site as the second charter school in the nation.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Up until 1982 San Carlos had its own public high school, San Carlos High School. It was closed due to a decline in student enrollment from an overall aging of San Carlos residents, with the students of San Carlos middle schools divided up among the nearby Carlmont High School in Belmont and Sequoia High School in Redwood City. The playing fields were kept and converted into Highlands Park, which now hosts many local youth sporting groups, while the school was replaced with new housing. By the late 1990s and early first decade of the 21st century, city demographics changed again to a new generation of younger families with children, with the concurrent growth in student populations a new challenge for local schools.


title: San Carlos, California

text: In December 2014, the Sequoia Union High School District proposed development of a small high school in east San Carlos. Due to community opposition, the District instead selected a location in Menlo Park, which opened in 2019 as TIDE Academy.


title: San Carlos, California

text: Transportation options include membership in the SamTrans (San Mateo County Transit) bus system and a Caltrain station. The administrative headquarters of both agencies are located at 1250 San Carlos Avenue. In 2002, the city began experimenting with a free shuttle bus service named SCOOT, short for San Carlos Optimum Operational Transit, to help with transportation difficulties for those living in the hills of the town, and especially to make up for a lack of school buses. However, voters rejected a parcel tax that placed 100% of the financial burden on property owners and the SCOOT program was dismantled on June 17, 2005.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: English as a lingua franca (ELF) is the use of the English language "as a global means of inter-community communication" and can be understood as ""any use of English among speakers of different first languages for whom English is the communicative medium of choice and often the only option"". ELF is "defined functionally by its use in intercultural communication rather than formally by its reference to native-speaker norms" whereas English as a second or foreign language aims at meeting native speaker norms and gives prominence to native speaker cultural aspects. While lingua francas have been used for centuries, what makes ELF a novel phenomenon is the extent to which it is used in spoken, written and in computer-mediated communication. ELF research focuses on the pragmatics of variation which is manifest in the variable use of the resources of English for a wide range of globalized purposes, in important formal encounters such as business transactions, international diplomacy and conflict resolution, as well as in informal exchanges between international friends.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Major technological advances in the 21st century have enabled instant global communication, thus breaking the barriers of space and time between different locations on the planet. The world has turned into an interconnected global system, which requires a shared means of communication. English fulfills the need for a global lingua franca, as it has spread to large areas of the world due to


title: English as a lingua franca

text: and has been used more widely in Europe due to the American and British victory in World War II, along with the use of English spreading to former Eastern Bloc countries after the Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, among other factors.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Because of the use of English as a lingua franca in international trade and intercultural communication, native speakers of English are outnumbered by non-native speakers, which is atypical for western European languages. A consequence of this is a sense of ownership of the language which is shared by different communities. For instance, international communication via ELF has facilitated exchange between China and the rest of the world, thus sustaining international trade. But once a language is appropriated by new communities, it is then adapted to their specific needs. Consequently, the English language is undergoing change, and this change is being brought about mostly by its non-native speakers.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: The way English is used as a lingua franca is heavily dependent on the specific situation of use. Generally speaking, ELF interactions concentrate on function rather than form. In other words, communicative efficiency (i.e. getting the message across) is more important than grammatical correctness, provided that the grammar is good enough for the message to be intelligible. As a consequence, ELF interactions are very often hybrid. Speakers accommodate to each other's cultural backgrounds and may also use code-switching into other languages that they know. Based on the Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE) and additional research, the following features of ELF lexicogrammar have been identified:


title: English as a lingua franca

text: However, these features are by no means invariant or “obligatory”. Rather, these forms do not seem to compromise effective communication within an ELF setting when they do occur.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Although some researchers hold that English as a lingua franca is a neutral and culture-free tool, others hold that it carries the culture and language of its speakers. Recent linguistic discussions by ELF experts treat the interactants' cultural and linguistic background as a factor influencing language performance. For Hülmbauer, for instance, “it seems likely that the ELF users develop their own markers of identity (be they a common 'European' or 'international' nature or more individual ones which are created online, depending on the community of practice they are emerging).” In this view, ELF is multicultural rather than culture-free.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: ELF is used most often between non-native speakers of English, but this does not mean that native speakers are excluded from ELF communication. However, very often they form a minority of the interlocutors. In ELF interactions, the importance lies in communication strategies other than nativeness, which can lead to communicative situations where those English native speakers who are not familiar with ELF and/or intercultural communication are at a disadvantage because they do not know how to use English appropriately in these situations.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Most data on ELF interactions has been drawn from the domains of business and higher education, and that in largely European contexts, perhaps factors accounting for the relatively rare instances of miscommunication. Studies of Medical English as a Lingua Franca (MELF) provide opportunities to investigate ELF interactions where communicative precision is critical, and the migration of healthcare practitioners across international borders (a phenomenon consistent with the "deterritorialisation" of ELF generally), has created conditions where MELF interactions are increasingly commonplace. A research study of MELF interactions where nurses negotiated a patient handover simulation indicated that areas of unintelligibility represented a potential threat to patient safety, through misrecognition of vocabulary related to medication, as well as other areas of lexical imprecision.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: One study of a Japanese Medical English as a Lingua Franca (MELF) context showed that student doctors made use of empathic accommodation and solicitation strategies to make interactions more intelligible. Applying nonverbal cues was seen as being of importance to encourage simulated patients to express concerns, because silence may be interpreted as a sign of potential problems. Empathic doctor-patient communication then means not only understanding and sympathizing but having the ability to bridge the gap when patients are not willing to talk.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: An important issue when discussing ELF is the notion of speakers of ELF being active language users in their own right, who do not need to adhere to native speaker norms but use ELF to meet their communicative needs. Proponents of ELF thus reject the notion that it is a form of ‘deficient’ English, and describe ELF speakers as users of English, not as learners. Indeed, studies of communication breakdowns in ELF interactions demonstrate that successful lingua franca communication is far from 'anything goes'.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Several attitude studies on the topic of ELF have already been conducted. One overarching factor seems to be a discrepancy between perceptions on the role of ELF in everyday interactions all over the globe on the one hand, and the dominance of as well as reliance on native speaker norms on the other hand. Breiteneder argues that learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) often have an integrative motivation for learning and using English since they wish to identify with the culture and values of English native speakers. Thus, native speaker norms occupy a central place if English is studied as a foreign language. In contrast, English as Lingua Franca users tend to focus on effective communication with speakers of other linguistic backgrounds. In ELF interactions, intelligibility is key, which may not necessitate an advantage for native speakers (see above).


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Colin Sowden opened the debate with a paper in which he discusses which version of English to teach to second language (L2) learners. He argues that some ELF scholars want ELF to replace Standard English as the model to be used in learning English.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Sowden claims that Standard English, especially British English, has a colonial baggage that still affects the status of English in post-colonial countries and it is this negative value that has led ELF researchers to an attempt to describe and posit a neutralized version of English and to make it a universal one that belongs to every speaker, both native and second language speakers. Sowden argues that introducing ELF in ELT will lead to differences between schools where this is implemented, and schools which have the freedom to use a native standard model, favouring the latter. He concludes that ELF will not replace Anglo-Saxon native-speaker models in the near future as there are too many constraints linked to ELF. For Sowden, the use of multilingual and local teachers can also be beneficial for L2 learners, as these teachers have knowledge of the local culture and spoken languages and the constraints they have on learning English. The way forward according to Sowden is to focus on communicative ability, not on universal conformity.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Alessia Cogo challenged Sowden's critical paper on ELF in 2012 by stating that his arguments were based on outdated research and a confusion between the terms World Englishes (WE) and ELF. First, she argues that ELF is not one monolithic or single variety, but rather that it is used by highly varied socio-/linguacultural networks which leads to a more fluid use of the language building on the different ways in which people use a language to communicate with each other. Secondly, Cogo draws on the importance of studying accommodation in ELF interactions by emphasising the different ways in which people adjust their English at the level of words, grammar and discourse in ELF communication instead of focusing on the core features of ELF as suggested by Sowden. Here, the speaker's ability to move away from the traditional speech patterns of the native varieties is argued to be an important part of ELF research.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Lastly, Cogo contests Sowden's view on ELF researchers themselves. Sowden argues that ELF researchers encourage ELF speakers to use specific varieties of English over others, an argument that Cogo refutes by stating that researchers only use empirical data to show what happens in ELF interactions, and never to tell speakers what to use. Cogo further cites various studies in the field that have demonstrated that ELF communication is fluid and innovative, with an emphasis on highly variable linguistic forms.


title: English as a lingua franca

text: Sewell argued that the debate about ELF between Sowden and Cogo fails to acknowledge the variation that characterises language use today. He claims that it is counterproductive to polarise ELF and non-ELF and native and non-native speakers, as there is great diversity in all areas of English language usage. Whilst recognising Cogo's clarifications regarding several misconceptions of ELF, Sewell also points out and discusses some of the questions Cogo's article arises. He disagrees with the definition of ELF being based on a distinction between non-native and native language use. He claims that Cogo's approach is too essentialist, because her definition of ELF is based on language features. The approach to ELF should be more non-essentialist according to Sewell who points out that ELF does not involve a set of features or skills that distinguishes it from languages in general, as all language usage is varied. Sewell then considers the implications of the ELF debate for ELT professionals and learners of English, and he highlights the importance of acknowledging language variation when teaching and learning English. Furthermore, he emphasises the importance of presenting this variation to learners, at the appropriate level, and he wishes that this dynamic relationship between ELF and ENL (English as a Native Language) will be central to how we view language usage.