title: Jamie Lloyd

text: In "" (1989), set a year later, a severely traumatized Jamie is housed in the Haddonfield Children's Clinic. She has now been rendered mute and suffers from nightmares and seizures, while being treated for attacking her foster mother (who is described to have survived) under Michael's influence. When a still-living Michael (Donald L. Shanks) awakens from a year-long coma, she exhibits signs of a telepathic link with her uncle, eventually regains the ability to speak, and has seizures whenever her uncle kills someone. Michael kills Rachel, four of her friends, two cops, and the Carruthers' new dog while in pursuit of Jamie. Towards the end, Loomis lures Michael into a trap at the old Myers house, using Jamie as bait. Michael finds Jamie, who tries to appeal to his humanity. At her request, he takes off his mask, but is sent into a fit of rage when Jamie touches his face. Ultimately, Loomis is able to shoot Michael with tranquilizer darts and beat him unconscious with a wooden beam. Michael is subsequently imprisoned at the local jail, awaiting transport to a maximum-security facility, where, Meeker says, he will remain "until the day he dies," to which Jamie responds, "He'll never die." After Jamie is escorted out to be taken home, the mysterious "Man in Black" attacks the police station and frees Michael. Jamie enters to see numerous police officers dead and Michael gone, causing her to sob in terror.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: In "" (1995), a deleted scene included in the Producer's Cut shows the Man in Black kidnapping Jamie (portrayed by a combination of Harris via footage from the previous film and a similarly aged body double in a new back shot) immediately after breaking Michael (George P. Wilbur) out of jail, and keeping her captive for six years, during which time she is artificially inseminated and impregnated with Michael's son. On the night of October 30, 1995, Jamie gives birth and escapes with the help of a nurse, but is pursued by Michael. She makes it to the local radio station, where she pleads for help (which is heard by Loomis and an adult Tommy Doyle (now played by Paul Rudd]) and hides her baby, before being forced to run again when Michael finds her. She eventually crashes the truck she is driving at a barn, where Michael confronts and murders her. The Man in Black is later revealed to be Loomis' former medical colleague Dr. Terence Wynn (now played by Mitchell Ryan), who is the leader of a Druid-like cult. It is implied that the cult is responsible for Michael's actions, placing an ancient curse on him to kill his family to ward off sickness and death. It is also implied that Wynn has been trying and failing to breed the ultimate evil using Michael's DNA and female patients in in-vitro fertilization experiments; finally reaching a success with Jamie's baby. In another deleted scene included in the Producer's Cut, Jamie survives Michael's attack and is hospitalized. Loomis and Wynn visit her in the hospital, but she is later killed with a silenced pistol by an unseen person (later revealed to be Wynn).


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Jamie Lloyd's first literary appearance was in October 1988, in Nicholas Grabowsky's novelization of "Halloween 4". The official "Halloween: 30 Years of Terror" comic book, taking place in the new continuity, has an adult Tommy Doyle illustrating comic books. Various elements from the fourth through sixth movies can be seen on his books, one of which is Jamie. The cancelled comic "Halloween: The Mark of Thorn" was to feature Jamie, as well as Tommy Doyle, Rachel Carruthers and the Man in Black.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: In 2019, Trick Or Treat Studios released clown costumes based on Jamie's costume in "Halloween 4". She is also featured in the first series of the "Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers" Wall Decor Collection.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Patrick Bromley observed that incorporating children into horror franchise sequels "is usually the kiss of death" but that Jamie's inclusion in "Halloween 4" revitalized the series. According to Bromley, "Jamie has been dealt a difficult hand by life: orphaned at a young age, Jamie feels like an outcast at school" while wanting to fit in and have normalcy, Bromley crediting the performance by Harris with evoking "the character's innate sadness without turning Jamie into a mope." Megan Summers of Ranker calls Jamie "the emotional core" of "Halloween 4" and that "Jamie tries her best to defend herself as Michael closes in on her" despite her age and background. In his ranking of the final girls in the "Halloween" franchise, Jake Dee observed that Jamie “overcomes her past trauma and schoolyard bullying for being related to Michael Myers, only to have her homicidal uncle stalk her mercilessly and relentlessly”. Dee notes the character overcoming her uncle's mental hold on her and “her own sense of evil” and cites this as making her one of Michael's strongest opponents. Princess Weekes of "The Mary Sue" writes that Jamie works as an effective protagonist due to the performance of Harris and "the fact that she as a child was being thrust into these terrible situations." Weekes views Jamie as a foil to Michael who reminds the audience of "the fragility of childhood and how easy it is for a child to be warped into becoming something they are not" and asserts that Jamie could have become like Michael if she did not have a support group who helped her. David Crow of "Den of Geek" cites Jamie, as she is portrayed in "Halloween 4" and "Halloween 5", as an “especially rare type of final girl” due to being a child and complimented Harris as doing “pretty well for a child actress in this role, particularly in her second entry where her pantomime expressions (the terror of the fourth movie left her mute) allow her instant sympathy—a trait long lost in most horror movie heroines.” Jamie has drawn comparisons to Tommy Jarvis from the "Friday the 13th" franchise as both are child characters introduced in the fourth installment of their respective series who defeat the killer and are also "foreshadowed to become the killer themselves" before appearing in a trilogy of movies.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: A.A. Dowd of "The A.V. Club" writes that Jamie and Rachel split the heroine role previously held by Laurie Strode as the pair of sisters "are stalked by Myers, who in turn is hunted by both a scarred, limping Loomis and a mob of trigger-happy hillbillies."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Little said that Jamie and Rachel had the "universal fear" of being "in a group of people and then suddenly, you are completely alone, isolated and scared." He recounted wanting to explore this feeling with the scene in "Halloween 4" in which Jamie and Rachel are separated while trick-or-treating and this fear was "not just unique to Jamie because she’s a small child." "At the inception of the film, the innocence and vulnerability of Jamie contrasted with the stern and nonchalant demeanor of Rachel," Rodoflo Salas wrote. Salas explained that the relationship progresses after Rachel recognizes "her selfishness was steamrolling over Jamie" and tries to bring her joy during Halloween ahead of Michael encountering the pair: "Once Michael Myers arrived, Rachel took charge and fought back against Jamie's psychotic uncle on rooftops, schoolyards, and streets. She pulled out all the stops to save her sister." Chris Sasaguay wrote that Jamie demonstrated forced maturity when she commanded herself to stop crying before Rachel could see her and insisted that the sibling bond between Jamie and Rachel causes the latter to "is what makes the suspense scenes reach such a high level of anxiety."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Commentary is directed toward Jamie's role in the ending of "Halloween 4". Spencer Whitworth writes that although it appears Michael has finally been vanquished, his wickedness "has survived, and it has passed to his innocent niece" and that "Jamie stands as an emotionless dead ringer of her uncle". Whitworth furthers that "Jamie's transformation and Loomis' despair is a darker final note" than any of the "Halloween" films that came before or since have ended on. Summers views Jamie's attack on her stepmother as a reenactment of her uncle's "original sin" and that it provokes "questions about familial cycles of cruelty and whether or not - even if his niece didn't perish - Michael achieved his goal by pushing Jamie over the edge."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Dominique Othenin-Girard said he wanted Jamie to have the chance to redeem herself after stabbing her stepmother. Girard believed removing Jamie's speaking ability would give her "a heavy punishment and a difficulty she had to overcome" in her journey to evolving into a hero. He mentioned that Jamie's visions of Michael were the first part of "Halloween 5" to be written and how this element of the traumatized Jamie would play into the main plot of the film. Girard explained, "I gave her the ability to sense the activity of Michael, I wished for her to see what Michael sees when he gets furious. That was the tool for the character to 'help' out the hunt for Michael Myers." Jason Barr notes "Halloween 4", "Halloween 5", "", and "" as being slasher films of the late 1980s that "feature a Final Girl with telekinetic or psychic powers". Barr observes that Jamie "has a psychic bond with Michael Myers that slowly drives her insane" and notices a pattern of the female character in each instance being directly responsible for other characters being murdered, citing Jamie as refusing "to help the increasingly unbalanced Dr. Loomis in "Halloween V", which directly results in several deaths, including several of Jamie’s friends." Barr explains that Jamie rejects "masculine gendered role as the Final Girl for much of the film" and that once Jamie makes the decision to assist Dr. Loomis, "she both accepts her Final Girl status while also agreeing to use her feminized powers of empathy."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Eric Browning writes that during "Halloween 5", Tina becomes Jamie's "primary caregiver" in the absence of Rachel and "cares more about Jamie than physical intimacy with her boyfriend". Daily Grind House observes that Rachel's death receives backlash "because it paves the way for Tina to be our lead alongside Jamie, and Tina is often referred to as an annoying personality, which I disagree with because while she’s a bit much – very brash indeed, she’s also deeply sympathetic and protective to Jamie which I find to be heartening." Mark Ziobro opined that Jamie's connection with Tina and the performance of Harris are the best parts of "Halloween 5", citing some of their scenes as adding "to the film in unique ways. They save the film from complete obscurity and garner a good amount of sympathy for their characters."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: "Halloween II" was supposed to be the last film in the "Halloween" franchise to revolve around Michael Myers. After the 1982 release of "", the lowest performing film in the series at the time, executive producer Moustapha Akkad wanted to make a sequel that brought back Michael Myers. On February 25, 1988, writer Alan B. McElroy, a Cleveland, Ohio native, was brought in to the write the script for "Halloween 4". The writer's strike was to begin on March 7 that year. This forced McElroy to develop a concept, pitch the story, and send in the final draft in under eleven days. McElroy came up with the idea of Brittany "Britti" Lloyd, Laurie Strode's daughter, to be chased by her uncle, who has escaped from Ridgemont after being in a coma for ten years. The setting of the place was once again Haddonfield, Illinois. The character of Laurie Strode was revealed to have died, leaving Britti with the Carruthers family, which included Rachel, the family's seventeen-year-old daughter. Britti's name was later changed to Jamie, a homage to Laurie Strode actress Jamie Lee Curtis.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: The ending of "Halloween 4" features Jamie stabbing her foster mother as she seemingly inherits the evil of her uncle. Little and McElroy did not return for the sequel. Little later said the duo would have furthered developed the relationship between Jamie and Rachel: "What we would have done was to work on the relationship between the sisters – between Danielle and Ellie – as I do think that was the core of the movie then. We clearly would’ve gone in a very different way, but it really wasn’t up to me to decide at that point because I didn’t have time to participate." The first draft of the screenplay for "Halloween 5" was written by Shem Bitterman. Bitterman's screenplay was written to have Jamie Lloyd becoming evil after stabbing her foster mother in "Halloween 4". This idea was rejected by the studio and Akkad, who brought in Michael Jacobs to re-write the script. After reviewing the screenplay, director Othenin-Girard added Jamie's inability to speak to the draft, along with the supernatural plot device of her telepathic visions connected to Michael. Othenin-Girard planned for Jamie to be stabbed in the leg by Michael while she was in a laundry shoot so that her escape would seem "almost impossible" to audiences. He believed that a young girl being stabbed "in the extreme confinement of a very dark chute is sooo mean and sooo unfair. I took great care not to shoot it in a gory way, there was no blood splurging out of the leg, just the knife entering the flesh. Just a very short hit which was supposed to hurt and scandalize an audience." In the original closing scene of "Halloween 5", after Jamie finds that Michael has escaped from the police station, she is approached by a black-cloaked figure, who is in fact Dr. Terrence Wynn, the head of Smith's Grove Sanitarium, where Michael had been remanded as a child.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Although the producers at the time had already sought to make a sixth "Halloween" film, a series of complicated legal battles ensued which delayed plans for a sequel; eventually Miramax Films (via its Dimension Films division) bought the rights to the "Halloween" series. Phil Rosenberg was the first writer hired for the film. His script, titled "Halloween 666: The Origin", was hated by Akkad, who tossed the script across his room after he finished reading it. The script mentions Jamie as having disappeared and she has a brief appearance "in the form of a series of rapid shots during the Samhain/virtual reality segment: Surrounded by scattering rats, Jamie screams as she is trapped in a cage made of human bones." In June 1994, Farrands was hired to write a new screenplay, as the film had an impending shooting date scheduled for October in Salt Lake City, Utah. Farrands has said his initial intent for the film was to "bridge the later films (4–5) in the series to the earlier films (1–2) while at the same time taking the story into new territory so that the series could expand for future installments."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Akkad told Farrands that while he liked the script, he felt it was too long and needed to be cut in half with the first half serving as the basis for the sixth film. The script by Farrands featured a secret society "made up of a lot of the people within the town of Haddonfield" who wanted to take Jamie's life as a final sacrifice. The film concludes with Jamie about to be murdered by Michael and a mob when "all of a sudden out of this crowd appears a dark figure. It turns out to be Laurie, and she’s there to save her daughter." Citing her as "a big star", Akkad doubted that Jamie Lee Curtis would ever come back to the series and told Farrands to come up with another idea; Farrands believed that "Jamie Lee Curtis with Danielle Harris would have been such a cool way to bring the whole thing full circle. That would have been a nice way to connect all the dots." Farrands expanded the "Curse of Thorn" plot line, in which Jamie Lloyd is kidnapped by a covert cult who has cursed Michael Myers via the Runic symbol of Thorn, which compels him to kill and also affords him immortality.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: While the character of Jamie Lloyd dies early in the film, the initial versions of Farrands' script had her character surviving until the final act, at which point she was ultimately killed by Michael.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: When screenwriter Kevin Williamson first outlined "" (1998), he created the storyline in which Laurie Strode has faked her own death and taken on a new identity as a specific way of retconning the character's death in "Halloween 4". In Williamson's original treatment, there are scenes in which a Hillcrest student does a report on Michael Myers' killing spree, mentioning the death of Jamie, complete with flashbacks to 4-6 mentioned in the text. "Keri"/Laurie responds to hearing the student's report on the death of her daughter by going into a restroom and throwing up. In a controversial decision, director Steve Miner retconned the series with "Halloween H20: 20 Years Later". This installment retained Laurie's faked death from Williamson's treatment, revealing that she did so in order to avoid detection by her relentless brother. Under a new identity, Laurie has fled to Summer Glen, California, along with her only son, John Tate (Josh Hartnett). However, to focus more on the Laurie Strode character, the events of parts 4, 5, and 6 are implicitly written out of the continuity, thus erasing the Jamie Lloyd character from the new canon.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: After the release of "", there were various ideas on how to proceed with a ninth installment. Josh Stolberg, who also unsuccessfully proposed a "Hellraiser" crossover with Bobby Florsheim, pitched "Halloween: Bad Blood", which would have brought back Jamie Lloyd. The film would have been set between "Halloween H20" and "Halloween: Resurrection" and depict Jamie as having survived multiple encounters with Michael in addition to having "honed her self defense capabilities." After a fight between Michael and Jamie, the two would be transported to a hospital where Jamie's blood would be taken and accidentally placed in the storage freezer with no name. This would set up seven random people receiving Jamie's blood via a transfusion and thereby becoming targets of Michael. Stolberg saw this plot point as a way to offer more variety to the series: "we leaned into the idea of the bloodline quite literally. It was our way of being able to expand out the franchise and make it so that we weren’t having to go after the same person every single time with each movie.” Development on a direct sequel suddenly halted when Moustapha Akkad was killed in the 2005 Amman hotel bombings while attending a wedding in Jordan, and his son Malek decided to take the series in a different direction.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Early on, the script for "Halloween" (2018) had Jamie appear alongside Laurie for the first time. However, subsequent rewrites changed her to 'Karen', removed any connection to the character of Jamie and actress Judy Greer was cast as Karen with a different backstory. Danielle Harris, who portrayed the character as a child, expressed disappointment that Laurie would be depicted as having a daughter that was not Jamie, while she hadn't minded Laurie having a son instead in H20. The film is a direct sequel to the original film and disregards Jamie Lloyd, Michael as Laurie's brother, and the Thorn storyline.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: In 2021, "Halloween Kills" producer Ryan Freimann expressed his fondness for the character and desire to implement her in the current film trilogy: "I would love to find some way to bring back that character, the Jamie Lloyd character, in some way. It just didn't fit within the framework of the storyline."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Melissa Joan Hart had auditioned for the role, among various other girls. Up against her was Danielle Harris, who had previously had a reoccurring role on the daytime soap opera "One Life to Live" as Samantha Garretson; Harris was ultimately cast in the role after auditioning in New York. Jamie Lloyd was Danielle Harris' first feature film role, for which she appears at horror conventions and on "Halloween" series-related websites. Little recalled Harris coming to the session with her mother and that they "knew the minute she walked into the room" that they wanted her as Jamie, citing her intelligence. Little said that Harris "really just got it from the beginning" and was without tantrums, whining, or crying. Little did not remember the other auditions for the part of Jamie: "To me, in my memory, Jamie Lloyd was always Danielle."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Ellie Cornell described Harris as "very precocious, very grown-up, very centred, and her mother was there. Danielle was awesome, we got along extremely." Cornell said she and Harris got along famously and that they were in a "partnership – we had so many scenes together – and she made it easy." When asked about her fondness memories of working in the "Halloween" franchise, Cornell replied that "it was working with Dwight and Danielle" and described the support she and Harris felt: "It can be an isolating experience to be on location, living in a hotel. It sounds glamorous, it can be really lonely, truly. You’re away from your family, you’re away from the things that are familiar to you, and we just become this giant family in a really cool way."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Harris recalled filming "Halloween 4" and "Halloween 5" as a child with fondness: "I got to run around yelling and screaming in a Halloween costume, even thought it was really April. Basically all the stuff you really look forward to as a kid. You really don’t think about the fact that you’re working, because you’re young and having so much fun." Besides Harris, the other child actor to have a major role in "Halloween 5" was Jeffrey Landman, who portrayed Billy. Landman watched "Halloween 4" with Harris and her mother to become familiar with the series. Before filming started, Harris and Landman were brought to Salt Lake City to be trained by a speech pathologist who worked with the pair "on the sign language as well as discussing with us the pathology of stuttering, why people stutter, as well as under what circumstances the stutter would become more prominent." Don Shanks replaced Wilbur as Michael in "Halloween 5". Shanks saw Harris as "a trooper" and remembered that "for eleven years old, she was like a little person. She was always there, and she always wanted to do her own stunts.”


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Harris sought to reprise the role for the sixth installment, now titled "Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers", but the producers and Dimension Films reportedly refused to pay her the $5,000 she requested, and she was not fond of the script. The role was instead given to actress J. C. Brandy, who was a "Halloween" fan herself. Like Harris, the role was Brandy's first in a feature film. Brandy had conversations with Daniel Farrands about John Carpenter and "The Fog" and recalled "knowing I was stepping into a part that people were so attached to with another actor, and that’s not easy". Brandy went into hypothermia during the filming of her character's escape scene, as there was a snow storm that caused shooting to cease multiple times. Reshoots for the film took place in Los Angeles, California in the summer of 1995. Brandy described the cast as being "pretty bummed about the reshoots" and believed it was possible for someone to easily recognize which scenes were added later, citing their lack of lighting and depth. The reshoots altered Jamie's death from being killed with a silencer pistol in a hospital to her being impaled in a barn. Brandy preferred the original because "it was unnatural to have that line they gave me in the barn and it felt really forced, with blades going through my stomach", though she admitted to understanding the altered scene's appeal for its gore and special effects.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Harris made her eventual return to the series as Annie Brackett in Rob Zombie's "Halloween" remake, as well as its subsequent sequel. Her representation contacted the filmmakers of the 2018 Halloween about reprising the role of Jamie in some way, but they were not interested.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: In 2013, Jamie was ranked 520th on "Empire's" "The 666 Greatest Horror Movie Characters". "Screen Rant" listed Jamie as the eighth best "Halloween" character. Medium.com lists Jamie as the 17th best out of 100 final girls. Jack Wilhelmi observed, "Like it or not, Jamie’s inclusion in the franchise brought a tremendous amount of depth and characterization to staples like Dr. Loomis and Michael Myers, giving them a foil to build off of and play against." Adrienne Tyler called Jamie "a very likable character" with just as much bravery as any other heroine in horror films and that the performance of Harris made Jamie the "perfect balance of innocence and bravery, as even though she was young, she fought for her life like any other adult character in the franchise."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Jamie was well received in "Halloween 4", "IGN" opining that Harris "is very credible and relatable and took an idea that probably had some fans cringing -- a little girl as the hero of a Halloween sequel! -- and made it work." Dan Tabor of Cinapse called Jamie "the most tragic character of the franchise" and credited Harris with carrying "Halloween 4" "rather effortlessly on her young capable shoulders with a surprisingly powerful take on the troubled young girl." Even in negative reviews of "Halloween 5" as a whole, Harris's performance as Jamie still received praise, with Richard Harrington of the "Los Angeles Times" criticizing the film and asserting that Harris was "actually pretty good" in her role.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: WhatCulture wrote that Harris led "Halloween 5" with a "sensational child actor performance" and Louis Peitzman called Harris "the best thing about "Revenge": She has the difficult task of playing mute for most of the film, but she delivers a grounded and believably terrified performance that's even stronger than her work in "Halloween 4"."


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Jamie's death in "Halloween: The Curse of Michael Myers" is considered memorable, ranking fifth in "Screen Rant"'s "Michael Myers’ 15 Most Creative Kills" list and third in Collider's "Michael Myers' Most Brutal Kills".


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: The decision to not have Jamie as the antagonist in subsequent installments has been received negatively, as Michael Tatlock opined that carrying on from the ending of "Halloween 4" "would’ve brought the series into a new and more interesting path." Josh Heath observed that not having Jamie as the killer retroactively hurts "Halloween 4" and "the dumb psychic link that replaced Jamie’s actual villainy in Halloween 5 is lame and serves to push the fifth installment into 'worst of the franchise' territory, just like ""." Chad Collins called the psychic connection between Jamie and Michael "psychobabble and more complicated than it needs to be. Worse still—and I say this as a fan of both films—it further distances Michael from what makes him Michael." Jamie's role in "The Curse of Michael Myers" has also been criticized, with Tyler opining that the movie "did no justice to the character (and the whole 'artificial insemination' part of it was disgusting and disrespectful)".


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: Harris reprised her role as Jamie in the 2012 horror film "Among Friends", Harris's directorial debut. In a hallucination sequence, Jamie appears in her clown costume and calls out for Rachel.


title: Jamie Lloyd

text: In the season ten episode of "Family Guy" entitled “Tom Tucker: The Man and His Dream", Peter Griffin is elated to find out Tom Tucker's stage name was "George P. Wilbur" and calls "Halloween 4" "the greatest movie of all time" before an edited clip of Jamie trying to flee from Michael in her bedroom is played.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The Fall of Hyperion is the second novel in the "Hyperion Cantos", a science fiction series by American author Dan Simmons. The novel, written in 1990, won both the 1991 British Science Fiction and Locus Awards. It was also nominated for the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: Set in the 29th century, the novel documents a pilgrimage to the planet Hyperion. The seven pilgrims intend to travel to the Valley of the Time Tombs, where the Shrike, a metallic creature alleged to grant one wish to the members of a pilgrimage, dwells. Powerful entities such as the Hegemony of Man and the AI TechnoCore seek to influence the pilgrims' journey.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The "Hyperion Cantos" is influenced strongly by various works, including the teachings of the environmentalist John Muir and the poetry of John Keats; a reincarnation of Keats narrates "The Fall of Hyperion". The novel also contains explicit references to classical literature and modern writings, including the scientific works of the Jesuit and paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, the physicist Stephen Hawking, and some of the fiction of author Jack Vance.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The Hegemony is an interstellar governmental entity formed by many planets, most of which are connected by instantaneous farcaster portals. Some worlds, like Hyperion, have no farcaster portals and are sparsely settled; they are known as the "Outback". The farcasters are created and managed by the TechnoCore, an AI civilization. While the Core's physical location is unknown, they interact with humans through various virtual realities.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The Hegemony is opposed by the Ousters, genetically modified humans that fled the Hegemony's growing influence even before Earth was destroyed. The Ousters have mutated physically, believing that they should adapt to their outer-space surroundings rather than adapt the surroundings themselves. They have rarely fought full-scale conflicts with the Hegemony but are currently launching an invasion of Hyperion.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: Joseph Severn, the name assumed by a second John Keats AI persona, has dreams of the pilgrims on Hyperion. He reports these dreams to Hegemony CEO Meina Gladstone, allowing the government to have real-time access to information about the pilgrims.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: Father Hoyt is killed by the Shrike. The Consul leaves to retrieve his ship from Keats. Father Hoyt's body is resurrected into Father Paul Duré. Silenus goes to the Poets' City to complete his Cantos, but is surprised by the Shrike and impaled on the Tree of Pain. Lamia is also attacked by the Shrike and loses consciousness. She awakens in one of the TechnoCore's computerized realities, in the company of Johnny. Lamia and Johnny converse with an AI named Ummon, which reveals some of the motivations of the TechnoCore and the existence of a war between human and AI ultimate intelligences. Johnny is killed by Ummon, and Lamia is released.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The Shrike appears and takes Kassad through a portal. Moneta explains that the Shrike can be controlled by one who defeats it in single combat. Kassad agrees to fight the Shrike. He is transported to a future Hyperion where the planet is desolate and without atmosphere. All that remains is the Tree of Pain, the tombs, and hundreds of Shrikes. Vowing to save the victims impaled on the Tree, Kassad charges.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: At the Tombs, Het Masteen reappears. Before dying, he reveals that the Shrike Cult has colluded with the Templar Brotherhood, and claims that he was meant to pilot the Tree of Pain through space and time. Shortly thereafter, Father Duré disappears. Minutes before the time of Rachel's birth and the simultaneous opening of the Time Tombs, Sol offers her to the Shrike, who carries her into the Tombs.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: Meina Gladstone positions Severn as a member of her staff. Gladstone is informed that the Ousters have counterattacked, attacking the WorldWeb itself in an unprecedented and unexpected move that appeared impossible. Since FORCE fleets have been committed to the Hyperion system, the first wave of worlds threatened by the Ouster invasion seems destined to fall. As sudden Shrike Cult uprisings devastate major Hegemony planets, Severn travels to Pacem and encounters Father Duré, who had been transported to Pacem by the Shrike. Intrigued by the collusion of the Templar Brotherhood with the Shrike Cult, Duré travels to God's Grove, which is soon to be attacked by the Ousters. Severn and Gladstone's chief of staff, Leigh Hunt, attempts to farcast to Tau Ceti Center. Instead, they arrive on a world that is an apparent replica of Old Earth, on the way to Rome, the place of the original Keats's death. Like the original Keats, Severn dies of tuberculosis while the Shrike keeps watch outside, preventing Hunt from leaving with Severn until his physical form dies; his persona retreats into the TechnoCore.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The Consul meets with the leaders of the Ouster Swarm and learns that the Ousters are not responsible for the attack against the WorldWeb. The TechnoCore is the only power capable of launching such an attack. The Consul tells Gladstone the truth about the attack. Admiral Lee sends a transmission showing an autopsy on a supposed Ouster from their battlefleet, but the body destroys itself by consuming itself in the same manner as the Core cybrids do, confirming the intel that the supposed Ouster attacks are really Core attacks. The only Ouster swarm attack is the one on Hyperion. Through a dream, Severn tells Gladstone that the TechnoCore resides completely within the farcaster system. They fear other intelligences found in the Void Which Binds, another dimension through which the farcaster portals pass. Gladstone orders the immediate destruction of the farcaster network. General Morpurgo leads a ship supposedly on its way to Hyperion with a Core deathwand technology designed to kill any human on ther surface and all of the Ouster swarm. Instead, the General and his son release the deathwand while the ship is in the farcaster network, saving Hyperion. The WorldWeb disintegrates; mass chaos and riots ensue. Gladstone allows herself to be killed by the rioters, as partial penance for the suffering she's caused. The fatline, which utilizes the Void Which Binds for faster-than-light communication, is suddenly shut down by unknown forces.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: On Hyperion, Lamia frees Silenus and destroys the Shrike through an unknown power. Rachel appears outside the Time Tombs as a young woman, carrying her infant self. She explains that she is Moneta and is traveling back in time with the Shrike under orders from humanity's future. Sol enters the portal to raise the infant Rachel in the far future.


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: Several months later, the worst of the chaos caused by the Fall has abated. The novel ends with the Consul returning to the former Web Worlds in his starship to discover what happened, with Severn's personality stored in his ship. Lamia is seven and a half months pregnant with Keats's child, who is named by the Severn personality as "The One Who Teaches."


title: The Fall of Hyperion (novel)

text: The novel was well-received, with positive reviews from The New York Times and Kirkus Reviews. It won the 1991 BSFA Award for Best Novel and 1991 Locus Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.


title: Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man

text: Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man: What Men Really Think About Love, Relationships, Intimacy, and Commitment is a 2009 self help book by Steve Harvey which describes for women Harvey's concept of how men really think of love, relationships, intimacy, commitment, and how to successfully navigate a relationship with a man.


title: Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man

text: In the book, Harvey instructs women on how to be a "keeper" rather than a "sports fish". He asserts that men are "simple", and that women should understand that they can never be first in a man's life without understanding and accepting that men are driven by who they are, what they do, and how much they make.


title: Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man

text: He says it's "just plain dumb" to let a man lock you into a monogamous premarital relationship, where you share a bed, bills, and even kids. The only way to convert your "committed relationship" into a marriage is to insist on setting a date for the wedding.


title: Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man

text: A feature film based on the book, titled "Think Like a Man", was released by Sony Pictures' Screen Gems subsidiary on April 20, 2012. Harvey served as an executive producer on the film and made a cameo appearance as himself.


Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969), was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court that defined First Amendment rights of students in U.S. public schools. The "Tinker" test, also known as the "substantial disruption" test, is still used by courts today to determine whether a school's interest to prevent disruption infringes upon students' First Amendment rights.


title: Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District

text: In 1965, five students in Des Moines, Iowa, decided to wear black armbands to school in protest of American involvement in the Vietnam War and supporting the Christmas Truce that was called for by Senator Robert F. Kennedy. Among the students were John F. Tinker (15 years old), his siblings Mary Beth Tinker (13 years old), Hope Tinker (11 years old), and Paul Tinker (8 years old), along with their friend Christopher Eckhardt (16 years old). The students wore the armbands to several schools in the Des Moines Independent Community School District (North High School for John, Roosevelt High School for Christopher, Warren Harding Junior High School for Mary Beth, elementary school for Hope and Paul).


text: The Tinker family had been involved in civil rights activism before the student protest. The Tinker children's mother, Lorena, was a leader of the Peace Organization in Des Moines. Christopher Eckhardt and John Tinker attended a protest the previous month against the Vietnam War in Washington, D.C. The principals of the Des Moines schools learned of the plan and met before the incident occurred on December 16 to create a policy that stated that school children wearing an armband would be asked to remove it immediately. Students violating the policy would be suspended and allowed to return to school after agreeing to comply with it. The participants decided to violate this policy. Hope and Paul Tinker were not in violation of the policy, since the policy was not applicable to elementary schools, and were not punished. No violence or disruption was proven to have occurred due to the students wearing the armbands. Mary Beth Tinker and Christopher Eckhardt were suspended from school for wearing the armbands on December 16 and John Tinker was suspended for doing the same on the following day.


text: Previous decisions, such as "West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette", had established that students did have some constitutional protections in public school. This case was the first time that the court set forth standards for safeguarding public school students' free speech rights. This case involved symbolic speech, which was first recognized in "Stromberg v. California".


text: A suit was filed after the Iowa Civil Liberties Union approached the Tinker family, and the ACLU agreed to help with the lawsuit. Dan Johnston was the lead attorney on the case.


text: The Des Moines Independent Community School District represented the school officials who suspended the students. The children's fathers filed suit in the U.S. District Court, which upheld the decision of the Des Moines school board.


text: A tie vote in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 8th Circuit meant that the U.S. District Court's decision continued to stand, which forced the Tinkers and Eckhardts to appeal to the Supreme Court directly.


text: The only students involved in the lawsuit were Mary Beth Tinker, John Tinker, and Christopher Eckhardt. During the case, the Tinker family received hate mail, death threats, and other hateful messages.


text: The case was argued before the court on November 12, 1968. It was funded by the Des Moines residents Louise Noun, who was the president of the Iowa Civil Liberties Union, and her brother, Joseph Rosenfield, a businessman.


text: The court's 7–2 decision held that the First Amendment applied to public schools, and that administrators would have to demonstrate constitutionally valid reasons for any specific regulation of speech in the classroom. The court observed, "It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate." Justice Abe Fortas wrote the majority opinion, holding that the speech regulation at issue in Tinker was "based upon an urgent wish to avoid the controversy which might result from the expression, even by the silent symbol of armbands, of opposition to this Nation's part in the conflagration in Vietnam." This decision made students and adults equal in terms of First Amendment rights while at school. "Bethel School District v. Fraser" and "Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier" later rewrote this implication, limiting the freedoms granted to students.


text: The Court held that for school officials to justify censoring speech, they "must be able to show that [their] action was caused by something more than a mere desire to avoid the discomfort and unpleasantness that always accompany an unpopular viewpoint," that the conduct that would "materially and substantially interfere with the requirements of appropriate discipline in the operation of the school." The Court found that the actions of the Tinkers in wearing armbands did not cause disruption and held that their activity represented constitutionally protected symbolic speech. The Court ruled that First Amendment rights were not absolute, and could be withheld if there was a “carefully restricted circumstance.” Student speech that has the potential to cause disruption is not protected by "Tinker."


text: Justices Hugo Black and John M. Harlan II dissented. Black, who had long believed that disruptive "symbolic speech" was not constitutionally protected, wrote, "While I have always believed that under the First and Fourteenth Amendments neither the State nor the Federal Government has any authority to regulate or censor the content of speech, I have never believed that any person has a right to give speeches or engage in demonstrations where he pleases and when he pleases." Black argued that the Tinkers' behavior was indeed disruptive and declared, "I repeat that if the time has come when pupils of state-supported schools, kindergarten, can defy and flout orders of school officials to keep their minds on their own schoolwork, it is the beginning of a new revolutionary era of permissiveness in this country fostered by the judiciary."


text: Harlan dissented on the grounds that he "[found] nothing in this record which impugns the good faith of respondents in promulgating the armband regulation."


text: "Tinker" remains a viable and frequently cited court precedent, and court decisions citing "Tinker" have both protected and limited the scope of student free speech rights. "Tinker" was cited in the 1973 court case Papish v. Board of Curators of the University of Missouri, which ruled that the expulsion of a student for distributing a newspaper on campus containing what the school deemed to be "indecent speech" violated the First Amendment. In the 1986 court case "Bethel School District v. Fraser", the Supreme Court ruled that a high school student's sexual innuendo-laden speech during a school assembly was not constitutionally protected. The court said the protection of student political speech created in the "Tinker" case did not extend to vulgar language in a school setting. The court ruled that similar language may be constitutionally protected if used by adults to make a political point, but that those protections did not apply to students in a public school.


text: "Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier" was a 1988 court case where a high school principal blocked the school paper from publishing two articles about divorce and teenage pregnancy. The Supreme Court ruled that schools have the right to regulate the content of non-forum, school-sponsored newspapers under "legitimate pedagogical concerns." The court reasoned that the principal's editorial decision was justified because the paper was a non-public forum since it was school-sponsored and existed as a platform for students in a journalism class. The Court in "Hazelwood" said that under the doctrine of "Perry Education Association v. Perry Local Educators Association," a 1982 court case that clarified the definition of a public forum, a school facility like a newspaper only qualifies as a public forum if school authorities make those facilities available for "indiscriminate use by the general public."


text: The Court's rulings in "Fraser" and "Hazelwood" state that a “substantial disruption” or infringing on the rights of other students was reason enough to restrict student freedom of speech or expression. Some experts argue that the three individual cases each act independently of one another and govern different types of student speech. It is argued that "Fraser" does not interfere with "Tinker", since "Fraser" questions sexual speech while "Tinker" protects political speech. While some believe that "Tinker's" protections were overturned by "Fraser" and "Kuhlmeier," others believe that the latter cases created exceptions to the "Tinker" ruling. Others argue that a broad reading of "Tinker" allows for viewpoint discrimination on certain topics of student speech.


text: In 2013, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit re-heard a case "en banc" that had been argued before a panel of three of its judges, considering whether middle school students could be prohibited from wearing bracelets promoting breast cancer awareness that were imprinted with "I ♥ Boobies! (Keep a Breast)." The Third Circuit cited "Tinker" when ruling that the school's ban on the bracelets violated the students' right to free speech because the bracelets were not plainly offensive or disruptive. The court also cited "Fraser," saying the bracelets were not lewd speech. The Supreme Court later declined to take up the case.


text: Several cases have arisen from the modern display of the Confederate flag. Courts applying the "substantial disruption test" under "Tinker" have held that schools may prohibit students from wearing clothing with Confederate symbols. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit cited "Tinker" in the 2013 court case "Hardwick v. Heyward" to rule that prohibiting a student from wearing Confederate flag shirt did not violate the First Amendment because there was evidence that the shirt could cause disruption. Exceptions to this are the 2010 court case "Defoe v. Spiva" and the 2000 court case "Castorina v. Madison County School Board". The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit said in "Castorina v. Madison County School Board" that based on "Tinker" and other Supreme Court rulings, the school board could not ban Confederate flag T-shirts while other "controversial racial and political symbols" like the "X" symbol associated with Malcolm X and the African American Muslim movement were permitted. In "Defoe v. Spiva", the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that "racially hostile or contemptuous speech" can be restricted, even if it was not disruptive. This deviated from the "Tinker" ruling, which said the school's restriction of the Tinkers' speech was unconstitutional because it was not disruptive.


text: The U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit applied "Tinker" in February 2014 to rule that a California school did not violate the First Amendment in "Dariano v. Morgan Hill Unified School District", where a school banned American flag apparel during a Cinco de Mayo celebration. The school said they had enacted the ban due to a conflict caused by American flag apparel that had occurred at the event the previous year. The Ninth Circuit declined to re-hear the case "en banc" and the U.S. Supreme Court later declined to review the case.


text: A Pennsylvania high school cheerleader, who had been reprimanded by her school for using offensive language in a social media post that she made off-campus and outside school hours, filed suit against the school in 2017 claiming her First Amendment rights had been infringed. The district court ruled in her favor, and the school district appealed to the Third Circuit. There, the three-judge panel upheld the district ruling unanimously, but the majority stated that "Tinker" could never apply to off-campus speech made by a student, while Judge Thomas L. Ambro believed this was too broad a claim. The school petitioned to the Supreme Court, which ruled in June 2021 in "Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L." to uphold the ruling in favor of the student, but overturning the decision of the Third Circuit in that "Tinker" may cover some parts of off-campus speech when the school has a compelling interest, such as for incidents of harassments or threats. However, the Supreme Court did not attempt to define when such off-campus speech fell under a school's compelling interest.


text: Mary Beth Tinker decided to embark on a tour around the United States, called the Tinker Tour, beginning in 2013 to "bring real-life civics lessons to students through the Tinker armband story and the stories of other young people." The tour is a project of the Student Press Law Center.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: Grandi Navi Veloci ("GNV") is an Italian shipping company, based in Genoa, that operates ferries between mainland Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, France, Albania, Morocco and Tunisia. It was established by Aldo Grimaldi in 1992.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: GNV was created in 1992 by Aldo Grimaldi, initially as a subsidiary of Grimaldi Group. The first ship of the company, "Majestic", entered service in 1993 on the Genoa-Palermo route, followed in 1994 by the sistership "Splendid" on the Genoa-Porto Torres route. "Majestic" and "Splendid" were the first cruiseferries ever operated by an Italian company.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: The fleet was enlarged with new cruise ferries through the 1990s, and in 2000 the company went public. New routes were added, including Livorno-Palermo, Genoa-Olbia and Genoa-Barcelona. In 2002 and 2003 the new, large cruise ferries "La Superba" and "La Suprema" entered service. Lines for Tunisia, as well a new Civitavecchia-Palermo line, were opened.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: In 2008 the fleet was enlarged with three "ro-ro" cargo ships, "Audacia", "Tenacia", and "Coraggio", and a new Genoa-Barcelona-Tangier line was opened. In 2009, GNV became fully independent from the Grimaldi family and Grimaldi Group. In 2010 the company was acquired by the MSC Group; in the same year, GNV merged with SNAV, also a subsidiary of MSC.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: In 2012, following the ceasing of the services by Comarit and Comanav, GNV opened new lines between Sète, Tangier and Nador. In 2015, GNV opened a new line between Italy and Albania.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: The company, , currently operates a fleet of thirteen cruise ferries, including some of the largest ferries in Europe. Its CEO is Matteo Catani.


title: Grandi Navi Veloci

text: Grandi Navi Veloci converted one of their ferries, , into a hospital ship in order to treat coronavirus patients. The ship was delivered to Liguria, Italy, on 23 March 2020, and was made available for the symbolic cost of 1 EUR. With help from Registro Italiano Navale and a number of local and national companies, many of which donated their time, materials, and expertise, "Splendid" was converted into a hospital ship in roughly 10 days. Docked at Genoa's Ponte Colombo, the hospital ship is currently treating only coronavirus patients without serious pathologies, such as patients recovering after having been previously intubated.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Lady Ottoline Violet Anne Morrell (16 June 1873 – 21 April 1938) was an English aristocrat and society hostess. Her patronage was influential in artistic and intellectual circles, where she befriended writers including Aldous Huxley, Siegfried Sassoon, T. S. Eliot and D. H. Lawrence, and artists including Mark Gertler, Dora Carrington and Gilbert Spencer.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Born Ottoline Violet Anne Cavendish-Bentinck, she was the daughter of Lieutenant-General Arthur Cavendish-Bentinck (son of Lord and Lady Charles Bentinck) and his second wife, the former Augusta Browne, later created Baroness Bolsover. Lady Ottoline's great-great-uncle (through her paternal grandmother, Lady Charles Bentinck) was Field Marshal The 1st Duke of Wellington. Through her father, Arthur, she was a first cousin once removed of Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother, and a first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth II, both of whom descended from Arthur's brother Rev. Charles William Frederick Cavendish-Bentinck.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Ottoline was granted the rank of a daughter of a duke with the courtesy title of "Lady" when her half-brother William succeeded to the Dukedom of Portland in 1879, at which time the family moved into Welbeck Abbey in Nottinghamshire. The dukedom was a title which belonged to the Cavendish-Bentinck family and which passed to Lady Ottoline's branch upon the death of their cousin, the 5th Duke of Portland, in December 1879.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: In 1899, Ottoline began studying political economy and Roman history as an out-student at Somerville College, Oxford.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Morrell was known to have had many lovers. Her first love affair was with an older man, the doctor and writer Axel Munthe, but she rejected his impulsive proposal of marriage because her spiritual beliefs were incompatible with his atheism. In February 1902, she married the MP Philip Morrell, with whom she shared a passion for art and a strong interest in Liberal politics. They had what would now be known as an open marriage for the rest of their lives.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Philip's extramarital affairs produced several children who were cared for by his wife, who also struggled to conceal evidence of his mental instability. The Morrells themselves had two children (twins): a son, Hugh, who died in infancy; and a daughter, Julian, whose first marriage was to Victor Goodman and second marriage was to Igor Vinogradoff.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Morrell had a long affair with philosopher Bertrand Russell, with whom she exchanged more than 3,500 letters. Her lovers may have included the painters Augustus John and Henry Lamb, the artist Dora Carrington, and the art historian Roger Fry.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: In her later years she had a brief affair with a gardener, Lionel Gomme, who was employed at Garsington. According to some literary critics, the fling of Morrell with "Tiger", a young stonemason who came to carve plinths for her garden statues, partly influenced the story in D.H. Lawrence's novel "Lady Chatterley's Lover".


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Her circle of friends included many authors, artists, sculptors and poets. Her work as a patron was enduring and influential, notably in her contribution to the Contemporary Art Society during its early years.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: The Morrells maintained a townhouse in Bedford Square in Bloomsbury and also owned a country house at Peppard, near Henley on Thames. Selling the house at Peppard in 1911, they subsequently bought and restored Garsington Manor near Oxford. Morrell delighted in opening both as havens for like-minded people. 44 Bedford Square served as her London salon, while Garsington provided a convenient retreat, near enough to London for many of their friends to join them for weekends. She took a keen interest in the work of young contemporary artists, such as Stanley Spencer, and she was particularly close to Mark Gertler and Dora Carrington, who were regular visitors to Garsington during the war. Gilbert Spencer lived for a while in a house on the Garsington estate.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: During World War I, the Morrells were pacifists. They invited conscientious objectors such as Duncan Grant, Clive Bell, and Lytton Strachey to take refuge at Garsington. Siegfried Sassoon, recuperating there after an injury, was encouraged to go absent without leave as a protest against the war.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: The hospitality offered by the Morrells was such that most of their guests had no suspicion that they were in financial difficulties. Many of them assumed that Ottoline was a wealthy woman. This was far from being the case and during 1927, the Morrells were compelled to sell the manor house and its estate, and move to more modest quarters in Gower Street, London. In 1928 she was diagnosed with cancer, which resulted in a long hospitalisation and the removal of her lower teeth and part of her jaw.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Later, Lady Ottoline remained a regular host to the adherents of the Bloomsbury Group, in particular Virginia Woolf, and to many other artists and authors, who included W. B. Yeats, L. P. Hartley, and T. S. Eliot, and maintained an enduring friendship with Welsh painter Augustus John. She was an influential patron to many of them, and a valued friend, who nevertheless attracted understandable mockery, due to her combination of eccentric attire with an aristocratic manner, extreme shyness and a deep religious faith that set her apart from her times.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Her work as a decorator, colourist, and garden designer remains undervalued, but it was for her great gift for friendship that she was mourned when she died in April 1938. She died from an experimental drug given by a doctor.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: The novelist Henry Green wrote to Philip Morrell of "her love for all things true and beautiful which she had more than anyone...no one can ever know the immeasurable good she did".


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: A blue plaque in her honour was erected at her London home, 10 Gower Street, by the Greater London Council, in 1986.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Morrell wrote two volumes of memoirs, but these were edited and revised after her death, losing a little of their charm and much of their intimate detail in the process. She also maintained detailed journals, over a period of twenty years, which remain unpublished. But perhaps Lady Ottoline's most interesting literary legacy is the wealth of representations of her that appear in 20th-century literature.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: She was the inspiration for Mrs Bidlake in Aldous Huxley's "Point Counter Point", for Hermione Roddice in D. H. Lawrence's "Women in Love", for Lady Caroline Bury in Graham Greene's "It's a Battlefield", and for Lady Sybilline Quarrell in Alan Bennett's "Forty Years On". "The Coming Back" (1933), another novel which portrays her, was written by Constance Malleson, one of Ottoline's many rivals for the affection of Bertrand Russell, as was "Pugs and Peacocks" (1921) by Gabriel Cannan. Some critics consider her the inspiration for Lawrence's Lady Chatterley.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Huxley's "roman à clef" "Crome Yellow" depicts the life at a thinly-veiled Garsington, with a caricature of Lady Ottoline Morrell for which she never forgave him. "In Confidence," a short story by Katherine Mansfield, portrays the "wits of Garsington" some four years in advance of "Crome Yellow", and with more wit than Huxley, according to Mansfield's biographer Antony Alpers. Published in "The New Age" of 24 May 1917, it was not reprinted until 1984 in Alpers' collection of her short stories. Five young gentlemen are having a drawing-room argument, observed by Isobel and Marigold: "Aren't men extraordinary" says Marigold.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Non-literary portraits are also part of this interesting legacy, as seen in the artistic photographs of her by Cecil Beaton. There are portraits by Henry Lamb, Duncan Grant, Augustus John, and others.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: She is portrayed by Tilda Swinton in Derek Jarman's film "Wittgenstein", by Roberta Taylor in Brian Gilbert's film "Tom & Viv", by Penelope Wilton in Christopher Hampton's film "Carrington" and by Suzanne Bertish in Terence Davies' film "Benediction".


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: The first production of a biographical play, "Ottoline" by Janet Bolam, took place in the gardens of Garsington Manor in July 2021.


title: Lady Ottoline Morrell

text: Morrell took hundreds of photographs of the people in her circle. Carolyn Heilbrun edited "Lady Ottoline's Album" (1976), a collection of snapshots and photographic portraits of Morrell and of her famous contemporaries, mostly taken by Morrell herself.


title: Paperboard

text: Paperboard is a thick paper-based material. While there is no rigid differentiation between paper and paperboard, paperboard is generally thicker (usually over 0.30 mm, 0.012 in, or 12 points) than paper and has certain superior attributes such as foldability and rigidity. According to ISO standards, paperboard is a paper with a grammage above 250 g/m, but there are exceptions. Paperboard can be single- or multi-ply.


title: Paperboard

text: Paperboard can be easily cut and formed, is lightweight, and because it is strong, is used in packaging. Another end-use is high quality graphic printing, such as book and magazine covers or postcards. Paperboard is also used in fine arts for creating sculptures.


title: Paperboard

text: Sometimes it is referred to as "cardboard", which is a generic, lay term used to refer to any heavy paper pulp–based board, however this usage is deprecated in the paper, printing and packaging industries as it does not adequately describe each product type.


title: Paperboard

text: In 1817, the first paperboard carton was produced in England. Folding cartons first emerged around the 1860s and were shipped flat to save space, ready to be set up by customers when they were required. The mechanical die cutting and creasing of blanks was developed in 1879. In 1911 the first kraft sulphate mill was built in Florida. In 1915 the gable top milk carton was patented and in 1935 the first dairy plant was observed using them. Ovenable paperboard was introduced in 1974.


title: Paperboard

text: Terminology and classifications of paperboard are not always uniform. Differences occur depending on specific industry, locale, and personal choice. In general, the following are often used:


title: Paperboard

text: Fibrous material is turned into pulp and bleached to create one or more layers of board, which can be optionally coated for a better surface and/or improved appearance. Pulp board is produced on pulping machines that can handle higher grammage and several plies.


title: Paperboard

text: The above-mentioned fibrous material can either come from fresh (virgin) sources (e.g. wood) or from recycled waste paper. Around 90% of virgin paper is made from wood pulp.


title: Paperboard

text: Today paperboard packaging in general, and especially products from certified sustainable sources, are receiving new attention, as manufacturers dealing with environmental, health, and regulatory issues look to renewable resources to meet increasing demand. It is now mandatory in many countries for paper-based packaging to be manufactured wholly or partially from recycled material.


title: Paperboard

text: Pulp used in the manufacture of paperboard can be bleached to decrease colour and increase purity. Virgin fibre pulp is naturally brown in colour, because of the presence of lignin. Recycled paperboard may contain traces of inks, bonding agents and other residue which colors it grey.


title: Paperboard

text: Although bleaching is not necessary for all end-uses, it is vital for many graphical and packaging purposes. There are various methods of bleaching, which are used according to a number of factors for example, the degree of colour change required, chemicals chosen and method of treatment. There are three categories of bleaching methods:


title: Paperboard

text: Multi-ply paperboard generally has higher creasing and folding performance than single-ply as a result of layering different types of pulp into a single product. In cases where the same kind of pulp is being used in several layers, each separate layer is treated and shaped individually in order to create the highest possible quality.


title: Paperboard

text: In order to improve whiteness, smoothness and gloss of paperboard, one or more layers of coating is applied. Coated paper is usually made up of:


title: Paperboard

text: The DIN Standard 19303 "Paperboard - Terms and grades" (Publication date : 2005-09) defines different grades of paperboard based on the surface treatment (first letter), the main furnish (second letter) and the colour (non-D grade) or bulk (D grade only) (numbering).


title: Paperboard

text: Example: GC1 would be a "pigment coated", "virgin mechanical pulp" board with a "white reverse side". Often the used paperboard type would be FBB, which was coated on both sides.


title: Paperboard

text: Brightness: Brightness is a technical term that is defined as the amount of blue-white light that a paper reflects. This property is very subjective and individual to each buyer and end use, as skin colour and food are better reproduced on ‘warm’ (yellow) whites and not blue whites.


title: Paperboard

text: PH: Surface pH is measured on a water extract and is on a scale of 0–14. 0 is acidic, 7 is neutral and 14 is alkaline.


title: Paperboard

text: Stiffness: Stiffness is one of the most important properties of paperboard as it affects the ability of cartons to run smoothly through the machine that erects, fills and closes them. Stiffness also gives strength and reduces the propensity of a carton to bulge under the weight of settling flowable contents such as cereals.


title: Paperboard

text: Although most paper strength properties increase with increasing sheet density, stiffness does not. A rule of thumb is that stiffness is proportional to the 1.6 power of sheet caliper.


title: Paperboard

text: The species of fiber used has an effect on stiffness, other things being equal. Northern softwood species impart superior stiffness compared to southern softwoods.


title: Paperboard

text: Smoothness: Smoothness is particularly important when being used for printing, the smoother the paperboard, the better the image quality, because of better ink coverage. Smoothness is measured using air leak methods – the greater the rate of air leakage, at a specific air pressure, from under a cylindrical knife placed on the surface, the rougher the surface.


title: Paperboard

text: Caliper/thickness: In the United States caliper is usually expressed in thousandths of an inch (0.001”) or points, where a sheet of paperboard with a thickness of 0.024” would be 24 points. In Europe it is often sold in g/m, however the thickness of the board is measured in micron (μm).


title: Paperboard

text: Whiteness: It refers ideally to the equal presence of all colours, because a truly white sheet will reflect all wavelengths of visible light equally.


title: Paperboard

text: The paperboard sector is mainly looked at in conjunction with the paper industry. The Paper & Paperboard market size (2007) had a value of US$630.9 billion and a volume of 320.3 million metric tons. Of that market 40.1% is European. About 50% of all produced paper is used for packaging, followed by printing and writing. According to ProCarton, the consumption of paper and paperboard seem to correlate with economic trends (GDP). Sales of carton in Europe sum up to around 8 billion Euros worth. Over 1,100 printers produce 5.4 million tonnes of cartonboard yearly. Cartons make up one third of paper and board packaging and 15% of all packaging. A bit more than half (54%) of the European carton is produced using recovered fibre or waste paper.


title: Paperboard

text: The paper and paperboard industry is quite energy and capital intensive. Just a coated board machine itself can cost around 90 - 120 million Euros


title: Paperboard

text: (about 125 - US$166 million in 11/2011). Economies of scale apply, because of which a few large players often dominate the market place. E.g. in North America the top 5 producers have a market share of 85%.


title: History of Berlin

text: The history of Berlin starts with its foundation in the 13th century. It became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1417, and later of Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia grew about rapidly in the 18th and 19th centuries and formed the basis of the German Empire in 1871. The empire would survive until 1918 when it was defeated in World War I.


title: History of Berlin

text: After 1900 Berlin became a major world city, known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, music, museums, higher education, government, diplomacy and military affairs. It also had a role in manufacturing and finance.


title: History of Berlin

text: During World War II, bombing, artillery, and ferocious street-by-street fighting destroyed large parts of Berlin. Berlin was subsequently divided among the four major Allied powers and for over four decades it encapsulated the Cold War confrontation between West and East. With the reunification of Germany in 1990, Berlin was restored as the capital and as a major world city.


title: History of Berlin

text: The origin of the name "Berlin" is uncertain. It may have roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of today's Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem "berl-"/"birl-" ("swamp"). Folk etymology connects the name to the German word for bear, "Bär". A bear also appears in the coat of arms of the city.


title: History of Berlin

text: The oldest human traces, mainly arrowheads, in the area of later Berlin are dating to the 9th millennium BC. During Neolithic times a large number of villages existed in the area. During the Bronze Age it belonged to the Lusatian culture. For the time around 500 BC the presence of Germanic tribes can be evidenced for the first time in form of a number of villages in the higher situated areas of today's Berlin. After the Semnones left around 200 AD, the Burgundians followed. A large part of the Germanic tribes left the region around 500 AD.


title: History of Berlin

text: In the 7th century Slavic tribes, the later known Hevelli and Sprevane, reached the region. Today their traces can mainly be found at plateaus or next to waters. Their main settlements were today's Spandau and Köpenick. No Slavic traces could be found in the city center of Berlin.


title: History of Berlin

text: In the 12th century the region came under German rule as part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, founded by Albert the Bear in 1157. At the end of the 12th century German merchants founded the first settlements in today's city center, called Berlin around modern Nikolaiviertel and Cölln, on the island in the Spree now known as the Spreeinsel or Museum Island. It is not clear which settlement is older and when they got German town rights. Berlin is mentioned as a town for the first time in 1251 and Cölln in 1261.


title: History of Berlin

text: The year 1237 was later taken as the year of founding. Afterwards the two settlements merged into the town of Berlin-Cölln; they formally merged in 1432. Albert the Bear also bequeathed to Berlin the emblem of the bear, which has appeared on its coat of arms ever since. By the year 1400 Berlin and Cölln had 8,000 inhabitants. A great town center fire in 1380 damaged most written records of those early years, as did the great devastation of the Thirty Years War 1618–1648.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1415, Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. Subsequent members of the Hohenzollern family ruled until 1918 in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of Prussia, and finally as German emperors. When Berlin became the residence of the Hohenzollerns, it had to give up its Hanseatic League free city status. Its main economical activity changed from trade to the production of luxurious goods for the court.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1701, Elector Frederick III (1688–1701) crowned himself as Frederick I (1701–1713), King in Prussia. He was mostly interested in decorum: he ordered the building of the castle Charlottenburg in the west of the city. He made Berlin the capital of the new kingdom of Prussia.


title: History of Berlin

text: On 1 January 1710, the cities of Berlin, Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt were united as the “Royal Capital and Residence of Berlin”.


title: History of Berlin

text: As Prussia grew, so too did Berlin, and the Kings made it the centerpiece of culture and the arts, as well as the Army. Under King Friedrich Wilhelm I (reigned 1713–40), Berlin's growth was encouraged by his determination to build a great military power. More men were needed, so he promoted immigration of Protestants from across Germany as well as France and Switzerland. He introduced universal primary education so that his soldiers could read and write. In 1720 he built the city's first major hospital and medical school, the Charité, now the largest teaching hospital in Europe. The city was now mainly a garrison and an armoury, for the crown heavily subsidised arms manufacturers in the capital, laying the foundations for the mechanics, engineers, technicians, and entrepreneurs who were to turn Berlin into an industrial powerhouse. The old defensive walls and moats were now useless, so they were torn down. A new customs wall (the Zoll- und Akzisemauer) was built further out, punctuated by 14 ornate gates. Inside the gates were parade grounds for Friedrich Wilhelm's soldiers: the Karree at the Brandenburg gate (now Pariserplatz), the Oktagon at the Potsdam gate (now Leipzigerplatz), the Wilhelmplatz on Wilhelmstrasse (abolished in the 1980s) and several others.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1740, Frederick the Great (Frederick II) began his 46-year reign. He was an enlightened monarch, who patronized Enlightenment thinkers like Moses Mendelssohn. By 1755 the population reached 100,000, including 26,000 soldiers.


title: History of Berlin

text: Stagnation followed under the rule of Frederick William II, 1786-97 He had no use for the Enlightenment, but did develop innovative techniques of censorship and repression of political enemies.


title: History of Berlin

text: Prussian mercantilist policies supported manufacturing enterprises and Berlin had numerous small workshops. Lacking waterpower, Berlin entrepreneurs were early pioneers in the use of steam engines after 1815. Textiles, clothing, farm equipment, railway gear, chemicals and machinery were especially important; electrical machinery became important after 1880.


title: History of Berlin

text: Berlin's central position after 1850 in the fast-growing German railway network facilitated the supply of raw materials and distribution of manufactures. As the administrative role of the Prussian state grew, so did the highly efficient, well-trained civil service. The bureaucracy and military expanded even faster when Berlin became the capital of unified Germany in 1871. the population grew rapidly, from 172,000 in 1800, to 826,000 in 1870. In 1861, outlying industrial suburbs such as Wedding, Moabit, and several others were incorporated into the city.


title: History of Berlin

text: By 1900 about 85% of the people were classified as Protestants, 10% as Roman Catholics and 5% as Jews. Berlin's middle and upper classes were generally devout Protestants. The working classes increasingly became secularized. When workers moved to Berlin the Protestants among them largely abandoned the religious practices of their old villages. The labor unions promoted anticlericalism, and denounced the Protestant churches as aloof from the needs of the working class. However, the Catholic workers remained somewhat closer to their traditional churches, which featured liturgies that were more appealing to workers than wordy intellectual sermons at the Protestant churches. Adult attendance at Sunday church services in the early 20th century was 6% in Berlin, compared to 22% in London and 37% in New York.


title: History of Berlin

text: The phase of German Romanticism after Jena Romanticism is often called Berlin Romanticism (see also Heidelberg Romanticism). Notable representatives of the movement include Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm von Humboldt and Alexander von Humboldt.


title: History of Berlin

text: After the quick victory of an alliance of German states over France in the 1870 war, the German Empire was established in 1871. Bismarck had fought and succeeded in leaving out Austria, Prussia's long standing competitor, and Prussia became the largest and by far most influential state in the new German Empire, and in turn Germany became the most powerful nation in Europe. Wilhelm I became emperor ("Kaiser"). Bismarck became Chancellor and made Berlin the center of European power politics. The imperial government and the military establishment expanded dramatically, bringing together the landed junker nobility, the rich bankers and industrialists, and the most talented scientists and scholars. In 1884 came the parliament building, the Reichstag. Municipal government was handled in two parts. The ministry of police reported to the Prussian government and took control of crime, markets, and fire fighting. The civil government had a mayor appointed by the city council. It comprised 144 members elected in 48 wards by universal manhood suffrage. It handled the water supply and sanitation, streets, hospitals and charitable operations and schools.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s:


title: History of Berlin

text: The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial government brought in its scientists, engineers and urban planners to not only solve the deficiencies but to forge the world's model city. A British expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the most complete application of science, order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there is."


title: History of Berlin

text: In the meantime, Berlin had become an industrial city with 800,000 inhabitants. Improvements to the infrastructure were needed; in 1896 the construction of the subway ("U-Bahn") began and was completed in 1902. The neighborhoods around the city center (including Kreuzberg, Prenzlauer Berg, Friedrichshain and Wedding) were filled with tenement blocks. The surroundings saw extensive development of industrial areas East of Berlin and wealthy residential areas in the South-West.


title: History of Berlin

text: In terms of high culture, museums were being built and enlarged, and Berlin was on the verge of becoming a major musical city. Berlin dominated the German theater scene, with the government-supported Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus, as well as numerous private playhouses included the Lessing and the Deutsches theatres. They featured the modern plays of Ernst von Wildenbruch, Hermann Sudermann, and Gerhart Hauptmann. who managed to work around the puritanical censorship imposed by the Berlin police.


title: History of Berlin

text: Berlin, with its large numbers of industrial workers by 1871 became the headquarters for most of the national labor organizations, and the favorite meeting place for labor intellectuals. Inside the city, the unions had a turbulent history. The conservative aftermath of the Revolution of 1848 drained their strength, and internal bickering was characteristic of the 1850s and 1860s. Many locals were under the control of reformist, bourgeois leaders who competed with each other and had a negative view of Marxism and socialist internationalist. They concentrated on wages, hours and control of the workplace, and gave little support to national organizations such as the Allgemeine Deutsche Arbeiterverein (ADAV) founded in 1863. By the 1870s, however, the Lassallean ADAV finally gained strength; it joined together with the Social Democratic Worker's Party (SDAP) in 1874. Henceforth the city's labor movement supported radical socialism and gained preeminence within the German labor movement. Germany had universal manhood suffrage after 1871, but the government was controlled by hostile forces, and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck tried to undermine or destroy the union movement.


title: History of Berlin

text: The "spirit of 1914" was the overwhelming, enthusiastic support of all elements of the population for war in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, with all the Socialists joining in. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted the short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a ten thousand yards at a time. There had been no preparations before the war, and no stockpiles of essential goods. Industry was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the Hindenburg Program called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.


title: History of Berlin

text: Conditions on the homefront worsened month by month, for the British blockade of Germany cut off supplies of essential raw materials and foodstuffs, while the conscription of so many farmers (and horses) reduced the food supply. Likewise, the drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using replacement materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water.


title: History of Berlin

text: Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink but using the slogan of "sharing scarcity" the Berlin bureaucracy ran an efficient rationing system nevertheless. The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread as it was harder and harder to buy meat. Rationing was installed, and soup kitchens were opened. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1917-18 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations.


title: History of Berlin

text: German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into Berlin to work in industry and the government ministries, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, as well as increasing anxiety for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently crippled; wounded soldiers who recovered were sent back to the trenches.


title: History of Berlin

text: At the end of World War I, monarchy and aristocracy were overthrown and Germany became a republic, known as the Weimar Republic. Berlin remained the capital but faced a series of threats from the far left and far right.


title: History of Berlin

text: In late 1918 politicians inspired by the Communist Revolution in Russia founded the Communist Party of Germany ("Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands", KPD). In January 1919 it tried to seize power in the Spartacist revolt). The coup failed and at the end of the month right-wing "Freikorps" forces killed the Communist leaders Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.


title: History of Berlin

text: In March 1920 Wolfgang Kapp, founder of the right-wing German Fatherland Party ("Deutsche Vaterlands-Partei"), tried to bring down the government. The Berlin garrison chose his side, and the government buildings were occupied (the government had already left Berlin). A general strike stopped the putsch being successful.


title: History of Berlin

text: On October 1, 1920: The Greater Berlin Act created "Greater Berlin" ("Groß-Berlin") by incorporating several neighboring towns and villages like Charlottenburg, Köpenick or Spandau from the Province of Brandenburg into the city; Berlin's population doubled overnight from about 2 to nearly 4 million inhabitants.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1922: The foreign minister Walther Rathenau was murdered in Berlin, and half a million people attended his funeral.


title: History of Berlin

text: The economic situation was bad. Germany owed reparation money after the Treaty of Versailles. The sums were reduced and paid using loans from New York banks. In response to French occupation, the government reacted by printing so much money that inflation was enormous. Especially pensioners lost their savings; everyone else lost their debts. At the worst point of the inflation, one dollar was worth about 4.2 trillion marks. From 1924 onwards the situation became better because of newly arranged agreements with the allied forces, American help, and a sounder fiscal policy. The heyday of Berlin began. It became the largest industrial city on the continent. People like the architect Walter Gropius, physicist Albert Einstein, painter George Grosz and writers Arnold Zweig, Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Tucholsky made Berlin one of the major cultural centers of Europe. Brecht spent his last years in the Weimar-era Berlin (1930–1933) working with his ‘collective’ on the Lehrstücke. Nightlife bloomed in 1920s Berlin.


title: History of Berlin

text: In 1922, the railway system, that connected Berlin to its neighboring cities and villages was electrified and transformed into the S-Bahn, and a year later Tempelhof airport was opened. Berlin was the second biggest inland harbor in the country. All this infrastructure was needed to transport and feed the over 4 million Berliners.


title: History of Berlin

text: Before the 1929 crash, 450,000 people were unemployed. In the same year, the Nazi Party won its first seats in the city parliament. Nazi Propaganda chief Joseph Goebbels became Gauleiter (party district leader) of Berlin in 1926. On July 20, 1932, the Prussian government under Otto Braun in Berlin was dismissed by presidential decree. The republic was nearing its breakdown, under attack by extreme forces from the right and the left. On January 30, 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany.


title: History of Berlin

text: By 1931, the Great Depression had severely damaged the city's economy. Politics were in chaos, as militias controlled by the Nazis and the Communists fought for control of the streets. President Hindenburg appointed Hitler chancellor in January 1933, and the Nazis quickly moved to take complete control of the entire nation. On February 27, 1933, a left-wing radical was alleged to have set afire the Reichstag building (a fire which was later believed to have been set by the Nazis themselves); the fire gave Hitler the opportunity to set aside the constitution. Tens of thousands of political opponents fled into exile or were imprisoned. All civic organizations, except the churches, came under Nazi control.


title: History of Berlin

text: Around 1933, some 160,000 Jews were living in Berlin: one third of all German Jews, 4% of the Berlin population. A third of them were poor immigrants from Eastern Europe, who lived mainly in the "Scheunenviertel" near Alexanderplatz. The Jews were persecuted from the beginning of the Nazi regime. In March, all Jewish doctors had to leave the Charité hospital. In the first week of April, Nazi officials ordered the German population not to buy from Jewish shops.


title: History of Berlin

text: The 1936 Summer Olympics were held in Berlin and used as a showcase for Nazi Germany (though the Games had been given to Germany before 1933). In order to not alienate the foreign visitors, the "forbidden for Jews" signs were temporarily removed.


title: History of Berlin

text: Nazi rule destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which numbered 160,000 before the Nazis came to power. After the pogrom of Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's Jews were imprisoned. Around 1939, there were still 75,000 Jews living in Berlin. The majority of German Jews in Berlin were taken to the Grunewald railway station in early 1943 and shipped in stock cars to death camps such as the Auschwitz, where most were murdered in the Holocaust. Only some 1200 Jews survived in Berlin by hiding. Approximately 800 Jews survived in Berlin's Jewish Hospital. Causes for their survival include bureaucratic infighting, hospital director Dr. Walter Lustig's relationship with Adolf Eichmann, the Nazis' bizarre system for classifying persons of partly Jewish ancestry, German leader Adolf Hitler's ambivalence about how to handle Jews of German descent, and the fact that the Nazis needed a place to treat Jews.


title: History of Berlin

text: Thirty kilometers () northwest of Berlin, near Oranienburg, was Sachsenhausen concentration camp, where mainly political opponents and Russian prisoners of war were incarcerated. Tens of thousands died there. Sachsenhausen had subcamps near industries, where the prisoners had to work. Many of these camps were in Berlin.


title: History of Berlin

text: In the late 1930s Hitler and his architect Albert Speer made plans for the new Berlin—a world city or "Welthauptstadt Germania". All the projects were to be of gigantic size. Adjacent to the Reichstag, Speer planned to construct the "Volkshalle" (The People's Hall), 250 m high, with an enormous copper dome. It would be large enough to hold 170,000 people. From the People's Hall, a southbound avenue was planned, the Avenue of Victory, 23 m wide and long. At the other end there would have been the new railway station, and next to it Tempelhof Airport. Halfway down the avenue there would have been a huge arch 117 m high, commemorating those fallen during the world wars. With the completion of these projects (planned for 1950), Berlin was to be renamed "Germania."


title: History of Berlin

text: The war postponed all construction, as the city instead built giant concrete towers as bases for anti-aircraft guns. Today only a few structures remain from the Nazi era, such as the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium" (National Ministry of Aviation), Tempelhof International Airport, and Olympiastadion. Hitler's Reich Chancellery was demolished by Soviet occupation authorities.


title: History of Berlin

text: Initially Berlin was at the extreme range of British bombers and attacks had to be made in clear skies during summer, increasing the risk to the attackers. Better bombers came into service in 1942 but most of the British bombing effort that year was spent in support of the Battle of the Atlantic against German submarines.


title: History of Berlin

text: Destruction of buildings and infrastructure was nearly total in parts of the inner city business and residential sectors. The outlying sections suffered relatively little damage. This averages to one fifth of all buildings, and 50% in the inner city.


title: History of Berlin

text: By war's end up to a third of Berlin had been destroyed by concerted Allied air raids, Soviet artillery, and street fighting. The so-called "Stunde Null"—zero hour—marked a new beginning for the city. Greater Berlin was divided into four sectors by the Allies under the London Protocol of 1944, as follows:


title: History of Berlin

text: The Soviet victors of the Battle of Berlin immediately occupied all of Berlin. They handed the American, British and French sectors (later known as West Berlin) to the American and British Forces in July 1945: the French occupied their sector later. Berlin remained divided until reunification in 1990.


title: History of Berlin

text: The Soviets used the period from May 1945 to July 1945 to dismantle industry, transport and other facilities in West Berlin, including removing railway tracks, as reparations for German war damage in the Soviet Union. This practice continued in East Berlin and the Soviet occupation zone after 1945. Conditions were harsh, and hundreds of thousands of refugees from the east kept pouring in. Residents depended heavily on the black market for food and other necessities.


title: History of Berlin

text: Berlin's unique situation as a city half-controlled by Western forces in the middle of the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany made it a natural focal point in the Cold War after 1947. Though the city was initially governed by a Four Power Allied Control Council with a leadership that rotated monthly, the Soviets withdrew from the council as east–west relations deteriorated and began governing their sector independently. The council continued to govern West Berlin, with the same rotating leadership policy, though now involving only France, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


title: History of Berlin

text: East Germany chose East Berlin as its capital when the country was formed out of the Soviet occupation zone in October 1949; however, this was rejected by Western allies, who continued to regard Berlin as an occupied city that was not legally part of any German state. In practice, the government of East Germany treated East Berlin as an integral part of the nation. Although half the size and population of West Berlin, it included most of the historic center.


title: History of Berlin

text: By the establishment of the Oder-Neisse line and the complete expulsion of the German inhabitants east of this line, Berlin lost its traditional hinterlands of Farther Pomerania and Lower Silesia.


title: History of Berlin

text: West Germany, formed on 23 May 1949 from the American, British, and French zones, had its seat of government and "de facto" capital in Bonn, although Berlin was symbolically named the "de jure" West German capital in West German Basic Law (Grundgesetz).


title: History of Berlin

text: West Berlin "de jure" remained under the rule of the Western Allies, but for most practical purposes was treated as a part of West Germany; however the residents did not hold West German passports.


title: History of Berlin

text: In response to Allied efforts to fuse the American, French, and British sectors of western Germany into a federal state, and to a currency reform undertaken by Western powers without Soviet approval, the Soviets blocked ground access to West Berlin on 26 June 1948, in what became known as the "Berlin Blockade". The Soviet goal was to gain control of the whole of Berlin. The American and British air forces engaged in a massive logistical effort to supply the western sectors of the city through the Berlin Airlift, known by West Berliners as "die Luftbrücke" (the Air Bridge). The blockade lasted almost a year, ending when the Soviets once again allowed ground access to West Berlin on 11 May 1949.


title: History of Berlin

text: As part of this project, US Army engineers expanded Tempelhof Airport. Because sometimes the deliveries contained sweets and candy for children, the planes were also nicknamed "Candy Bombers".


title: History of Berlin

text: With Stalin dead, the KGB chief Lavrenti Beria jockeyed for power in the Kremlin, putting forth the goal of German reunification. His plan was to set up a workers' demonstration that would allow the Kremlin to remove hardliner Walter Ulbricht and begin a program of economic concessions to the workers. The plan failed when the demonstrations assumed a mass character. The strike against poor wages and working conditions overnight became a workers' revolution for democratic rights. On 17 June, the Soviets used their tanks to restore order. This failure delayed German unification and contributed to the fall of Beria. It started when 60 construction workers building the showpiece Stalin-Allee in East Berlin went on strike on 16 June 1953, to demand a reduction in recent work-quota increases. They called for a general strike the next day, 17 June. The general strike and protest marches turned into rioting and spread throughout East Germany. The East German police failed to quell the unrest. It was forcibly suppressed by Soviet troops, who encountered stiff resistance from angry crowds across East Germany, and responded with live ammunition. At least 153 people were killed in the suppression of the uprising.


title: History of Berlin

text: The continuation of the street "Unter den Linden" on the western side of the Brandenburg Gate was renamed "Straße des 17. Juni" in honor of the uprising, and 17 June was proclaimed a national holiday in West Germany. The 50th anniversary of 17 June 1953 in 2003 was marked by reflection on the role of memory in creating a national identity for a unified Germany.