title: Alpha compositing

text: Premultiplication can reduce the available relative precision in the RGB values when using integer or fixed-point representation for the color components, which may cause a noticeable loss of quality if the color information is later brightened or if the alpha channel is removed. In practice, this is not usually noticeable because during typical composition operations, such as OVER, the influence of the low-precision color information in low-alpha areas on the final output image (after composition) is correspondingly reduced. This loss of precision also makes premultiplied images easier to compress using certain compression schemes, as they do not record the color variations hidden inside transparent regions, and can allocate fewer bits to encode low-alpha areas. The same “limitations” of lower quantisation bit depths such as 8 bit per channel are also present in imagery without alpha, and this argument is problematic as a result.


title: Alpha compositing

text: The RGB values of typical digital images do not directly correspond to the physical light intensities, but are rather compressed by a gamma correction function:


title: Alpha compositing

text: This transformation better utilizes the limited number of bits in the encoded image by choosing formula_12 that better matches the non-linear human perception of luminance.


title: Alpha compositing

text: Accordingly, computer programs that deal with such images must decode the RGB values into a linear space (by undoing the gamma-compression), blend the linear light intensities, and re-apply the gamma compression to the result:


title: Alpha compositing

text: When combined with premultiplied alpha, pre-multiplication is done in linear space, prior to gamma compression. This results in the following formula:


title: Alpha compositing

text: Although used for similar purposes, transparent colors and image masks do not permit the smooth blending of the superimposed image pixels with those of the background (only whole image pixels or whole background pixels allowed).


title: Alpha compositing

text: A similar effect can be achieved with a 1-bit alpha channel, as found in the 16-bit RGBA high color mode of the Truevision TGA image file format and related TARGA and AT-Vista/NU-Vista display adapters' high color graphic mode. This mode devotes 5 bits for every primary RGB color (15-bit RGB) plus a remaining bit as the "alpha channel".


title: Alpha compositing

text: Screendoor transparency can be used to simulate partial occlusion where only 1-bit alpha is available.


title: Alpha compositing

text: For some applications, a single alpha channel is not sufficient: a stained-glass window, for instance, requires a separate transparency channel for each RGB channel to model the red, green and blue transparency separately. More alpha channels can be added for accurate spectral color filtration applications.


title: Alpha compositing

text: The concept of an alpha channel was introduced by Alvy Ray Smith and in the late 1970s at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab, and fully developed in a 1984 paper by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff.


title: Alpha compositing

text: The use of the term "alpha" is explained by Smith as follows: "We called it that because of the classic linear interpolation formula formula_15 that uses the Greek letter formula_16 (alpha) to control the amount of interpolation between, in this case, two images A and B". That is, when compositing image A atop image B, the value of formula_16 in the formula is taken directly from A's alpha channel.


The Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform (; the acronym UDAR () translates to "strike" or "punch", ) is a political party in Ukraine headed by retired Ukrainian professional heavyweight boxer and the WBC world heavyweight champion emeritus Vitali Klitschko. The party has been an observer member of the European People's Party (EPP) since 2013.


title: Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform

text: Legally the party is the successor of Political Party "European Capital" (, Russian: Политическая партия "Европейская столица") which was registered in March 2005. In its last outing the party was founded on April 24, 2010, on the basis of the Vitali Klitschko Bloc (, Russian: Блок Виталия Кличко), a local political alliance in Kyiv (the capital of Ukraine).


text: In the 2014 parliamentary election, 30% of the Petro Poroshenko Bloc election list was filled by members of UDAR (as non-partisan) and UDAR leader Klitschko topped that list. The Petro Poroshenko Bloc won the election with 132 seats. UDAR officially merged into the Petro Poroshenko Bloc on 28 August 2015.


text: In May 2019 Klitschko announced that UDAR would take part independently in the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election.<ref name="7215407/ Klitschko"> Klitschko said that UDAR will go to the polls, Ukrayinska Pravda (May 18, 2019)</ref> In this election UDAR did compete as an independent party again, but only in 15 single-mandate constituencies and it failed to win any seats.


text: In the 2020 Kyiv local election UDAR won 30 of the 120 seats of the Kyiv City Council. In the same election Klitschko was reelected as Mayor of Kyiv with 50.52% of the votes.


text: The Political Party "European Capital" was registered in March 2005 (its party-leader was Ukrainian businessman Lev Partshaladze) and the party gained 0.04% of the votes during the Ukrainian parliamentary elections 2006; the party did not participate in the 2007 Ukrainian parliamentary elections. In February 2009 the party renamed itself Political Party "New Country". Lev Partshaladze was elected into the Kyiv City Council for the Vitaliy Klychko Bloc in 2008, but expelled from the faction, for repeatedly voting differently from the faction, on 2 December 2010.


text: On a party congress, held on 24 April 2010, the Political Party "New Country" (founded in 2005 as Political Party "European Capital and renamed into "New Country" 14 months before April 2010) renamed itself into Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform and elected boxer Vitali Klitschko as its leader. The party officially became Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform (UDAR) of Vitali Klitschko mid-July 2010.


text: During the 2010 Ukrainian local elections the party won about 400 representatives in municipalities and Oblast Councils (regional parliaments).


text: The Bloc of Vitali Klitschko faction in the Kyiv City Council changed its name to UDAR of Vitali Klitschko in February 2011. The party has a strong popularity in Kyiv.


text: In September 2011 party leader Klitschko stated that the party was considering the possibility of merging with other political parties before contending in the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary elections. In December 2011 UDAR of Vitali Klitschko and Civil Position where negotiating a unification. But Civil Position eventionally joined Batkivshchyna during these elections.


text: UDAR became a partner of the Christian Democratic Union of Germany in November 2011. Udar is supported by the German government and the Konrad Adenauer Foundation and received support in particular from Angela Merkel and also politicians from the conservative European People's Party. According to information gained by the German magazine DER SPIEGEL, the target was to "set up Klitschko purposefully as a new strong man in Kiew - in order to counter this way the Kremlin's growing influence". Support consisted in logistics, training and joint performances. Assistance was also promised by Christoph Heusgen, Ronald Pofalla and Guido Westerwelle.


text: UDAR did not join the Dictatorship Resistance Committee; but on 22 January 2012 it did sign an agreement on joint actions with that alliance.


text: Starting in March 2010 the party's popularity in opinion polls reached a level almost twice as high as the election threshold (which was raised to 5% in November 2011). The election list of the party was a mixture of candidates who used to represent parties from all over the political spectrum of Ukraine.


text: After a successful application the European People's Party started on 5 April 2012 the process of making UDAR an "observer member" of the organization.


text: In July 2012 party leader Klychko stated that his party would not cooperate with the Party of Regions in a new parliament.


text: Early August 2012 the party complained its candidates for people's deputies (and all other parties not involved in the first Azarov Government) suffered "psychological and physical pressure" and this "ten times higher than other parties".


text: Two weeks before the 28 October 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election UDAR withdrew 26 of its candidates running in single-member constituencies in favour of Batkivshchyna candidates and Batkivshchyna withdrew 26 parliamentary candidates in favor of UDAR in an attempt to maximise votes for the opposition. In the election the party won 13.97% of the national votes and 6 constituencies (it had competed in 183 of the 225 constituencies) and thus 40 parliamentary seats. Support for UDAR was the least diversified at the regional level compared with the results of the other leading parties. Independent candidates Yaroslav Dubnevych and Fedir Nehoi joined the UDAR parliamentary faction on 12 December 2012; the same day party leader Klitschko was elected to lead the party's faction.


text: Late December 2012 UDAR and the United National Movement from Georgia signed a cooperation agreement.


text: In May 2013 UDAR, Batkivshchyna and Svoboda vowed to coordinate their actions during the 2015 Ukrainian presidential election.


text: Party leader Klitschko confirmed on 28 February 2014 that he would take part in the 2014 Ukrainian presidential election(, this also ended the May 2013 agreement to coordinate with Batkivshchyna and Svoboda). But on 29 March 2014 announced that he had changed his mind and would run for the post of Mayor of Kyiv in the 2014 Kyiv local election (including Mayoral elections) set for 25 May 2014. In the 2014 Ukrainian presidential election Klitschko endorsed the candidacy of Petro Poroshenko. Klitschko won Kyiv's mayoral elections with almost 57% of the votes. Poroshenko was elected President of Ukraine on 25 May 2014. Klitschko was sworn in as Mayor on 5 June 2014. The same day the Ukrainian parliament had deprived Klitschko of his MP mandate (Ukrainian MPs are not entitled to combine parliamentary activities with any other public employment). Hence Vitaliy Kovalchuk was elected to lead the party's faction in parliament on 7 June 2014.


text: On 2 September Kovalchuk stated that since his party and Petro Poroshenko Bloc had agreed to "joint participation in parliamentary elections" on 29 March 2014 the two parties were "in discussion" about "the format" for how to do so in the (late) October 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election. On 15 September it became clear that 30% of the Petro Poroshenko Bloc election list would be filled by members of UDAR and that UDAR leader Vitali Klitschko is at the top of this list, Klitschko vowed not to resign as incumbent Mayor of Kyiv. Petro Poroshenko Bloc went on to win the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election with 132 seats; surpassing the runner up People's Front which won 82 seats. However, People's Front did perform better than the Petro Poroshenko Bloc with 0.33% in the nationwide election under party lists (22.14% against 21.81%) but the party did win 69 constituency seats while People's Front won only 18 constituencies.


text: On 28 August 2015 Petro Poroshenko Bloc and UDAR merged into 1 party, Petro Poroshenko Bloc. At the unifying congress (of 28 August 2015) Klitschko was elected as leader of this party.


text: In 2017 UDAR was still registered as a political party and it employed two persons. According to former UDAR member and Ukrainian lawmaker Dmytro Belotserkovets it was necessary that "the party performs only the technical functions necessary in terms of Ukrainian legislation."


text: On 18 May 2019 party leader Klitschko announced that the party would take part in the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election.


text: On 4 June Klitschko offered former President of Georgia Mikheil Saakashvili to join the leadership of his party and to take part in the July 2019 early parliamentary elections with UDAR, Saakashvili turned down the offer.


text: In the July 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election the party only competed in 15 single-mandate constituencies. It failed to win any seats. The party's most successful candidate was who won 14.83% of the votes in constituency 89 located in Sniatyn (Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast). Its second most successful candidate, Valentyn Mondryivskyi, gained 4.84% of the votes in Kyiv's Podilskyi District.


text: In the election for Mayor of Kyiv of the 2020 Kyiv local election UDAR nominated incumbent mayor Klitschko as their candidate. Klitschko was last reelected in the election with 50.52% of the votes, in the first round of the election. UDAR won 30 Kyiv City Council seats in the 2020 Kyiv local election. In total in the whole of Ukraine the party gained 187 deputies (0.43% of all available mandates). In the elections for the Kyiv Oblast Council the party did not win any seats after finishing 9th place in the election.


text: UDAR tends to avoid sensitive and polarising subjects and focuses instead on popular topics, such as more empowerment to ordinary Ukrainians and a ruthless campaign against corruption, the indifference of the authorities, the lack of local governance, inequality, and poverty. The party wants to "unleash the power of the state and provide conditions for welfare".


text: The party is in favor of the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union (EU). It has made no stance on a possible NATO membership of Ukraine.


text: In education, the party wants to bring education in Ukraine to "European standards" by "development of external testing and monitoring the quality of education". UDAR wants to return to a 12-year compulsory secondary education with specialized training in the last two classes and three cycles of learning in higher education – bachelor's degree, master's degree and postgraduate. It also wants to guarantee autonomy of educational institutions by legislation.


text: The party wants to combat corruption in Ukraine with more transparency and the creation of an independent anti-corruption agency.


text: UDAR wants to reduce the number of state agencies in order "to minimize the interaction of the citizen with an official". And it wants to simplify procedures for registering property. It wants to reduce the number of taxes from 23 to 7 and to generally simplify the taxing system. "Owners of the land for agricultural purposes" should only be citizens of Ukraine.


text: UDAR wants to abolish the privileges of the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's parliament) and former Presidents of Ukraine and to reduce benefits for current parliamentarians.


text: The party has pledged to "reboot" the court system, and "reinforce the control of the public over elections".


text: The party is in favor of holding Citizens' initiatives after 150,000 signatures are collected. The party is in favor of elections with regional open lists and mayoral elections in two rounds. In local elections, it favors a voting age of 16 (currently 18). It also wants to introduce in Ukraine a law on impeachment of the President of Ukraine.


text: The party wants to simplify procedures for the establishment and registration of public and charitable organizations.


text: In June 2013, the party's parliamentary faction voted for the denunciation of the 2010 Ukrainian–Russian Naval Base for Natural Gas treaty.


title: Sarah Wynter

text: Sarah Wynter (born 15 February 1973) is an Australian actress, known for her roles on American television – such as Kate Warner on the television drama "24", as Beth on "Windfall", and as Keitha on "Flight of the Conchords".


title: Sarah Wynter

text: Wynter was born in Newcastle, New South Wales, the daughter of Helen Cummings, a worker in the Newcastle registry of the Family Court of Australia and lately authoress, and Stuart Wynter, a physician.


title: Sarah Wynter

text: Her grandmother, Joy Cummings, was the Lord Mayor of Newcastle – Australia's first female Lord Mayor. In 1984, her father killed his second wife and Sarah's half-sister before killing himself.


title: Sarah Wynter

text: Wynter earned her SAG card by landing a role on the "Sex and the City" pilot, playing what she later summarized as the first woman to have sex on that show.


title: Sarah Wynter

text: A few years later, she was recognized by SAG again, as part of the second-season cast of "24" when it earned a SAG Award nomination as Best Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series. Wynter played Kate Warner and appeared in all 24 episodes plus the third-season premiere, and she provided her voice for "". She had a recurring role in "The Dead Zone" and starred in the series "Windfall" in 2006.


title: Sarah Wynter

text: In 2009, Sarah appeared in "Unnatural Love", an episode of the second season of "Flight of the Conchords" as "Keitha", the Australian girlfriend of Jemaine. In 2013 she played the role of Whitney Robshaw in "Protest Too Much" the 17th episode of the third season of the CBS police procedural drama "Blue Bloods". She signed on to "Damages" in a recurring role. She guest starred in the episode "Identity Crisis" in the first season of "Person of Interest", and appeared in "Californication". She also appears on "" Season 18 episode "Motherly Love".


title: Sarah Wynter

text: Wynter's first movie was "Species II" as the fiancée of the infected astronaut Patrick Ross. Wynter appeared in "The 6th Day" alongside Arnold Schwarzenegger and "Lost Souls" with Winona Ryder as well as numerous independent movies such as "Shooting Livien". Her Australian feature film debut "Three Dollars", was released in 2005. She was also cast as Daisy Adair in "", the straight-to-DVD movie version of Showtime TV series "Dead Like Me", replacing Laura Harris who had played her sister on "24".


title: Sarah Wynter

text: Australian director Bruce Beresford cast Wynter as the lead in "Bride of the Wind", his ambitious 2001 biopic of Alma Mahler, the wife of composer Gustav Mahler (and, after Mahler's death, of architect Walter Gropius and subsequently of writer Franz Werfel).


title: Sarah Wynter

text: On 20 August 2005, Wynter married "Details" magazine editor-in-chief Dan Peres in Sydney. The couple have three children. After struggling with infertility, her first son was born in 2008. After two attempts at IVF and a miscarriage, Wynter gave birth to twin boys in 2011. Following the birth of the twins, Wynter developed postpartum psychosis which took several years for her to recover from. Wynter and Peres divorced in 2014.


title: Planking (fad)

text: Planking (or the Lying Down Game) is an activity consisting of lying in a face down position, sometimes in an unusual or incongruous location. The palms of the hands are typically touching the sides of the body and the toes are typically touching the ground. Some players compete to find the most unusual and original location in which to play. The term planking refers to mimicking a wooden plank. Planking can include lying flat on a flat surface, or holding the body flat while it is supported in only some regions, with other parts of the body suspended. Many participants in planking have photographed the activity in unusual locations and have shared such pictures through social media.


title: Planking (fad)

text: Planking gained popularity rapidly and eventually notoriety from early-mid 2011 before slowly phasing out in early 2012.


title: Planking (fad)

text: A planking-like activity, called "face dancing" by its participants, was initiated in 1984 in Edmonds, Washington in the US by Scott Amy and Joel Marshall. The two high school age boys were walking in a park when they came upon a baseball game. They decided to lie face down in right field to see if anyone would react.


title: Planking (fad)

text: The first video-recorded occurrence of planking was in 1994 when Tom Green performed a stunt he called "Dead Guy" for a cable TV show, which consisted of Green lying down on an Ottawa sidewalk without moving. Green, who was in an MTV show in the 1990s, is a comedian known for his pranks. He informed CNN about this video evidence and how it did not air on the show, stating that it was "a very obscure piece of video." Green tweeted "Just found video of me #planking in 1994. I will post it soon. Let people know. :)" on July 12, 2011.


title: Planking (fad)

text: However, the video sketch was never aired. So when, in 1997, two bored school boys in Taunton, England, started lying face-down in public places to amuse themselves and baffle onlookers, they could not have known of Green's stunt. Gary Clarkson (then aged 15) and Christian Langdon (then aged 12) called it the "lying down game". As Clarkson puts it, "It was just a really stupid, random thing to do." The Lying Down Game remained within Clarkson and Langdon's circle of friends until 2007, when their friend Daniel Hoppin created a Facebook page for their craze. As Hoppin says, "We began a Facebook group to see who could get the craziest photo."


title: Planking (fad)

text: The term "Planking" was coined by Sam Weckert, Darcy McCann and Kym Berry of Adelaide, South Australia: "Planking was a term myself and two other mates came up with in the summer of 2008". Weckert created a Facebook fan page to share "planking" photos. After reports of the practice started appearing in the Australian media, it grew rapidly and the meme became a global phenomenon. After reports of the craze in the British media in 2009, Planking spread to the rest of the world. Worldwide it has also been known as "extreme lying down" (2008, Australasia), "facedowns" (2010, USA and Ireland), and "planking" (2011, Australia, New Zealand and worldwide). In the years following its explosion in popularity, several variations on planking have proliferated, some inspired by the fad, and others that have arisen independently.


title: Planking (fad)

text: The popularity of planking has generated a backlash. Some people object to the more ridiculous photos that have circulated, such as a girl planking with her head in a toilet or a woman planking on a stripper pole. Also, planking in dangerous places has resulted in many injuries and at least one death.


title: Planking (fad)

text: Despite its origin as a form of humorous human position, planking has notable practical uses in certain athletic endeavors. As an example, the act of lowering one's perspective can convey important information. One application is reading greens on a golf course. PGA Tour professional golfer Martin Trainer is known to utilize his pioneering seal-style plank to read putting greens.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Baldassarre Cossa (c. 1370 – 22 December 1419) was Pisan antipope John XXIII (1410–1415) during the Western Schism. The Catholic Church regards him as an antipope, as he opposed Pope Gregory XII whom the Catholic Church now recognizes as the rightful successor of Saint Peter. He was also an opponent of Antipope Benedict XIII, who was recognized by the French clergy and monarchy as the legitimate Pontiff.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Cossa was born in the Kingdom of Naples. In 1403, he served as a papal legate in Romagna. He participated in the Council of Pisa in 1408, which sought to end the Western Schism with the election of a third alternative pope. In 1410, he succeeded Antipope Alexander V, taking the name John XXIII. At the instigation of Sigismund, King of the Romans, Pope John called the Council of Constance of 1413, which deposed John XXIII and Benedict XIII, accepted Gregory XII's resignation, and elected Pope Martin V to replace them, thus ending the schism. John XXIII was tried for various crimes, though later accounts question the veracity of those accusations. Towards the end of his life Cossa restored his relationship with the Church and was made Cardinal Bishop of Frascati by Pope Martin V.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Baldassarre Cossa was born on the island of Procida in the Kingdom of Naples, the son of Giovanni Cossa, lord of Procida. Initially he followed a military career, taking part in the Angevin-Neapolitan war. His two brothers were sentenced to death for piracy by Ladislaus of Naples.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: He studied law at the University of Bologna and obtained doctorates in both civil and canon law. Probably at the prompting of his family, in 1392 he entered the service of Pope Boniface IX, first working in Bologna and then in Rome. (The Western Schism had begun in 1378, and there were two competing popes at the time, one in Avignon supported by France and Spain, and one in Rome, supported by most of Italy, Germany and England.) In 1386 he is listed as canon of the cathedral of Bologna. In 1396, he became archdeacon in Bologna. He became Cardinal deacon of Saint Eustachius in 1402 and Papal legate in Romagna in 1403. Johann Peter Kirsch describes Cossa as "utterly worldly-minded, ambitious, crafty, unscrupulous, and immoral, a good soldier but no churchman". At this time Cossa also had some links with local robber bands, which were often used to intimidate his rivals and attack carriages. These connections added to his influence and power in the region.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Cardinal Cossa was one of the seven cardinals who, in May 1408, withdrew their allegiance from Pope Gregory XII, stating that he had broken his solemn oath not to create new cardinals without consulting them in advance. In company with those cardinals who had been following Antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, they convened the Council of Pisa, of which Cossa became a leading figure. The aim of the council was to end the schism; to this end they deposed both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII and elected a new pope Alexander V in 1409. Gregory and Benedict ignored this decision, however, so that there were now three simultaneous claimants to the papacy.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Alexander V died soon after, and on 25 May 1410 Cossa was consecrated a bishop, taking the name John XXIII. He had become an ordained priest only one day earlier. John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by France, England, Bohemia, Portugal, parts of the Holy Roman Empire, and numerous Northern Italian city states, including Florence and Venice and the Patriarchate of Aquileia; and in the beginning and in 1411-1413 by Hungary and Poland however, the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII was regarded as pope by the Kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Sicily and Scotland and Gregory XII was still favored by Ladislaus of Naples, Carlo I Malatesta, the princes of Bavaria, Louis III, Elector Palatine, and parts of Germany and Poland. John XXIII made the Medici Bank the bank of the papacy, contributing considerably to the family's wealth and prestige.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: The main enemy of John was Ladislaus of Naples, who protected Gregory XII in Rome. Following his election as pope, John spent a year in Bologna and then joined forces with Louis II of Anjou to march against Ladislaus. An initial victory proved short-lived and Ladislaus retook Rome in May 1413, forcing John to flee to Florence. In Florence he met Sigismund, King of the Romans. Sigismund wanted to end the schism and urged John to call a general council. John did so with hesitation, at first trying to have the council held in Italy (rather than in a German Imperial City, as Sigismund wanted). The Council of Constance was convened on 30 October 1413. During the third session, rival Pope Gregory XII authorized the council as well. The council resolved that all three popes should abdicate and a new pope be elected.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: In March, John escaped from Constance disguised as a postman. According to the Klingenberger Chronicle, written by a noble client of Frederick IV, Duke of Austria, John XXIII travelled down the Rhine to Schaffhausen in a boat, while Frederick accompanied him with a small band of men on horseback. There was a huge outcry in Constance when it was discovered that John had fled, and Sigismund was furious about this setback to his plans for ending the Schism. The King of the Romans issued orders to all the powers on the Upper Rhine and in Swabia stating that he had declared Frederick to be an outlaw and that his lands and possessions were forfeit. In due course this led to a great deal of political upheaval and many Austrian losses in the region, notably in Aargau to the Swiss Confederation.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: In the meantime, Antipope John XXIII and Frederick fled further downriver along the Rhine to the town of Freiburg im Breisgau, which recognised the duke of Austria as its lord. There Sigismund's lieutenant Ludwig III, Elector Palatine caught up with them. He convinced Frederick that he stood to lose too much by harbouring the fugitive pope, and the Austrian duke agreed to give himself and John up and return to Constance.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: During his absence John was deposed by the council, and upon his return he was tried for heresy, simony, schism and immorality, and found guilty on all counts. 18th century historian Edward Gibbon wrote, "The more scandalous charges were suppressed; the vicar of Christ was accused only of piracy, rape, sodomy, murder and incest." John was given over to Ludwig III, Elector Palatine, who imprisoned him for several months in Heidelberg and Mannheim.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: The last remaining claimant in Avignon, Benedict XIII, refused to resign and was excommunicated. Martin V was elected as new pope in 1417.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Cossa was again imprisoned in Germany. He was freed in 1418 after a heavy ransom was paid by the Medici. He went to Florence, where he submitted to Martin V, who made him Cardinal Bishop of Frascati. Cossa died only a few months later.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: The Medici oversaw the construction of his magnificent tomb by Donatello and Michelozzo in the Battistero di San Giovanni in Florence. Pope Martin V protested in vain against the inscription on the sarcophagus: "John the former pope".


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: J.P. Kirsch remarks that "Undeniably secular and ambitious, his moral life was not above reproach, and his unscrupulous methods in no wise accorded with the requirements of his high office ... the heinous crimes of which his opponents in the council accused him were certainly gravely exaggerated." One historian concluded that John was "a great man in temporal things, but a complete failure and worthless in spiritual things".


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: The 1932 thriller "Safe Custody" by Dornford Yates, references John. Listing the members of an objectionable family, a character in the story says:


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: "Then we come to his nephew—a promising lad of fifteen. He lies, steals, smells, assaults the servants and abuses any animal which he is satisfied will not retaliate. If Gibbon may be believed, Pope John the Twenty-third as a stripling must have resembled him".


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: Russian writer Dmitry Balashov wrote the novel "Baltazar Kossa" (Бальтазар Косса) about Antipope John XXIII.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: He should not be confused with Pope John XXIII of the twentieth century. When Angelo Roncalli was elected pope in 1958, there was some confusion as to whether he would be "John XXIII" or "John XXIV"; he then declared that he was John XXIII to put this question to rest. There was no John XX, since that number was skipped due to an error by Medieval Pope John XXI; this is why Gibbon refers to the antipope John as John XXII.


title: Antipope John XXIII

text: In 1983 political satirist/novelist Richard Condon ("The Manchurian Candidate") wrote "A Trembling Upon Rome", a novel of historical fiction about the life of Baldassare Cossa.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The Plymouth Satellite is a mid-size automobile introduced in the 1965 model year as the top trim model in Plymouth's "B" platform Belvedere line. Available initially in two-door hardtop and convertible models, the Satellite remained the top-of-the-line model until the 1967 model year. A station wagon version was added and a higher "Sport" trim introduced.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The Fury name was moved to Plymouth's mid-size models for 1975, at which time the Satellite name was discontinued.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: When the new, larger Plymouth Fury was introduced for 1965 on Chrysler's full-size C platform, the Plymouth Belvedere name was moved to Plymouth's "new" mid-size line for 1965. The Belvedere Satellite was the top trim model in the series, above the Belvedere I and II. It was available in two-door hardtop or convertible versions. Bucket seats and a center console were standard equipment, as well as a V8 engine. For 1965, the standard engine was the with optional , , as well as and Commando" engines. This 426 had the wedge combustion chamber design and is not the 426 "Hemi" that was offered in 1966. The front end featured single headlights on each side, and a grille divided into four thin rectangles laid horizontally.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The 1965 Satellite two-door hardtop total production was 23,341 units. It weighed with a base price of $2,612 ($ in dollars ). Convertible production was 1,860 units. It weighed and was priced at $2,827 in standard trim ($ in dollars ).


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The 1966 redesigned Satellite was available with a "Street Hemi" engine with two 4-barrel carburetors and 10.25:1 compression. This engine was rated at at 5,000 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm. The other V8 engine options for 1966 remained the 273, the 318 at , as well as the Commando 361 and Commando 383 at , down from its rating in 1965.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The 1967 Satellite was a carryover from 1966, but there were several trim changes. A new grille featured dual side-by-side headlights, a change in the rear trunk finish panel and taillights included multiple horizontal ribs. New horizontal aluminum trim at the lower body crease with lower silver paint gave all 1967 Satellites essentially a two-tone paint scheme. For 1966 and 1967, the interior vinyl seats and door panels were treated to a unique 'Western Scroll' design which mimicked tooled leather in appearance. This was the 'premium' interior shared with the GTX in 1967. For 1966 and 1967 the Satellite was again offered only in 2-door hardtop and convertible body styles and was powered by V8 engines. The 361 was discontinued for the 1967 models, but a 2-barrel 383 producing was optional, as well as 4-barrel version rated at .


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: A restyled and higher trimmed Sport Satellite model with a standard 318 V8 was introduced in 1968, sitting above the regular Satellites. The Sport Satellite received the same blacked-out grille with horizontal blades as used on the Road Runner whereas the regular Satellite shared its grille with Belvederes. A 4-door sedan and station wagon were offered on the Satellite line for the first time. There were no Sport Satellite sedans in 1968, but a Satellite Sport Wagon was available. These had Sport Satellite trim and simulated woodgrain body side trim. A Sport Satellite four-door sedan was added to the lineup in 1969, and the wagons became a part of the regular Sport Satellite line.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The 1968 model year was also the introduction of the Plymouth Road Runner that shared the same body as the Satellite and Belvedere models.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: The 1968 body continued through 1970, with new grilles in 1969 and a minor front and rear restyling for 1970, which was the last year for the Belvedere name.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: A new design was introduced for the 1971 model year. The Satellite adopted new "fuselage" styling - in line with the facelifts on the larger Chrysler C-Body models - on the two-door, four-door, and wagon models. Unlike previous years, 4-door sedans and 2-door coupes did not share sheet metal and each carried unique styling. Sedans were available in base, Custom, and Brougham trim, while two-doors were available in 5 trim levels. All VIN numbers started with the letter R for Satellite followed be the letter for the trim ordered RL(LOW)code was the base model for the Satellite, RM (Medium) Satellite Roadrunner, RH (High) Satellite Sebring, RP (Premium) Satellite Sebring Plus and top-of-the-line RS (Special) Satellite GTX. Two-door models had a loop-type front bumper, 2-door coupes had a wheelbase of 115 inches, while 4-door sedans, as well as station wagons, had a wheelbase of 117 inches.


title: Plymouth Satellite

text: For the 1973 model year, the two-door models – received a more conventional front-end design, with squared-up sheet metal and rear side windows. Safety requirements for the 1974 model year included bumpers for the sedans and wagons. The Satellite name was dropped after 1974, after which Plymouth's intermediate offerings on the B-body chassis took the Plymouth Fury name. The Satellite Sebring, named for the Sebring International Raceway in Sebring, Florida, was replaced by the Chrysler Cordoba (a car which was originally intended to be called Plymouth Sebring) and shared an all-new body with the Dodge Charger. The Sebring name would be revived by Chrysler on an unrelated model in 1995.


title: Jade Chynoweth

text: She is known for her roles as young Artemisia in the 2014 epic action film "" and Carmen in the 2016 superhero film "", for her recurring role as Kathleen Nolan on the TNT television series "The Last Ship" and Odalie Allen on the Starz/YouTube Premium series "Step Up".


title: Jade Chynoweth

text: She first appeared as the Street Dancer in 2012 comedy musical series "Dr. Fubalous". Her debut film role was as young Artemisia in the 2014 epic historical fantasy war film "".


title: Jade Chynoweth

text: In December 2018, she appeared on "The Voice" dancing while singer Halsey performed her song "Without Me". The performance received backlash for how Halsey "sensually" danced with Chynoweth; the backlash in turn was criticized as homophobic and Halsey defended her performance.


title: Livingston family

text: The Livingston family of New York is a prominent family that migrated from Scotland to the Dutch Republic, and then to the Province of New York in the 17th century. Descended from the 4th Lord Livingston, its members included signers of the United States Declaration of Independence (Philip Livingston) and the United States Constitution (William Livingston). Several members were Lords of Livingston Manor and Clermont Manor, located along the Hudson River in 18th-century eastern New York.


title: Livingston family

text: Descendants of the Livingstons include Presidents of the United States George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, First Lady of the United States Eleanor Roosevelt, suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Congressman Bob Livingston of Louisiana, much of the wealthy Astor family, New York Governor Hamilton Fish, actor Montgomery Clift, and actress Jane Wyatt. The eccentric Collyer brothers are alleged to have been descended from the Livingston family.


title: Livingston family

text: The Livingston family's burial crypt was established in 1727 at Livingston Memorial Church and Burial Ground in New York. Liberty Hall (also known as the William Livingston House) is the home built by New Jersey Governor William Livingston, a signatory of the Constitution. Located in Elizabethtown, New Jersey, it has been designated as a National Historic Landmark, and it is operated as a museum within the Liberty Hall Campus of Kean University.


title: Bongo drum

text: Bongos () are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed hand drums of different sizes. They are struck with both hands, most commonly in an eight-stroke pattern called "martillo" (hammer). They are mainly employed in the rhythm section of son cubano and salsa ensembles, often alongside other drums such as the larger congas and the stick-struck timbales.


title: Bongo drum

text: Bongo drummers ("bongoseros") emerged as the only drummers of son cubano ensembles in eastern Cuba toward the end of the 19th century. The instrument remained important as son groups evolved into larger "conjuntos" and orchestras in Havana in the 1940s, at which point they began to share the stage with congas. Bongos later reached the United States, where they are commonly played in salsa, Afro-Cuban jazz, Latin rock and other genres.


title: Bongo drum

text: Bongo drums are about high and have diameters of approximately and (the smaller drum is called "macho", male, and the larger drum, "hembra", female). They are the smallest drums in Latin percussion, some models being only in diameter. The shells of the drums and the bridge (the small block that joins them) are usually made of wood, although fiberglass is also common. The heads are typically made of calfskin and attached to the shells via steel hardware that enables their tuning. Originally, metal tacks were used, so tuning had to be done by heating the skins.


title: Bongo drum

text: The origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Its use was first documented in the Eastern region of Cuba, the Oriente Province, during the late 19th century, where it was employed in popular music styles such as nengón, changüí, and their descendant, the son cubano. According to Fernando Ortiz, the word "bongó" derived from the Bantu words "mgombo" or "ngoma", meaning drum. He hypothesizes that the word evolved through metathesis and by similarity with another Bantu word, "mbongo". In Holguín, certain drums which are considered possible ancestors of the "bongó" are known as "tahona", which might have a been a generic word for drum in Cuba and also refers to an unrelated music genre.


title: Bongo drum

text: Most sources on Afro-Cuban cultural history argue that the bongo derives from Bantu drum models from Central Africa, noticeable in the open bottoms. The strong historical presence of Africans from the Congo/Angola region in Eastern Cuba (where the bongo first appeared) makes such an influence possible. Moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in both son cubano and changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum was in parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Therefore, the instrument has been described as "African in concept but Cuban in invention". This has been disputed, however, by several historians (most notably Haroldo Dilla Alfonso).


title: Bongo drum

text: The bongo entered Cuban popular music as a key instrument of early son ensembles, quickly becoming—due to the increasing popularity of the son—"the first instrument with an undeniable African


title: Bongo drum

text: past to be accepted in Cuban “society” circles". This is attested, for example, in poems by Nicolás Guillén. As son evolved and distanced itself from its precursor, the changüí, so did the bongos. The bongos used in changüí, known as "bongó de monte", are larger and tuned lower than their modern counterparts, have tack-heads instead of tunable hardware, and play in a manner similar to the lead conga drum (quinto) and other folkloric lead drum parts. Unlike modern son, changüí never extended its popularity beyond eastern Cuba, and hence its bongos remain a rare sight. It is commonly accepted that the son reached Havana partly as a result of the arrival of musicians members of Cuba's "ejército permanente" (permanent army), which brought music from eastern Cuba with them. Among the first known "bongoseros" to enlist in the "ejército permanente" in Santiago de Cuba was Mariano Mena.


title: Bongo drum

text: During the "sexteto" era, son groups began performing and touring more than ever before, and for the first time, recordings were being made. It was in this context that the first great innovators of the bongo made their mark, and unlike their predecessors, their names were not lost in time. Of particular note were Óscar Sotolongo of the Sexteto Habanero and José Manuel Carriera Incharte "El Chino" of the Sexteto Nacional, the two leading groups of the 1920s and '30s. Sotolongo himself would later leave the Habanero and direct his own group, the Conjunto Típico Cubano. His replacement was Agustín Gutiérrez "Manana", who is widely considered one of the most influential "bongoseros", partly due to his condition as an Abakuá member, which allowed him to develop techniques based on the ekué (secret drum) drumming of such society. In 1930, Sotolongo's son, Andrés Sotolongo replaced Gutiérrez in the Habanero. Decades later, at 82 years of age, Andrés Sotolongo was recorded for the "Routes of Rhythm" documentary playing alongside Isaac Oviedo.


title: Bongo drum

text: The 1930s saw an increase in the technical skill of "bongoseros", as evidenced by Clemente "Chicho" Piquero, whose virtuosic performances inspired a young Mongo Santamaría to take up the instrument. By the early 1940s, Santamaría had become a master of the instrument, performing with the Lecuona Cuban Boys, Sonora Matancera, Conjunto Matamoros and Arsenio Rodríguez's "Conjunto Segundo" among others. Arsenio had pioneered the "conjunto" format by incorporating a "tumbadora" (conga drum) into the rhythm section and having the "bongosero" double on cowbell. Arsenio's long-time "bongosero" was Antolín "Papa Kila" Suárez, who is often cited as one of the greatest of his time along with Pedro Mena of the Conjunto Matamoros. Arsenio's group also helped break the barriers of race, which particularly affected "bongoseros". For example, the Orquesta Casino de la Playa did not allow their black "bongosero" Ramón Castro to perform on stage, nor was Arsenio allowed on the tres. The Casino de la Playa would also feature "bongosero" Cándido Requena, who later joined the Conjunto Kubavana and Conjunto Niágara, and became one of Cuba's foremost makers of bongos and "tumbadoras". Requena, as well as the Vergara brothers, were instrumental in the technological improvement of bongos and congas. Before the advent of mechanically tunable bongos and congas in the 1940s, both instruments used to be tuned with oil or kerosene lamps. The heat of the flame was used to contract the drumhead to achieve the desired sound.


title: Bongo drum

text: Following the popularization of the "tumbadora", Santamaría switched to the instrument, while remaining a close friend of "bongosero" Armando Peraza. Both moved to New York by 1950, bringing their music abilities with them. Among the "bongoseros" who stayed in Cuba were the aforementioned Chicho Piquero, who had become a close friend of Benny Moré in Mexico and became his Banda Gigante's "bongosero" back in Cuba. Also important during the 1950s were Papa Gofio of the Conjunto Rumbavana and Rogelio "Yeyo" Iglesias, the main bongo player in Havana's descarga scene. Over the course of the 20th century, the bongo spread throughout Latin America. In the Dominican Republic, the bongo became integral to bachata, a genre related to bolero that emerged in the 1960s.


title: Bongo drum

text: Spearheaded by the iconic "conguero" Chano Pozo, the late 1940s saw an exodus of Afro-Cuban percussionists from Cuba to the United States. Among the leading "bongoseros" of Cuban origin in the United States were Armando Peraza, Chino Pozo (unrelated to Chano) and Rogelio Darias, who had a long career in Las Vegas and was known as the King of the Bongo. Many others, however, would become primarily conga players, such as Mongo Santamaría, Sabú Martínez and Cándido Camero.


title: Bongo drum

text: The Latin music scene of New York, and the US in general, was primarily constituted by Puerto Ricans, and many influential "bongoseros" were Puerto Ricans who learned from Cubans. An early example is Rafael "Congo" Castro, who arrived in New York in 1924 and had a long career as a "bongosero" in Chicago until the 1980s. In New York, many Puerto Rican "bongoseros" would go on to join the pioneering Afro-Cuban jazz ensembles of the time such as Machito and his Afro-Cubans, whose singles "Tangá" and "Mango mangüé"—considered the first examples of the genre—featured José Mangual Sr. "Buyú" on bongos. Mangual's prolific career was continued by his sons José Mangual Jr. and Luis Mangual, who played in a variety of salsa groups in the 1970s. The two biggest Latin orchestras of the 1950s in New York, led by Tito Puente and Tito Rodríguez, were home to two generations of "bongoseros" represented by Johnny "La Vaca" Rodríguez and his son Johnny "Dandy" Rodríguez, of Puerto Rican ancestry.


title: Bongo drum

text: Other Puerto Rican musicians who made a name for themselves on the bongos were Richie Bastar of El Gran Combo de Puerto Rico, Ralph Marzán of Johnny Pacheco's charanga, "Little" Ray Romero, Frank Colón and Roberto Roena. On the other hand, American master "bongoseros" include Jack Costanzo and Willie Bobo, the latter more active on timbales. Other "bongoseros" who had more impact as "timbaleros" were Manny Oquendo, Orestes Vilató and Nicky Marrero. American novelty rock acts such as Preston Epps and Michael Viner's Incredible Bongo Band capitalized on the popularity of the instrument as well as its "exotic" and rhythmic qualities.


title: Bongo drum

text: Bongo drums produce relatively high-pitched sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the knees with the larger drum on the right when right-handed. It is most often played by hand and is especially associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or ostinato of eighth-notes known as the "martillo" (hammer). They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers and palms. The glissando used with "bongó de monte" is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva, or sweat before rubbing it across the head.


title: Bongo drum

text: When playing son cubano and other popular genres, the "macho" is on the left and the "hembra" on the right. In changüí, the "bongó de monte" is positioned the opposite way. Playing patterns are also different in changüí, where the "bongó" does not follow a steady beat. Instead, it usually marks offbeats and beat four while improvising. Thus, the playing technique in changüí resembles that of the congas (moreover, their pitch is often lower than both bongos and congas). This reflects it origin, since the "bongó del monte" evolved from pairs of "bokús", a larger drum from eastern Cuba similar to the conga.


title: Bongo drum

text: Bongos can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras and bands. In classical music performances, bongos are usually struck with mallets or drumsticks. Examples of pieces featuring bongos include "Ionisation" by Varèse (1931), "Le Marteau sans maître" by Boulez (1955) and "In seinem Garten liebt Don Perlimplin Belisa" by Fortner (1962).


title: Big Jay Oakerson

text: Jason Michael "Big Jay" Oakerson (born December 7, 1977) is an American stand-up comedian, radio show host, podcaster and actor.


title: Big Jay Oakerson

text: Oakerson was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and grew up in West Philadelphia. Oakerson moved to the Blackwood section of Gloucester Township, New Jersey with his mother and step-father who worked full-time, in his senior year of high school. His father was absent for most of his childhood. He enrolled at Camden Community College but left after a month to pursue comedy. He worked as a chauffeur/bouncer for strippers and children's parties to make ends meet. He has opened for Dave Attell and toured with Korn before touring as a headliner.


title: Big Jay Oakerson

text: His television credits include "Comedy Central's Premium Blend", "Comedy Central Presents", "Inside Amy Schumer", "Tough Crowd with Colin Quinn", and "This Is Not Happening with Ari Shaffir", along with multiple appearances on BET's Comic View, HBO's "P. Diddy's Bad Boys of Comedy" and "Crashing". He co-hosted "Movies on Tap" on Spike TV. He played Neil on the series "Z Rock" and appeared in the pilot episode of "Louie", as well as an episode in the third season. On December 1, 2014, Oakerson headlined a free charity show for supporters of morning show "Preston & Steve" and radio station WMMR in Philadelphia for the annual "Campout for Hunger" which supports "Philabundance". On June 17, 2016, Oakerson released his first hour long special titled, "Live At Webster Hall". He also hosted "Big Jay Oakerson's What's Your F@%king Deal?!" on Seeso.


title: Big Jay Oakerson

text: Oakerson hosts a podcast called "Legion of Skanks" with fellow comedians, Luis J. Gomez and Dave Smith. He also co-hosts the podcast "The SDR Show" on Gas Digital Network's station with Ralph Sutton (who co-owns the network with Luis J. Gomez).


title: Big Jay Oakerson

text: On July 27, 2015, Oakerson, along with fellow stand-up comedian Dan Soder, began their two-hour live radio talk show, "The Bonfire", on SiriusXM's Comedy Central Radio channel airing every Monday through Thursday (previously Mondays and Wednesdays) from 6-8pm EST. As of March 1, 2021, the show has aired on Faction Talk from 5-7pm EST after Comedy Central Radio ceased production on all of its talk shows.


title: Big Jay Oakerson

text: Oakerson is separated from his wife Carla and they share custody of their daughter. He has been in a long-term relationship with Christine Evans, a radio producer. Oakerson is Jewish.


title: Regulating Act of 1773

text: The Regulating Act of 1773 (formally, the East India Company Act 1772) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to overhaul the management of the East India Company's rule in India. The Act did not prove to be a long-term solution to concerns over the company's affairs; Pitt's India Act was therefore subsequently enacted in 1784 as a more radical reform. It marked the first step towards parliamentary control over the company and centralised administration in India.


title: Regulating Act of 1773

text: By 1773, the East India Company was in dire financial straits. The company was important to the British Empire because it was a monopoly trading company in India and in the east and many influential people were shareholders. The Company paid (the present-day (2015) equivalent is £) annually to the government to maintain the monopoly but had been unable to meet its commitments since 1768 because of the loss of tea sales to America. About 85% of all the tea in America was smuggled Dutch tea. The East India Company owed money to both the Bank of England and the government: it had 15 million lbs ( million kg) of tea rotting in British warehouses and more en route from India. The Regulating Act 1773, was complemented by the Tea Act 1773, which had a principal objective that was to reduce the massive amount of tea held by the financially troubled British East India Company in its London warehouses and to help the financially struggling company survive.


title: Regulating Act of 1773

text: Lord North decided to overhaul the management of the India Company with the Regulating Act. This was the first step to the eventual government control of India. The Act set up a system whereby it supervised (regulated) the work of the East India Company.


title: Regulating Act of 1773

text: The company had taken over large areas of India for trading purposes and had an army to protect its interests. Company men were not trained to govern so North's government began moves towards government control since India was of national importance. Shareholders in the Company opposed the Act. The East India Company was still a powerful lobbying group in Parliament in spite of its financial problems.


title: Manmadhudu

text: Manmadhudu () is a 2002 Indian Telugu-language romantic comedy film directed by K. Vijaya Bhaskar from a story written by Trivikram Srinivas. Produced by Nagarjuna on Annapurna Studios, the film stars Nagarjuna, Sonali Bendre and Anshu, with music composed by Devi Sri Prasad.


title: Manmadhudu

text: Released on 20 December 2002, the film was commercially successful. The film received Nandi Award for Best Feature Film for that year. The film was later remade as "Aishwarya" (2006) in Kannada, and as "Priyotoma" (2006) in Bengali. A spiritual successor titled "Manmadhudu 2" was released in 2019.


title: Manmadhudu

text: Abhiram is a manager in an ad agency. He despises women and expresses his hatred every minute of the day. However, his workplace is populated by women, and he has to deal with it. Prasad, the chairman of the company and Abhiram's paternal uncle, appoints Harika as the new assistant manager, and Abhiram hates that yet another female employee has joined his office. He places a bug under her desk and uses it to steal her idea for a lipstick ad. He later accuses her of plagiarism, belittling her and questioning her originality. Eventually, Harika gets fed up with Abhi's verbal abuse and goes to Prasad to submit her resignation. Prasad asks her to think about it and tells her about Abhiram's past and why he despises women.


title: Manmadhudu

text: Abhi lost his parents when he was only two years old and his grandfather raises him. Abhi is the only heir to their family business and he enjoys life in his carefree way. He meets and falls in love with Maheswari, who is the niece of an employee in Abhi's grandfather's company. Alarmed that Abhi is just playing around with his niece, Maheswari's uncle takes her away to his hometown and arranges her engagement with another man. Abhi goes to where Maheswari is and attempts to assure her uncle that he is going to marry her and that he's serious about their relationship. But on the way to his grandfather's home, they meet with an accident, leaving Abhi unconscious. When Abhi wakes up, his grandfather tells him that Maheswari has married someone else, showing him the invitation card. Abhi feels cheated and starts to hate all women, thinking that they are all superficial and treacherous.


title: Manmadhudu

text: After listening to this, Harika feels sympathy towards Abhi's pain and his childlike mind. She decides to stay with the company and Prasad promotes her as manager and demotes Abhi to being an assistant manager for some time. Though infuriated, Abhi has no choice travel with Harika to Paris on a business trip. There they become close and Harika helps him with his phobia of water. Abhi starts to fall for Harika but is disappointed and distances himself from her when she reveals that she is engaged to be married.


title: Manmadhudu

text: After they come back to India, Abhi behaves childishly to get over his disappointment. Harika reciprocates his feelings but is confused about getting married as Abhi won't express his feelings to her. Meanwhile, Abhi's aunt reveals that Maheswari died in the accident they were in and they hid that information fearing that Abhi might not be able to recover from the shock of hearing such horrific news. Abhi realizes it was foolish of him to hate women but is too shocked to express his feelings to Harika. At last, Harika tells Abhi that her future marriage was her parents' choice, not hers, indirectly indicating that she is ready to come to him if he asks. Prasad learns that Abhi and Harika have feelings for each other and encourages Abhi to reveal them. But Abhi says that it is Harika who should say it and not him because previously as he did everything as he wanted, he lost Maheswari. Finally, Harika confesses her feelings over a phone call but due to network disturbance, Abhi isn't able to reply. Thinking that Abhi rejected her, she continues to go for her marriage. But in the end, Abhi reaches her and asks her to marry him and she breaks her previous engagement and marries him.


title: Manmadhudu

text: The music for this movie was composed by Devi Sri Prasad. The audio was released on 6 December 2002. An audio release function was held at an open dais erected outside glass house in Annapurna Studios. Telugu singer Sunitha anchored the event, the music director of the film Devi Sri Prasad performed some of the songs from the movie. The people who attended the event include Nagarjuna, director K. Vijaya Bhaskar, lyricist Seetharama Sastry, actors Brahmanandam and Tanikella Bharani.


title: Manmadhudu

text: Addressing the fans, Nagarjuna said, "I saw the complete movie yesterday and it came out really well. I can assure you that 'Manmadhudu' would become a super duper hit."


title: Manmadhudu

text: All songs are composed by Devi Sri Prasad. Five out of six songs had lyrics by Sirivennela Sitaramasastri. Music released was on SOHAN Music Company.


title: Manmadhudu

text: Jeevi of "Idlebrain.com" rated the film 4.5 out of 5 stating, "When director and hero have latest hits behind their back, the comparison is inevitable. This film is definitely better than "Santosham" (Nagarjuna's earlier film). "Manmadhudu" is as good as "Nuvvu Naaku Nachav" (Vijaya Bhaskar's earlier film). First half of the film is extremely entertaining (total comedy + flashback romance). And second half (comedy + story) is even better than first half. 95% of the scenes in the film are comedy dialogues. There are few sentiment scenes. But these very few sentiment scenes are bound to leave impact on you. Nagarjuna dominated the show and won accolades from audiences. It's a must recommended hilarious film for all Telugu film lovers."


title: Manmadhudu

text: "Sify" gave an extremely positive review and wrote, "Though the story is wafer thin, the director has been able to package the film well with an innovative presentation. Nagarjuna and Sonali are excellent and have played their roles with conviction. The music of Devi Sri Prasad is hummable. The film is out to wallop some fun ‘n’ frolic." It gave a verdict that it is a "Rip-Roaring Entertainer".


title: Manmadhudu

text: Kiran Nadella of "Fullhyd.com" rated the film 7.5 out of 10 stating, "Nagarjuna lends significantly to the character of Abhiram in one of his slickest cinematic performances ever. He perfectly captures the liveliness, complexity and frustration of Abhiram. Unquestionably, Manmathudu proves to be an enthralling vehicle for his crowd-pleasing comeback. Sonali gives a commendable performance as a young and struggling art director who is in love with Abhiram. Devi Sri Prasad's romantic and sometimes ominous musical score nicely complements the images on screen. The dialogues, penned by Trivikram, are chronically mind-boggling. Manmathudu gratifies on many levels. The direction maintains pace and intrigue, the performances are spot on, and the locations are simply sumptuous, be it Smokey Alps or a clean Hyderabad road. All things considered, if you can stomach the thirty minutes of echoing flashback, Manmathudu makes for one intense and rousing entertainment, and if you're on its quirky wavelength, it might just strike you as one of the funniest movies you've ever seen!"


title: Manmadhudu

text: The film was later remade as "Aishwarya" (2006) in Kannada, marking the debut of Deepika Padukone and also remade in Bengali as "Priyotoma" in 2006.


title: Manmadhudu

text: A spiritual successor of the film titled "Manmadhudu 2", also starring Nagarjuna was released in 2019.


title: East Tennessee

text: East Tennessee is one of the three Grand Divisions of Tennessee defined in state law. Geographically and socioculturally distinct, it comprises approximately the eastern third of the U.S. state of Tennessee. East Tennessee consists of 33 counties, 30 located within the Eastern Time Zone and three counties in the Central Time Zone, namely Bledsoe, Cumberland, and Marion. East Tennessee is entirely located within the Appalachian Mountains, although the landforms range from densely forested mountains to broad river valleys. The region contains the major cities of Knoxville and Chattanooga, Tennessee's third and fourth largest cities, respectively, and the Tri-Cities, the state's sixth largest population center.


title: East Tennessee

text: During the American Civil War, many East Tennesseans remained loyal to the Union even as the state seceded and joined the Confederacy. Early in the war, Unionist delegates unsuccessfully attempted to split East Tennessee into a separate state that would remain as part of the Union. After the war, a number of industrial operations were established in cities in the region. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), created by Congress during the Great Depression in the 1930s, spurred economic development and helped to modernize the region's economy and society. The TVA would become the nation's largest public utility provider. Today, the TVA's administrative operations are headquartered in Knoxville and its power operations are based in Chattanooga. Oak Ridge was the site of the world's first successful uranium enrichment operations, which were used to construct the world's first atomic bombs, two of which were dropped on Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. The Appalachian Regional Commission further transformed the region in the late 20th century.


title: East Tennessee

text: East Tennessee is both geographically and culturally part of Appalachia, and has been included— along with Western North Carolina, North Georgia, Eastern Kentucky, Southwest Virginia, the state of West Virginia, western Maryland, and southwestern Pennsylvania — in every major definition of the Appalachian region since the early 20th century. East Tennessee is home to the nation's most visited national park— the Great Smoky Mountains National Park— and hundreds of smaller recreational areas. East Tennessee is often considered the birthplace of country music, due largely to the 1927 Victor recording sessions in Bristol, and throughout the 20th and 21st centuries has produced a steady stream of musicians of national and international fame.


title: East Tennessee

text: Unlike the geographic designations of regions of most U.S. states, the term East Tennessee has legal as well as socioeconomic and cultural meaning. East Tennessee, along with Middle Tennessee and West Tennessee, comprises one of the state's three Grand Divisions, whose boundaries are defined by state law. East Tennessee has a total land area of , making it the second-largest among the state's Grand Divisions, behind Middle Tennessee. East Tennessee's land area is approximately 32.90% of the state's total land area. The entirety of East Tennessee is both geographically and culturally part of Appalachia, and is usually also considered part of the Upland South. East Tennessee borders North Carolina to the east, Virginia to the northeast, Kentucky to the north, Georgia to the south, and Alabama in the extreme southwest corner.


title: East Tennessee

text: According to custom, the boundary between East and Middle Tennessee roughly follows the dividing line between Eastern and Central Time Zone. Exceptions to this rule are that Bledsoe, Cumberland, and Marion Counties are legally defined as part of East Tennessee, despite being within Central Time. Sequatchie County, located between Marion and Bledsoe Counties, is legally part of Middle Tennessee, but is often considered part of East Tennessee. Sequatchie County has also been defined as part of East Tennessee in the past, and Marion County has been included in Middle Tennessee. Some of the northeastern counties of Middle Tennessee that supported the Union during the American Civil War, including Fentress and Pickett, are sometimes culturally considered part of East Tennessee.


title: East Tennessee

text: East Tennessee is located within three major geological divisions of the Appalachian Mountains; the Blue Ridge Mountains on the border with North Carolina in the east, the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians (usually called the "Great Appalachian Valley" or "Tennessee Valley") in the center, and the Cumberland Plateau in the west, part of which is in Middle Tennessee. The southern tip of the Cumberland Mountains also extends into the region between the Cumberland Plateau and Ridge-and-Valley regions. Both the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountains are part of the larger Appalachian Plateau.


title: East Tennessee

text: The Blue Ridge section comprises the western section of the Blue Ridge Province, the crests of which forms most of the Tennessee-North Carolina border. At an average elevation of above sea level, this physiographic province contains the highest elevations in the state. The Blue Ridge region is subdivided into several subranges— the Iron Mountains, Unaka Range, and Bald Mountains in the north, the Great Smoky Mountains in the center, and the Unicoi Mountains and the Little Frog and Big Frog Mountain areas in the south. Clingmans Dome, at , is the state's highest point, and is located in the Great Smoky Mountains along the Tennessee-North Carolina border. Most of the Blue Ridge section is heavily forested and protected by various state and federal entities, the largest of which include the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and the Cherokee National Forest. The Appalachian Trail enters Tennessee in the Great Smoky Mountains, and roughly follows the border with North Carolina most of the distance to near the Roan Mountain, where it shifts entirely into Tennessee.


title: East Tennessee

text: The Ridge-and-Valley division is East Tennessee's largest, lowest lying, and most populous section. It consists of a series of alternating and paralleling elongate ridges with broad river valleys in between, roughly oriented northeast-to-southwest. This section's most notable feature, the Tennessee River, forms at the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers in Knoxville, and flows southwestward to Chattanooga. The lowest point in East Tennessee, at an elevation of approximately , is found where the Tennessee River enters Alabama in Marion County. Other notable rivers in the upper Tennessee watershed include the Clinch, Nolichucky, Watauga, Emory, Little Tennessee, Hiwassee, Sequatchie, and Ocoee rivers. Notable "ridges" in the Ridge-and-Valley range, which exceed elevations much greater than most surrounding ridges and are commonly referred to as mountains, include Clinch Mountain, Bays Mountain, and Powell Mountain.


title: East Tennessee

text: The Cumberland Plateau rises nearly above the Appalachian Valley, stretching from the Kentucky border in the north to the Georgia and Alabama borders in the south. It has an average elevation of , and consists mostly of flat-topped tablelands, although the northern section is slightly more rugged. The plateau also has many waterfalls and stream valleys separated by steep gorges. The "Tennessee Divide" runs along the western part of the plateau, and separates the watersheds of the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. Plateau counties mostly east of this divide— i.e. Cumberland, Morgan, and Scott— are grouped with East Tennessee, whereas plateau counties west of this divide, such as Fentress, Van Buren, and Grundy, are considered part of Middle Tennessee. Most of the Sequatchie Valley, a long narrow valley in the southeastern part of the Cumberland Plateau, is in East Tennessee. The part of the Plateau east of the Sequatchie Valley is called Walden Ridge. One notable detached section of the Plateau is Lookout Mountain, which overlooks Chattanooga. West of Chattanooga, the Tennessee River flows through the plateau in the Tennessee River Gorge.


title: East Tennessee

text: The Cumberland Mountains begin directly north of the Sequatchie Valley, and extend northward to the Cumberland Gap at the Tennessee-Kentucky-Virginia tripoint. While technically a separate physiographic region, the Cumberland Mountains are usually considered part of the Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee. The Cumberland Mountains reach elevations above in Tennessee, and their largest subrage is the Crab Orchard Mountains. The Cumberland Trail traverses the eastern escarpment of the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountains.


title: East Tennessee

text: The Official Tourism Website of Tennessee has a definition of East Tennessee slightly different from the legal definition; the website excludes Cumberland County while including Grundy and Sequatchie Counties.


title: East Tennessee

text: Most of East Tennessee has a humid subtropical climate, with the exception of some of the higher elevations in the Blue Ridge and Cumberland Mountains, which are classified as a cooler mountain temperate or humid continental climate. As the highest-lying region in the state, East Tennessee averages slightly lower temperatures than the rest of the state, and has the highest rate of snowfall, which averages more than annually in the highest mountains, although many of the lower elevations often receive no snow. The lowest recorded temperature in state history, at , was recorded at Mountain City on December 30, 1917. Fog is extremely common in East Tennessee, especially in the Ridge-and-Valley region, and often presents a significant hazard to motorists.


title: East Tennessee

text: East Tennessee is the second most populous and most densely populated of the three Grand Divisions. At the 2020 census it had 2,470,105 inhabitants living in its 33 counties, and increase of 142,561, or 6.12%, over the 2010 figure of 2,327,544 residents. Its population was 35.74% of the state's total, and its population density was . Prior to the 2010 census, East Tennessee was the most populous of the state's Grand Divisions, but was surpassed by Middle Tennessee, which contains the rapidly-growing Nashville and Clarksville metropolitan areas.


title: East Tennessee

text: Demographically, East Tennessee is one of the regions in the United States with one of the highest concentrations of people who identify as White or European American. In the 2010 census, every county in East Tennessee except for Knox and Hamilton, the two most populous counties, had a population that was greater than 90% White. In most counties in East Tennessee, persons of Hispanic or Latino origins outnumber African Americans, which is uncommon in the Southeastern United States. Large African American populations are found in Chattanooga and Knoxville, as well as considerable populations in several smaller cities.


title: East Tennessee

text: The major cities of East Tennessee are Knoxville, which is near the geographic center of the region; Chattanooga, which is in southeastern Tennessee at the Georgia border; and the "Tri-Cities" of Bristol, Johnson City, and Kingsport, located in the extreme northeasternmost part of the state. Of the ten metropolitan statistical areas in Tennessee designated by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), six are in East Tennessee. Also designated by the OMB in East Tennessee are the Knoxville-Sevierville-La Follette, Chattanooga-Cleveland-Athens and Tri-Cities combined statistical areas.


title: East Tennessee

text: Knoxville, with about 190,000 residents, is the state's third largest city, and contains the state's third largest metropolitan area, with about 1 million residents. Chattanooga, with a population of more than 180,000, is the state's fourth largest city, and anchors a metropolitan area with more than 500,000 residents, of whom approximately one-third live in Georgia. The Tri-Cities, while defined by the Office of Management and Budget as the Kingsport-Bristol and Johnson City metropolitan areas, are usually considered one population center, which is the third-most populous in East Tennessee and the fifth-largest statewide.


title: East Tennessee

text: Most of East Tennessee's population is found in the Ridge-and Valley region, including that of its major cities. Other important cities in the Ridge and Valley region include Cleveland, Athens, Maryville, Oak Ridge, Sevierville, Morristown, and Greeneville. The region also includes the Cleveland and Morristown metropolitan areas, each of which contain more than 100,000 residents. The Blue Ridge section of the state is much more sparsely populated, its main cities being Elizabethton, Pigeon Forge, and Gatlinburg. Crossville is the largest city in the Plateau region, which is also sparsely populated.


title: East Tennessee

text: Most residents of the East Tennessee region commute by car with the lack of alternative modes of transportation such as commuter rail or regional bus systems. Residents of the metropolitan areas for Knoxville, Morristown, Chattanooga, and the Tri-Cities region have an estimated one-way commute of 23 minutes.


title: East Tennessee

text: East Tennessee includes all of the state's 1st, 2nd, and 3rd congressional districts, and part of the 4th district. The First District is concentrated around the Tri-Cities region and Upper East Tennessee. The Second District includes Knoxville and the mountain counties to the south. The Third District includes the Chattanooga area and the counties north of Knoxville (the two areas are connected by a narrow corridor in eastern Roane County). The Fourth, which extends into an area southwest of Nashville, includes several of East Tennessee's Cumberland Plateau counties.


title: East Tennessee

text: Much of what is known about East Tennessee's prehistoric Native Americans comes as a result of the Tennessee Valley Authority's reservoir construction, as federal law required archaeological investigations to be conducted in areas that were to be flooded. Excavations at the Icehouse Bottom site near Vonore revealed that Native Americans were living in East Tennessee on at least a semi-annual basis as early as 7,500 B.C. The region's significant Woodland period (1000 B.C. – 1000 A.D.) sites include Rose Island (also near Vonore) and Moccasin Bend (near Chattanooga). During what archaeologists call the Mississippian period (c. 1000–1600 A.D.), East Tennessee's Indigenous inhabitants were living in complex agrarian societies at places such as Toqua and Hiwassee Island, and had formed a minor chiefdom known as Chiaha in the French Broad Valley. Spanish expeditions led by Hernando de Soto, Tristan de Luna, and Juan Pardo all visited East Tennessee's Mississippian-period inhabitants during the 16th century. Some of the Native peoples who are known to have inhabited the region during this time include the Muscogee Creek, Yuchi, and Shawnee.


title: East Tennessee

text: By the early 18th century, most Natives in Tennessee had disappeared, very likely wiped out by diseases introduced by the Spaniards, leaving the region sparsely populated. The Cherokee began migrating into what is now East Tennessee from what is now Virginia in the latter 17th century, possibly to escape expanding European settlement and diseases in the north. The Cherokee established a series of towns concentrated in the Little Tennessee and Hiwassee valleys that became known as the "Overhill towns", as traders from North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia had to cross "over" the mountains to reach them. Early in the 18th century, the Cherokee forced the remaining members of other Native American groups out of the state.


title: East Tennessee

text: The first recorded Europeans to reach what is now East Tennessee were three expeditions led by Spanish explorers: Hernando de Soto in 1540–1541, Tristan de Luna in 1559, and Juan Pardo in 1566–1567. Pardo recorded the name "Tanasqui" from a local Native American village, which evolved into the state's current name. In 1673, Abraham Wood, a British fur trader, sent an expedition led by James Needham and Gabriel Arthur from Fort Henry in the Colony of Virginia into Overhill Cherokee territory in modern-day northeastern Tennessee. Needham was killed during the expedition and Arthur was taken prisoner, and remained with the Cherokees for more than a year. Longhunters from Virginia explored much of East Tennessee in the 1750s and 1760s in expeditions which lasted several months or even years.


title: East Tennessee

text: The Cherokee alliance with Britain during the French and Indian War led to the construction of Fort Loudoun in 1756 near present-day Vonore, which was the first British settlement in what is now Tennessee. Fort Loudoun was the westernmost British outpost to that date, and was designed by John William Gerard de Brahm and constructed by forces under Captain Raymond Demeré. Shortly after its completion, Demeré relinquished command of the fort to his brother, Captain Paul Demeré. Hostilities erupted between the British and the Overhill Cherokees into an armed conflict, and a siege of the fort ended with its surrender in 1760. The next morning, Paul Demeré and a number of his men were killed in an ambush nearby, and most of the rest of the garrison was taken prisoner. A peace expedition led by Henry Timberlake in 1761 provided later travelers with invaluable knowledge regarding the location of the Overhill towns and the customs of the Overhill Cherokee.


title: East Tennessee

text: The end of the French and Indian War in 1763 brought a stream of explorers and traders into the region, among them additional longhunters. In an effort to mitigate conflicts with the Natives, Britain issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which forbade settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains. Despite this proclamation, migration across the mountains continued, and the first permanent European settlers began arriving in northeastern Tennessee in the late 1760s. In 1769, William Bean— an associate of famed explorer Daniel Boone— built what is generally acknowledged as Tennessee's first permanent Euro-American residence in Tennessee along the Watauga River in present-day Johnson City. Shortly thereafter, James Robertson and a group of migrants from North Carolina (some historians suggest they were refugees of the Regulator wars) formed the Watauga Settlement at Sycamore Shoals in modern-day Elizabethton on lands leased from the Cherokees. In 1772, the Wataugans established the Watauga Association, which was the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians, and the "germ cell" of the state of Tennessee. Most of these settlers were English or of primarily English descent, but nearly 20% of them were Scotch-Irish. In 1775, the settlers reorganized themselves into the Washington District to support the cause of the American Revolutionary War, which had begun months before. The following year, the settlers petitioned the Colony of Virginia to annex the Washington District to provide protection from Native American attacks, which was denied. Later that year, they petitioned the government of North Carolina to annex the Washington District, which was granted in November 1776.


title: East Tennessee

text: In 1775, Richard Henderson negotiated a series of treaties with the Cherokee to sell the lands of the Watauga settlements at Sycamore Shoals on the banks of the Watauga River in present-day Elizabethton. Later that year, Daniel Boone, under Henderson's employment, blazed a trail from Fort Chiswell in Virginia through the Cumberland Gap, which became part of the Wilderness Road, a major thoroughfare for settlers into Tennessee and Kentucky. That same year, a faction of Cherokees led by Dragging Canoe— angry over the tribe's appeasement of European settlers— split off to form what became known as the Chickamauga faction, which was concentrated around what is now Chattanooga. The next year, the Chickamauga, aligned with British loyalists, attacked Fort Watauga at Sycamore Shoals. The warnings of Dragging Canoe's cousin Nancy Ward spared many settlers' lives from the initial attacks. In spite of Dragging Canoe's protests, the Cherokee were continuously induced to sign away most of the tribe's lands to the U.S. government.


title: East Tennessee

text: During the American Revolution, the Wataugans supplied 240 militiamen (led by John Sevier) to the frontier force known as the Overmountain Men, which defeated British loyalists at the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780. Tennessee's first attempt at statehood was the State of Franklin, formed in 1784 from three Washington District counties. Its capital was initially at Jonesborough and later Greeneville, and eventually grew to include eight counties. After several unsuccessful attempts at statehood, the State of Franklin rejoined North Carolina in 1788. North Carolina ceded the region to the federal government, which designated it as the Southwest Territory on May 26, 1790. William Blount was appointed as the territorial governor by President George Washington, and Blount and James White established the city of Knoxville as the territory's capital in 1791. The Southwest Territory recorded a population of 35,691 in the first United States census that year, about three-fourths of whom resided in what is now East Tennessee.


title: East Tennessee

text: In addition to the English and Scotch-Irish settlers, there were also a number of Welsh families who settled in East Tennessee in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. These were large immigrant family groups who came from the Welsh towns of Llandeilo, Blaengweche, Llandyfan, Derwydd, Glanaman, Garnant, Upper Brynamman, Lower Brynamman, Rhosamman, Cwmllynfell, Tairgwaith, Gwain-Cae-Gurwen, Gwnfe, Twnllanan, Llanddeusant, Ystradfellte, Llandovery, Laugharne.


title: East Tennessee

text: A larger group of settlers, entirely of English descent, arrived from Virginia's Middle Peninsula. These came from the Virginia counties of Essex, Gloucester, King and Queen, King William, Mathews, and Middlesex, as well as two smaller groups from Buckingham and New Kent counties in Virginia. They arrived as a result of large landowners buying up land and expanding in such a way that smaller landholders had to leave the area to prosper. This massive wave essentially transplanted the population of English-descended small-holders from Virginia's Middle Peninsula to East Tennessee.


title: East Tennessee

text: During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a series of land cessions were negotiated with the Cherokees as settlers pushed south of the Washington District. The 1791 Treaty of Holston, negotiated by William Blount, established terms of relations between the United States and the Cherokees. The First Treaty of Tellico established the boundaries of the Treaty of Holston, and a series of treaties over the next two decades ceded small amounts of Cherokee lands to the U.S. government. In the Calhoun Treaty of 1819, the U.S. government purchased Cherokee lands between the Little Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers. In anticipation of forced removal of the Cherokees, white settlers began moving into Cherokee lands in southeast Tennessee in the 1820s and 1830s.


title: East Tennessee

text: East Tennessee was home to one of the nation's first abolitionist movements, which arose in the early 19th century. Quakers, who had migrated to the region from Pennsylvania in the 1790s, formed the Manumission Society of Tennessee in 1814. Notable supporters included Presbyterian clergyman Samuel Doak, Tusculum College cofounder Hezekiah Balch, and Maryville College president Isaac Anderson. In 1820, Elihu Embree established "The Emancipator"— the nation's first exclusively abolitionist newspaper— in Jonesborough. After Embree's death, Benjamin Lundy established the "Genius of Universal Emancipation" in Greeneville in 1821 to continue Embree's work. By the 1830s, however, the region's abolitionist movement had declined in the face of fierce opposition. The geography of East Tennessee, unlike parts of Middle and West Tennessee, did not allow for large plantation complexes, and as a result, slavery remained relatively uncommon in the region.


title: East Tennessee

text: In the 1820s, the Cherokees established a government modeled on the U.S. Constitution, and located their capitol at New Echota in northern Georgia. In response to restrictive laws passed by the Georgia legislature, the Cherokees in 1832 moved their capital to the Red Clay Council Grounds in what is now Bradley County, a short distance north of the border with Georgia. A total of eleven general councils were held at the site between 1832 and 1838, during which the Cherokees rejected multiple compromises to surrender their lands east of the Mississippi River and move west. The 1835 Treaty of New Echota which was not approved by the National Council at Red Clay, stipulated that the Cherokee relocate to Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma, and provided a grace period until May 1838 for them to voluntarily migrate. In 1838 and 1839, U.S. troops forcibly removed nearly 17,000 Cherokees and about 2,000 Black people the Cherokees enslaved from their homes in southeastern Tennessee to Indian Territory. An estimated 4,000 died along the way. The operation was orchestrated from Fort Cass in Charleston, which was constructed on the site of the Indian agency. In the Cherokee language, the event is called "Nunna daul Isunyi", meaning "the Trail Where We Cried", and it is commonly known as the Trail of Tears.


title: East Tennessee

text: The arrival of the railroad in the 1850s brought immediate economic benefits to East Tennessee, primarily to Chattanooga, which had been founded in 1839. Chattanooga quickly developed into a nexus between the mountain communities of Southern Appalachia and the cotton states of the Deep South, being referred to as the Gateway to the Deep South. In 1843, copper was discovered in the Copper Basin in the extreme southeast corner of the state, and by the 1850s, large industrial-scale mining operations were taking place, making the Copper Basin one of the most productive copper mining districts in the nation.


title: East Tennessee

text: The American Civil War sentiments of East Tennesseans were among the most complex of any region in the nation. Due to the rarity of slavery in the region, many East Tennesseans were suspicious of the aristocratic Southern planter class that dominated the Southern Democratic Party and most Southern state legislatures. For this reason, Whig support ran high in East Tennessee in the years leading up to the war, especially in Knox and surrounding counties. In 1860, slaves composed about 9% of East Tennessee's population, compared to 25% statewide. When Tennessee voted on a referendum calling for secession in February 1861, which failed, more than 80% of East Tennesseans voted against it, including majorities in every county except Sullivan and Meigs. In June 1861, nearly 70% of East Tennesseans voted against the state's second ordinance of secession which succeeded statewide. Along with Sullivan and Meigs, however, there were pro-secession majorities in Monroe, Rhea, Sequatchie, and Polk counties. There were also pro-secession majorities within the cities of Knoxville and Chattanooga, although these cities' respective counties voted decisively against secession.


title: East Tennessee

text: In June 1861, the Unionist East Tennessee Convention met in Greeneville, where it drafted a petition to the Tennessee General Assembly demanding that East Tennessee be allowed to form a separate Union-aligned state split off from the rest of Tennessee, similar to West Virginia. The legislature rejected the petition, however, and Tennessee Governor Isham Harris ordered Confederate troops to occupy East Tennessee. In the fall of 1861, Unionist guerrillas burned bridges and attacked Confederate sympathizers throughout the region, leading the Confederacy to invoke martial law in parts of East Tennessee. Senator Andrew Johnson and Congressman Horace Maynard— who in, spite of being from a Confederate state, retained their seats in Congress— continuously pressed President Abraham Lincoln to send troops into East Tennessee, and Lincoln subsequently made the liberation of East Tennessee a top priority. "Knoxville Whig" editor William "Parson" Brownlow, who had been one of slavery's most outspoken defenders, attacked secessionism with equal fervor, and embarked on a speaking tour of the Northern states to rally support for East Tennessee. In 1862, Lincoln appointed Johnson, a War Democrat, as military governor of Tennessee.


title: East Tennessee

text: A number of crucial campaigns took place in East Tennessee, although the region did not see any large-scale fighting until the second half of the war, unlike the rest of the state. After being defeated at the Battle of Chickamauga in northwest Georgia in September 1863, Union troops of the Army of the Cumberland under the command of William Rosecrans fled to Chattanooga. Confederate troops under Braxton Bragg attempted to besiege the Union troops into surrendering, but two months later, reinforcements from the Army of the Tennessee under the command of Ulysses S. Grant, William Tecumseh Sherman, Joseph Hooker, and George Henry Thomas arrived. Under the command of Hooker, the Union troops defeated the Confederates at the Battle of Lookout Mountain on November 24, and the following day Grant and Thomas completely ran the Confederates out of the city at the Battle of Missionary Ridge. These battles came to be known as the Chattanooga Campaign, and marked a major turning point in the war, allowing Sherman to launch the Atlanta campaign from the city in the Spring of 1864. A few days after the Chattanooga Campaign concluded, Confederate General James Longstreet launched the Knoxville campaign in an effort to take control of the city. The campaign ended in defeat at the Battle of Fort Sanders on November 29, which was under the command of Union General Ambrose Burnside, although Longstreet defeated Union troops under the command of James M. Shackelford at the Battle of Bean's Station two weeks later. By the beginning of 1864, East Tennessee was largely under the control of the Union Army, although, despite its Unionist leanings, was the last part of the state to fall to the Union.


title: East Tennessee

text: After the Civil War, Northern capitalists began investing heavily in East Tennessee, which helped the region's ravaged economy recover much faster than most of the South. Most new industry in Tennessee was constructed in East Tennessee during this time, and Chattanooga became one of the first industrialized cities in the South. Knoxville also experienced a modest manufacturing boom, and new factories were constructed in other small towns such as Kingsport, Johnson City, Cleveland, Morristown, and Maryville, making them amongst the first Southern cities to experience the results of the industrial revolution in the United States. Other cities in the region, such as Lenoir City, Harriman, Rockwood, Dayton, and Englewood, were founded as company towns during this period. The Burra Burra Mine— established in the 1890s in the Copper Basin— was at its height one of the nation's copper mining operations. In 1899, the world's first Coca-Cola bottling plant was built in Chattanooga. In the early 1900s, railroad and sawmill innovations allowed logging firms such as the Little River Lumber Company and Babock Lumber to harvest the virgin forests of the Great Smokies and adjacent ranges. Coal mining operations were established in coal-rich areas of the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountains, namely in Scott County, northern Campbell County, and western Anderson County. In the early 1890s, Tennessee's controversial convict lease system sparked a miners' uprising in Anderson County that became known as the Coal Creek War. While the uprising was eventually crushed, it induced the state to do away with convict leasing, making Tennessee the first southern state to end the controversial practice.


title: East Tennessee

text: Other ambitious ventures during the period included the construction of Ocoee Dam No. 1 and Hales Bar Dam (completed in 1911 and 1913 respectively) by the forerunners of the Tennessee Electric Power Company (TEPCO). In the 1920s, Tennessee Eastman— destined to become the state's largest employer— was established in Kingsport, and in nearby Elizabethton the German-owned Bemberg Corporation built two large rayon mills. Equally ambitious was the Aluminum Company of America's establishment of a massive aluminum smelting operation at what is now Alcoa in 1914, which required the construction of a large plant and company town and the building of a series of dams along the Little Tennessee River to supply the plant with hydroelectric power.


title: East Tennessee

text: In the late 1800s to the early 1900s, leisure resorts oriented on mineral springs flourished in the region, with the most popular being Tate Springs in Grainger County, which attracted many prestigious families of the era, including the Ford, Rockefeller, Firestone, Studebaker, and Mellon families.


title: East Tennessee

text: The region received international attention in the public execution of a circus elephant via hanging. After killing its trainer in a circus performance in Kingsport, the elephant would be transported to Erwin in nearby Unicoi County, and hung in front of a crowd of roughly 2,500 residents. A picture of the undertaking would be widely distributed by American pulp magazine "Argosy".


title: East Tennessee

text: In the 1920s, East Tennessee surpassed Middle Tennessee as the state's most populous Grand Division, primarily as a result of the larger African American population in that region fleeing to Northern industrial cities as part of the Great Migration.


title: East Tennessee

text: Over a period of two decades, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), created in 1933 at the height of the Great Depression, drastically altered the economic, cultural, and physical landscape of East Tennessee. TVA sought to build a series of dams across the Tennessee River watershed to control flooding, bring cheap electricity to East Tennessee, and connect Knoxville and Chattanooga to the nation's inland waterways by creating a continuously navigable channel along the entirety of the Tennessee River. Starting with Norris Dam in 1933, the agency built 10 dams in East Tennessee (and five more across the border in North Carolina and Georgia) over a period of two decades. Melton Hill and Nickajack were added in the 1960s, and the last, Tellico Dam, was completed in 1979 after a contentious five-year legal battle with environmentalists. TVA also gained control of TEPCO's assets after a legal struggle in the 1930s with TEPCO president Jo Conn Guild and attorney Wendell Willkie that was eventually dismissed by the U.S. Supreme Court.