title: Horror in the High Desert

text: Jamie Lawler reported for the Horror Buzz site that "in a genre that has seen a huge influx of found footage style films in recent years, it's easy for most to blend into the background. The unique mockumentary style coupled with the found footage in Horror in the High Desert makes for a memorable film that stands out among its peers." And awarded a 7/10 rating. Waylon Jordan of the iHorror portal noted that "there is a moment in every found footage film where reality takes a turn for the terrifying. That moment exists in Horror in the High Desert, but it doesn't come with a big bang as it often does in similar films. Instead, Marich carefully crafts a story that becomes more unsettling at times. He chooses a sense of dread over jump scares and character development over a bloated plot."


title: Horror in the High Desert

text: On the other hand, Steve Hutchison of the Tales of Terror site criticized the slow development of the entire film, given that the documentary portion absorbs too much of the film's time without providing definitive answers, "supporting almost nothing to the central narrative" and only the found footage portion generates the horror factor. He rated the film a 1.5/4.


title: Horror in the High Desert

text: The subject of the film is inspired by the real-life case of the disappearance of hiker Kenny Veach, who on November 10, 2014, went on an expedition in search of a cave he had found on a previous hike in the Nevada desert, never to be seen again. Veach reportedly made this trek after being questioned by multiple visitors to his YouTube channel asking him to document the discovery of a mysterious cave with a shape of the capital letter "M" at the entrance where he reportedly had a strange experience:


title: Horror in the High Desert

text: "The entrance of the cave was shaped like an "M." Whenever I find a cave, I like to go inside... but when I went in there my whole body started to vibrate. The closer I got to the mouth of that cave, the more severe the vibration became in my whole body. I finally got scared and got out of there. It was one of the weirdest things that ever happened to me."


title: Horror in the High Desert

text: An extensive search was initiated in various parts of the desert, but without success. A few days later, on November 22, a search party found Kenny's cell phone in the vicinity of an abandoned mine entrance, but no other evidence or clues of the hiker.


title: Guster

text: Guster is an American alternative rock band from Boston, Massachusetts, United States. Founding members Adam Gardner, Ryan Miller, and Brian Rosenworcel began practice sessions while attending Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, and formed the band in 1991. The members met during the freshman Wilderness Orientation program in August of that year, playing publicly together as a trio two months later at the Midnight Cafe coffee house set in the common area of the Lewis Hall dormitory. While attending Tufts, the band lived at 139 College Avenue in Somerville, Massachusetts.


title: Guster

text: The band stayed "underground" for its first two full-length albums, "Parachute" (1994) and "Goldfly" (1997), but broke into the musical mainstream in 1999 with its third studio album "Lost and Gone Forever", featuring the single "Fa Fa", which made it onto the Adult Top 40. The band enjoyed moderate success on the charts with "Keep It Together", its fourth album, with two singles in the Adult Top 40 ("Careful" and "Amsterdam"). Joe Pisapia joined the official lineup for "Keep It Together" and its follow-up, "Ganging Up on the Sun", which peaked at 25 on the "Billboard" 200. A variety of television shows and movies have featured the band's music, including "Martian Child", which featured their song "Satellite"; "Disturbia"; "Wedding Crashers"; "Life as a House", which makes several allusions to the band throughout the film; "The O.C."; and one of the band's songs was used in an ad for The Weather Channel. The band earned its first gold record in 2018 for its single "Satellite".


title: Guster

text: Guster's tours were originally local, but began to spread as the band gained popularity. In 1999, Guster gave its first performance in Canada, followed by a 2004 tour in Britain that had four shows in London and one in Manchester. Guster maintains a liberal taping policy and has a very dedicated and active taping community. In addition, the band has released several live shows via iTunes.


title: Guster

text: The band members met during freshman orientation at Tufts University in 1991. A year later, after writing a few songs in their dorm rooms, the band named itself Gus and booked its first gig. The band recorded its first album independently in 1994, titled "Parachute". This album established the band as a favorite of the same 1990s scene that became popular through bands such as the Dave Matthews Band, The Disco Biscuits, moe., Phish, and Widespread Panic. The band was still in college when it recorded the album. Shortly after the release of "Parachute", another artist calling himself Gus signed a deal with a major record company, forcing the band to rename itself Guster.


title: Guster

text: In 1996, Guster independently recorded their second album, "Goldfly", releasing it early the next year. In 1998 the band signed with Sire Records and re-released "Goldfly". A year later, the band released the album "Lost and Gone Forever", produced by Steve Lillywhite. With the backing of a major label, the band appeared on shows such as the "Late Show with David Letterman", and it released their first music video for their song "Fa Fa". The band also appeared at Woodstock '99, and performed at the 1999 Stardust Picnic festival at Historic Fort York, Toronto.


title: Guster

text: Guster released its fourth album, "Keep It Together", in 2003, with the first single, "Amsterdam", getting significant airplay on the radio. Following the release of "Keep it Together", multi-instrumentalist Joe Pisapia, who had been touring with the band, became a full-time member. A live album/DVD, "Guster on Ice", compiled from two shows in Portland, Maine, in December 2003, was released in 2004. Guster released its fifth full-length studio album, "Ganging Up on the Sun", on June 20, 2006. The single "Manifest Destiny/Sorority Tears" was released in November 2005 on the Internet. On September 27, 2006, Guster won Album of the Year (Major) at the Boston Music Awards. Alongside "Ganging Up on the Sun", the band released on its website a documentary comedy series called "Joe's Place". The band also participated in the Barenaked Ladies' Ships and Dip cruise. In 2009, Guster took part in a similar event with musician John Mayer called Mayercraft Carrier 2 aboard the Carnival Splendor.


title: Guster

text: Guster released their sixth studio album, "Easy Wonderful", on October 5, 2010. Mixing for the album commenced on March 15, 2010, according to an update from the band's Twitter account. On April 30, Guster released "Jonah", an outtake from sessions for their then upcoming album, on the "Download to Donate for Haiti" compilation album. On July 20, Guster released the song "Bad Bad World" as a free download on their website. Before starting their 2010 fall tour, Guster announced that Joe Pisapia would not be touring with the band. Instead, Pisapia would be touring with k.d. lang, with whom he had been writing songs. It was also announced that Luke Reynolds would be filling in for Pisapia starting September 12, 2010. On July 26, 2011, Ryan Miller went onto turntable.fm to give live previews of tracks off of Guster's "On The Ocean" EP and listen to music with fans.


title: Guster

text: In early 2014, it was announced that Guster was recording its seventh studio album under the production of The Shins keyboardist Richard Swift. Guster announced that the album was finished on April 8, 2014, and would be independently published on their Ocho Mule label. Guster released "Evermotion" on January 13, 2015, with Ocho Mule/ Nettwerk Records. The debut concert for "Evermotion" took place with the release of the Greenovate Boston 2014 Climate Action Plan Update with Mayor Marty Walsh as a statement of the band's support for environmental causes.


title: Guster

text: In 2016, en route to play a show in Philadelphia, the group was stopped in Pittsburgh due to the January 2016 United States blizzard. The group tweeted that they planned to play a short set on the North Side in front of a dumpster at the corner of Sampsonia Way and Veto Street at 2 p.m. Saturday. Several people showed up for the show, and a video of the show was posted to the band's Facebook page. To celebrate their 25th anniversary, the band held a series of shows around Boston in January 2017.


title: Guster

text: On January 28, 2019, Guster released their eighth studio album, "Look Alive", on Nettwerk/Ocho Mule. In 2020, the group embarked on an acoustic tour with Connor Ratliff from Upright Citizens Brigade that was ultimately cut short due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, they worked on their next album with producer Josh Kaufman


title: Guster

text: Guster is often recognized for its choice of instruments during their earlier years: two members playing acoustic guitars and one member playing various percussion instruments. Brian Rosenworcel, the band's percussionist (affectionately dubbed the Thunder God by fans), added to Guster's unique sound with a combination of bongos, cymbals, and other drums, playing live shows using only his bare hands. While Miller played rhythm parts, Gardner would often play a bass line on his guitar. Guster's sound is recognized for its vocal harmonies, with both Miller and Gardner singing lead vocals on different songs; in songs such as "What You Wish For" and "Happier", the two members sing different lyrics simultaneously. While Guster's studio albums included more instrumental variety (e.g. violin, bass, drum kit), its live shows generally retained the same lineup until tours supporting its album "Lost and Gone Forever," in which the band diversified by playing different instruments on some songs. At this time, Rosenworcel began introducing a more traditional drum kit into the stage and studio performances in an effort to move away from bare-hand percussion.


title: Guster

text: Guster's live shows have a style of their own. For encores, the band has sometimes featured drummer Brian Rosenworcel moving to the front microphone and singing humorous covers. These have ranged from Temple of the Dog's "Hunger Strike" to 4 Non Blondes' "What's Up?" to the theme song from the TV show "Cheers" ("Where Everybody Knows Your Name"). Other examples include: "Under the Bridge" by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, "Total Eclipse of the Heart" by Bonnie Tyler, "In the Air Tonight" by Phil Collins, and "Firework" by Katy Perry. Other traditions at live shows have been developed over the years. For example, at the end of "Airport Song", people in the crowd throw ping-pong balls at the stage, in reference to the studio recording where the audio of a table tennis game can be heard in the background.


title: Guster

text: The band's humor is noted by many fans. For laughs, the three original members of Guster opened a number of their own shows as the Peace Soldiers, three redneck-looking musicians. With the addition of Joe into the band, it has since opened for itself in costume as a jam band called Trippin' Balls. During a 2001 show (which was oddly enough opened by Joe Pisapia's band Joe, Marc's Brother) in Rochester, New York, the band started their show with an empty stage. The music to "The Price Is Right" played over the sound system, and a voice called each of the band members down from where they had hid themselves in the audience. Upon hearing their name, each member played the part of an enthusiastic game show contestant all the way to the stage. During a show in 2002 when Guster played with John Mayer and John Butler Trio in Memphis, Tennessee, the band danced around on stage with KFC buckets covering their heads while J.B.T. was playing their set. In 2019, during their third annual On the Ocean festival in Portland, Maine, the band advertised a free afterparty "headlined by the legendary EDM group, PIPPI". During the afterparty, PIPPI was revealed to be the band dressed in matching jumpers with Pippi Longstocking style wigs.


title: Guster

text: Guster maintains a close relationship with its fans with regular studio updates and road journals on their web site, guster.com, and signs autographs after shows. Guster once maintained a rep (representative) program, through which fans received promotional materials for upcoming concerts and albums to sell. Reps were rewarded with a special, rep-only series of EP's called "The Pasty Tapes" as well as invitations to rep-only concerts. Following the release of "Ganging Up on the Sun", the band formed a new program called the Wrecking Machines, through which fans are able to receive posters for advertising nearby concerts. Guster is a constantly touring band, at times playing up to 250 shows a year. Kesha was an early fan communicated with the band via email.


title: Guster

text: In 2004, Guster guitarist and vocalist Adam Gardner and his wife co-founded Reverb, an organization dedicated to assisting touring artists by making activities more environmentally sound. It operates from within the music industry as well as the environmental world. Reverb greens artists’ tours and the music business at large while raising awareness and support for the environment through an interactive eco-village. Since its inception, Reverb has worked with (among others) Billie Eilish, Jack Johnson, Barenaked Ladies, Bonnie Raitt, John Mayer, Dave Matthews Band, and Guster. In July 2006, Gardner was among those interviewed about Reverb by "The Green Room" magazine, which would later interview Gardner alone in coverage of a Guster show. "Newsweek" did a similar profile in its April 16, 2007, issue.


title: Guster

text: In 2006, Guster named its spring tour the Campus Consciousness Tour. The band toured with The Format, and it powered its buses and trucks with biodiesel and aimed to use the tour to teach audiences about the environment. Participation in the early 2007 IZStyle Winter Tour had similar goals. In fall 2007, Guster headlined the Crocs' Next Step Campus Tour with Brett Dennen as a supporting act. The tour promoted eco-friendly green initiatives while educating attendees on ways to help the environment. The tour stopped at fifteen colleges.


title: Body water

text: In physiology, body water is the water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the blood, the bones and elsewhere. The percentages of body water contained in various fluid compartments add up to total body water (TBW). This water makes up a significant fraction of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis.


title: Body water

text: By weight, the average adult human is approximately 60% water, and the average child is approximately 70% water. There can be considerable variation in body water percentage based on a number of factors like age, health, water intake, weight, and sex. In a large study of adults of all ages and both sexes, the adult human body averaged ~65% water. However, this varied substantially by age, sex, and adiposity (amount of fat in body composition). The figure for water fraction by weight in this sample was found to be 58 ±8% water for males and 48 ±6% for females. The body water constitutes as much as 75% of the body weight of a newborn infant, whereas some obese people are as little as 45% water by weight. This is due to how fat tissue does not retain water as well as lean tissue. These statistical averages will vary with factors such as type of population, age of people sampled, number of people sampled, and methodology. So there is not, and cannot be, a figure that is exactly the same for all people, for this or any other physiological measure.


title: Body water

text: Most animal body water is contained in various body fluids. These include intracellular fluid; extracellular fluid; plasma; interstitial fluid; and transcellular fluid. Water is also contained inside organs, in gastrointestinal, cerebrospinal, peritoneal, and ocular fluids. Adipose tissue contains about 10% of water, while muscle tissue contains about 75%.


title: Body water

text: In "Netter's Atlas of Human Physiology", body water is broken down into the following "compartments:"


title: Body water

text: An individual’s total body water can be determined using flowing-afterglow mass spectrometry (FA-MS) to measure the abundance of deuterium in breath samples. A known dose of deuterated water (heavy water, DO) is ingested and allowed to equilibrate within the body water. Then, the FA-MS instrument measures the ratio D:H of deuterium to hydrogen in the water vapour in exhaled breath. The total body water is then accurately measured from the increase in breath deuterium content in relation to the volume of DO ingested.


title: Body water

text: Another method of determining total body water percentage (TBW%) is via bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). In the traditional BIA method, a person lies on a cot and spot electrodes are placed on the hands and bare feet. Electrolyte gel is applied first, and then a weak current of frequency 50kHz is introduced. This AC waveform allows the creation of a current inside the body via the very capacitive skin without causing a DC flow or burns, and limited in the ~20mA range current for safety.


title: Body water

text: BIA has emerged as a promising technique because of its simplicity, low cost, high reproducibility, and noninvasiveness. BIA prediction equations can be either generalized or population-specific, allowing this method to be potentially very accurate. Selecting the appropriate equation is important to determining the quality of the results.


title: Body water

text: For clinical purposes, scientists are developing a multi-frequency BIA method that may further improve the method's ability to predict a person's hydration level. New segmental BIA equipment that uses more electrodes may lead to more precise measurements of specific parts of the body.


title: Body water

text: In humans, total body water can be estimated based on the premorbid (or ideal) body weight and correction factor.


title: Body water

text: C is a coefficient for the expected percentage of weight made up of free water. For adult, non-elderly males, C = 0.6. For adult elderly males, malnourished males, or females, C = 0.5. For adult elderly or malnourished females, C = 0.45. A total body water deficit (TBWD) can then be approximated by the following formula:


title: Body water

text: Where [Na]t = target sodium concentration (usually 140 mEq/L), and [Na]m = measured sodium concentration.


title: Body water

text: The resultant value is the approximate volume of free water required to correct a hypernatremic state. In practice, the value rarely approximates the actual amount of free water required to correct a deficit due to insensible losses, urinary output, and differences in water distribution among patients.


title: Body water

text: Water in the animal body performs a number of functions: as a solvent for transportation of nutrients; as a medium for excretion; a means for heat control; as a lubricant for joints; and for shock absorption.


title: Body water

text: The usual way of adding water to a body is by drinking. Water also enters the body with foods, especially those rich in water, such as plants, raw meat, and fish. About 10% of human adult water intake comes as a by-product of metabolism.


title: Body water

text: The amount of this water that is retained in animals is affected by several factors. Water amounts vary with the age of the animal. The older the vertebrate animal, the higher its relative bone mass and the lower its body water content.


title: Body water

text: In diseased states, where body water is affected, the fluid compartment or compartments that have changed can give clues to the nature of the problem, or problems. Body water is regulated by hormones, including antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide.


title: Body water

text: Volume contraction is a decrease in body fluid volume, with or without a concomitant loss of osmolytes. The loss of the body water component of body fluid is specifically termed dehydration.


title: Body water

text: Sodium loss approximately correlates with fluid loss from extracellular fluid, since sodium has a much higher concentration in extracelluliar fluid (ECF) than intracellular fluid (ICF). In contrast, K has a much higher concentration in ICF than ECF, and therefore its loss rather correlates with fluid loss from ICF, since K loss from ECF causes the K in ICF to diffuse out of the cells, dragging water with it by osmosis.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Love Island (originally Celebrity Love Island) was a British reality television programme that was aired on ITV in 2005 and 2006. In the show, twelve single celebrities spend five weeks on an island in Fiji. The final couple remaining wins a combined £100,000.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: It was originally presented by Patrick Kielty and Kelly Brook, with Fearne Cotton taking over as female host in the second series. The first series aired in the summer of 2005, and it was won by Jayne Middlemiss and Fran Cosgrave. The second series began in July 2006, dropping "Celebrity" from its name. It was won by Bianca Gascoigne and series one finalist Calum Best.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: The theme tune for the first series was "Wish I", performed by Jem. A specially-composed summer theme by Daniel Pemberton (later released under the title "From Fiji with Love") was used for the second series.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Following disappointing ratings over the two spring-summer periods, the show was axed by ITV's director of television, Simon Shaps, in November 2006.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: On 13 February 2015, it was announced that the show would return on ITV2 in 2015 simply called "Love Island". ITV's Director of Digital and Acquisitions Angela Jain confirmed the revived show would be revamped and would see non-celebrity contestants compete to survive a public vote each week.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: It was later announced that Caroline Flack would host the reboot, starting on 7 June 2015. The reboot has been a ratings success for ITV2 and the show's format has spawned into an international franchise of the same name.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Viewers would vote for the couple they would like to see in the "love shack" where the two would get to know one another better. In the first series, each week viewers voted celebrities off the island, but in the second, the inhabitants had the final say. The identities of those being kicked out were revealed in the elimination episodes. The prize for the final couple left standing was £50,000 each. The second series also featured the inhabitants having to cook and clean up after themselves to fight the appearance that they were just there for a free holiday.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: The show attracted controversy from the moment it was announced by ITV. It was marketed as a rival for Channel 4's popular reality show, "Big Brother", which returned for a sixth series soon after the show's launch. Following the launch of the show, the celebrities were criticised by viewers for being boring, and the celebrity status of some of the participants was questioned. There was some suspicion that the contestants were simply using the programme as a free holiday, and the tabloids claimed that producers held crisis meetings to figure out how to keep things interesting.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Soon afterwards, tabloid reports claimed that the show's presenters, Kelly Brook and Patrick Kielty, were engaged in a bitter feud. The problems between the pair allegedly started after Kielty told viewers on the live show that Brook had previously been involved in a relationship with one of the contestants, Paul Danan. However, even the promise of fireworks between the two hosts was not enough to keep viewers interested, and one episode of the show only attracted less than 2 million viewers. Producers later hired model Nikki Ziering to spice up the show.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: The show was also resented by fans of long-running ITV soap "Coronation Street". ITV decided to move its flagship programme from 19:30 to 20:30 on Monday nights, to provide a successful lead-in for "Celebrity Love Island", in the hope of increasing ratings. Writers John Fay and Daran Little complained to the press about the treatment of the show. ITV argued that it took the decision to move the soap very seriously and only did so when absolutely necessary. A meeting was requested with ITV programming director Nigel Pickard to discuss the issue.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: On 10 June 2005, although ratings were beginning to pick up, with the show close to overtaking "Big Brother" in popularity, a strong storm over the islands of Fiji disrupted the programme. A live eviction show had to be cancelled as six-foot waves made it impossible for crewmembers to cross over to where the celebrities were staying. Instead, ITV was forced to repeat the episode from the previous night with unseen footage.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Shekoni was the first celebrity to be voted off the show by the public. "For the short period I was there I got on with everybody and didn't have any negative experiences. But when I watch it now I just think, oh God, I had a lucky escape that I didn't end up crying in front of the cameras, or getting rejected by any of the guys, or involved in any of the arguments. I know my family are just pleased that I got out and didn't do anything to ruin my integrity and morals and didn't do anything embarrassing in there. I knew almost instantly that I didn't fancy any of them, and I think that's why I got voted out. That's fair enough because it is supposed to be the love island and I obviously hadn't found love. I'm still looking, though, and I've been out searching ever since."


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: The second and final series first aired on 10 July, and ran for seven weeks, a little longer than the previous year's series. It was announced in late May 2006 that Fearne Cotton would be Kielty's new co-host with Series 1 winner Jayne Middlemiss presenting "Aftersun" with Matt Brown on ITV2. It also has a new sponsor, popular chocolate bar Bounty.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: On 6 July the list of contestants was announced, with the news that the word "Celebrity" would be dropped from the show title, due to the inclusion of non-celebrities.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: On "Love Island", three house guests entered the resort for set periods of time, which was usually a contract of a week. House guests were not eligible for evictions or winning the prize fund of £50,000 at the end of the series, but were allowed to be voted into the Love Shack. As with the actual contestants they received an appearance salary.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: On 18 July, Steve-O was added to the show in an effort to boost ratings. Despite stating that he had stopped drinking, he asked for beer while on the show. On 19 July, he abruptly left "Love Island" because he was not allowed enough alcohol or chocolate.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Lady Victoria Hervey was voted off the show on Friday 21 July although her chosen man Chris Brosnan had been the favourite to leave. Hervey told hosts Patrick Kielty and Fearne Cotton that she hoped the relationship would continue in the real world but then had second thoughts when she was shown footage of Brosnan saying that he also liked Colleen.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Basketball legend Dennis Rodman entered the show on the third week on 27 July as a House guest to boost the ratings. He flirted with Colleen Shannon and created friction with Lee Otway (who was coupled with Shannon at the time) before walking on his fourth day on 30 July out of the seven contracted until 3 August 2006. Otway fell in love with Shannon but when she revealed that she only saw him as a friend, Otway caused thousands of pounds damage to villa equipment in a fit of anger. He later apologised but was subsequently evicted on the seventh week.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: Identical twins Emma and Eve Ryan joined the Love Island on 31 July, but were ejected from the show by producers on 4 August. No explanation was given to the public.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: It was announced on 6 August that Calum Best would enter Love Island next day. Also on 6 August, it was confirmed on the Love Island website that Shane Lynch had left the island to make up with a woman back home.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: On 14 August, Big Brother 3 winner Kate Lawler entered "Celebrity Love Island". On final night, 28 August 2006, Kate Lawler was the last girl to be evicted before the final showdown.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: An average of 3.8 million people tuned in to watch the final, peaking at 4.4m, down from the previous year's peak figure of 5.9 million.


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: The show did not always go head to head with Channel 4's "Big Brother", as "Big Brother" aired at 9pm on Tuesdays, Saturdays and Sundays and only clashed on Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays with "Celebrity Love Island" at 10pm. However, many terrestrial viewers in Wales could only watch "Big Brother" at a fixed 10.00pm slot every night on S4C which also broadcast the show due to many Welsh terrestrial televisions failing to receive Channel 4. "Celebrity Love Island"'s audience was about half the size of that for "Big Brother".


title: Love Island (2005 TV series)

text: In a negative review of the first series for "The Guardian", Charlie Brooker writes that the show is "just a rehash of I'm A Celebrity, minus the elements that made that show successful". Brooker criticises that the show "openly sneers" at Abi Titmuss' weight, calls Paul Danan a "bell end of considerable magnitude", jokes that the Fran Cosgrave is so little well known that "he doesn't actually exist outside shows like this" and insults the presenting of Patrick Kielty and Kelly Brook, described respectively as "a man you wish would shut up before he even starts speaking, and a woman who can scarcely talk in the first place".


title: Becca Kufrin

text: Rebecca Jill Kufrin (born April 3, 1990) is an American publicist and television personality, best known for her role as the winner on the 22nd season of ABC's "The Bachelor" and the lead of the 14th season of "The Bachelorette".


title: Becca Kufrin

text: Kufrin was born in Benson, Minnesota, and raised in Prior Lake, Minnesota, the daughter of Jill and Steve Kufrin. She has an older sister named Emily. Kufrin graduated from Prior Lake High School in 2008, and obtained her Bachelor of Science degree in Mass Communications from Minnesota State University, Mankato in 2012. Her father died of brain cancer when Kufrin was 19 years old and her mother is a breast cancer survivor.


title: Becca Kufrin

text: Before appearing on "The Bachelor", she was working at Skyya Communications, a technology public relations agency based in Minneapolis, Minnesota.


title: Becca Kufrin

text: Kufrin was a contestant on Arie Luyendyk Jr.'s season of "The Bachelor". After making it to the final 3, her ex-boyfriend Ross Jirgl showed up in Peru and proposed; Kufrin declined. She was initially chosen by Luyendyk as the winner and accepted his proposal at the end of the season. However, Luyendyk dumped Kufrin for the runner-up Lauren Burnham before the season finished airing. The break-up was filmed and the raw, unedited footage was shown on the first night of the two-night finale, a first for "The Bachelor".


title: Becca Kufrin

text: After Luyendyk ended his engagement with Kufrin on air, Minnesota State Representative Drew Christensen fans raised over $6,000 for Kufrin through the Venmo app, which Kufrin in turn donated to Stand Up to Cancer. Her donation was matched by ABC and later matched again by Katie Couric. "The Bachelor" season 20 lead, Ben Higgins, also pledged to donate the profits from each bag of coffee sold from his company for a 24-hour period. The day after the breakup aired, 12 billboards went up in Kufrin's hometown of Minneapolis, Minnesota, as well as 4 in Los Angeles and 1 in Times Square, all showing their support for Kufrin and disgust at Luyendyk's actions. During the March 10, 2018 episode of "Saturday Night Live", Cecily Strong portrayed Kufrin in the cold-open, parodying the break-up.


title: Becca Kufrin

text: Kufrin was announced as the Bachelorette on March 6, 2018, on ABC's "After the Final Rose" special. The season premiered on May 28, 2018. In the end, Kufrin chose Garrett Yrigoyen over runner-up Blake Horstmann. During the finale, she and Yrigoyen were given a minivan from ABC as a gift. The couple were engaged and moved to Carlsbad, California, where they lived with their adopted corgi, Minno. On September 1, 2020, Kufrin and Yrigoyen announced the end of their engagement.


title: Becca Kufrin

text: Kufrin made a brief appearance during season five of "Bachelor in Paradise" to give advice to the girls and give closure to Colton Underwood. On August 9, 2021, Becca was confirmed to be a contestant on season seven. She split from her partner Thomas Jacobs in week 6. They have gotten back together after filming wrapped. They got engaged in May 2022.


title: Bianca Gascoigne

text: Born Bianca Jade Kyle on 28 October 1986, Gascoigne is the daughter of television personality Sheryl Gascoigne (née Failes) and the adopted daughter of former footballer Paul Gascoigne. She has a brother Mason and a half-brother Regan Gascoigne.


title: Bianca Gascoigne

text: In September 2006, she appeared on the front cover of "Loaded" and in January the following year she was on the cover of "Nuts". In August 2008, Gascoigne appeared on the cover of "Zoo Weekly". She has also been featured in "Maxim", "FHM" and numerous tabloid newspapers. She posed for two calendars in 2020 and 2021.


title: Bianca Gascoigne

text: In 2006, Gascoigne won ITV's reality TV show "Love Island" which was set in Fiji. In July 2008, she competed against glamour model Danielle Lloyd in the TV show "Gladiators" in a celebrity special, which she went on to win, supporting a charity for domestic violence. She also presented "Big Brother's Big Mouth" from 15 to 18 July 2008, and appeared in an episode of the BBC Three reality programme "Snog Marry Avoid?" during which she performed a rap to POD. In 2010, Gascoigne took part in "Celebrity Coach Trip" with her friend Imogen Thomas. In 2012, Gascoigne auditioned for the ninth series of "The X Factor" and in this program she sang the Mary J. Blige song "I'm Goin' Down", but failed to make it to bootcamp, as the judges claimed that there were already some "excellent" performers in her category and described her voice as being "mediocre". Gascoigne appeared in the nineteenth series of Channel 5 reality show "Celebrity Big Brother", making it to the final vote on Day 32 and placing sixth. She participated, with Simone Di Pasquale, in the of "Ballando con le stelle", the Italian version of "Dancing with the Stars" aired by Rai 1, obtaining the second place in the final episode.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: The foreign relations of Iran are the economic and diplomatic relationships between the Iranian government and governments of other countries. Geography is a very significant factor in informing Iran's foreign policy. Following the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the newly formed Islamic Republic, under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini, dramatically reversed the pro-American foreign policy of the last Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Since then the country's policies have oscillated between the two opposing tendencies of revolutionary ardour to eliminate Western and non-Muslim influences while promoting the Islamic revolution abroad, and pragmatism, which would advance economic development and normalization of relations. Iran's bilateral dealings are accordingly sometimes confused and contradictory.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Iran currently maintains diplomatic relations with 97 countries. According to data published by the Reputation Institute, Iran is the world's second least internationally reputable country, just ahead of Iraq, and has held that position for the three consecutive years of 2016, 2017, and 2018. Islamism and nuclear proliferation are recurring issues with Iran's foreign relations. In a series of international polls by Pew Research in 2012, only one country (Pakistan) had the majority of its population supporting Iran's right to acquire nuclear arms; every other population polled overwhelmingly rejected a nuclear-armed Iran (90–95% opposed in the polled European, North American, and South American countries), and majorities in most of them were in favor of military action to prevent a nuclear-armed Iran from materializing. Additionally, the majority of Americans, Brazilians, Japanese, Mexicans, Egyptians, Germans, Brits, French, Italians, Spaniards, and Poles (among other national groups) had majority support for "tougher sanctions" on Iran, while majorities in China, Russia, and Turkey opposed tougher sanctions.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Iranians have traditionally been highly sensitive to foreign interference in their country, pointing to such events as the Russian conquest of northern parts of the country in the course of the 19th century, the tobacco concession, the British and Russian occupations of the First and Second World Wars, and the CIA plot to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq. This suspicion manifests itself in attitudes that many foreigners might find incomprehensible, such as the "fairly common" belief that the Iranian Revolution was actually the work of a conspiracy between Iran's Shi'a clergy and the British government. This may have been a result of the anti-Shah bias in BBC Radio's influential Persian broadcasts into Iran: a BBC report of 23 March 2009 explains that many in Iran saw the broadcaster and the government as one, and interpreted the bias for Khomeini as evidence of weakening British government support for the Shah. It is entirely plausible that the BBC did indeed help hasten revolutionary events.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Under the Khomeini government Iran's foreign policy often emphasized the elimination of foreign influence and the spread of Islamic revolution over state-to-state relations or the furtherance of trade. In Khomeini's own words:


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: We shall export our revolution to the whole world. Until the cry "There is no God but Allah" resounds over the whole world, there will be struggle.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: The Islamic Republic's effort to spread the revolution is considered to have begun in earnest in March 1982, when 380 men from more than 25 Arab and Islamic nations met at the former Tehran Hilton Hotel for a "seminar" on the "ideal Islamic government" and, less academically, the launch of a large-scale offensive to cleanse the Islamic world of the satanic Western and Communist influences that were seen to be hindering the Islamic world's progress. The gathering of militants, primarily Shi'a but including some Sunnis, "with various religious and revolutionary credentials," was hosted by the Association of Militant Clerics and the Pasdaran Islamic Revolutionary Guards. The nerve centre of the revolutionary crusade, operational since shortly after the 1979 revolution, was located in downtown Tehran and known to outsiders as the "Taleghani Centre". Here the groundwork for the gathering was prepared: the establishment of Arab cadres, recruited or imported from surrounding countries to spread the revolution, and provision of headquarters for such groups as the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, the Iraqi Shi'a movement, and Philippine Moro, Kuwaiti, Saudi, North African and Lebanese militant clerics.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: These groups came under the umbrella of the "Council for the Islamic Revolution", which was supervised by Ayatollah Hussein Ali Montazeri, the designated heir of Ayatollah Khomeini. Most of the council's members were clerics, but they also reportedly included advisors from the Syrian and Libyan intelligence agencies. The council apparently received more than $1 billion annually in contributions from the faithful in other countries and in funds allocated by the Iranian government.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Its strategy was two-pronged: armed struggle against what were perceived as Western imperialism and its agents; and an internal purifying process to free Islamic territory and Muslim minds of non-Islamic cultural, intellectual and spiritual influences, by providing justice, services, resources to the "mustazafin" (weak) masses of the Muslim world. These attempts to spread its Islamic revolution strained the country's relations with many of its Arab neighbours, and the extrajudicial execution of Iranian dissidents in Europe unnerved European nations, particularly France and Germany. For example, the Islamic Republic expressed its opinion of Egypt's secular government by naming a street in Tehran after Egyptian President Anwar Sadat's killer, Khalid al-Istanbuli. At this time Iran found itself very isolated, but this was a secondary consideration to the spread of revolutionary ideals across the Persian Gulf and confrontation with the US (or "Great Satan") in the 1979-1981 hostage crisis.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Arab and other Muslim volunteers who came to Iran were trained in camps run by the Revolutionary Guards. There were three primary bases in Tehran, and others in Ahvaz, Isfahan, Qom, Shiraz, and Mashhad, and a further facility, converted in 1984, near the southern naval base at Bushire.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: In 1981 Iran supported an attempt to overthrow the Bahraini government, in 1983 expressed political support for Shi'ites who bombed Western embassies in Kuwait, and in 1987 Iranian pilgrims rioted at poor living conditions and treatment during the Hajj (pilgrimage) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, and were consequently massacred. Nations with strong fundamentalist movements, such as Egypt and Algeria, also began to mistrust Iran. With the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Iran was thought to be supporting the creation of the Hizballah organization. Furthermore, Iran went on to oppose the Arab–Israeli peace process, because it saw Israel as an illegal country.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Relations with Iraq had never been good historically; however, they took a turn for the worse in 1980, when Iraq invaded Iran. The stated reason for Iraq's invasion was the contested sovereignty over the Shatt al-Arab waterway ("Arvand Rud" in Persian). Other reasons, unstated, were probably more significant: Iran and Iraq had a history of interference in each other's affairs by supporting separatist movements, and although this interference had ceased since the Algiers Agreement (1975), after the Revolution Iran resumed support for Kurdish guerrillas in Iraq.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Iran demanded the withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Iranian territory and the return to the "status quo ante" for the Shatt al-Arab, as established under the Algiers Agreement. This period saw Iran become even more isolated, with virtually no allies. Exhausted by the war, Iran signed UN Security Council Resolution 598 in July 1988, after the United States and Germany began supplying Iraq with chemical weapons. The ceasefire resulting from the UN resolution was implemented on 20 August 1988. Neither nation had made any real gains in the war, which left one million dead and had a dramatic effect on the country's foreign policy. From this point on, the Islamic Republic recognized that it had no choice but to moderate its radical approach and rationalize its objectives. This was the beginning of what Anoushiravan Ehteshami calls the "reorientation phase" of Iranian foreign policy.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Like other revolutionary states, practical considerations have sometimes led the Islamic Republic to inconsistency and subordination of such ideological concerns as pan-Islamic solidarity. One observer, Graham Fuller, has called the Islamic Republic "stunningly silent"


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: about [Muslim] Chechens in [non-Muslim] Russia, or Uyghurs in China, simply because the Iranian state has important strategic ties with both China and Russia that need to be preserved in the state interest. Iran has astonishingly even supported Christian Armenia in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War against Shi'ite Azerbaijan and has been careful not to lend too much support to Islamic Tajiks in Tajikistan, where the language is basically a dialect of Persian. In this regard the Islamic Republic resembles another revolutionary state, the old Soviet Union. The USSR was ideologically committed not to Islam but to world proletarian revolution, led by Communist parties under its leadership, but "frequently abandoned support to foreign communist parties when it served Soviet national interests to cooperate with the governments that were oppressing them."


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Since the end of the Iran–Iraq War, Iran's new foreign policy has had a dramatic effect on its global standing. Relations with the European Union have dramatically improved, to the point where Iran is a major oil exporter and a trading partner with such countries as Italy, France, and Germany. China and India have also emerged as friends of Iran; these three countries face similar challenges in the global economy as they industrialize, and consequently find themselves aligned on a number of issues.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Iran maintains regular diplomatic and commercial relations with Russia and the former Soviet Republics. Both Iran and Russia believe they have important national interests at stake in developments in Central Asia and the Transcaucasus, particularly concerning energy resources from the Caspian Sea.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: The Islamic Republic of Iran accords priority to its relations with the other states in the region and with the rest of the Islamic world. This includes a strong commitment to the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the Non-Aligned Movement. Relations with the states of the Arab Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), especially with Saudi Arabia, are characterized by rivalry and hostility. An unresolved territorial dispute with the United Arab Emirates concerning three islands in the Persian Gulf continues to mar its relations with these states. Iran has close relations with Kuwait.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Iran seeks new allies around the world due to its increasing political and economic isolation in the international community. This isolation is evident in the various economic sanctions and the EU oil embargo that have been implemented in response to questions that have been raised over the Iranian nuclear program.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Tehran supports the Interim Governing Council in Iraq, but it strongly advocates a prompt and full transfer of state authority to the Iraqi people. Iran hopes for stabilization in Afghanistan and supports the reconstruction effort so that the Afghan refugees in Iran (which number approximately 2.5 million.) can return to their homeland and the flow of drugs from Afghanistan can be stemmed. Iran is also pursuing a policy of stabilization and cooperation with the countries of the Caucasus and Central Asia, whereby it is seeking to capitalise on its central location to establish itself as the political and economic hub of the region.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: On the international scene, it has been argued by some that Iran has become, or will become in the near future, a superpower due to its ability to influence international events. Others, such as Robert Baer, have argued that Iran is already an energy superpower and is on its way to becoming an empire. Flynt Leverett calls Iran a rising power that might well become a nuclear power in coming years—if the US does not prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear technology, as part of a grand bargain under which Iran would cease its nuclear activities in exchange for a guarantee of its borders by the US.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: In 2010, Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki said it was a principle of the government to boost ties with African states. However, there are some signs of disillusionment beginning to emerge in Africa in that twenty African nations threatened to close their embassies in Tehran following what they termed Ahmadinejad's failure to live up to the promises he made during his trips to Africa. However, the Iranian government does not seem deterred by the misadventures, and seems to keep considering African countries strategically necessary to enable it to receive international support for its much criticized nuclear program.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Trade between Iran and Brazil quadrupled between 2002 and 2007, and it will further increase as much as fivefold, from $2 billion to $10 billion annually. In addition to Brazil, Iran has signed dozens of economic agreements with Bolivia, Cuba, Ecuador and Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, Iran and Venezuela have agreed to invest $350 million in building a deepwater seaport off the Caribbean coast, in addition to a cross-country system of pipelines, rails and highways. Iranian firms are also planning to build two cement factories in Bolivia. Other developments include the agreement reached with Ecuador to build a cement factory as well as several other industrial cooperation MoUs (2008). In the four years after Ahmadinejad ascended to the Iranian presidency in 2005, Iran opened six new embassies in Latin America. The new embassies are located in Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Nicaragua and Uruguay - in addition to the five already in operation in Argentina, Brazil, Cuba, Mexico and Venezuela.


title: Foreign relations of Iran

text: Iran is the member of the following organizations: ALBA (observer), Colombo Plan, UNESCAP, ECO, FAO, GECF, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICC, ICAO, IDA, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, IFC, IFAD, IHO, ILO, IMO, IMSO, IMF, IOC, IOM, ISO, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, ITU, Interpol, IDB, NAM, OPEC, OPCW, OIC, PCA, SCO, SAARC (observer), UNESCO, UNCTAD, UNIDO, United Nations, UPU, WCO WFTU, WHO, WMO, WTO (observer).


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Social programs in the United States are programs designed to ensure that the basic needs of the American population are met. Federal and state social programs include cash assistance, health insurance, food assistance, housing subsidies, energy and utilities subsidies, and education and childcare assistance. Similar benefits are sometimes provided by the private sector either through policy mandates or on a voluntary basis. Employer-sponsored health insurance is an example of this.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: American social programs vary in eligibility with some, such as public education, available to all while others, such as housing subsidies, are available only to a subsegment of the population. Programs are provided by various organizations on a federal, state, local, and private level. They help to provide basic needs such as food, shelter, education, and healthcare to residents of the U.S. through primary and secondary education, subsidies of higher education, unemployment and disability insurance, subsidies for eligible low-wage workers, subsidies for housing, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits, pensions, and health insurance programs. Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, and the Children's Health Insurance Program are prominent social programs.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Research shows that U.S. government programs that focus on improving the health and educational outcomes of low-income children are the most effective, with benefits substantial enough that the government may even recoup its investment over time due to increased tax revenue from adults who were beneficiaries as children. Veto points in the U.S. structure of government make social programs in the United States resilient to fundamental change.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Not including Social Security and Medicare, Congress allocated almost $717 billion in federal funds in 2010 plus $210 billion was allocated in state funds ($927 billion total) for means tested welfare programs in the United States, of which half was for medical care and roughly 40% for cash, food and housing assistance. Some of these programs include funding for public schools, job training, SSI benefits and medicaid. , the public social spending-to-GDP ratio in the United States was below the OECD average. Roughly half of this welfare assistance, or $462 billion went to families with children, most of which are led by single parents.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Total Social Security and Medicare expenditures in 2013 were $1.3 trillion, 8.4% of the $16.3 trillion GNP (2013) and 37% of the total Federal expenditure budget of $3.684 trillion.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: In addition to government expenditures, private welfare spending, i.e. social insurance programs provided to workers by employers, in the United States is estimated to be about 10% of the U.S. GDP or another $1.6 trillion, according to 2013 OECD estimates. In 2001, Jacob Hacker estimated that public and private social welfare expenditures constituted 21% and 13–14% of the United States' GDP respectively. In these estimates of private social welfare expenditures, Hacker included mandatory private provisions (less than 1% of GDP), subsidized and/or regulated private provisions (9–10% of GDP), and purely private provisions (3–4% of GDP).


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The first large-scale social policy program in the United States was assistance to Union Civil War veterans and their families. The program provided pensions and disability assistance. From 1890 to the early 1920s, the U.S. provided what Theda Skocpol characterized as "maternalist policies", as it provided pensions for widowed mothers.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Historically, the United States has spent less on social welfare than European countries, but only in terms of gross "public" social welfare spending. The United States tended to tax lower-income people at lower rates, and relied substantially on private social welfare programs: "after taking into account taxation, public mandates, and private spending, the United States in the late twentieth century spent a higher share on combined private and net public social welfare relative to GDP than did most advanced economies.". Spending varied between different states in the United States.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Colonial legislatures and later State governments adopted legislation patterned after the English "poor" laws. Aid to veterans, often free grants of land, and pensions for widows and handicapped veterans, have been offered in all U.S. wars. Following World War I, provisions were made for a full-scale system of hospital and medical care benefits for veterans. By 1929, workers' compensation laws were in effect in all but four states. These state laws made industry and businesses responsible for the costs of compensating workers or their survivors when the worker was injured or killed in connection with his or her job. Retirement programs for mainly State and local government paid teachers, police officers, and fire fighters—date back to the 19th century. All these social programs were far from universal and varied considerably from one state to another.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Prior to the Great Depression the United States had social programs that mostly centered around individual efforts, family efforts, church charities, business workers compensation, life insurance and sick leave programs along with some state tax supported social programs. The misery and poverty of the Great Depression threatened to overwhelm all these programs. The severe Depression of the 1930s made Federal action necessary, as neither the states and the local communities, businesses and industries, nor private charities had the financial resources to cope with the growing need among the American people. Beginning in 1932, the Federal Government first made loans, then grants, to states to pay for direct relief and work relief. After that, special Federal emergency relief like the Civilian Conservation Corps and other public works programs were started. In 1935, President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration proposed to Congress federal social relief programs and a federally sponsored retirement program. Congress followed by the passage of the 37 page Social Security Act, signed into law August 14, 1935 and "effective" by 1939—just as World War II began. This program was expanded several times over the years.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Economic historians led by Price Fishback have examined the impact of New Deal spending on improving health conditions in the 114 largest cities, 1929–1937. They estimated that every additional $153,000 in relief spending (in 1935 dollars, or $ million in dollars) was associated with a reduction of one infant death, one suicide, and 2.4 deaths from infectious disease.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Virtually all food stamp costs are paid by the federal government. In 2008, 28.7 percent of the households headed by single women were considered poor.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Before the Welfare Reform Act of 1996, welfare assistance was "once considered an open-ended right," but welfare reform converted it "into a finite program built to provide short-term cash assistance and steer people quickly into jobs." Prior to reform, states were given "limitless" money by the federal government, increasing per family on welfare, under the 60-year-old Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program. This gave states no incentive to direct welfare funds to the neediest recipients or to encourage individuals to go off welfare benefits (the state lost federal money when someone left the system). Nationwide, one child in seven received AFDC funds, which mostly went to single mothers.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: In 1996, under the Clinton administration, Congress passed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, which gave more control of the welfare system to the states, with basic requirements the states need to meet with regards to welfare services. Some states still offer basic assistance, such as health care, food assistance, child care assistance, unemployment, a few offering cash aid, and one or two offering housing assistance, depending on the state and the circumstance. After reforms, which President Clinton said would "end welfare as we know it," amounts from the federal government were given out in a flat rate per state based on population.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Each state must meet certain criteria to ensure recipients are being encouraged to work themselves out of welfare. The new program is called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). It encourages states to require some sort of employment search in exchange for providing funds to individuals, and imposes a five-year lifetime limit on cash assistance. The bill restricts welfare from most legal immigrants and increased financial assistance for child care. The federal government also maintains a contingency $2 billion TANF fund (TANF CF) to assist states that may have rising unemployment. The new TANF program expired on September 30, 2010, on schedule with states drawing down the entire original emergency fund of $5 billion and the contingency fund of $2 billion allocated by ARRA. Reauthorization of TANF was not accomplished in 2011, but TANF block grants were extended as part of the Claims Resolution Act of 2010 (see Temporary Aid for Needy Families for details).


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Following these changes, millions of people left the welfare rolls (a 60% drop overall), employment rose, and the child poverty rate was reduced. A 2007 Congressional Budget Office study found that incomes in affected families rose by 35%. The reforms were "widely applauded" after "bitter protest." "The Times" called the reform "one of the few undisputed triumphs of American government in the past 20 years." However, more recent studies have found that the reforms increased deep poverty by 130–150%.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Critics of the reforms sometimes point out that the massive decrease of people on the welfare rolls during the 1990s wasn't due to a rise in actual gainful employment in this population, but rather, was due almost exclusively to their offloading into workfare, giving them a different classification than classic welfare recipient. The late 1990s were also considered an unusually strong economic time, and critics voiced their concern about what would happen in an economic downturn.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: "National Review" editorialized that the Economic Stimulus Act of 2009 will reverse the welfare-to-work provisions that Bill Clinton signed in the 1990s, and will again base federal grants to states on the number of people signed up for welfare rather than at a flat rate. One of the experts who worked on the 1996 bill said that the provisions would lead to the largest one-year increase in welfare spending in American history. The House bill provides $4 billion to pay 80% of states' welfare caseloads. Although each state received $16.5 billion annually from the federal government as welfare rolls dropped, they spent the rest of the block grant on other types of assistance rather than saving it for worse economic times.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1880s–1890s: Attempts were made to move poor people from work yards to poor houses if they were in search of relief funds.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1893–1894: Attempts were made at the first unemployment payments, but were unsuccessful due to the 1893–1894 recession.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1932: The Great Depression had gotten worse and the first attempts to fund relief failed. The "Emergency Relief Act", which gave local governments $300 million, was passed into law.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1933: In March 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt pushed Congress to establish the Civilian Conservation Corps.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1935: The Social Security Act was passed on June 17, 1935. The bill included direct relief (cash, food stamps, etc.) and changes for unemployment insurance.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1964: Johnson's War on Poverty is underway, and the Economic Opportunity Act was passed. Commonly known as "the Great Society"


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 1996: Passed under Clinton, the "Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996" becomes law.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 2013: Affordable Care Act goes into effect with large increases in Medicaid and subsidized medical insurance premiums go into effect.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: 2.3 Trillion Dollar Total of Social Security, Medicare and Means Tested Welfare is low since latest 2013 means tested data not available but 2013, the "real" TOTAL will be higher.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Social Security program mainly refers to the Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program, and possibly to the unemployment insurance program. Retirement Insurance Benefits (RIB), also known as Old-age Insurance Benefits, are a form of social insurance payments made by the U.S. Social Security Administration paid based upon the attainment of old age (62 or older).


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Social Security Disability Insurance (SSD or SSDI) is a federal insurance program that provides income supplements to people who are restricted in their ability to be employed because of a notable disability.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Unemployment insurance, also known as unemployment compensation, provides for money (from the United States and from the individual states) collected from employers, to workers who have become unemployed through no fault of their own. The unemployment benefits are run by each state with different state-defined criteria for duration, percent of income paid, etc. Nearly all systems require the recipient to document their search for employment in order to continue receiving benefits. Extensions of time for receiving benefits are sometimes offered for extensive work unemployment. These extra benefits usually take the form of loans from the federal government that each state has to repay.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program provides stipends to low-income people who are either aged (65 or older), blind, or disabled.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) provides cash assistance to indigent American families with dependent children.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Health care in the United States is provided by many separate legal entities. Health care facilities are largely owned and operated by the private sector. Health insurance in the United States is now primarily provided by the government in the public sector, with 60–65% of healthcare provision and spending coming from programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, TRICARE, the Children's Health Insurance Program, and the Veterans Health Administration. Having some form of comprehensive health insurance is statutorily compulsory for most people lawfully residing within the US.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Medicare is a social insurance program administered by the United States government, providing health insurance coverage to people who are aged 65 and over; to those who are under 65 and are permanently physically disabled or who have a congenital physical disability; or to those who meet other special criteria like the End Stage Renal Disease Program (ESRD). Medicare in the United States somewhat resembles a single-payer health care system but is not. Before Medicare, only 51% of people aged 65 and older had health care coverage, and nearly 30% lived below the federal poverty level.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Medicaid is a health program for certain people and families with low incomes and resources. It is a means-tested program that is jointly funded by the state and federal governments, and is managed by the states. People served by Medicaid are U.S. citizens or legal permanent residents, including low-income adults, their children, and people with certain disabilities. Medicaid is the largest source of funding for medical and health-related services for people with limited income in the United States.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP) is a program administered by the United States Department of Health and Human Services that provides matching funds to states for health insurance to families with children. The program was designed to cover uninsured children in families with incomes that are modest but too high to qualify for Medicaid.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Services Block Grant (or ADMS Block Grant) is a federal assistance block grant given by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. Drug addiction, particularly the use of heroin, is an increasing cause of physical and mental disabilities. Treatment with methadone clinics can be supported by Medicaid and state healthcare programs.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Trump administration has decided to cut $9 million in Affordable Care Act subsidies by 2018. This action was taken by use of Executive Order 13813, on October 12, 2017. The initial goal had been for Republicans in Congress to use their majority to "repeal and replace" the Affordable Care Act, but they proved unable to do so; therefore, the Trump administration itself took measures to weaken the program. The healthcare changes are expected to be noticeable by the year 2019.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Per capita spending on tertiary education is among the highest in the world. Public education is managed by individual states, municipalities and regional school districts. As in all developed countries, primary and secondary education is free, universal and mandatory. Parents do have the option of home-schooling their children, though some states, such as California (until a 2008 legal ruling overturned this requirement), require parents to obtain teaching credentials before doing so. Experimental programs give lower-income parents the option of using government issued vouchers to send their kids to private rather than public schools in some states/regions.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: As of 2007, more than 80% of all primary and secondary students were enrolled in public schools, including 75% of those from households with incomes in the top 5%. Public schools commonly offer after-school programs and the government subsidizes private after school programs, such as the Boys & Girls Club. While pre-school education is subsidized as well, through programs such as Head Start, many Americans still find themselves unable to take advantage of them. Some education critics have therefore proposed creating a comprehensive transfer system to make pre-school education universal, pointing out that the financial returns alone would compensate for the cost.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Tertiary education is not free, but is subsidized by individual states and the federal government. Some of the costs at public institutions is carried by the state.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The government also provides grants, scholarships and subsidized loans to most students. Those who do not qualify for any type of aid, can obtain a government guaranteed loan and tuition can often be deducted from the federal income tax. Despite subsidized attendance cost at public institutions and tax deductions, however, tuition costs have risen at three times the rate of median household income since 1982. In fear that many future Americans might be excluded from tertiary education, progressive Democrats have proposed increasing financial aid and subsidizing an increased share of attendance costs. Some Democratic politicians and political groups have also proposed to make public tertiary education free of charge, i.e. subsidizing 100% of attendance cost.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: In the U.S., financial assistance for food purchasing for low- and no-income people is provided through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp Program. This federal aid program is administered by the Food and Nutrition Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, but benefits are distributed by the individual U.S. states. It is historically and commonly known as the Food Stamp Program, though all legal references to "stamp" and "coupon" have been replaced by "EBT" and "card," referring to the refillable, plastic Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) cards that replaced the paper "food stamp" coupons. To be eligible for SNAP benefits, the recipients must have incomes below 130 percent of the poverty line, and also own few assets. Since the economic downturn began in 2008, the use of food stamps has increased.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) is a child nutrition program for healthcare and nutrition of low-income pregnant women, breastfeeding women, and infants and children under the age of five. The eligibility requirement is a family income below 185% of the U.S. Poverty Income Guidelines, but if a person participates in other benefit programs, or has family members who participate in SNAP, Medicaid, or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, they automatically meet the eligibility requirements.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP) is a type of United States federal assistance provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to states in order to provide a daily subsidized food service for an estimated 3.2 million children and 112,000 elderly or mentally or physically impaired adults in non-residential, day-care settings.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 created Section 8 housing, the payment of rent assistance to private landlords on behalf of low-income households.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: According to a 2020 study in the "Quarterly Journal of Economics", U.S. government programs that focus on improving the health and educational outcomes of low-income children are the most effective, with benefits substantial enough that the government may even recoup its investment over time due to increased tax revenue from adults who were beneficiaries as children.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: According to the Congressional Budget Office, social programs significantly raise the standard of living for low-income Americans, particularly the elderly. The poorest 20% of American households earn a before-tax average of only $7,600, less than half of the federal poverty line. Social programs increase such households' before-tax income to $30,500. Social Security and Medicare are responsible for two thirds of that increase.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Political scientist Benjamin Radcliff has argued that more generous social programs produce a higher quality of life for all citizens, rich and poor alike, as such programs not only improve life for those directly receiving benefits (or living in fear of someday needing them, from the prospect of unemployment or illness) but also reduce the social pathologies (such as crime and anomie) that are the result of poverty and insecurity. By creating a society with less poverty and less insecurity, he argues, we move closer to creating a nation of shared prosperity that works to the advantage of all. Thus, his research suggests, life satisfaction (or "happiness") is strongly related to the generosity of the social safety net (what economists often call decommodification), whether looking across the industrial democracies or across the American states.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Complaints of mistreatment in navigating the welfare state are commonplace, with most unpleasant encounters arising from interactions between welfare recipients and social workers. The dominant approach to social work was casework which emphasized the personal characteristics or moral deficiencies of the recipient rather than social reform. In some cases the said deficiency was grounds for denying assistance. Casework fostered a paternalistic and demeaning relationship between social workers and clients. Caseworkers are the persons who have the most opportunity for showing respect or disrespect to the welfare client. Attitudes of welfare clients toward their caseworkers are described not as much in terms of what they receive in their checks but rather in terms of the relationship that they have with their caseworker; a study found that the way in which a client was shown respect was often more important to the client than what the provider in the situation did to solve the client’s problems.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: As such, there has been work in the private and public sector to target the relationships between social worker and welfare recipients as a way to improve access to social provisions and ease the transition from welfare to work. In a study conducted of the association between the relationship held between people with mental health illnesses who are arrested and sent to mental health court with the mental health court (MHC) caseworker assigned to their case and outcomes, researchers found that perceived conflict with caseworkers was higher in a number of participants who were terminated or missing from MHC. Participants who reported less conflict with an assigned caseworker utilized more services and spent fewer days in jail. The study shows the importance a perceived bond has on a participant's use of services, with less perceived conflict resulting in an increase of service use and program retention and decrease in jail time served. Similar results were found in an evaluation of the impact of eleven different welfare-to-work approaches on adults and children in the course of five years. Two programs who had lower enforcement of the participation mandate compared to the other nine, had little to no impact on employment and earnings if its participants. It appears that a minimum level of involvement and enforcement by program staff is required to produce a moderate improvement in employment—without it, participants who would not participate on their own volition would not engage in the program’s activities and reap the benefits from them. Within the same evaluation it was found that programs that appointed one caseworker per person rather than the traditional two, had better outcomes for participants than programs that had assigned two caseworkers per person.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: When a social worker demonstrates to her clients by her actions that she respects them, a relationship is able to grow. Clients who feel respected by their social worker will be more likely to freely discuss difficult topics, explore their own contributions, and appoint themselves in efforts to achieve specific outcomes. A client’s perception of their provider’s level of regard for them was significantly related to their ability to achieve a certain outcome at the end of their program. Respect, although important throughout all phases of service, it is particularly crucial to interactions among newcomers or strangers. Such expressions would include vocal sounds (ex. greeting, calling), physical movements (ex. serving, guiding), bodily movements (acknowledging, polite posture), appearance (ex. proper dressing, grooming), and so forth.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: When grievances do need be addressed by the welfare beneficiaries, they usually seek the assistance of a lawyer or advocate. Because advocacy is a practice of speaking for the advocate, no matter how “rebellious” they aspire to be, they inevitably perpetuate the same subordination of their client as the system they attempt to combat Lucie White presents this point in her “"Goldberg v Kelly" On the Paradox of Lawyering for the Poor” and proposes that when lawyers are representing poor welfare recipients, lawyers need to continuously cede to “clients” the power to speak for themselves. Such an act would transform the lawyer from a professional service that is imposed upon subordinated communities to partners that allow clients to take the lead of their own advocacy.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Social programs have been implemented to promote a variety of societal goals, including alleviating the effects of poverty on those earning or receiving low income or encountering serious medical problems, and ensuring retired people have a basic standard of living.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Unlike in Europe, Christian democratic and social democratic theories have not played a major role in shaping welfare policy in the United States. Entitlement programs in the U.S. were virtually non-existent until the administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the implementation of the New Deal programs in response to the Great Depression. Between 1932 and 1981, modern American liberalism dominated U.S. economic policy and the entitlements grew along with American middle class wealth.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Eligibility for welfare benefits depends on a variety of factors, including gross and net income, family size, pregnancy, homelessness, unemployment, and serious medical conditions like blindness, kidney failure or AIDS.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The United States adopted the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act in 1996, which gave individual states the authority to drug test welfare recipients. Drug testing in order for potential recipients to receive welfare has become an increasingly controversial topic. Richard Hudson, a Republican from North Carolina claims he pushes for drug screening as a matter of "moral obligation" and that testing should be enforced as a way for the United States government to discourage drug usage. Others claim that ordering the needy to drug test "stereotypes, stigmatizes, and criminalizes" them without need. States that currently require drug tests to be performed in order to receive public assistance include Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Utah.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: Some have argued that welfare has come to be associated with poverty. Political scientist Martin Gilens argues that blacks have overwhelmingly dominated images of poverty over the last few decades and states that "white Americans with the most exaggerated misunderstandings of the racial composition of the poor are the most likely to oppose welfare". This perception possibly perpetuates negative racial stereotypes and could increase Americans' opposition and racialization of welfare policies.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: In FY 2010, African-American families comprised 31.9% of TANF families, white families comprised 31.8%, and 30.0% were Hispanic. Since the implementation of TANF, the percentage of Hispanic families has increased, while the percentages of white and black families have decreased. In FY 1997, African-American families represented 37.3% of TANF recipient families, white families 34.5%, and Hispanic families 22.5%.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: As of 2013, the US population as a whole is composed of 63.7% whites, 16.3% Hispanic, 12.5% African-American, 4.8% Asian and 2.9% other races. TANF programs at a cost of about $20.0 billion (2013) have decreased in use as Earned Income Tax Credits, Medicaid grants, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), child nutrition programs, Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), housing assistance, Feeding Programs (WIC & CSFP), along with about 70 more programs, have increased to over $700 billion more in 2013.


title: Social programs in the United States

text: The Great Recession made a large impact on welfare spending. In a 2011 article, "Forbes" reported, "The best estimate of the cost of the 185 federal means tested welfare programs for 2010 for the federal government alone is $717 billion, up a third since 2008, according to the Heritage Foundation. Counting state spending of about $210 billion, total welfare spending for 2010 reached over $920 billion, up nearly one-fourth since 2008 (24.3%)"—and increasing fast. The previous decade had seen a 60% decrease in the number of people receiving welfare benefits, beginning with the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, but spending did not decrease proportionally during that time period. Combined annual federal and state spending is the equivalent of over $21,000 for every person living below poverty level in America.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Respiratory arrest is a sickness caused by apnea (cessation of breathing) or respiratory dysfunction severe enough it will not sustain the body (such as agonal breathing). Prolonged apnea refers to a patient who has stopped breathing for a long period of time. If the heart muscle contraction is intact, the condition is known as respiratory arrest. An abrupt stop of pulmonary gas exchange lasting for more than five minutes may permanently damage vital organs, especially the brain. Lack of oxygen to the brain causes loss of consciousness. Brain injury is likely if respiratory arrest goes untreated for more than three minutes, and death is almost certain if more than five minutes.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Damage may be reversible if treated early enough. Respiratory arrest is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate medical attention and management. To save a patient in respiratory arrest, the goal is to restore adequate ventilation and prevent further damage. Management interventions include supplying oxygen, opening the airway, and means of artificial ventilation. In some instances, an impending respiratory arrest could be predetermined by signs the patient is showing, such as the increased work of breathing. Respiratory arrest will ensue once the patient depletes their oxygen reserves and loses the effort to breathe.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Respiratory arrest should be distinguished from respiratory failure. The former refers to the complete cessation of breathing, while respiratory failure is the inability to provide adequate ventilation for the body's requirements. Without intervention, both may lead to decreased oxygen in the blood (hypoxemia), elevated carbon dioxide level in the blood (hypercapnia), inadequate oxygen perfusion to tissue (hypoxia), and may be fatal. Respiratory arrest is also different from cardiac arrest, the failure of heart muscle contraction. If untreated, one may lead to the other.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: One common symptom of respiratory arrest is cyanosis, a bluish discoloration of the skin resulting from an inadequate amount of oxygen in the blood. If respiratory arrest remains without any treatment, cardiac arrest will occur within minutes of hypoxemia, hypercapnia or both. At this point, patients will be unconscious or about to become unconscious.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Symptoms of respiratory compromise can differ with each patient. Complications from respiratory compromise are increasing rapidly across the clinical spectrum, partly due to expanded use of opioids combined with the lack of standardized guidelines among medical specialties. While respiratory compromise creates problems that are often serious and potentially life-threatening, they may be prevented with the proper tools and approach. Appropriate patient monitoring and therapeutic strategies are necessary for early recognition, intervention and treatment.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: After determining the scene is safe, approach the patient and attempt to converse with him or her. If the patient responds verbally, you have established that there is at least a partially patent airway and that the patient is breathing (therefore not currently in respiratory arrest). If the patient is unresponsive, look for chest rise, which is an indicator of active breathing. A sternal rub is sometimes used to further assess for responsiveness. Initial assessment also involves checking for a pulse, by placing two fingers against the carotid artery, radial artery, or femoral artery to ensure this is purely respiratory arrest and not cardiopulmonary arrest. Checking a pulse after encountering an unresponsive patient is no longer recommended for non-medically trained personnel. Once one has determined that the patient is in respiratory arrest, the steps below can help to further identify the cause of the arrest.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: The first step to determining the cause of arrest is to clear and open the upper airway with correct head and neck positioning. The practitioner must lengthen and elevate the patient's neck until the external auditory meatus is in the same plane as the sternum. The face should be facing the ceiling. The mandible should be positioned upwards by lifting the lower jaw and pushing the mandible upward. These steps are known as head tilt, chin lift, and jaw thrust, respectively. If a neck or spinal injury is suspected, the provider should avoid performing this maneuver as further nervous system damage may occur. The cervical spine should be stabilized, if possible, by using either manual stabilization of the head and neck by a provider or applying a C-collar. The C-collar can make ventilatory support more challenging and can increase intracranial pressure, therefore is less preferable than manual stabilization. If a foreign body can be detected, the practitioner may remove it with a finger sweep of the oropharynx and suction. It is important that the practitioner does not cause the foreign body to be lodged even deeper into the patient's body. Foreign bodies that are deeper into the patient's body can be removed with Magill forceps or by suction. A Heimlich maneuver can also be used to dislodge the foreign body. The Heimlich maneuver consists of manual thrusts to the upper abdomen until the airway is clear. In conscious adults, the practitioner will stand behind the patient with arms around the patient's midsection. One fist will be in a clenched formation while the other hand grabs the fist. Together, both hands will thrust inward and upward by pulling up with both arms.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Treatment varies depending on the cause of respiratory arrest. In many cases, it is necessary to establish an alternate airway and providing artificial ventilation that can include modes of mechanical ventilation. There are many ways to provide an airway and to deliver breathing support. The list below includes several options.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Opioid overdose remains a major cause of death with an increase in rate of death by 12% in the United States from 2016 to 2017. In cases of overdose leading to respiratory arrest, the recommended treatment according to the 2015 American Heart Association guidelines is to administer intramuscular or intranasal naloxone at an initial dose of 0.04-0.4 mg. Dosing may be repeated up to 2 mg if initial dose is ineffective. Special consideration must be taken in individuals with opioid dependency as naloxone administration can induce severe opioid withdrawal, hence the recommended starting doses above. Goal of naloxone therapy is to restore respiratory drive in the individual, however mechanical ventilation may still be necessary during initial resuscitation.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Resistance to bag valve mask may suggest presence of a foreign body that is obstructing airways and commonly used as a diagnostic tool and treatment for respiratory arrest. The bag-valve-mask device has a self-inflating bag with a soft mask that rests on the face. When the bag is connected to an oxygen supply, the patient will receive 60 to 100% of inspired oxygen. The purpose of bag-valve-mask is to provide adequate temporary ventilation and allow the body to achieve airway control by itself. However, if the bag-valve-mask is left on for more than five minutes, air may be introduced into the stomach. At that point, a nasogastric tube should be inserted to take the accumulated air out. During this process, practitioners must carefully position and maneuver the bag-valve-mask in order to keep airways open. To ensure an adequate seal when using the bag valve mask to ventilate, specific hand positioning is typically used. The provider places his or her thumb and index finger in a 'C' shape on top of the mask and grips the jaw under the mask with the other three fingers, creating an 'E' shape. The thumb and index finger provide downward pressure on the mask while the remaining fingers maintain head tilt and jaw thrust. The free hand can then be used to provide ventilation via the bag. For children, pediatric bags can be used. Pediatric bags have a valve that limits peak airway pressures to around 35–40 cm of water. Practitioners must tweak valve settings to accurately determine each of their patients to avoid hypoventilation or hyperventilation. When applying ventilation with the bag valve mask, the provider should apply just enough pressure to bag to see a chest rise. Providing excessive bag pressure can actually impair the blood flow to the heart and brain, so during CPR extra caution should be taken to limit size of tidal volume. The rate of manual ventilation should not exceed 12 times per minute, or one ventilation every 5 seconds as to avoid hyperventilation.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: An oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airway is used during bag-valve-mask ventilation to prevent soft tissues from blocking the airway. An oropharyngeal airway may cause gagging and vomiting. Therefore, an oropharyngeal airway must be sized appropriately. An airway that is incorrectly sized can worsen the airway obstruction. The distance measured should be from the corner of the patient's mouth to the angle of the jaw or earlobe.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: The laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is a tube with an inflatable cuff. A laryngeal mask airway can be positioned in the lower oropharynx to prevent airway obstruction by soft tissues and to create a safe channel for ventilation. The laryngeal mask airway is the standard rescue ventilation when endotracheal intubation cannot be accomplished. To insert the laryngeal mask airway into the patient, the deflated mask should be pressed against the hard palate, rotated past the base of the tongue, and reaching the pharynx. Once the mask has been placed in the correct position, the mask can be inflated. Some benefits of the laryngeal mask airway include minimization of gastric inflation and protection against regurgitation. A potential problem the laryngeal mask airway poses is that over inflation will make the mask more rigid and less able to adapt to the patient's anatomy, compressing the tongue and causing tongue edema. In that case, the mask pressure should be lowered or a larger mask size should be used. If non-comatose patients are given muscle relaxants before the insertion of the laryngeal mask airway, they may gag and aspirate when the drugs are worn off. At that point, the laryngeal mask airway should be removed immediately to eliminate the gag response and buy time to start at new alternative intubation technique.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: A tracheal tube is inserted into the trachea through the mouth or nose. Endotracheal tubes contain high-volume, low-pressure balloon cuffs to minimize air leakage and the risk of aspiration. Cuffed tubes were made originally for adults and children over 8 years old, but cuffed tubes have been used in infants and younger children to prevent air leakage. Cuffed tubes can be inflated to the extent needed to prevent air leakage. The endotracheal tube is a guaranteed mechanism to secure a compromised airway, limit aspiration, and bring about mechanical ventilation in comatose patients. The endotracheal tube is a great method for patients who are comatose, have an obstructed airway, or need mechanical ventilation. The endotracheal tube also allows suctioning of the lower respiratory tract. Drugs that can be inserted through the endotracheal tube during cardiac arrest are discouraged. Before intubation, patients need correct patient positioning and ventilation with 100% oxygen. The purpose of ventilation with 100% oxygen is to denitrogenate healthy patients and prolong the safe apneic time. Tubes with an internal diameter of over 8mm are acceptable for most adults. Insertion technique includes visualizing the epiglottis, the posterior laryngeal structure, and not passing the tube unless tracheal insertion is ensured.


title: Respiratory arrest

text: Surgical entry is required when the upper airway is obstructed by a foreign body, massive trauma has occurred, or if ventilation cannot be accomplished by any of the aforementioned methods. The requirement of the surgical airway is commonly known as the response to failed intubation. In comparison, surgical airways require 100 seconds to complete from incision to ventilation compared to laryngeal mask airways and other devices. During emergency cricothyrotomy, the patient lies on his back with neck extended and shoulders backward. The larynx is held in one hand by the practitioner while the other hand is holding a blade to incise the skin through the subcutaneous tissue and into the midline of the cricothyroid membrane to access the trachea. A hollow tube is used inserted into the trachea to keep the airway open. A tracheal hook is used to keep the space open and prevent retraction. Complications may include hemorrhage, subcutaneous emphysema, pneumomediastinum, and pneumothorax. Cricothyrotomy is used as emergency surgical access due to being fast and simple. Another surgical airway method is called tracheostomy. Tracheostomy is done in the operating room by a surgeon. This is the preferred method for patients requiring long-term ventilation. Tracheostomy uses skin puncture and dilators to insert the tracheostomy tube.