text: Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote, "After all the spy and mystery movies of a romantic and implausible nature that we have seen, it is great to see one as realistic, and believable too, as "The Spy Who Came In from the Cold"." "Variety" called the film "an excellent contemporary espionage drama of the Cold War which achieves solid impact via emphasis on human values, total absence of mechanical spy gimmickry, and perfectly controlled underplaying." Philip K. Scheuer of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote: "It is not an easy, certainly not a pleasant, picture to sit through; too impersonal, too objective, to move us to weep, so that its ending can only leave us tremendously depressed." Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" declared: "Not having shared the evidently widespread admiration for "The Spy Who Came In from the Cold" in its original form as a novel, I nonetheless find it a wholly absorbing picture." Brendan Gill of "The New Yorker" called it "in every respect an admirable translation [to] the screen of the fantastically popular thriller by Jean ["sic"] le Carré." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote, "Concentration is demanded; and earned by the tension and accuracy of the dialogue and the high level of performance ... [the cast] all give performances of a kind which instantly engage attention, even if the characters scarcely develop beyond the point at which we first meet them."


title: The Spy Who Came In from the Cold (film)

text: The film holds a score of 86% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 14 reviews, with an average grade of 7.7 out of 10.


text: "The Spy Who Came In from the Cold" was released by The Criterion Collection as a Region 1 DVD on 25 November 2008 and on Blu-ray on 10 September 2013. Extras for this version include: digitally restored picture and sound; an interview with John le Carré; scene-specific commentary by director of photography Oswald Morris; a BBC documentary titled "The Secret Center: John le Carré" (2000); an interview with Richard Burton from a 1967 episode of the BBC series "Acting in the '60s"; a 1985 audio interview with director Martin Ritt; a gallery of set designs; the film's theatrical trailer; and a booklet featuring an essay by film critic Michael Sragow.


title: Digg

text: Digg, stylized in lowercase as digg, is an American news aggregator with a curated front page, aiming to select stories specifically for the Internet audience such as science, trending political issues, and viral Internet issues. It was launched in its current form on July 31, 2012, with support for sharing content to other social platforms such as Twitter and Facebook.


title: Digg

text: It formerly had been a popular social news website, allowing people to vote web content up or down, called "digging" and "burying", respectively. In 2012, Quantcast estimated Digg's monthly U.S. unique visits at 3.8 million. Digg's popularity prompted the creation of similar sites such as Reddit.


title: Digg

text: In July 2008, the former company took part in advanced acquisition talks with Google for a reported $200 million price tag, but the deal ultimately fell through. After a controversial 2010 redesign and the departure of co-founders Jay Adelson and Kevin Rose, in July 2012 Digg was sold in three parts: the Digg brand, website, and technology were sold to Betaworks for an estimated $500,000; 15 staff were transferred to "The Washington Post"s "SocialCode" for a reported $12 million; and a suite of patents was sold to LinkedIn for about $4 million.


title: Digg

text: Digg started as an experiment in November 2004 by collaborators Kevin Rose, Owen Byrne, Ron Gorodetzky, and Jay Adelson. The original design by Dan Ries was free of advertisements. The company added Google AdSense early in the project but switched to MSN adCenter in 2007.


title: Digg

text: The site's main function was to let users discover, share and recommend web content. Members of the community could submit a webpage for general consideration. Other members could vote that page up ("digg") or down ("bury"). Although voting took place on digg.com, many websites added "digg" buttons to their pages, allowing users to vote as they browsed the web. The end product was a series of wide-ranging, constantly updated lists of popular and trending content from around the Internet, aggregated by a social network.


title: Digg

text: Additions and improvements were made throughout the website's first years. Digg v2 was released in July 2005, with a new interface by web design company silverorange. New features included a friends list, and the ability to "digg" a story without being redirected to a success page. One year later, as part of Digg v3, the website added specific categories for technology, science, world and business, videos, entertainment, and gaming, as well as a "view all" section that merged all categories. Further interface adjustments were made in August 2007.


title: Digg

text: By 2008, Digg's homepage was attracting over 236 million visitors annually, according to a Compete.com survey. Digg had grown large enough that it was thought to affect the traffic of submitted web pages. Some pages experienced a sudden increase in traffic shortly after being submitted; some Digg users refer to this as the "Digg effect".


title: Digg

text: CEO Jay Adelson announced in 2010 that the site would undergo an extensive overhaul. In an interview with "Wired" magazine, Adelson stated that "Every single thing has changed" and that "the entire website has been rewritten." The company switched from MySQL to Cassandra, a distributed database system; in a blog post, VP Engineering John Quinn described the move as "bold". Adelson summed up the new Digg by saying, "We've got a new backend, a new infrastructure layer, a new services layer, new machines—everything."


title: Digg

text: Adelson stepped down as CEO on April 5, 2010, to explore entrepreneurial opportunities, months before the launch date of Digg v4. He had been the company's CEO since its inception. Kevin Rose, another original founder, stepped in temporarily as CEO and Chairman.


title: Digg

text: Digg's v4 release on August 25, 2010, was marred by site-wide bugs and glitches. Digg users reacted with hostile verbal opposition. Beyond the release, Digg faced problems due to so-called "power users" who would manipulate the article recommendation features to only support one another's postings, flooding the site with articles only from these users and making it impossible to have genuine content from non-power users appear on the front page. Frustrations with the system led to dwindling web traffic, exacerbated by heavy competition from Facebook, whose like buttons started to appear on websites next to Digg's. High staff turnover included the departure of head of business development Matt Van Horn, shortly after v4's release.


title: Digg

text: On September 1, 2010, Matt Williams took over as CEO, ending Rose's troubled tenure as interim chief executive.


title: Digg

text: In September 2016, Digg announced that it would begin a data partnership with Gannett. The "seven figure" investment would give Gannett access to real-time trend analysis of Digg's 7.5 million pieces of content.


title: Digg

text: In July 2012, Digg was sold in three parts: the Digg brand, website, and technology were sold to Betaworks for $500,000; 15 staff were transferred to "The Washington Post"s SocialCode project for $12 million, and a suite of patents was sold to LinkedIn for around $4 million.


title: Digg

text: There are reports that Digg had been trying to sell itself to a larger company since early 2006. The most notable attempt took place in July 2008, when Google entered talks to buy Digg for around $200 million. Google walked away from negotiations during the deal's due diligence phase, informing Digg on July 25 that it was no longer interested in the purchase. Digg subsequently went into further venture capital funding, receiving $28.7 million from investors such as Highland Capital Partners to move headquarters and add staff. Several months later, CEO Jay Adelson said Digg was no longer for sale.


title: Digg

text: On July 20, 2012, new owners Betaworks announced via Twitter that they were rebuilding Digg from scratch, "turning [Digg] back into a start-up". Betaworks gave the project a six-week deadline. Surveys of existing users, through the website ReThinkDigg.com, were used to inform the development of a new user interface and user experience.


title: Digg

text: Digg tried rebooting itself by resetting its version number and launching "Digg v1" a day early on July 31, 2012. It featured an editorially driven front page, more images, and top, popular and upcoming stories. Users could access a new scoring system. There was increased support for sharing content to other social platforms such as Twitter and Facebook. Digg's front page content is selected by editors, instead of users on other communities like Reddit.


title: Digg

text: Until its sale to BuySellAds.com in 2018, its offices were located at 50 Eldridge Street in New York City's Chinatown.


title: Digg

text: In response to the announced shutdown of Google Reader, Digg announced on March 14, 2013 that it was working on its own RSS reader. Digg Reader launched on June 28, 2013 as a web and iOS application. An Android app was released on August 29, 2013. Digg announced that it would shut down Digg Reader on March 26, 2018.


title: Digg

text: It was possible for users to have disproportionate influence on Digg, either by themselves or in teams. These users were sometimes motivated to promote or bury pages for political or financial reasons.


title: Digg

text: Serious attempts by users to game the site began in 2006. A top user was banned after agreeing to promote a story for cash to an undercover Digg sting operation. Another group of users openly formed a 'Bury Brigade' to remove "spam" articles about US politician Ron Paul; critics accused the group of attempting to stifle any mention of Ron Paul on Digg.


title: Digg

text: Digg hired computer scientist Anton Kast to develop a diversity algorithm that would prevent special interest groups from dominating Digg. During a town hall meeting, Digg executives responded to criticism by removing some features that gave superusers extra weight, but declined to make "buries" transparent.


title: Digg

text: However, later that year Google increased its page rank for Digg. Shortly afterwards, many 'pay for Diggs' startups were created to profit from the opportunity. According to TechCrunch, one top user charged $700 per story, with a $500 bonus if the story reached the front page.


title: Digg

text: Digg Patriots was a conservative Yahoo! Groups mailing list, with an associated page on coRank, accused of coordinated, politically motivated behavior on Digg. Progressive blogger Ole Ole Olson wrote in August 2010 that Digg Patriots undertook a year-long effort of organized burying of seemingly liberal articles from Digg's Upcoming module. He also accused leading members of vexatiously reporting liberal users for banning (and those who seemed liberal), and creating "sleeper" accounts in the event of administrators banning their accounts. These and other actions would violate Digg's terms of usage. Olson's post was immediately followed by the disbanding and closure of the DiggPatriots list, and an investigation into the matter by Digg.


title: Digg

text: On May 1, 2007, an article appeared on Digg's homepage that contained the encryption key for the AACS digital rights management protection of HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc. Then Digg, "acting on the advice of its lawyers", removed posting submissions about the secret number from its database and banned several users for submitting it. The removals were seen by many Digg users as a capitulation to corporate interests and an assault on free speech. A statement by Jay Adelson attributed the article's take-down to an attempt to comply with cease and desist letters from the Advanced Access Content System consortium and cited Digg's Terms of Use as justification for taking down the article. Although some users defended Digg's actions, as a whole the community staged a widespread revolt with numerous articles and comments made using the encryption key. The scope of the user response was so great that one of the Digg users referred to it as a "digital Boston Tea Party". The response was also directly responsible for Digg reversing the policy and stating: "But now, after seeing hundreds of stories and reading thousands of comments, you've made it clear. You'd rather see Digg go down fighting than bow down to a bigger company. We hear you, and effective immediately we won't delete stories or comments containing the code and will deal with whatever the consequences might be."


title: Digg

text: Digg's version 4 release was initially unstable. The site was unreachable or unstable for weeks after its launch on August 25, 2010. Many users, upon finally reaching the site, complained about the new design and the removal of many features (such as bury, favorites, friends submissions, upcoming pages, subcategories, videos and history search). Kevin Rose replied to complaints on his blog, promising to fix the algorithm and restore some features.


title: Digg

text: Disgruntled users declared a "quit Digg day" on August 30, 2010, and used Digg's own auto-submit feature to fill the front page with content from Reddit. Reddit also temporarily added the Digg shovel to their logo to welcome fleeing Digg users.


title: Digg

text: Digg's traffic dropped significantly after the launch of version 4, and publishers reported a drop in direct referrals from stories on Digg's front page. New CEO Matt Williams attempted to address some of the users' concerns in a blog post on October 12, 2010, promising to reinstate many of the features that had been removed.


title: Niko Price

text: Nicholas Gordon Price (born September 29, 1989) is an American mixed martial artist currently fighting in the Welterweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.


title: Niko Price

text: Born and raised in Cape Coral, Florida, Price attended Mariner High School where he played linebacker for the school's football team. Upon graduating, Price began training in kickboxing, winning two bouts both via knockout. Price briefly went to college, studying criminal justice. He started training mixed martial arts in 2008.


title: Niko Price

text: After going undefeated (9–0) as an amateur, Price made his professional MMA debut in February 2012. Before joining the UFC Price amassed a record of 8–0 with 7 of his 8 wins coming by stoppages.


title: Niko Price

text: Price made his promotional debut for the UFC at UFC 207 against Brandon Thatch. He won the fight via submission in the first round.


title: Niko Price

text: Price next fight came at against Alex Morono. He won the fight via knockout in the second round; however, this was later overturned to a no contest after he tested positive for marijuana.


title: Niko Price

text: Price next faced Alan Jouban at on August 5, 2017. He won the fight via TKO in round one. The win also earned Price his first "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Niko Price

text: Price was to face Luan Chagas on October 28, 2017 at . On October 6, it was announced that Chagas had pulled out of the bout due to a fractured foot and was replaced by Vicente Luque. Price lost the fight via D'Arce variation of the brabo in Brazil or D’Arce choke submission after a combination of strikes had him appearing out on his feet in round two.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced George Sullivan January 27, 2018 at . He won the fight by rear-naked choke submission in the second round.


title: Niko Price

text: Price was expected to face Belal Muhammad on June 1, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 131. However, Price was removed from the bout on May 22 for undisclosed reasons and replaced by promotional newcomer Chance Rencountre.<ref name="Muhammad/Rencountre"></ref>


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced Randy Brown on July 14, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 133. He won the fight via knockout in the second round after landing several hammerfists from the bottom to knock Brown out. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced Abdul Razak Alhassan on September 8, 2018 at UFC 228. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced Tim Means on March 9, 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 4. He won via knockout in the first round, becoming the first man to finish Means by knockout in MMA competition. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced Geoff Neal on July 27, 2019 at UFC 240. He lost the fight via technical knockout in round two.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced James Vick on October 12, 2019 at UFC on ESPN+ 19. He won the fight via knockout in round one after landing an upkick from the bottom to knock Vick out. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Niko Price

text: Price was expected to face Muslim Salikhov on April 11, 2020 at . Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the event was eventually postponed.


title: Niko Price

text: Price was scheduled to face Vicente Luque in a rematch on April 18, 2020 at UFC 249. However, on April 9, Dana White, the president of UFC announced that this event was postponed and the bout eventually took place on May 9, 2020. He lost the fight via technical knockout due to doctor stoppage in round three.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced Donald Cerrone on September 19, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 178. The fight was declared a majority draw. On November 4, it was announced that the Nevada State Athletic Commission (NSAC) issued a temporary suspension for Price, after he tested positive for carboxy THC in a drug test related to his fight. On December 2, 2020, it was announced that the bout was overturned to no contest and Price was suspended for six months and fined $8,500.


title: Niko Price

text: As the first bout of his new four-fight contract, Price faced Alex Oliveira on October 2, 2021 at UFC Fight Night 192. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Niko Price

text: Price faced Philip Rowe on December 3, 2022, at UFC on ESPN 42. After knocking Rowe down in the earlier rounds, Price lost the bout via TKO stoppage in the third.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: New York State Department of Health Code, Section 405, also known as the Libby Zion Law, is a regulation that limits the amount of resident physicians' work in New York State hospitals to roughly 80 hours per week. The law was named after Libby Zion, who died in 1984 at the age of 18 under the care of what her father believed to be overworked resident physicians and intern physicians. In July 2003, the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education adopted similar regulations for all accredited medical training institutions in the United States.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Although regulatory and civil proceedings found conflicting evidence about Zion's death, today her death is widely believed to have been caused by serotonin syndrome from the drug interaction between the phenelzine she was taking prior to her hospital visit, and the pethidine administered by a resident physician. The lawsuits and regulatory investigations following her death, and their implications for working conditions and supervision of interns and residents, were highly publicized in both lay media and medical journals.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Libby Zion (November 1965 – March 5, 1984) was a freshman at Bennington College in Bennington, Vermont. She took a prescribed antidepressant, phenelzine, daily. A hospital autopsy revealed traces of cocaine, but other later tests showed no traces. She was the daughter of Sidney Zion, a lawyer who had been a writer for "The New York Times." She had two brothers, Adam and Jed. Her obituary in "The New York Times", written the day after her death, stated that she had been ill with a "flu-like ailment" for the past several days. The article stated that after being admitted to New York Hospital, she died of cardiac arrest, the cause of which was not known.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Libby Zion had been admitted to the hospital through the emergency room by the resident physician assigned to the ER on the night of March 4. Raymond Sherman, the Zion family physician, agreed with their plan to hydrate and observe her. Zion was assigned to two residents, Luise Weinstein and Gregg Stone, who both evaluated her. Weinstein, a first-year resident physician (also referred to as intern or PGY-1), and Stone, a PGY-2 resident, were unable to determine the cause of Zion's illness, though Stone tentatively suggested that her condition might be a simple overreaction to a normal illness. After consulting with Dr. Sherman, the two prescribed pethidine (meperidine) to control the "strange jerking motions" that Zion had been exhibiting when she was admitted.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Weinstein and Stone were both responsible for covering dozens of other patients. After evaluating Zion, they left. Luise Weinstein went to cover other patients, and Stone went to sleep in an on-call room in an adjacent building. Zion, however, did not improve, and continued to become more agitated. After being contacted by nurses by phone, Weinstein ordered medical restraints be placed on Zion. She also prescribed haloperidol by phone to control the agitation.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Zion finally managed to fall asleep, but by 6:30, her temperature had soared to . Weinstein was once again called, and measures were quickly taken to try to reduce her temperature. However, before this could be done, Zion had a cardiac arrest and could not be resuscitated. Weinstein informed Zion's parents by telephone.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Several years had gone by before a general agreement was reached regarding the cause of Zion's death. Zion had been taking a prescribed MAOI antidepressant, phenelzine, before she was admitted to the hospital. The combination of that and the pethidine given to her by Stone and Weinstein contributed to the development of serotonin syndrome, a condition which led to increased agitation. This led Zion to pull on her intravenous tubes, causing Weinstein to order physical restraints, which Zion also fought against. By the time she finally fell asleep, her fever had already reached dangerous levels, and she died soon after of cardiac arrest.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Grieving the loss of their child, Zion's parents became convinced their daughter's death was due to inadequate staffing at the teaching hospital. Sidney Zion questioned the staff's competence for two reasons. The first was the administration of pethidine, which can cause fatal interactions with phenelzine, the antidepressant that Zion was taking. Few clinicians knew of this interaction at the time, though it is now widely known because of this case. The second issue was the use of restraints and emergency psychiatric medication. Sidney's aggrieved words were: "They gave her a drug that was destined to kill her, then ignored her except to tie her down like a dog." To the distress of the doctors, Sidney referred to his daughter's death as a "murder". Sidney also questioned the long hours that residents worked at the time. In a "New York Times" op-ed piece, he wrote: "You don't need kindergarten to know that a resident working a 36-hour shift is in no condition to make any kind of judgment call—forget about life-and-death." The case eventually became a protracted high-profile legal battle, with multiple abrupt reversals; case reports about it appeared in major medical journals.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: In May 1986, Manhattan District Attorney Robert Morgenthau agreed to let a grand jury consider murder charges, an unusual decision for a medical malpractice case. Although the jury declined to indict for murder, in 1987 the intern and resident were charged with 38 counts of gross negligence and/or gross incompetence. The grand jury considered that a series of mistakes contributed to Zion's death, including the improper prescription of drugs and the failure to perform adequate diagnostic tests. Under New York law, the investigative body for these charges was the Hearing Committee of the State Board for Professional Medical Conduct. Between April 1987 and January 1989, the committee conducted 30 hearings at which 33 witnesses testified, including expert witnesses in toxicology, emergency medicine, and chairmen of internal medicine departments at six prominent medical schools, several of whom stated under oath that they had never heard of the interaction between meperidine and phenelzine prior to this case. At the end of these proceedings, the committee unanimously decided that none of the 38 charges against the two residents were supported by evidence. Its findings were accepted by the full board, and by the state's Health Commissioner, David Axelrod.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: Under New York law, however, the final decision in this matter rested with another body, the Board of Regents, which was under no obligation to consider either the Commissioner's or the Hearing Committee's recommendations. The Board of Regents, which at the time had only one physician among its 16 members, voted to "censure and reprimand" the resident physicians for acts of gross negligence. This decision did not affect their right to practise. The verdict against the two residents was considered very surprising in medical circles. In no other case had the Board of Regents overruled the Commissioner's recommendation. The hospital also admitted it had provided inadequate care and paid a $13,000 fine to the state. In 1991, however, the state's appeals court completely cleared the records of the two doctors of findings that they had provided inadequate care to Zion.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: In parallel with the state investigation, Sidney Zion also filed a separate civil case against the doctors and the hospital. The civil trial came to a close in 1995 when a Manhattan jury found that the two residents and Libby Zion's primary care doctor contributed to her death by prescribing the wrong drug, and ordered them to pay a total of $375,000 to Zion's family for her pain and suffering. The jury also found that Raymond Sherman, the primary care physician, had lied on the witness stand in denying he knew that Libby Zion was to be given pethidine. Although the jury found the three doctors negligent, none of them was found guilty of "wanton" negligence, i.e. demonstrating utter disregard for the patient, as opposed to a simple mistake. Payouts for wanton negligence would not have been covered by the doctors' malpractice insurance.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: The emergency room physician, Maurice Leonard, as well as the hospital (as legal persona) were found not responsible for Zion's death in the civil trial. The jury decided that the hospital was negligent for leaving Weinstein alone in charge of 40 patients that night, but they also concluded that this negligence did not directly contribute to Zion's death. The trial was shown on "Court TV".


title: Libby Zion Law

text: After the grand jury's indictment of the two residents, Axelrod decided to address the systemic problems in residency by establishing a blue-ribbon panel of experts headed by Bertrand M. Bell, a primary care physician at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in the Bronx. Bell was well known for his critical stance regarding the lack of supervision of physicians-in-training. Formally known as the Ad Hoc Advisory Committee on Emergency Services, and more commonly known as the Bell Commission, the committee evaluated the training and supervision of doctors in the state, and developed a series of recommendations that addressed several patient-care issues, including restraint usage, medication systems, and resident work hours.


title: Libby Zion Law

text: "In 1989, New York state adopted the Bell Commission's recommendations that residents could not work more than 80 hours a week or more than 24 consecutive hours" and that attending physicians "needed to be physically present in the hospital at all times. Hospitals instituted so-called night floats, doctors who worked overnight to spell their colleagues, allowing them to adhere to the new rules." Periodic follow-up audits have prompted the New York State Department of Health to crack down on violating hospitals. Similar limits have since been adopted in numerous other states. In July 2003 the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) adopted similar regulations for all accredited medical training institutions in the United States.


title: Works of mercy

text: Works of mercy (sometimes known as acts of mercy) are practices considered meritorious in Christian ethics.


title: Works of mercy

text: The practice is popular in the Catholic Church as an act of both penance and charity. In addition, the Methodist church teaches that the works of mercy are a means of grace which lead to holiness and aid in sanctification.


title: Works of mercy

text: Pope John Paul II issued a papal encyclical ""Dives in misericordia"" on 30 November 1980 declaring that "Jesus Christ taught that man not only receives and experiences the mercy of God, but that he is also called 'to practice mercy' towards others." Another notable devotion associated with the works of mercy is the Divine Mercy, which derives from apparitions of Jesus Christ to Saint Faustina Kowalska.


title: Works of mercy

text: Based on Jesus' doctrine of the sheep and the goats, the corporal and spiritual works of mercy are a means of grace as good deeds; it is also a work of justice pleasing to God.


title: Works of mercy

text: The precept is an affirmative one, that is, it is of the sort which is always binding but not always operative, for lack of matter or occasion or fitting circumstances. In general it may be said that the determination of its actual obligatory force in a given case depends largely on one's capacity. There are easily recognizable limitations which the precept undergoes in practice so far as the performance of the corporal works of mercy are concerned. Likewise the law imposing spiritual works of mercy is subject in individual instances to important reservations. For example, some may require particular tact, prudence, or knowledge. Similarly to instruct the ignorant, counsel the doubtful, and console the sorrowing is not always within the competency of every one. However, to bear wrongs patiently, to forgive offences willingly, and to pray for the living and the dead, do not require some special array of gifts or talent for their observance.


title: Works of mercy

text: In an address on the 2016 World Day of Prayer for Creation, Pope Francis suggested "care for creation" as a new work of mercy, describing it as a "complement" to the existing works. Francis characterized this new work as having both corporal and spiritual components. Corporally, it involves "daily gestures which break with the logic of violence, exploitation and selfishness". Spiritually, it involves contemplating each part of creation to find what God is teaching us through them. This pronouncement extensively quoted the encyclical "Laudato si'", and Cardinal Peter Turkson, who helped write the encyclical, clarified that the addition of this work of mercy was part of Francis' intention for "Laudato si"'.


title: Works of mercy

text: Corporal works of mercy are those that tend to the bodily needs of other creatures. The standard list is given by Jesus in Chapter 25 of the Gospel of Matthew, in the famous sermon on the Last Judgment. They are also mentioned in the Book of Isaiah. The seventh work of mercy comes from the Book of Tobit and from the "mitzvah" of burial, although it was not added to the list until the Middle Ages.


title: Works of mercy

text: Just as the corporal works of mercy are directed towards relieving corporeal suffering, the aim of the spiritual works of mercy is to relieve spiritual suffering.


title: Works of mercy

text: The Corporal works of mercy are an important subject of Christian iconography. In some representations of the Middle Ages, the seven works were allegorically juxtaposed with the seven deadly sins (avarice, anger, envy, laziness, unchastity, intemperance, pride). The pictorial representation of the works of mercy began in the 12th century.


title: Works of mercy

text: The Master of Alkmaar painted the polyptych of the "Seven works of mercy" (ca. 1504) for the Church of Saint Lawrence in Alkmaar, Netherlands. His series of wooden panel paintings show the works of mercy, with Jesus in the background viewing each, in this order: feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, clothe the naked, bury the dead, shelter the traveler, comfort the sick, and ransom the captive.


title: Works of mercy

text: The painting of the "Seven Works of Mercy" by Frans II Francken (1605) represents the acts not as a picture cycle, but in one single composition.


title: Works of mercy

text: A major work of the iconography of mercy is the altarpiece of Caravaggio (1606/07) in Naples, which was commissioned by the Confraternità del Pio Monte della Misericordia for their church. This charity brotherhood was founded in 1601 in Naples. The artist painted the "Seven Works of Mercy" in one single composition. Regarding the sharp contrasts of the painting's chiaroscuro, the art historian Ralf van Bühren explains the bright light as a metaphor for mercy, which "helps the audience to explore mercy in their own lives".


title: Works of mercy

text: In Methodist teaching, doing merciful acts is a prudential means of grace. Along with works of piety, they are necessary for the believer to move on to Christian perfection. In this sense, the Methodist concern for people at the margins is closely related to its worship. As such, these beliefs have helped create the emphasis of the social gospel in the Methodist Church.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: Insular dwarfism, a form of phyletic dwarfism, is the process and condition of large animals evolving or having a reduced body size when their population's range is limited to a small environment, primarily islands. This natural process is distinct from the intentional creation of dwarf breeds, called dwarfing. This process has occurred many times throughout evolutionary history, with examples including dinosaurs, like "Europasaurus" and "Magyarosaurus dacus", and modern animals such as elephants and their relatives. This process, and other "island genetics" artifacts, can occur not only on islands, but also in other situations where an ecosystem is isolated from external resources and breeding. This can include caves, desert oases, isolated valleys and isolated mountains ("sky islands"). Insular dwarfism is one aspect of the more general "island effect" or "Foster's rule", which posits that when mainland animals colonize islands, small species tend to evolve larger bodies (island gigantism), and large species tend to evolve smaller bodies. This is itself one aspect of island syndrome, which describes the differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour of insular species compared to their continental counterparts.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: One is a selective process where only smaller animals trapped on the island survive, as food periodically declines to a borderline level. The smaller animals need fewer resources and smaller territories, and so are more likely to get past the break-point where population decline allows food sources to replenish enough for the survivors to flourish. Smaller size is also advantageous from a reproductive standpoint, as it entails shorter gestation periods and generation times.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: Among herbivores, large size confers advantages in coping with both competitors and predators, so a reduction or absence of either would facilitate dwarfing; competition appears to be the more important factor.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: Among carnivores, the main factor is thought to be the size and availability of prey resources, and competition is believed to be less important. In tiger snakes, insular dwarfism occurs on islands where available prey is restricted to smaller sizes than are normally taken by mainland snakes. Since prey size preference in snakes is generally proportional to body size, small snakes may be better adapted to take small prey.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: The inverse process, wherein small animals breeding on isolated islands lacking the predators of large land masses may become much larger than normal, is called island gigantism. An excellent example is the dodo, the ancestors of which were normal-sized pigeons. There are also several species of giant rats, one still extant, that coexisted with both "Homo floresiensis" and the dwarf stegodonts on Flores.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: The process of insular dwarfing can occur relatively rapidly by evolutionary standards. This is in contrast to increases in maximum body size, which are much more gradual. When normalized to generation length, the maximum rate of body mass decrease during insular dwarfing was found to be over 30 times greater than the maximum rate of body mass increase for a ten-fold change in mammals. The disparity is thought to reflect the fact that pedomorphism offers a relatively easy route to evolve smaller adult body size; on the other hand, the evolution of larger maximum body size is likely to be interrupted by the emergence of a series of constraints that must be overcome by evolutionary innovations before the process can continue.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: For both herbivores and carnivores, island size, the degree of island isolation and the size of the ancestral continental species appear not to be of major direct importance to the degree of dwarfing. However, when considering only the body masses of recent top herbivores and carnivores, and including data from both continental and island land masses, the body masses of the largest species in a land mass were found to scale to the size of the land mass, with slopes of about 0.5 log(body mass/kg) per log(land area/km). There were separate regression lines for endothermic top predators, ectothermic top predators, endothermic top herbivores and (on the basis of limited data) ectothermic top herbivores, such that food intake was 7 to 24-fold higher for top herbivores than for top predators, and about the same for endotherms and ectotherms of the same trophic level (this leads to ectotherms being 5 to 16 times heavier than corresponding endotherms).


title: Insular dwarfism

text: Recognition that insular dwarfism could apply to dinosaurs arose through the work of Ferenc Nopcsa, a Hungarian-born aristocrat, adventurer, scholar, and paleontologist. Nopcsa studied Transylvanian dinosaurs intensively, noticing that they were smaller than their cousins elsewhere in the world. For example, he unearthed six-meter-long sauropods, a group of dinosaurs which elsewhere commonly grew to 30 meters or more. Nopcsa deduced that the area where the remains were found was an island, Hațeg Island (now the Haţeg or Hatzeg basin in Romania) during the Mesozoic era. Nopcsa's proposal of dinosaur dwarfism on Hațeg Island is today widely accepted after further research confirmed that the remains found are not from juveniles.


title: Insular dwarfism

text: In addition, the genus "Balaur" was initially described as a "Velociraptor"-sized dromaeosaurid (and in consequence a dubious example of insular dwarfism), but has been since reclassified as a secondarily flightless stem bird, closer to modern birds than "Jeholornis" (thus actually an example of insular gigantism).


title: Wheel and axle

text: The wheel and axle is a simple machine consisting of a wheel attached to a smaller axle so that these two parts rotate together in which a force is transferred from one to the other. The wheel and axle can be viewed as a version of the lever, with a drive force applied tangentially to the perimeter of the wheel, and a load force applied to the axle supported in a bearing, which serves as a fulcrum.


title: Wheel and axle

text: The Halaf culture of 6500–5100 BCE has been credited with the earliest depiction of a wheeled vehicle, but this is doubtful as there is no evidence of Halafians using either wheeled vehicles or even pottery wheels.


title: Wheel and axle

text: One of the first applications of the wheel to appear was the potter's wheel, used by prehistoric cultures to fabricate clay pots. The earliest type, known as "tournettes" or "slow wheels", were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BCE. One of the earliest examples was discovered at Tepe Pardis, Iran, and dated to 5200–4700 BCE. These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required significant effort to turn. True potter's wheels, which are freely-spinning and have a wheel and axle mechanism, were developed in Mesopotamia (Iraq) by 4200–4000 BCE. The oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur (modern day Iraq), dates to approximately 3100 BCE.


title: Wheel and axle

text: Evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared by the late 4th millennium BCE. Depictions of wheeled wagons found on clay tablet pictographs at the Eanna district of Uruk, in the Sumerian civilization of Mesopotamia, are dated between 3700–3500 BCE. In the second half of the 4th millennium BCE, evidence of wheeled vehicles appeared near-simultaneously in the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Eastern Europe (Cucuteni–Trypillian culture). Depictions of a wheeled vehicle appeared between 3500 and 3350 BCE in the Bronocice clay pot excavated in a Funnelbeaker culture settlement in southern Poland. In nearby Olszanica, a 2.2 m wide door was constructed (2.2 wide doors were constructed) for wagon entry; this barn was 40 m long and had 3 doors. Surviving evidence of a wheel–axle combination, from Stare Gmajne near Ljubljana in Slovenia (Ljubljana Marshes Wooden Wheel), is dated within two standard deviations to 3340–3030 BCE, the axle to 3360–3045 BCE. Two types of early Neolithic European wheel and axle are known; a circumalpine type of wagon construction (the wheel and axle rotate together, as in Ljubljana Marshes Wheel), and that of the Baden culture in Hungary (axle does not rotate). They both are dated to c. 3200–3000 BCE. Historians believe that there was a diffusion of the wheeled vehicle from the Near East to Europe around the mid-4th millennium BCE.


title: Wheel and axle

text: An early example of a wooden wheel and its axle was found in 2002 at the Ljubljana Marshes some 20 km south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. According to radiocarbon dating, it is between 5,100 and 5,350 years old. The wheel was made of ash and oak and had a radius of 70 cm and the axle was 120 cm long and made of oak.


title: Wheel and axle

text: In China, the earliest evidence of spoked wheels comes from Qinghai in the form of two wheel hubs from a site dated between 2000 and 1500 BCE.


title: Wheel and axle

text: In Roman Egypt, Hero of Alexandria identified the wheel and axle as one of the simple machines used to lift weights. This is thought to have been in the form of the windlass which consists of a crank or pulley connected to a cylindrical barrel that provides mechanical advantage to wind up a rope and lift a load such as a bucket from the well.


title: Wheel and axle

text: The wheel and axle was identified as one of six simple machines by Renaissance scientists, drawing from Greek texts on technology.


title: Wheel and axle

text: The simple machine called a "wheel and axle" refers to the assembly formed by two disks, or cylinders, of different diameters mounted so they rotate together around the same axis. The thin rod which needs to be turned is called the axle and the wider object fixed to the axle, on which we apply force is called the wheel. A tangential force applied to the periphery of the large disk can exert a larger force on a load attached to the axle, achieving mechanical advantage. When used as the wheel of a wheeled vehicle the smaller cylinder is the axle of the wheel, but when used in a windlass, winch, and other similar applications (see medieval mining lift to right) the smaller cylinder may be separate from the axle mounted in the bearings. It cannot be used separately.


title: Wheel and axle

text: Assuming the wheel and axle does not dissipate or store energy, that is it has no friction or elasticity, the power input by the force applied to the wheel must equal the power output at the axle. As the wheel and axle system rotates around its bearings, points on the circumference, or edge, of the wheel move faster than points on the circumference, or edge, of the axle. Therefore, a force applied to the edge of the wheel must be less than the force applied to the edge of the axle, because power is the product of force and velocity.


title: Wheel and axle

text: Let "a" and "b" be the distances from the center of the bearing to the edges of the wheel "A" and the axle "B." If the input force "F" is applied to the edge of the wheel "A" and the force "F" at the edge of the axle "B" is the output, then the ratio of the velocities of points "A" and "B" is given by "a/b", so the ratio of the output force to the input force, or mechanical advantage, is given by


title: Wheel and axle

text: The mechanical advantage of a simple machine like the wheel and axle is computed as the ratio of the resistance to the effort. The larger the ratio the greater the multiplication of force (torque) created or distance achieved. By varying the radii of the axle and/or wheel, any amount of mechanical advantage may be gained. In this manner, the size of the wheel may be increased to an inconvenient extent. In this case a system or combination of wheels (often toothed, that is, gears) are used. As a wheel and axle is a type of lever, a system of wheels and axles is like a compound lever.


title: Wheel and axle

text: On a powered wheeled vehicle the transmission exerts a force on the axle which has a smaller radius than the wheel. The mechanical advantage is therefore much less than 1. The wheel and axle of a car are therefore not representative of a simple machine (whose purpose is to increase the force). The friction between wheel and road is actually quite low, so even a small force exerted on the axle is sufficient. The actual advantage lies in the large rotational speed at which the axle is rotating thanks to the transmission.


title: Wheel and axle

text: The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle with no friction is called the ideal mechanical advantage (IMA). It is calculated with the following formula:


title: Wheel and axle

text: All actual wheels have friction, which dissipates some of the power as heat. The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) of a wheel and axle is calculated with the following formula:


title: Wheel and axle

text: Basic Machines and How They Work, United States. Bureau of Naval Personnel, Courier Dover Publications 1965, pp. 3–1 and following preview online


title: Bucket sort

text: Bucket sort, or bin sort, is a sorting algorithm that works by distributing the elements of an array into a number of buckets. Each bucket is then sorted individually, either using a different sorting algorithm, or by recursively applying the bucket sorting algorithm. It is a distribution sort, a generalization of pigeonhole sort that allows multiple keys per bucket, and is a cousin of radix sort in the most-to-least significant digit flavor. Bucket sort can be implemented with comparisons and therefore can also be considered a comparison sort algorithm. The computational complexity depends on the algorithm used to sort each bucket, the number of buckets to use, and whether the input is uniformly distributed.


title: Bucket sort

text: "Let array" denote the array to be sorted and "k" denote the number of buckets to use. One can compute the maximum key value in linear time by iterating over all the keys once. The floor function must be used to convert a floating number to an integer ( and possibly casting of datatypes too ). The function "nextSort" is a sorting function used to sort each bucket. Conventionally, insertion sort is used, but other algorithms could be used as well, such as "selection sort" or "merge sort". Using "bucketSort" itself as "nextSort" produces a relative of radix sort; in particular, the case "n = 2" corresponds to quicksort (although potentially with poor pivot choices).


title: Bucket sort

text: When the input contains several keys that are close to each other (clustering), those elements are likely to be placed in the same bucket, which results in some buckets containing more elements than average. The worst-case scenario occurs when all the elements are placed in a single bucket. The overall performance would then be dominated by the algorithm used to sort each bucket, for example formula_1 insertion sort or formula_2 comparison sort algorithms, such as merge sort.


title: Bucket sort

text: Consider the case that the input is uniformly distributed. The first step, which is initialize the buckets and find the maximum key value in the array, can be done in formula_3 time. If division and multiplication can be done in constant time, then scattering each element to its bucket also costs formula_3. Assume insertion sort is used to sort each bucket, then the third step costs formula_5, where formula_6 is the length of the bucket indexed formula_7. Since we are concerning the average time, the expectation formula_8 has to be evaluated instead. Let formula_9 be the random variable that is formula_10 if element formula_11 is placed in bucket formula_7, and formula_13 otherwise. We have formula_14. Therefore,


title: Bucket sort

text: The last line separates the summation into the case formula_16 and the case formula_17. Since the chance of an object distributed to bucket formula_7 is formula_19, formula_20 is 1 with probability formula_19 and 0 otherwise.


title: Bucket sort

text: The last step of bucket sort, which is concatenating all the sorted objects in each buckets, requires formula_26 time. Therefore, the total complexity is formula_27. Note that if k is chosen to be formula_28, then bucket sort runs in formula_3 average time, given a uniformly distributed input.


title: Bucket sort

text: A common optimization is to put the unsorted elements of the buckets back in the original array "first", then run insertion sort over the complete array; because insertion sort's runtime is based on how far each element is from its final position, the number of comparisons remains relatively small, and the memory hierarchy is better exploited by storing the list contiguously in memory.


title: Bucket sort

text: If the input distribution is known or can be estimated, buckets can often be chosen which contain constant density (rather than merely having constant size). This allows formula_3 average time complexity even without uniformly distributed input.


title: Bucket sort

text: The most common variant of bucket sort operates on a list of "n" numeric inputs between zero and some maximum value "M" and divides the value range into "n" buckets each of size "M"/"n". If each bucket is sorted using insertion sort, the sort can be shown to run in expected linear time (where the average is taken over all possible inputs). However, the performance of this sort degrades with clustering; if many values occur close together, they will all fall into a single bucket and be sorted slowly. This performance degradation is avoided in the original bucket sort algorithm by assuming that the input is generated by a random process that distributes elements uniformly over the interval "[0,1)".


title: Bucket sort

text: Similar to generic bucket sort as described above, ProxmapSort works by dividing an array of keys into subarrays via the use of a "map key" function that preserves a partial ordering on the keys; as each key is added to its subarray, insertion sort is used to keep that subarray sorted, resulting in the entire array being in sorted order when ProxmapSort completes. ProxmapSort differs from bucket sorts in its use of the map key to place the data approximately where it belongs in sorted order, producing a "proxmap" — a proximity mapping — of the keys.


title: Bucket sort

text: Another variant of bucket sort known as histogram sort or counting sort adds an initial pass that counts the number of elements that will fall into each bucket using a count array. Using this information, the array values can be arranged into a sequence of buckets in-place by a sequence of exchanges, leaving no space overhead for bucket storage.


title: Bucket sort

text: The Postman's sort is a variant of bucket sort that takes advantage of a hierarchical structure of elements, typically described by a set of attributes. This is the algorithm used by letter-sorting machines in post offices: mail is sorted first between domestic and international; then by state, province or territory; then by destination post office; then by routes, etc. Since keys are not compared against each other, sorting time is O("cn"), where "c" depends on the size of the key and number of buckets. This is similar to a radix sort that works "top down," or "most significant digit first."


title: Bucket sort

text: The shuffle sort is a variant of bucket sort that begins by removing the first 1/8 of the "n" items to be sorted, sorts them recursively, and puts them in an array. This creates "n"/8 "buckets" to which the remaining 7/8 of the items are distributed. Each "bucket" is then sorted, and the "buckets" are concatenated into a sorted array.


title: Bucket sort

text: Bucket sort can be seen as a generalization of counting sort; in fact, if each bucket has size 1 then bucket sort degenerates to counting sort. The variable bucket size of bucket sort allows it to use O("n") memory instead of O("M") memory, where "M" is the number of distinct values; in exchange, it gives up counting sort's O("n" + "M") worst-case behavior.


title: Bucket sort

text: Bucket sort with two buckets is effectively a version of quicksort where the pivot value is always selected to be the middle value of the value range. While this choice is effective for uniformly distributed inputs, other means of choosing the pivot in quicksort such as randomly selected pivots make it more resistant to clustering in the input distribution.


title: Bucket sort

text: The "n"-way mergesort algorithm also begins by distributing the list into "n" sublists and sorting each one; however, the sublists created by mergesort have overlapping value ranges and so cannot be recombined by simple concatenation as in bucket sort. Instead, they must be interleaved by a merge algorithm. However, this added expense is counterbalanced by the simpler scatter phase and the ability to ensure that each sublist is the same size, providing a good worst-case time bound.


title: Bucket sort

text: Top-down radix sort can be seen as a special case of bucket sort where both the range of values and the number of buckets is constrained to be a power of two. Consequently, each bucket's size is also a power of two, and the procedure can be applied recursively. This approach can accelerate the scatter phase, since we only need to examine a prefix of the bit representation of each element to determine its bucket.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Paul Wernick is a Canadian television/movie screenwriter and producer. He is best known for writing the screenplays to the 2016 superhero film "Deadpool" and its 2018 sequel with his creative partner Rhett Reese.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Wernick has produced several network reality shows, including CBS's "Big Brother 2" and ABC's "I'm a Celebrity... Get Me out of Here!". Wernick has won three Emmy Awards for his work in news, which included producing stints at KVOA, KOLD, KTVK, KSL and KCAL.


title: Paul Wernick

text: "Big Brother 2" inspired Wernick and Rhett Reese, a screenwriter friend of his brother back from Phoenix, Arizona, where both attended high school - Reese was a senior on Wernick's freshman year - to create their own take on reality television, "The Joe Schmo Show".


title: Paul Wernick

text: Wernick and Reese's first feature collaboration was the 2009 film "Zombieland", which they created and also executive-produced. The film was released by Sony Pictures in theaters October 2, 2009, and went on to become one of the highest grossing zombie movies of all-time.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Wernick and Reese followed "Zombieland" with Paramount Pictures’ "", starring Dwayne Johnson, Channing Tatum, and Bruce Willis, which was released on March 27, 2013. The sequel outperformed the original, grossing $375 million.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Paul Wernick wrote and executive produced 20th Century Fox's "Deadpool", along with Reese. "Deadpool" starred Ryan Reynolds, and was directed by Tim Miller. The R-rated film was released on February 12, 2016. Its opening weekend was the highest grossing of all time for R-Rated films, and it went on to gross more than $780 million worldwide. The team's next project, sci-fi thriller "Life", was released in March 2017. The film was directed by Daniel Espinosa, produced by Skydance, and through Sony Pictures, with Ryan Reynolds, Jake Gyllenhaal, and Rebecca Ferguson starring. They wrote "Deadpool 2" in 2018, which like its predecessor was released to positive reviews.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Wernick and Reese were announced as the co-screenwriters of the feature film adaptation of "Cowboy Ninja Viking". Reportedly Chris Pratt will star in the film as well as also serve as executive-produce. The film is being distributed by Universal Pictures. Their original science fiction spec screenplay "Epsilon" was sold to Sony Pictures; with contracts to co-produce in partnership with Michael De Luca. Wernick and Reese recently optioned Thomas Oliver's book, "The Real Coke, The Real Story", about the failed launch of New Coke. The pair will write and produce the project.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Wernick and Reese first collaborated in 2001, creating, writing, and executive-producing "The Joe Schmo Show" for Spike TV. The series drew Spike’s highest-ever ratings. Joe Schmo was named to numerous Best Of lists, including "Time"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s "Top 10 TV Shows of 2003" and "Entertainment Weekly"'s "50 Best TV Shows Ever on DVD."


title: Paul Wernick

text: The Schmo format has sold internationally, in the UK, France, Spain, and New Zealand. Wernick and Reese followed up with "Invasion Iowa", a high-concept, high-stakes comedy hybrid starring William Shatner. The show premiered on Spike in the first quarter of 2005 and aired internationally immediately following. Invasion Iowa was released on DVD in May, 2009.


title: Paul Wernick

text: Reese and Wernick created and executive-produced "Stuck on ODB", a comedy reality show starring Ol' Dirty Bastard (ODB) of the Wu Tang Clan for Spike TV. ODB died before the show ever aired.


title: Sport psychology

text: Sport psychology was defined by the European Federation of Sport in 1996, as the study of the psychological basis, processes, and effects of sport. Otherwise, sport is considered as any physical activity where the individuals engage for competition and health. Sport psychology is recognized as an interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from many related fields including biomechanics, physiology, kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of how psychological factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise affect psychological and physical factors. Sport psychologists teach cognitive and behavioral strategies to athletes in order to improve their experience and performance in sports. In addition to instruction and training of psychological skills for performance improvement, applied sport psychology may include work with athletes, coaches, and parents regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building, and career transitions.


title: Sport psychology

text: In its formation, sport psychology was primarily the domain of physical educators, not researchers, which can explain the lack of a consistent history. Nonetheless, many instructors sought to explain the various phenomena associated with physical activity and developed sport psychology laboratories.


title: Sport psychology

text: The birth of sport psychology in Europe happened largely in Germany. The first sport psychology laboratory was founded by Dr. Carl Diem in Berlin, in the early 1920s. The early years of sport psychology were also highlighted by the formation of the Deutsche Hochschule für Leibesübungen (College of Physical Education) in Berlin Germany by Robert Werner Schulte in 1920. The lab measured physical abilities and aptitude in sport, and in 1921, Schulte published "Body and Mind in Sport". In Russia, sport psychology experiments began as early as 1925 at institutes of physical culture in Moscow and Leningrad, and formal sport psychology departments were formed around 1930. However, it was a bit later during the Cold War period (1946–1989) that numerous sport science programs were formed, due to the military competitiveness between the Soviet Union and the United States, and as a result of attempts to increase the Olympic medal numbers. The Americans felt that their sport performances were inadequate and very disappointing compared to the ones of the Soviets, so this led them to invest more in the methods that could ameliorate their athletes performance, and made them have a greater interest on the subject. The advancement of sport psychology was more deliberate in the Soviet Union and the Eastern countries, due to the creation of sports institutes where sport psychologists played an important role.


title: Sport psychology

text: In North America, early years of sport psychology included isolated studies of motor behavior, social facilitation, and habit formation. During the 1890s, E. W. Scripture conducted a range of behavioral experiments, including measuring the reaction time of runners, thought time in school children, and the accuracy of an orchestra conductor's baton. Despite Scripture's previous experiments, the first recognized sport psychology study was carried out by an American psychologist Norman Triplett, in 1898. The work of Norman Triplett demonstrated that bicyclists were more likely to cycle faster with a pacemaker or a competitor, which has been foundational in the literature of social psychology and social facilitation. He wrote about his findings in what was regarded as the first scientific paper on sport psychology, titled "The Dynamogenic Factors in Pacemaking and Competition", which was published in 1898, in the "American Journal of Psychology". Research by ornithologists Lashley and Watson on the learning curve for novice archers provided a robust template for future habit formation research, as they argued that humans would have higher levels of motivation to achieve in a task like archery compared to a mundane task. Researchers Albert Johanson and Joseph Holmes tested baseball player Babe Ruth in 1921, as reported by sportswriter Hugh S. Fullerton. Ruth's swing speed, his breathing right before hitting a baseball, his coordination and rapidity of wrist movement, and his reaction time were all measured, with the researchers concluding that Ruth's talent could be attributed in part to motor skills and reflexes that were well above those of the average person.


title: Sport psychology

text: The field of sport psychology in general began in the 1960s with the formation of the International Society of Sport Psychology in 1965, The North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity in 1967, and The Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology in 1969. Sport psychology started in 1890 when Norman Triplett performed the first experiment in sport psychology and the social facilitation phenomenon. Then 1925 Coleman Griffith created the Athletic Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois. Later in 1930 the Soviet Union employed sport psychology during the Cold War. In 1960 sports psychology becomes part of the USA and expanded to the whole world. In 1986 the American Psychological Association recognized Sport psychology as a branch of Psychology and in 1993 British Psychology Society formed a sport and exercise psychology section.


title: Sport psychology

text: The first characteristic of behavioral sport psychology involves identifying target behaviors of athletes and/or coaches to be improved, defining those behaviors in a way so that they can be reliably measured, and using changes in the behavioral measure as the best indicator of the extent to which the recipient of an intervention is being helped (Martin, 2011).


title: Sport psychology

text: A second characteristic is that behavioral psychology treatment procedures and techniques are based on the principles and procedures of Pavlovian (or respondent) and operant conditioning and are ways of rearranging the stimuli that occur as antecedents and consequences of an athlete’s behavior.


title: Sport psychology

text: The third characteristic of behavioral sport psychology is that many of the interventions with athletes have been developed by practitioners with a cognitive–behavioral orientation. Cognitive–behavior therapy typically focuses on cognitive processes frequently referred to as believing, thinking, expecting, and perceiving.


title: Sport psychology

text: The fourth characteristic of this approach is that researchers have relied heavily on the use of single-subject research designs to evaluate interventions in sport settings, including the following:


title: Sport psychology

text: (b) acceptability by athletes and coaches because no control group is needed, few participants are needed, and sooner or later all participants receive the intervention;


title: Sport psychology

text: (d) effectiveness assessed through direct measures of sport-specific behaviors or outcomes of behaviors.


title: Sport psychology

text: The fifth characteristic of a behavioral approach is to place a high value on accountability for everyone involved in the design, implementation, and evaluation of an intervention (Martin & Pear, 2011).


title: Sport psychology

text: In ABA, the term social validation refers to procedures to ensure that the techniques employed by a practitioner are selected and applied in the best interests of the clients.


title: Sport psychology

text: In behavioral sport psychology, social validation requires that the practitioner constantly seek answers to three questions: (a) What do the athletes (and perhaps the coach and parents) think about the goals of the intervention? (b) What do they think about the procedures recommended by the practitioner? (c) What do they think about the results produced by those procedures? Also, behavioral sport psychologists need to be aware of and behave consistently with the set of ethical principles to guide the actions of sport psychologists published in 1995 by the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, which, in 2006, became the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP).


title: Sport psychology

text: Each sport requires different range of skills. Knapp (1963) defined skills as the learned ability to bring pre-determined results with maximum certainty, often with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both. As we develop a skill, the error is diminished. An ability describes our innate physical attributes that determine our potential for a given sport.


title: Sport psychology

text: Coleman Griffith worked as an American professor of educational psychology at the University of Illinois where he first performed comprehensive research and applied sport psychology. He performed causal studies on vision and attention of basketball and soccer players, and was interested in their reaction times, muscular tension and relaxation, and mental awareness. Griffith began his work in 1925 studying the psychology of sport at the University of Illinois funded by the Research in Athletics Laboratory. Until the laboratory's closing in 1932, he conducted research and practiced sport psychology in the field. The laboratory was used for the study of sport psychology; where different factors that influence athletic performance and the physiological and psychological requirements of sport competitions were investigated. He then transmitted his findings to coaches, and helped advance the knowledge of psychology and physiology on sports performance. Griffith also published two major works during this time: The Psychology of Coaching (1926) and The Psychology of Athletics (1928).


title: Sport psychology

text: Coleman Griffith was also the first person to describe the job of sport psychologists and talk about the main tasks that they should be capable of carrying out. He mentioned this in his work "Psychology and its relation to athletic competition", which was published in 1925. One of the tasks was to teach the younger and unskilled coaches the psychological principles that were used by the more successful and experienced coaches. The other task was to adapt psychological knowledge to sport, and the last task was to use the scientific method and the laboratory for the purpose of discovering new facts and principles that can aid other professionals in the domain.


title: Sport psychology

text: In 1938, Griffith returned to the sporting world to serve as a sport psychologist consultant for the Chicago Cubs. Hired by Philip Wrigley for $1,500, Griffith examined a range of factors such as: ability, personality, leadership, skill learning, and social psychological factors related to performance. Griffith made rigorous analyses of players while also making suggestions for improving practice effectiveness. Griffith also made several recommendations to Mr. Wrigley, including a "psychology clinic" for managers, coaches, and senior players. Wrigley offered a full-time position as a sport psychologist to Griffith but he declined the offer to focus on his son's high school education.


title: Sport psychology

text: Coleman Griffith made numerous contributions to the field of sport psychology, but most notable was his belief that field studies (such as athlete and coach interviews) could provide a more thorough understanding of how psychological principles play out in competitive situations. Griffith devoted himself to rigorous research, and also published for both applied and academic audiences, noting that the applicability of sport psychology research was equally important with the generation of knowledge. Finally, Griffith recognized that sport psychology promoted performance enhancement and personal growth.


title: Sport psychology

text: In 1923, Griffith developed and taught the first sport psychology university courses ("Psychology and Athletics") at the University of Illinois, and he came to be known as "The Father of Sport Psychology" in the United States, as a result of his pioneering achievements in that area. However, he is also known as "The prophet without disciples", since none of his students continued with sport psychology, and his work started to receive attention only from the 1960s


title: Sport psychology

text: Franklin M. Henry was a researcher who had a positive influence on sport psychology. In 1938, he began to study how different factors in sport psychology can affect athlete's motor skills. He also investigated how high altitudes can have an effect on exercise and performance, aeroembolism, and decompression sickness, and studies on kinesthetic perception, learning of motor skills, and neuromuscular reaction were carried out in his laboratory. In 1964, he wrote a paper "Physical Education: An Academic Discipline", that helped further advance sport psychology, and began to give it its scholarly and scientific shape. Additionally, he published over 120 articles, was a board member of various journals, and received many awards and acclaims for his contributions.


title: Sport psychology

text: In 1979, Rainer Martens published an article entitled ""About Smocks and Jocks"", in which he contended that it was difficult to apply specific laboratory research to sporting situations. For instance, how can the pressure of shooting a foul shot in front of 12,000 screaming fans be duplicated in the lab? Martens contended: "I have grave doubts that isolated psychological studies which manipulate a few variables, attempting to uncover the effects of X on Y, can be cumulative to form a coherent picture of human behavior. I sense that the elegant control achieved in laboratory research is such that all meaning is drained from the experimental situation. The external validity of laboratory studies is at best limited to predicting behavior in other laboratories." Martens urged researchers to get out of the laboratory and onto the field to meet athletes and coaches on their own turf. Martens' article spurred an increased interest in qualitative research methods in sport psychology, such as the seminal article "Mental Links to Excellence."


title: Sport psychology

text: Given the relatively free travel of information amongst European practitioners, sport psychology flourished first in Europe, where in 1965, a meeting was organized by Ferruccio Antonelli, a sport psychologist living in Italy. The meeting was held in Rome, Italy and some 450 professionals primarily from Europe, Australia, and the Americas attended. It became known as the First World Congress of Sport Psychology and gave rise to the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP). The ISSP became a prominent sport psychology organization after the Third World Congress of Sport Psychology in 1973, and still exists today as the only international organization that is focused solely on the promotion of sport psychology. Additionally, the European Federation of Sport Psychology, or FEPSAC (Fédération Européenne de Psychologie des Sports et des Activités Corporelles) was formed following a similar meeting known as the first European Congress of sport in 1969, and has since held 15 congresses to discuss the future of sport psychology in Europe.


title: Sport psychology

text: In North America, support for sport psychology grew out of physical education, and In 1973, The North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) grew from being an interest group to a full-fledged organization, whose mission included promoting the research and teaching of motor behavior and the psychology of sport and exercise. In Canada, the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology (SCAPPS) was founded in 1977 to promote the study and exchange of ideas in the fields of motor behavior and sport psychology. These two organizations would go on to be the leading sources of collaboration among scientists in sport psychology, and in 1985, the NASPSPA became the first organization in North America to sponsor a journal in sport psychology, when the previously unaffiliated "The Journal of Sport Psychology," which was founded in 1979, became "The Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology""." Also during this same time period, over 500 members of the American Psychological Association (APA) signed a petition to create Division 47 in 1986, which is focused the collaboration between researchers in the field of Exercise and Sport Psychology.


title: Sport psychology

text: In 1985, several applied sport psychology practitioners, headed by John Silva, believed an organization was needed to focus on professional issues in sport psychology, and therefore formed the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP). This was done in response to NASPSPA voting not to address applied issues and to keep their focus on research.


title: Sport psychology

text: Following its stated goal of promoting the science and practice of applied sport psychology, AAASP quickly worked to develop uniform standards of practice, highlighted by the development of an ethical code for its members in the 1990s. The development of the AAASP Certified Consultant (CC-AAASP) program helped bring standardization to the training required to practice applied sport psychology, and in 2007, AAASP dropped "Advancement" from its name to become the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP), as it is currently known.


title: Sport psychology

text: AASP aims to provide leadership for the development of theory, research and applied practice in sport, exercise, and health psychology. However, in 2010 a rift developed between members who would like the organization to function as a trade group that promotes the CC-AASP certificate and pushes for job development, and those who would prefer the organization to remain as a professional society and a forum to exchange research and practice ideas. These problems were illustrated in AASP founding president John Silva's address at the 2010 conference. Silva highlighted five points necessary for AASP and the greater field of applied sport psychology to address in the near future:


title: Sport psychology

text: Silva then suggested that AASP advance the legal standing of the term "sport psychology consultant" and adopt one educative model for the collegiate and post-graduate training of sport psychology consultants. While the AASP Certified Consultant (CC-AASP) certification provides a legitimate pathway to post-graduate training, it does not legally bar an individual without the CC-AASP credentials from practicing sport psychology. Silva contended that future sport psychology professionals should have degrees in both psychology and the sport sciences and that their training ultimately conclude in the obtainment of a legal title. It was argued this should increase the likelihood of clients receiving competent service as practitioners will have received training in both the "sport" and "psychology" pieces of sport psychology. Silva concluded that AASP and APA work together to create legal protection for the term "sport psychology consultant," and 2018, the AASP updated its certification program and launched the Certified Mental Performance Consultant (CMPC). However, as of 2020 no legal status for the required training to practice sport psychology has been obtained by either the AASP or APA.


title: Sport psychology

text: Although the AASP has recently dealt with problems regarding the legal requirements for practicing sport psychology, there has been debate over the professionalization of sport psychology for quite some time. The professionalization of the discipline started to become visible at the Olympic games in 1984 when the Olympic teams began to hire sport psychologists for their athletes, and in 1985, when the U.S. team employed their first permanent sport psychologist. For the Summer Olympics in 1996, the U.S. already had over 20 sport psychologists working with their athletes. Psychological research into sport and exercise was being used to inform the training regiments of high level athletes for the first time.


title: Sport psychology

text: As Rainer Martens argued for applied methods in sport psychology research, the increasing emergence of practitioners of sport psychology (including sport psychology consultants who taught sport psychology skills and principles to athletes and coaches, and clinical and counseling psychologists who provided counseling and therapy to athletes) brought into focus two key questions and a debate which continues to the present day: under what category does the discipline of sport psychology fall?, and who governs the accepted practices for sport psychology? Is sport psychology a branch of kinesiology or sport and exercise science (like exercise physiology and athletic training)? Is it a branch of psychology or counseling? Or is it an independent discipline?


title: Sport psychology

text: Danish and Hale (1981) contended that many clinical psychologists were using medical models of psychology to problematize sport problems as signs of mental illness instead of drawing upon the empirical knowledge base generated by sport psychology researchers, which in many cases indicated that sport problems were not signs of mental illness. Danish and Hale proposed that a human development model be used to structure research and applied practice. Heyman (1982) urged tolerance for multiple models (educative, motivational, developmental) of research and practice, while Dishman (1983) countered that the field needed to develop unique sport psychology models, instead of borrowing from educational and clinical psychology.


title: Sport psychology

text: As the practice of sport psychology expanded throughout the 1980s and 1990s, some practitioners expressed concern that the field lacked uniformity and needed consistency to become "a good profession." The issues of graduate program accreditation and the uniform training of graduate students in sport psychology were considered by some to be necessary to promote the field of sport psychology, educate the public on what a sport psychologist does, and ensure an open job market for practitioners. However, Hale and Danish (1999) argued that accreditation of graduate programs was not necessary and did not guarantee uniformity. Instead, these authors proposed a special practicum in applied sport psychology that included greater contact hours with clients and closer supervision.


title: Sport psychology

text: Applied sport and exercise psychology consists of instructing athletes, coaches, teams, exercisers, parents, fitness professionals, groups, and other performers on the psychological aspects of their sport or activity. The goal of applied practice is to optimize performance and enjoyment through the use of psychological skills and the use of psychometrics and psychological assessment. The practice of applied sport psychology is not legally restricted to individuals who possess one type of certification or licensure. The subject of "what exactly constitutes applied sport psychology and who can practice it?" has been debated amongst sport psychology professionals and to this day still lacks formal legal resolution in the United States. Some question the ability of professionals who possess only sport science or kinesiology training to practice "psychology" with clients, while others counter that clinical and counseling psychologists without training in sport science do not have the professional competency to work with athletes. However, this debate should not overshadow the reality that many professionals express the desire to work together to promote best practices among all practitioners, regardless of training or academic background.


title: Sport psychology

text: There are different approaches that a sport psychologist can use while working with his clients. For example, the social-psychological approach focuses on the social environment and the individual's personality, and on how complex interactions between the two influence behavior. The psycho-physiological approach focuses on the processes of the brain and their influence on physical activity, and the cognitive-behavioral approach analyzes the ways in which individual thoughts determine behavior. Generally, there are two different types of sport psychologists that focus on athletes with emotional conditions: educational and clinical.


title: Sport psychology

text: Social identity is the basis for 4 specific aspects of sports psychology. These aspects are identified below:


title: Sport psychology

text: Educational sport psychologists emphasize the use of psychological skills training (e.g., goal setting, imagery, energy management, self-talk) when working with clients by educating and instructing them on how to use these skills effectively during performance situations. The common goal of an educational sport psychologist is performance enhancement by teaching skills to athletes on how to manage the mental factors of sports to maximize potential. Sport psychologists also contribute to the performance of athletes by assisting them with challenges they may face as a result of participating in sports. These can include recovery from injury, plans for sticking to a training regimen, or help with dealing with the emotional strain of being in the public eye.


title: Sport psychology

text: Clinical psychologists obtain a doctoral degree in clinical or counseling psychology. They meet with athletes that have mental health issues and work to provide the mental health solutions they need both individually and in group settings. Areas of expertise include mainly clinical issues, which include but are not limited to depression, eating disorders, and substance abuse. If they possess a medical doctor degree or work in conjunction with a psychiatrist, they are also able to prescribe medications or other forms of treatment to address clinical issues. A non-clinical sport psychologist might refer one of their clients to a clinical psychologist if it is thought that the athlete might need additional help regarding their mental health. Many clinical sport psychologists simply apply their clinical expertise to athletes and are limited in their abilities to enhance performance.


title: Sport psychology

text: Listed below are broad areas of research in the field. This is not a complete list of all topics, but rather, an overview of the types of issues and concepts sport psychologists study. Criticism of the quality, assumptions, and methods of sport psychology stress research has drawn increasing attention, and a flourishing academic debate has evolved regarding the quality of sport research its limitations and future directions.


title: Sport psychology

text: One common area of study within sport psychology is the relationship between personality and performance. This research focuses on specific personality characteristics and how they are related to performance or other psychological variables. There are various personality characteristics that have been found to be consistent among elite athletes. These include but are not limited to mental toughness, self-efficacy, arousal, motivation, commitment, competitiveness, and control. "Mental toughness" is a psychological edge that helps one perform at a high level consistently. Mentally tough athletes exhibit four characteristics: a strong self-belief (confidence) in their ability to perform well, an internal motivation to be successful, the ability to focus one's thoughts and feelings without distraction, and composure under pressure. "Self-efficacy" is a belief that one can successfully perform a specific task. In sport, self-efficacy has been conceptualized as sport-confidence. However, efficacy beliefs are specific to a certain task (e.g., I believe I can successfully make both free throws), whereas confidence is a more general feeling (e.g., I believe I will have a good game today). "Arousal" refers to one's physiological and cognitive activation. While many researchers have explored the relationship between arousal and performance, one unifying theory has not yet been developed. However, research does suggest perception of arousal (i.e., as either good or bad) is related to performance. "Motivation" can be defined broadly as the will to perform a given task. People who play or perform for internal reasons, such as enjoyment and satisfaction, are said to be intrinsically motivated, while people who play for external reasons, such as money or attention from others, are extrinsically motivated. "Commitment" refers to the dedication to continuing a sport from early development into a high level of sport expertise. "Competitiveness" is the ability to challenge opponents with an aim of success. "Control" is the ability to separate and focus on different events occurring in one's life, both within and outside of athletics. Additionally, there are specific psychological skills that are ingrained in personality that are possessed at higher levels in elite athletes than the typical person. These include arousal regulation, goal setting, imagery, pre-performance routines, and self-talk.


title: Sport psychology

text: According to Hollander's Model (1971), it is thought that personality is made up of three dimensions: role-related behavior, typical responses, and psychological core. Role-related behaviors are the actions that a person exhibits when they are in a certain situation. These behaviors change frequently, so they are external and dynamic. Typical responses are the way a person usually acts as the result of an event. A person's psychological core refers to the morals, beliefs, and values they hold. This is not changed under various circumstances, so it is internal and constant. There are multiple approaches personality and how it is shaped.


title: Sport psychology

text: "The psychodynamic approach" theory explores how the subconscious interacts with the conscience of an individual. It proposes that the underlying thoughts, feelings, and emotions influence how we think and act. The subconscious is closely related to experiences of resolution of conflict as a child. This theory emphasizes understanding the individual as a whole, rather than by each trait. This theory does not consider environmental factors that influence behavior.


title: Sport psychology

text: "The trait approach" focuses on the traits that are commonly attributed to an individual and how they influence the way one will act on a normal basis. Traits are helpful in predicting usual behavior, however, they cannot always predispose situational behavior.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Situational approach" suggests that how an individual will act entirely depends on the environment. For example, if a player acts aggressively on the playing field, they might not be this way off the field. This theory neglects individual traits and does not consider differences among people.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Interactional approach" theory is a combination of trait and situational approach. It suggests that the traits commonly attributed to an individual predispose behavior, however, these traits will not influence behavior unless the situation calls for it. This theory is most commonly used by sport psychologists because it takes into consideration the components of each person and the situation at hand. The method of measuring personality involves assessing the traits, or typical style of behavior, versus state, the immediate emotion or behavior in the moment.


title: Sport psychology

text: Sport psychology remains influential to athletic performance at all levels. Athletic performance can be measured by self-report or objective data (e.g. player/team statistics). Scholars currently prefer the use of self-reports or a combination of subjective and objective measurements, due to the many factors which go into athletic performance. For example, Athlete's Subjective Performance Scale (ASPS) has been developed and validated with objective data (player's statistics), and found to be a reliable tool for assessing athletic performance in team sports. Being mentally prepared has proven to help athlete's performance, however research has shown that elite athletes and coaches will be hesitant to seek out help from a sport psychologist even if they believed it could help. There are multiple key recommendations for mental practice which improve sport performance, such as practicing imagery and increasing mental and physical repetitions.


title: Sport psychology

text: Youth sport refers to organized sports programs for children less than 18 years old. Researchers in this area focus on the benefits or drawbacks of youth sport participation and how parents impact their children's experiences of sporting activities. There are multiple factors as to why youth sport is studied when researching sport psychology, such as life skills, burnout, parenting behavior and coach's behavior. These factors influence whether athlete's in youth sport are affected mentally, whether that be a positive or a negative.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Life skills" refer to the mental, emotional, behavioral, and social skills and resources developed through sport participation. Research in this area focuses on how life skills are developed and transferred from sports to other areas in life (e.g., from tennis to school) and on program development and implementation. "Burnout" in sport is typically characterized as having three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of accomplishment. Athletes who experience burnout may have different contributing factors, but the more frequent reasons include perfectionism, boredom, injuries, excessive pressure, and overtraining. Burnout is studied in many different athletic populations (e.g., coaches), but it is a major problem in youth sports and contributes to withdrawal from sport. "Parenting" in youth sport is necessary and critical for young athletes. Research on parenting explores behaviors that contribute to or hinder children's participation. For example, research suggests children want their parents to provide support and become involved, but not give technical advice unless they are well-versed in the sport. Excessive demands from parents may also contribute to burnout. "Coach behavior" is a major contributor to how youth athletes experience sports. In research directed at coding behavioral styles of coaches, it has been found that children are more accurate at perceiving coaching behaviors than the coach. This lack of awareness contributes heavily to negative athlete behaviors and burnout.


title: Sport psychology

text: While sport psychologists primarily work with athletes and focus their research on improving athletic performance, coaches are another population where intervention can take place. Researchers in this area focus on the kinds of things coaches can say or do to improve their coaching technique and their athletes' performance.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Motivational climate" refers to the situational and environmental factors that influence individuals' goals. The two major types of motivational climates coaches can create are task-oriented and ego-oriented. While winning is the overall goal of sports competitions regardless of the motivational climate, a task-orientation emphasizes building skill, improvement, giving complete effort, and mastering the task at hand (i.e., self-referenced goals), while an ego-orientation emphasizes demonstrating superior ability, competition, and does not promote effort or individual improvement (i.e., other-referenced goals). A task-oriented climate has been found to develop a greater intrinsic, self-determined motivation in athletes compared to an ego-oriented climate. Additionally, an environment with self-improvement as the primary focus creates greater intrinsic motivation than one with winning as the focus.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Effective coaching practices" explore the best ways coaches can lead and teach their athletes. For examples, researchers may study the most effective methods for giving feedback, rewarding and reinforcing behavior, communicating, and avoiding self-fulfilling prophecies in their athletes. Coaches influence motivation of athletes mainly through interactional behavior with athletes. Coaches can be perceived by their athletes as autonomy-supporting or controlling. Autonomy-supporting coaches provide structure, as well as being involved and caring towards the athletes. Coaches that are perceived to be controlling instill less intrinsic motivation in their athletes. Motivation is maximized when a coach is perceived to be autonomy-supporting, while providing a high level of training and instruction. Due to these findings, interventions that sport psychologist implement are focused in increasing autonomy-supportive behaviors of coaches.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Coaching philosophy" refers to a set of beliefs intrinsic to a coach that guide his or her behavior and experience. The philosophy should facilitate self-awareness, prioritize coaching objectives, and be athlete-centered. Having a philosophy central to the individual will allow a coach to react more efficiently to fast-paced decisions during sports in a systematic and thoughtful way. A coach must be self-aware of their own values in order to monitor if these values align with their thoughts and actions. Often, getting feedback from trusted outside sources is helpful in developing this self-awareness. A coach must also determine and prioritize coaching objectives between winning, athlete well-being, and time outside of the sport. An athlete-centered philosophy emphasizes learning and improvement over winning, which puts the athlete development first. This philosophy should be dynamic as both societal and coaching experiences occur and change.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Mental Coaching" is the most used technic to raise performance achievements by enhancing mental toughness. It is predominantly used with elite athletes and high achievers. The Global Performance Index is a tool developed to support this approach. This holistic philosophy (Mind- Body- Heart- Spirit) assesses quickly the mental Health of athletes while measuring their performance progresses.


title: Sport psychology

text: "Communication" style is an important concept for sport psychologists to develop with coaches. Communication is a constant role for coaches directed towards athletes, parents, administrators, other coaches, media, and supporters. It mainly comes in the forms of speaking, writing, body language, and listening. Verbal communication occurs through spoken word; however, nonverbal communication contributes hugely to how people perceive a coaches communication. Non-verbal communication comes through actions, facial expressions, body position, and gestures. Coaches must be aware of the words, tone, and behaviors that they use. Research has found that athletes respond best to positive feedback, specific technical instruction, and general encouragement. Sport psychologists focus on developing coaching communication styles that are direct, complete, immediate, and clear, while also being supportive, specific to the athlete, and verbally and non-verbally congruent.


title: Sport psychology

text: Coaches have become more open to the idea of having a good professional athlete–coach relationship. This relationship will be the basis for an effective performance setting.


title: Sport psychology

text: Sport psychologists may do consulting work or conduct research with entire teams. This research focuses on team tendencies, issues, and beliefs at the group level, not at the individual level.