title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: In the tower, Hölderlin continued to write poetry of a simplicity and formality quite unlike what he had been writing up to 1805. As time went on he became a minor tourist attraction and was visited by curious travelers and autograph-hunters. Often he would play the piano or spontaneously write short verses for such visitors, pure in versification but almost empty of affect—although a few of these (such as the famous "Die Linien des Lebens" ("The Lines of Life"), which he wrote out for his carer Zimmer on a piece of wood) have a piercing beauty and have been set to music by many composers.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Hölderlin's own family did not financially support him but petitioned successfully for his upkeep to be paid by the state. His mother and sister never visited him, and his stepbrother did so only once. His mother died in 1828: his sister and stepbrother quarreled over the inheritance, arguing that too large a share had been allotted to Hölderlin, and unsuccessfully tried to have the will overturned in court. Neither of them attended his funeral in 1843 nor did his childhood friends, Hegel (as he had died roughly a decade prior) and Schelling, who had long since ignored him; the Zimmer family were his only mourners. His inheritance, including the patrimony left to him by his father when he was two, had been kept from him by his mother and was untouched and continually accruing interest. He died a rich man, but did not know it.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: The poetry of Hölderlin, widely recognized today as one of the highest points of German literature, was little known or understood during his lifetime, and slipped into obscurity shortly after his death; his illness and reclusion made him fade from his contemporaries' consciousness—and, even though selections of his work were published by his friends during his lifetime, it was largely ignored for the rest of the 19th century.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Like Goethe and Schiller, his older contemporaries, Hölderlin was a fervent admirer of ancient Greek culture, but for him the Greek gods were not the plaster figures of conventional classicism, but wonderfully life-giving actual presences, yet at the same time terrifying. Much later, Friedrich Nietzsche would recognize Hölderlin as the poet who first acknowledged the Orphic and Dionysian Greece of the mysteries, which he would fuse with the Pietism of his native Swabia in a highly original religious experience. Hölderlin developed an early idea of cyclical history and therefore believed political radicalism and an aesthetic interest in antiquity, and, in parallel, Christianity and Paganism should be fused. He understood and sympathised with the Greek idea of the tragic fall, which he expressed movingly in the last stanza of his "Hyperions Schicksalslied" ("Hyperion's Song of Destiny").


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: In the great poems of his maturity, Hölderlin would generally adopt a large-scale, expansive and unrhymed style. Together with these long hymns, odes and elegies—which included "Der Archipelagus" ("The Archipelago"), "Brod und Wein" ("Bread and Wine") and "Patmos"—he also cultivated a crisper, more concise manner in epigrams and couplets, and in short poems like the famous "Hälfte des Lebens" ("The Middle of Life").


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: In the years after his return from Bordeaux, he completed some of his greatest poems but also, once they were finished, returned to them repeatedly, creating new and stranger versions sometimes in several layers on the same manuscript, which makes the editing of his works troublesome. Some of these later versions (and some later poems) are fragmentary, but they have astonishing intensity. He seems sometimes also to have considered the fragments, even with unfinished lines and incomplete sentence-structure, to be poems in themselves. This obsessive revising and his stand-alone fragments were once considered evidence of his mental disorder, but they were to prove very influential on later poets such as Paul Celan. In his years of madness, Hölderlin would occasionally pencil ingenuous rhymed quatrains, sometimes of a childlike beauty, which he would sign with fantastic names (most often "Scardanelli") and give fictitious dates from previous or future centuries.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Hölderlin's major publication in his lifetime was his novel "Hyperion", which was issued in two volumes (1797 and 1799). Various individual poems were published but attracted little attention. In 1799 he produced a periodical, "Iduna".


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: In 1804, his translations of the dramas of Sophocles were published but were generally met with derision over their apparent artificiality and difficulty, which according to his critics were caused by transposing Greek idioms into German. However, 20th-century theorists of translation such as Walter Benjamin have vindicated them, showing their importance as a new—and greatly influential—model of poetic translation. "Der Rhein" and "Patmos", two of the longest and most densely charged of his hymns, appeared in a poetic calendar in 1808.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Wilhelm Waiblinger, who visited Hölderlin in his tower repeatedly in 1822–23 and depicted him in the protagonist of his novel "Phaëthon", stated the necessity of issuing an edition of his poems, and the first collection of his poetry was released by Ludwig Uhland and Christoph Theodor Schwab in 1826. However, Uhland and Schwab omitted anything they suspected might be "touched by insanity", which included much of Hölderlin's fragmented works. A copy of this collection was given to Hölderlin, but later was stolen by an autograph-hunter. A second, enlarged edition with a biographical essay appeared in 1842, the year before Hölderlin's death.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Only in 1913 did Norbert von Hellingrath, a member of the literary Circle led by the German Symbolist poet Stefan George, publish the first two volumes of what eventually became a six-volume edition of Hölderlin's poems, prose and letters (the "Berlin Edition", "Berliner Ausgabe"). For the first time, Hölderlin's hymnic drafts and fragments were published and it became possible to gain some overview of his work in the years between 1800 and 1807, which had been only sparsely covered in earlier editions. The Berlin edition and von Hellingrath's advocacy led to Hölderlin posthumously receiving the recognition that had always eluded him in life. As a result, Hölderlin has been recognized since 1913 as one of the greatest poets ever to write in the German language.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Norbert von Hellingrath enlisted in the Imperial German Army at the outbreak of World War I and was killed in action at the Battle of Verdun in 1916. The fourth volume of the Berlin edition was published posthumously. The Berlin Edition was completed after the German Revolution of 1918 by Friedrich Seebass and Ludwig von Pigenot; the remaining volumes appeared in Berlin between 1922 and 1923.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Already in 1912, before the Berlin Edition began to appear, Rainer Maria Rilke composed his first two "Duino Elegies" whose form and spirit draw strongly on the hymns and elegies of Hölderlin. Rilke had met von Hellingrath a few years earlier and had seen some of the hymn drafts, and the "Duino Elegies" heralded the beginning of a new appreciation of Hölderlin's late work. Although his hymns can hardly be imitated, they have become a powerful influence on modern poetry in German and other languages, and are sometimes cited as the very crown of German lyric poetry.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: The Berlin Edition was to some extent superseded by the Stuttgart Edition ("Grosse Stuttgarter Ausgabe"), which began to be published in 1943 and eventually saw completion in 1986. This undertaking was much more rigorous in textual criticism than the Berlin Edition and solved many issues of interpretation raised by Hölderlin's unfinished and undated texts (sometimes several versions of the same poem with major differences). Meanwhile, a third complete edition, the Frankfurt Critical Edition ("Frankfurter Historisch-kritische Ausgabe"), began publication in 1975 under the editorship of Dietrich Sattler.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Though Hölderlin's hymnic style—dependent as it is on a genuine belief in the divine—creates a deeply personal fusion of Greek mythic figures and romantic mysticism about nature, which can appear both strange and enticing, his shorter and sometimes more fragmentary poems have exerted wide influence too on later German poets, from Georg Trakl onwards. He also had an influence on the poetry of Hermann Hesse and Paul Celan. (Celan wrote a poem about Hölderlin, called "Tübingen, January" which ends with the word "Pallaksch"—according to Schwab, Hölderlin's favourite neologism "which sometimes meant Yes, sometimes No".)


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Hölderlin was also a thinker who wrote, fragmentarily, on poetic theory and philosophical matters. His theoretical works, such as the essays "Das Werden im Vergehen" ("Becoming in Dissolution") and "Urteil und Sein" ("Judgement and Being") are insightful and important if somewhat tortuous and difficult to parse. They raise many of the key problems also addressed by his Tübingen roommates Hegel and Schelling, and, though his poetry was never "theory-driven", the interpretation and exegesis of some of his more difficult poems have given rise to profound philosophical speculation by thinkers such as Martin Heidegger, Theodor Adorno, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and Alain Badiou.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: One of the earliest settings of Hölderlin's poetry is "Schicksalslied" by Johannes Brahms, based on "Hyperions Schicksalslied". Other composers of Hölderlin settings include Ludwig van Beethoven ("An die Hoffnung - Opus 32"), Peter Cornelius, Hans Pfitzner, Richard Strauss ("Drei Hymnen"), Max Reger ("An die Hoffnung"), Alphons Diepenbrock ("Die Nacht"), Walter Braunfels ("Der Tod fürs Vaterland"), Richard Wetz ("Hyperion"), Josef Matthias Hauer, Hermann Reutter, Margarete Schweikert, Stefan Wolpe, Paul Hindemith, Benjamin Britten ("Sechs Hölderlin-Fragmente"), Hans Werner Henze, Bruno Maderna ("Hyperion", "Stele an Diotima"), Luigi Nono ("Prometeo"), Heinz Holliger (the "Scardanelli-Zyklus"), Hans Zender ("Hölderlin lesen I-IV"), György Kurtág (who planned an opera on Hölderlin), György Ligeti ("Three Fantasies after Friedrich Hölderlin"), Hanns Eisler ("Hollywood Liederbuch"), Viktor Ullmann, Wolfgang von Schweinitz, Walter Zimmermann ("Hyperion", an epistolary opera) and Wolfgang Rihm. Siegfried Matthus composed the orchestral song cycle "Hyperion-Fragmente". Carl Orff used Hölderlin's German translations of Sophocles in his operas "Antigone" and "Oedipus der Tyrann".


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Wilhelm Killmayer based three song cycles, "Hölderlin-Lieder", for tenor and orchestra on Hölderlin's late poems; Kaija Saariaho's "Tag des Jahrs" for mixed choir and electronics is based on four of these poems. In 2003, Graham Waterhouse composed a song cycle, "Sechs späteste Lieder", for voice and cello based on six of Hölderlin's late poems. Lucien Posman based a concerto-cantate for clarinet, choir, piano & percussion on 3 Hölderlin poems (Teil 1. "Die Eichbäume", Teil 2. "Mein Eigentum", Teil 3. "Da ich ein Knabe war") (2015). He also set "An die Parzen" to music for choir & piano (2012) and "Hälfte des Lebens" for choir. Several works by Georg Friedrich Haas take their titles or text from Hölderlin's writing, including "Hyperion", "Nacht", and the solo ensemble "... "Einklang freier Wesen" ..." as well as its constituent solo pieces each named "... aus freier Lust ... verbunden ...". In 2020, as part of the German celebration of Hölderlin's 250th birthday, Chris Jarrett composed his "Sechs Hölderlin Lieder" for baritone and piano.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Finnish melodic death metal band Insomnium set Hölderlin's verses to music in several of their songs, and many songs of Swedish alternative rock band ALPHA 60 also contain lyrical references to Hölderlin's poetry.


title: Friedrich Hölderlin

text: Robert Schumann's late piano suite "Gesänge der Frühe" was inspired by Hölderlin, as was Luigi Nono's string quartet "Fragmente-Stille, an Diotima" and parts of his opera "Prometeo". Josef Matthias Hauer wrote many piano pieces inspired by individual lines of Hölderlin's poems. Paul Hindemith's "First Piano Sonata" is influenced by Hölderlin's poem "Der Main". Hans Werner Henze's Seventh Symphony is partly inspired by Hölderlin.


title: Crooked Forest

text: The Crooked Forest () is a grove of oddly-shaped pine trees located in the village of Nowe Czarnowo near the town of Gryfino, West Pomerania, in north-western Poland. It is a protected natural monument of Poland.


title: Crooked Forest

text: This grove of 400 pines was planted in the village of Nowe Czarnowo around 1930. Each pine tree bends sharply to the north, just above ground level, then curves back upright after a sideways excursion of three to nine feet (1–3 m). The curved pines are enclosed by a surrounding forest of straight pine trees.


title: Crooked Forest

text: It is generally believed that some form of human tool or technique was used to make the trees grow or bend this way, but the method has never been determined, and remains a mystery to this day. It has been speculated that the trees may have been deformed to create naturally curved timber for use in furniture or boat building. Others surmise that a snowstorm could have bent the trunks, but there is little evidence of that.


title: Crooked Forest

text: The forest was featured in season 1, episode 4 of "The UnXplained" on the History channel titled "Unnatural Nature" that first aired on 9 August 2019.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen (; ; ; ; ; ) is a town with historic roots, a municipality in northern Switzerland, and the capital of the canton of the same name; it has an estimated population of 36,000 It is located right next to the shore of the High Rhine; it is one of four Swiss towns located on the northern side of the Rhine, along with , the historic , and .


title: Schaffhausen

text: The old town has many fine Renaissance era buildings decorated with exterior frescos and sculpture, as well as the old canton fortress, the "Munot". Schaffhausen is also a railway junction of Swiss and German rail networks. One of the lines connects the town with the nearby Rhine Falls in , Europe's largest waterfall, a tourist attraction.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The official language of Schaffhausen is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The town is first mentioned in 1045 as "Villa Scafhusun". There are at least two theories on the origin of this name:


title: Schaffhausen

text: The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Or on a Base Vert issuant from sinister a Semi Castle Argent with tower with entrance from which is issuing a Semi Ram Sable." The canting coat of arms refers to the second interpretation of the name, sheep-house.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen was a city state in the Middle Ages, documented to have struck its own coins from 1045. About 1050 the counts of Nellenburg founded the Benedictine monastery of All Saints, which became the centre of the town. Perhaps as early as 1190, certainly in 1208, it was an imperial free city, while the first seal dates from 1253. The powers of the abbot were gradually limited and in 1277 the Emperor Rudolf I gave the town a charter of liberties. In 1330 the emperor Louis of Bavaria pledged it to the Habsburgs. In the early 15th century, Habsburg power over the city waned. By 1411 the guilds ruled the city. Then, in 1415 the Habsburg Duke Frederick IV of Austria sided with the Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, and was banned by the Emperor Sigismund. As a result of the ban and Frederick's need of money, Schaffhausen was able to buy its independence from the Habsburgs in 1418. The city allied with six of the Swiss confederates in 1454 and allied with a further two (Uri and Unterwalden) in 1479. Schaffhausen became a full member of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1501.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The Reformation was adopted, initially, in 1524 and completely in 1529. The town was heavily damaged during the Thirty Years' War by the passage of Swedish (Protestant) and Bavarian (Roman Catholic) troops and the very important bridge was burnt down. It was not until the early 19th century that the arrested industrial development of the town recommenced. In 1857, the first railroad, the Rheinfallbahn, running from Winterthur, reached Schaffhausen.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen is located in a finger of Swiss territory surrounded on three sides by Germany. On 1 April 1944, Schaffhausen suffered a bombing raid by aircraft of the United States Army Air Forces, which strayed from German airspace into neutral Switzerland due to navigation errors. Air raid sirens had often sounded in the past, without an actual attack, so many residents ignored the sirens that day. A total of 40 civilians were killed in the raid. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt sent a personal letter of apology to the mayor of Schaffhausen and the United States quickly offered four million US dollars in reparations.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The town of Schaffhausen stands on the right bank of the river Rhine. It has an area, (as of the 2004/09 survey) of . Of this area, about 20.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while 53.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 24.8% is settled (buildings or roads) and 1.6% is unproductive land. Over the past two decades (1979/85-2004/09) the amount of land that is settled has increased by and the agricultural land has decreased by .


title: Schaffhausen

text: In 1947 it merged with the former municipality of Buchthalen. Its area expanded again in 1964 when Herblingen was absorbed and for a third time in 2009 when Hemmental joined the municipality.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen shares an international border with the German village of Büsingen am Hochrhein, an exclave entirely surrounded by Switzerland.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen has an average of 122.5 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is July during which time Schaffhausen receives an average of of rain. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 11.3 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.4 days.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The City Council (de: Stadtrat) constitutes the executive government of the town of Schaffhausen and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of five councilors (), each presiding over a department ("Referat"), which each consists of several administrative districts. The president of the executive department acts as mayor ("Stadtpräsident(in)"). In the mandate period January 2017 – December 2020 ("Amtsdauer") the City Council is presided by "Stadtpräsident" Peter Neukomm. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Grand City Council (parliament) are carried by the City Council. The regular election of the City Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any resident of Schaffhausen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the City Council. The mayor is elected as such as well by public election while the heads of the other directorates are assigned by the collegiate. The mayor as well as the delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz.


title: Schaffhausen

text: , Schaffhausen's City Council is made up of one representative of the SP (Social Democratic Party, who is also the mayor), one representative of the AL (Alternative List), one of the FDP (The Liberals), one of the SVP (Swiss People's Party), and one of the GLP (Green Liberal Party), giving the right parties a majority of three out of five seats. The last regular election was held on 28 August 2016.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The Grand City Council (Grosser Stadtrat) holds legislative power. It is made up of 36 members, with elections held every four years. The Grand City Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the City Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The sessions of the Grand City Council are public. Unlike members of the City Council, members of the Grand City Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Schaffhausen allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Grand City Council. The parliament holds its meetings in the "Kantonsratsaal" (Cantonal Council Hall) am Kornmarkt.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The last regular election of the Grand City Council was held on 27 November 2016 for the mandate period () from January 2017 to December 2020. Currently the Grand City Council consist of 9 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 8 members of the Social Democratic Party (SP/PS) and one of its junior section, the "JUSOplus", 5 The Liberals (FDP/PLR) and one of its junior section, the "JFSH", 4 Alternative List (AL), 3 Green Liberal Party (GLP/PVL), 2 "ÖBS-Grüne" (an alliance of the "Ökoliberale Bewegung Schaffhausen (ÖBS)" and the Green Party (GPS/PES)), and one each of Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PES), and Federal Democratic Union (EDU/UDF).


title: Schaffhausen

text: In the 2015 federal election the most popular party was the SVP with 39.0% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SP (34.0%), the FDP (12.7%) and the others (6.7%). In the federal election, a total of 13,754 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 60.7%. The 2015 election saw a change in the voting when compared to 2011. The percentage that the SP received dropped from 41.6% to 34.0% while the SVP increased from 31.9% in 2011 to 39.0% in 2015.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen has a population () of . , 27.9% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Of the foreign population, (), 21% are from Germany, 13.3% are from Italy, 8.8% are from Croatia, 13.3% are from Serbia, 6% are from Macedonia, 9% are from Turkey, and 28.6% are from other countries. Most of the population () speaks German (84.3%), with Serbo-Croatian being second most common (3.4%) and Italian being third (3.2%).


title: Schaffhausen

text: Over the last 4 years (2010-2014) the population has changed at a rate of 2.82%. The birth rate in the municipality, in 2014, was 9.6, while the death rate was 10.1 per thousand residents.


title: Schaffhausen

text: , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 17.8% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) are 61.7% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 20.5%. In 2015 there were 15,288 single residents, 15,287 people who were married or in a civil partnership, 2,119 widows or widowers, 3,253 divorced residents and 1 people who did not answer the question.


title: Schaffhausen

text: In 2014 there were 16,723 private households in Schaffhausen with an average household size of 2.10 persons. Of the 5,863 inhabited buildings in the municipality, in 2000, about 51.5% were single family homes and 29.7% were multiple family buildings. Additionally, about 22.1% of the buildings were built before 1919, while 7.6% were built between 1991 and 2000. In 2013 the rate of construction of new housing units per 1000 residents was 1.29. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.71%.


title: Schaffhausen

text: , 27.4% of the population belonged to the Roman Catholic Church and 43.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, later organized in the parish St. Johann – Münster.


title: Schaffhausen

text: In Schaffhausen about 69.8% of the population (between age 25–64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule" (university of applied sciences)). In Schaffhausen, , 1.73% of the population attend kindergarten or another pre-school, 5.65% attend a Primary School, 2.98% attend a lower level Secondary School, and 2.49% attend a higher level Secondary School.


title: Schaffhausen

text: , there were a total of 25,749 people employed in the municipality. Of these, a total of 103 people worked in 24 businesses in the primary economic sector. A majority (61.2%) of the primary sector employees worked in very small businesses (less than ten employees). The remainder worked in 2 small businesses with a total of 40 employees. The secondary sector employed 6,403 workers in 371 separate businesses. In 2014 a total of 2,433 employees worked in 358 small companies (less than 50 employees). There were 13 mid sized businesses with 1,631 employees and 3 large businesses which employed 2,333 people (for an average size of 777.7). Finally, the tertiary sector provided 19,243 jobs in 2,626 businesses. In 2014 the tertiary sector numbers had increased by 606 and 20 respectively. In 2014 a total of 12,890 employees worked in 2,597 small companies (less than 50 employees). There were 45 mid sized businesses with 4,938 employees and 4 large businesses which employed 2,021 people (for an average size of 505.3).


title: Schaffhausen

text: In 2015 local hotels had a total of 102,537 overnight stays, of which 52.6% were international visitors. In 2015 there were two movie theaters in the municipality, with a total of 10 screens and a total of 1,816 available seats. , there are 102 restaurants, and 11 hotels with 445 beds. The catering industry in Schaffhausen employs 924 people.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen has an unemployment rate, , of 2.67%. , there were 196 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 33 businesses involved in this sector. 6,488 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 293 businesses in this sector. 14,019 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 1,486 businesses in this sector.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The town of Schaffhausen is served by two railway stations. Schaffhausen railway station is jointly owned by the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) and Deutsche Bahn (DB), and is served by trains of both nation's networks. The station is served by long-distance passenger trains running between Frankfurt and Zurich and between Basel and Ulm. Trains of Zurich S-Bahn services S16, S22 and S33 serve the station, although only the S16 provides a direct service to Zurich. Services S3 and S8 of the St. Gallen S-Bahn operate over the Lake line to St. Gallen and Rorschach respectively. Herblingen railway station is called at by local trains linking Schaffhausen station and Singen.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen also has a bus network of six lines, including the Schaffhausen trolleybus system, linking it with nearby places such as Herblingen and Neuhausen am Rheinfall. One of the routes to the Rheinfall features, is the first route ever to feature a level 5 autonomous bus.


title: Schaffhausen

text: There are 35 buildings or sites in Schaffhausen that are listed as Swiss heritage sites of national significance. This includes the entire old town of Schaffhausen, the city walls, the Giesserei +GF+ Werk I factory, the town and cantonal archives, the "Schweizersbild" Paleolithic cave and the "Herblingen" and "Grüthalde" Neolithic settlements. Additionally, there are four former guild houses and seven listed houses. There are only two listed religious buildings, the former Benedictine All Saints Abbey and the Church of St. John.


title: Schaffhausen

text: Schaffhausen hosts some well-known industrial companies like Georg Fischer (piping systems, machine tools and automotives), an internationally reputed manufacturer of watches (IWC), pharmaceutical industry (Cilag, founded by Bernhard Joos) and BB Biotech (biotechnologies). Tyco International, Garmin, and cyber protection company Acronis are also incorporated in Schaffhausen.


title: Schaffhausen

text: The town has two football teams, SV Schaffhausen, of the fourth-tier Swiss 1. Liga, and FC Schaffhausen, of the second-tier Swiss Challenge League. There is a football stadium in Breite, Schaffhausen which seats 4200 persons, known as the Breitestadion. It is also the training headquarters for local children's football teams.


title: Schaffhausen

text: There is a handball team in Schaffhausen which plays in the first Swiss division: Kadetten Schaffhausen. They are centered at the on Schweizersbildstrasse. It seats 3600 persons, and was built in 2011. Kadetten has been very successful and has won the second most titles in the history of the SHL.


title: 18 Greatest Hits (Michael Jackson and the Jackson 5 album)

text: 18 Greatest Hits is a greatest hits album by American singer Michael Jackson and the Jackson 5. Released solely in the United Kingdom, it spent three weeks at the top of the charts there upon its release in June 1983 by Motown and Telstar Records. It became Jackson's second number one on the UK Albums Chart, right behind "Thriller" (1982), as well as the Jackson 5's first and only number-one album.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward is a short horror novel (51,500 words) by American writer H. P. Lovecraft, written in early 1927, but not published during the author's lifetime. Set in Lovecraft's hometown of Providence, Rhode Island, it was first published (in abridged form) in the May and July issues of "Weird Tales" in 1941; the first complete publication was in Arkham House's "Beyond the Wall of Sleep" collection (1943). It is included in the Library of America volume of Lovecraft's work.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: The novel, set in 1928, describes how Charles Dexter Ward becomes obsessed with his distant ancestor, Joseph Curwen, an alleged wizard with unsavory habits. Ward physically resembles Curwen, and attempts to duplicate his ancestor's Qabalistic and alchemical feats. He eventually uses this knowledge to physically resurrect Curwen. Ward's doctor, Marinus Bicknell Willett, investigates Ward's activities and is horrified by what he finds.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Charles Dexter Ward is a young man from a prominent Rhode Island family who has disappeared from a mental asylum. He had been incarcerated during a prolonged period of insanity, during which he exhibited minor and inexplicable physiological changes. His empty cell is found to be very dusty. The bulk of the story concerns the investigation conducted by the Wards' family doctor, Marinus Bicknell Willett, in an attempt to discover the reason for Ward's madness and physiological changes. Willett learns that Ward had spent the past several years attempting to discover the grave of his ill-reputed ancestor, Joseph Curwen.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: The doctor slowly begins to reveal the truth behind the legends surrounding Curwen, an eighteenth-century shipping entrepreneur and alleged alchemist, who was in reality a necromancer and mass murderer. A raid on Curwen's farm was remarkable for the shouted incantations, lights, explosions, and some not-quite-human figures shot down by the raiders. The raiders swore any witnesses to strict secrecy about what they saw and heard.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: As Willett's investigations proceed, he finds that Charles had recovered Curwen's ashes, and through the use of magical formulae contained in documents found hidden in Curwen's home in Providence was able to call forth Curwen from his "essential saltes" and resurrect him. Willett also finds that Curwen, who resembles Charles enough to pass for him, murdered and replaced his modern descendant and resumed his evil activities. Although Curwen convinces onlookers that he is Charles, his anachronistic mindset and behavior lead authorities to certify him insane and imprison him in an asylum.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: While Curwen is locked up, Willett's investigation leads him to a bungalow in Pawtuxet Village, which Ward had purchased while under the influence of Curwen. The house is on the site of the old farm which was Curwen's headquarters for his nefarious doings; beneath is a vast catacomb that the wizard had built as a lair during his previous lifetime. During a horrific journey through this labyrinth, in which Willett sees a deformed monster in a pit, he discovers the truth about Curwen's crimes and also the means of returning him to the grave. It is also revealed that Curwen has been engaged in a long-term conspiracy with certain other necromancers, associates from his previous life who have somehow escaped death, to resurrect and torture the world's wisest people to gain knowledge that will make them powerful and threaten the future of mankind.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: While in Curwen's laboratory, Willett accidentally summons an ancient entity who is an enemy of Curwen and his fellow necromancers. The doctor faints, awakening much later in the bungalow. The entrance to the vaults has been sealed as if it had never existed, but Willett finds a note from the being written in Latin instructing him to kill Curwen and destroy his body. Willett confronts Curwen at the asylum and succeeds in reversing the resurrection spell, returning the sorcerer to dust. News reports reveal that Curwen's prime co-conspirators and their households have met brutal deaths, and their lairs have been destroyed.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Ward is born in 1902; he is 26 in 1928, at the time the story takes place. Though considered one of Lovecraft's autobiographical characters, some details of the character seem to be based on William Lippitt Mauran, who lived in the Halsey house and, like Ward, was "wheeled...in a carriage" in front of it. Like the Wards, the Maurans also owned a farmhouse in Pawtuxet, Rhode Island.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Ward's ancestor (great-great-great-grandfather) and dead ringer, a successful merchant, shipping magnate, slave trader, and highly accomplished sorcerer, born in what is now Danvers, Massachusetts, seven miles from Salem, on February 18, 1662. He flees to Providence from the Salem witch trials in 1692. He dies, at least temporarily, in 1771 in the course of a raid on his lair by a group of important Providence citizens (Abraham Whipple, John and Moses Brown and Esek Hopkins among them) who have got wind of only a few of his crimes. He is killed again, presumably for good, by Dr Willett using Curwen's own sorcery. Curwen perfects a method of reducing the effects of aging to an uncanny degree. He also has the ability to resurrect the dead from either the complete corpse or its "essential saltes" (derived from the ashes of said corpse), and converse with them. This ability is used to obtain privileged intelligence from long-defunct wise men. To this end his agents scour the graveyards and tombs of the world for the corpses of illustrious persons which are then smuggled back to Providence, where Curwen temporarily raises them to torture their secrets out of them. In this endeavour he is assisted by two fellow necromancers and Salem exiles; Jedediah/Simon Orne, alias Joseph Nadek, who lives in Prague, and Edward Hutchinson, who masquerades as Baron Ferenczy in Transylvania. He is able to summon entities such as Yog-Sothoth to assist him in his magic. The ultimate goal of these men's activities, i.e. the nature or the use for the information extracted from the resurrected wise persons, is not completely specified and its interpretation is largely left to the reader. This ambiguity also affects, notably, the exact circumstances of Curwen's "first" death. It is evident he was betrayed and probably killed by the entity summoned in his defense during the siege to the hidden grounds of his farm, but the identity of this being, as well as its possible connection with Yog-Sothoth (whose name is mentioned in the incantations) is left open to speculation. It is significant, however, that the entity's irruption during the confrontation elicits "An unmistakable human shout or deep chorused scream", as well as "a yell of utter, ultimate fright and stark madness [that] wrenched from scores of human throats—a yell which came strong and clear despite the depth from which it must have burst", and that the participants of the raid are left with psychological sequels far beyond those expected in any episode of unconventional warfare. Prior to his first death, Curwen finds a way to create a spell that would transcend time and inspire a descendant to become interested in him and his work and attempt to bring him back should he ever be slain. When later resurrected by Ward, Curwen initially goes in disguise as a bearded, spectacled "Dr. Allen" to avoid suspicion due to his close resemblance to Ward. The undead Curwen showed vampiristic tendencies as a side effect of his resurrection, thereby attacking local travelers and breaking into houses to drink the blood of the inhabitants. Curwen immediately made contact with Orne and Hutchinson, who have been alive and active all the while, and starts up his old plots once again. He soon murders Ward when he starts having doubts about what they are doing and assumes his identity. Curwen never hesitates to stoop to murder, torture or blackmail to achieve his ends; he also uses – and kills – vast numbers of living slaves as subjects for his experiments. He also feigns some degree of civic spirit and decency, both to his fellow citizens and to his wife, as part of a clever ruse—a social gambit aimed at producing an heir, as well as improving his public image to avoid forced displacement.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: "An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia" compares Willett's character to other "valiant counterweight[s]" in Lovecraft such as Thomas Malone in "The Horror at Red Hook" (1925) and Henry Armitage in "The Dunwich Horror"; like Willett, Armitage "defeats the 'villains' by incantations, and he is susceptible to the same flaws—pomposity, arrogance, self-importance—that can be seen in Willett."


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: In August 1925, Lovecraft's Aunt Lillian sent him an anecdote about the house at 140 Prospect Street, built in 1801 by Colonel Thomas Lloyd Halsey in Providence, Rhode Island. Lovecraft wrote back, "So the Halsey house is haunted! Ugh! That's where Wild Tom Halsey kept live terrapins in the cellar—maybe it's their ghosts. Anyway, it's a magnificent old mansion, & a credit to a magnificent old town!" Lovecraft would make this house—renumbered as 100 Prospect—the basis for the Ward house. The following month, September 1925, Lovecraft read "Providence in Colonial Times", by Gertrude Selwyn Kimball, a 1912 history that provided him the anecdotes about John Merritt and Dr. Checkley that he incorporated into his novel.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: A possible literary model is Walter de la Mare's novel "The Return" (1910), which Lovecraft read in mid-1926. He describes it in his essay "Supernatural Horror in Literature" as a tale in which "We see the soul of a dead man reach out of its grave of two centuries and fasten itself on the flesh of the living."


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: The theme of a descendant who closely resembles a distant ancestor may come from Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The House of the Seven Gables", which Lovecraft called "New England's greatest contribution to weird literature" in "Supernatural Horror in Literature".


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Another proposed literary source is M. R. James' short story "Count Magnus", also praised in "Supernatural Horror in Literature", which suggests the resurrection of a sinister 17th century figure.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: The germ of inspiration came from Lovecraft reading Cotton Mather and running across a quote from Borellus. Borellus is Petrus Borellus aka Dr Pierre Borel, a well-known French doctor and alchemist. The quote refers to old experiments of the alchemists in creating life/rebirth from death using essential salts. The entire quote (which is actually a paraphrasing by Mather) is as follows:


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Lovecraft himself was displeased with the novel, calling it a "cumbrous, creaking bit of self-conscious antiquarianism". He made little effort to publish the work, leaving it to be published posthumously in "Weird Tales" by August Derleth and Donald Wandrei.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Writing in the "New York Times," reviewer William Poster described "Ward" as "a good story in the New England witchcraft tradition, well seasoned with alchemy, vampirism, ancient documents and mummy-stealing". Horror historian Les Daniels called "The Case of Charles Dexter Ward" Lovecraft's "finest novel". E. F. Bleiler noted that the short novel, "despite its being strangely tired and routine, has interesting concepts and good moments". Baird Searles found that "HPL's great knowledge of New England history provides a convincing background" for the story. Douglas Robillard stated Lovecraft's negative assessment of "The Case of Charles Dexter Ward" was "too harsh; this is one of his finest works".


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: "The Case of Charles Dexter Ward" contains the first mention of the Cthulhu Mythos entity Yog-Sothoth, who appears repeatedly as an element in an incantation. Joseph Curwen is the owner of a copy of the "Necronomicon" and there are hints of cult activities in a fishing village that refer obliquely to the events narrated in "The Festival". The story also contains references to the Dream Cycle: Dr. Willett notices the "Sign of Koth" chiselled above a doorway, and remembers his friend Randolph Carter drawing the sign and explaining its powers and meaning.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: Brian Lumley expanded on the character of Baron Ferenczy, mentioned but never met in "The Case of Charles Dexter Ward", in his "Necroscope" series, specifically "Book IV: Deadspeak", where Janos Ferenczy uses the Yog-Sothoth formula to call forth whole bodies from ash remains, and to return them to that state.


title: The Case of Charles Dexter Ward

text: When Dexter's mother hears chanting ("per adonai eloim, adonai jehova, adonai sabaoth, metraton on agla mathon, verbum pythonicum, mysterium salamandrae, conventus, antra gnomorum, daemonia coeli gad, almousin, gibor, jehosua, evam, zariatnatmik, veni, veni, veni."), the chanting is quoted (along with many other incantations in the story) from Eliphas Levi's "Transcendental Magic", which translates the passage as “By Adonaï Eloïm, Adonaï Jehova, Adonai Sabaoth, Metraton On Agla Adonaï Mathon, the pythonic word, the mystery of the salamander, the assembly of sylphs, the grotto of gnomes, the demons of the heaven of Gad, Almousin, Gibor, Jehosua, Evam, Zariatnatmik, Come, Come, Come!" The incantation invokes several divine names, such as Adonai, Eloim, and Jehova, and references the Salamander, Sylphs, and Gnomes, which are the alchemical representatives of Fire, Air, and Earth respectively, as described by Paracelsus. The "mystery of the salamander" is also referenced in other short stories.


title: World Financial Group

text: World Financial Group (WFG) is a multi-level marketing financial and insurance services company based in Johns Creek, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta, which sells investment, insurance, and various other financial products through a network of distributors in the United States, Canada, and Puerto Rico. It is wholly owned by Dutch life insurance multinational Aegon and operates primarily under the Transamerica brand in the United States.


title: World Financial Group

text: World Financial Group associates are compensated by selling financial services products and receiving commission overrides from people that agents sponsor into the company.


title: World Financial Group

text: World Marketing Alliance (WMA) was founded by Hubert Humphrey after he left Primerica in 1991. The original name was Alexander, Inc. but shortly thereafter was renamed World Marketing Alliance. The original idea was that the baby boomers needed a solution for wealth creation and tax protection, and that the "buy term and invest the difference" philosophy of Primerica (formerly A.L. Williams) could be better addressed with variable universal life insurance.


title: World Financial Group

text: While in A.L., Humphrey created and introduced the Business Format System (BFS), a business sales and recruiting methodology. Humphrey continued to develop the methodology in WMA. MD TV, the company's private satellite television network, was also introduced during this period. The company expanded its operations to Canada, Taiwan, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. The company held its first convention in Las Vegas in 1992. It was attended by about 2,000 associates.


title: World Financial Group

text: On March 23, 1998, WMA Executive World Headquarters opened in Duluth, Georgia. The building housed 500+ employees.


title: World Financial Group

text: In November 1998, WMA was fined $100,000 "for not properly supervising its sales agents" after their clients lost nearly $2 million in unregistered investments. In 2000, WMA was fined $125,000 "for failing to report nearly 900 customer complaints".


title: World Financial Group

text: In June 2001, select assets of WMA were purchased by AEGON and renamed World Financial Group, Inc. Humphrey retained WMA Mortgage Services, Inc. and the original logo, which was used in his subsequent companies World Leadership Group and Hegemon Group International. As part of the conditions of sale, Humphrey was placed on a noncompete agreement and could not compete in the insurance industry until 2013. Following the sale of WMA to Aegon, Alexander Wynaendts, chief executive of AEGON, was quoted as saying, "When we took the company over, we put in place very strict regulatory and compliance procedures".


title: World Financial Group

text: In 2015, John Hancock Financial, a Boston-based insurance company acquired 1,100 advisors from Transamerica World Financial Group.


title: World Financial Group

text: World Financial Group has over 3,500 offices in the United States. The World Financial Group Canadian division, World Financial Group Insurance Agency of Canada Inc., moved to Toronto, Ontario in February 2012. In 2008, World Financial Group had over 80 Canadian offices and over 1,500 agents. On July 1, 2013, WFG Securities of Canada, Inc. changed its name to Transamerica Securities, Inc.


title: World Financial Group

text: As of 2022, there are approximately: 53,200 independent life insurance agents associated with WFGIA in the United States and its affiliated insurance agency operating in Canada.


title: World Financial Group

text: In September 2022, the World Financial Group Agency of Canada (WFGIAC) renewed its sponsorship of the 2022 Pinty’s Grand Slam of Curling.


title: World Financial Group

text: In November 2022, Transamerica appointed Todd Buchanan President of World Financial Group Insurance Agency, LLC (WFG), Senior Vice President at Transamerica, and head of Transamerica Financial Advisors, Inc. (TFA).


title: World Financial Group

text: WFG works with hundreds of product provider companies, including mutual funds and unit investment trusts, and various insurance and financial services-related companies.


title: Hans Scholl

text: Hans Fritz Scholl (; 22 September 1918 – 22 February 1943) was, along with Alexander Schmorell, one of the two founding members of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany. The principal author of the resistance movement's literature, he was found guilty of high treason for distributing anti-Nazi material and was executed by the Nazi regime in 1943 during World War II.


title: Hans Scholl

text: Scholl was born in Ingersheim on September 22, 1918. (Ingersheim is now a part of Crailsheim, Baden-Württemberg). His father, Robert, later became the mayor of Forchtenberg am Kocher. Hans was the second of six children:


title: Hans Scholl

text: Scholl was raised as a Lutheran, although he did at one point consider converting to Catholicism. Against the declared will of his father, he became an enthusiastic member of the Hitler Youth on April 15, 1933 and initially held leadership positions in the Deutsches Jungvolk, but quickly became disillusioned with the group when he realised its true principles. In 1935, he was one of three standard-bearers from Ulm who took part in the NSDAP's "Reich Party Rally for Freedom" from September 10 to 16 in Nuremberg. During this time, his attitude towards the Nazi regime gradually began to change. One reason was that the fanaticism promoted in the Hitler Youth and the unconditional subordination to the power structures ruling there became more and more repugnant.


title: Hans Scholl

text: Scholl was arrested in 1937–38 because of his membership in a forbidden Youth Movement organisation. Hans Scholl had joined the Deutsche Jungenschaft 1. 11. (d.j.1.11) in 1934, when he and other Hitler Youth members in Ulm considered membership in this group and the Hitler Youth to be compatible.


title: Hans Scholl

text: During the trial, Hans was also charged under “Paragraph 175”, the paragraph in Nazi law that criminalized homosexual behavior. Under questioning, he admitted to having had two separate relationships, one with Rolf Futterknecht, and one with Ernest Reden, who had also made advances on his brother Werner. Futterknecht had been the one to inform on Hans.


title: Hans Scholl

text: Hans made a positive impact on the judge, who dismissed the choice to join the youth groups as the “youthful exuberance” and “obstinate personality” of a “headstrong young man.” The judge then dismissed the homosexual allegations as a “youthful failing.” Hans was allowed to leave the trial with a clean slate. Ernest Reden, on the other hand, was sentenced to three months prison and three months in a concentration camp for the relationship.


title: Hans Scholl

text: After Hans’ trial, no one spoke of the allegations against him. The only people who knew were his parents and his older sister, Inge, who never spoke about the allegations.


title: Hans Scholl

text: In spring of 1937, he joined the Reich Labour Service, having volunteered for duty. He was discharged in March 1939 to attend medical school at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. At the university he came into contact with professors, teachers, and students who represented positions that were clearly Christian-ethical and critical of the regime. Therefore, Hans began to question his own ideological position more critically.


title: Hans Scholl

text: During the semester break, he was drafted as a medic for front service and took the rank of medical sergeant in the French campaign. What he experienced during direct frontline operations reinforced his personal stance against the rulers and the war in particular. Hans was again enrolled in the military service in the spring of 1941 as a medic in the Wehrmacht.


title: Hans Scholl

text: Between 1940 and 1941, Scholl, a former member of the Hitler Youth, began questioning the principles and policies of the Nazi regime. As a student at the University of Munich, Scholl met two Roman Catholic men of letters who redirected his life, inspiring him to turn from studying medicine and pursue religion, philosophy, and the arts.


title: Hans Scholl

text: After their experiences at the Eastern Front, having learned about mass murder in Poland and the Soviet Union, Scholl and Alexander Schmorell felt compelled to take action. From the end of June until mid-July 1942, they wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the German poets, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution.


title: Hans Scholl

text: From 23 July to 30 October 1942, Willi Graf, Scholl and Schmorell served again at the Soviet front, and activities ceased until their return. After their return, Willi Graf became one of the core members of the White Rose. Sophie was the second to last member to join. By the end of December 1942, Kurt Huber became the last main member of the White Rose.


title: Hans Scholl

text: With six core members, two more White Rose pamphlets were created and circulated over the summer of 1942.


title: Hans Scholl

text: The leaflets were distributed around the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where many of the group members studied. Leaflets were distributed at the University of Hamburg and in the city of Ulm as well. Additionally, leaflets were also mailed to doctors, scholars, and pub owners throughout Germany.


title: Hans Scholl

text: On 18 February 1943, while Hans and Sophie were distributing leaflets at Ludwig Maximilian University, Sophie flung the last remaining leaflets from the top floor down into the atrium. This spontaneous action was observed by the university maintenance man, Jakob Schmid. Schmid reported the offense and the Scholls were arrested by the Gestapo. Along with Christoph Probst, the two siblings were tried for treason by Judge Roland Freisler. They were found guilty and condemned to death on 22 February.


title: Hans Scholl

text: During his interrogation, Hans tried to protect his sister by claiming to have thrown the leaflets himself, but his testimony was contradicted by the custodian's. He further tried to hide the role played by other members of the White Rose. Hans was well aware of the likely consequence of his actions.


title: Hans Scholl

text: At the trial, Hans, Sophie, and Christoph were sentenced to death. They were originally scheduled to be hanged in public (work had already begun on the scaffolds) but the officials feared they would be immortalized as martyrs if they were killed in public. As such, a last minute decision was made to switch the execution method to the guillotine.


title: Hans Scholl

text: After the trial, Hans, Christoph, and Sophie were brought to Stadelheim Prison. While there, they were told that they would be executed the same day. This came as a shock to them, as prisoners were supposed to have at least a 99-day respite before execution. Left in separate cells, they began to write their last letters.


title: Hans Scholl

text: While in their cells, Hans, Sophie, and Christoph each saw a priest to give them the last rites of the Catholic Church. Christoph, who was not part of any denomination, asked to be baptized into the Catholic Church. Hans and Sophie each also asked individually to be allowed into the Catholic Church, but their Lutheran priest advised against it, on the basis that it would upset their mother, who was a devout Lutheran.


title: Hans Scholl

text: At around 4-5 pm, Robert and Magdalena Scholl, the parents of Sophie and Hans, went to the prison and demanded to see their children. To their surprise, the request was granted. Robert and Magdalena were led to a room. In a few minutes Hans entered. Dressed in prison uniform, he stood tall as he walked to his parents and grabbed their hands through the barrier separating them. “I have no hatred. I have put everything behind me.” His father replied, “You will go down in history -- there is such a thing as justice.”


title: Hans Scholl

text: After Hans was led out, Sophie was brought in. Dressed in normal clothes, she smiled happily, pleased to see her parents. After speaking for a few minutes, her mother grasped her hands. “You know, Sophie -- Jesus.” “Yes, but you too.” Sophie replied. She walked out of the room, head held high.


title: Hans Scholl

text: A few minutes before the execution, the three of them were allowed to be together for a short while. While there, they were given a cigarette to share. Christoph is credited with remarking, “I didn’t know dying could be so easy.” At around 5 pm, the executioners came for Sophie. After a few minutes, a dull thump was heard. The executioner came for Hans next. Unlike Sophie, who had gone to her death silently, Hans yelled “Es lebe die Freiheit!” as the blade came down. Christoph was the last to be executed. He was unable to see any of his family before he died.


title: Hans Scholl

text: After the trial of Hans, Sophie, and Christoph, three more trials of the White Rose members took place. In the end, 29 people were accused of being members of the White Rose. 16 were executed, and 13 were given prison sentences ranging from 6 months to 10 years.


title: Hans Scholl

text: Following the deaths, a copy of the sixth leaflet was smuggled out of Germany through Scandinavia to the UK by German jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke, where it was used by the Allied Forces. In July 1943, they dropped millions of copies of the tract, retitled The Manifesto of the Students of Munich, over Germany.


title: Hans Scholl

text: The White Rose's legacy has been considered significant by many historical commentators, both as a demonstration of exemplary spiritual courage, and as a well-documented case of social dissent in a time of violent repression, censorship and pressure to conform.


title: Hans Scholl

text: It is possibly the most spectacular moment of resistance that I can think of in the twentieth century... The fact that five little kids, in the mouth of the wolf, where it really counted, had the tremendous courage to do what they did, is spectacular to me. I know that the world is better for them having been there, but I do not know why.


title: Hans Scholl

text: You cannot really measure the effect of this kind of resistance in whether or not X number of bridges were blown up or a regime fell... The White Rose really has a more symbolic value, but that's a very important value.


title: Hans Scholl

text: It was not until the 1998 law to abolish Nazi judgments of injustice in the administration of criminal justice that the sentences against Hans Scholl and other members of the White Rose became void in Germany.


title: Hans Scholl

text: In 2003, Germans were invited by television broadcaster ZDF to participate in "Unsere Besten" (Our Best), a nationwide competition to choose the top ten most important Germans of all time. Voters under the age of 40 helped Scholl and his sisters to finish in fourth place, above Bach, Goethe, Gutenberg, Bismarck, Willy Brandt, and Albert Einstein. If the votes of young viewers alone had been counted, Sophie and Hans Scholl would have been ranked first.


title: Rich Moore

text: Rich Moore is an American film and television animation director, screenwriter and voice actor. He has directed the films "Wreck-It Ralph" (2012) and co-directed "Zootopia" (2016) and "Ralph Breaks the Internet" (2018) for Walt Disney Animation Studios. In addition, he has also worked on the animated television series "The Simpsons", "The Critic" and "Futurama". He is a two-time Emmy Award winner, a three-time Annie Award winner and an Academy Award winner.


title: Rich Moore

text: Moore is a native of Oxnard, California. He studied film and video at the California Institute of the Arts, graduating with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1987. While there, he narrated Jim Reardon's 1986 student film "Bring Me the Head of Charlie Brown". Included in his CalArts class were famous filmmakers such as Andrew Stanton, Brenda Chapman, and Jim Reardon.


title: Rich Moore

text: After graduating from CalArts, Moore worked for Ralph Bakshi on CBS's "", co-writing all 13 season 1 episodes in 1987. Moore was one of the original three directors of "The Simpsons", directing 17 episodes in the first 5 seasons from 1990 to 1993, including the episodes: "Flaming Moe's", "", and "Marge vs. the Monorail". He won a 1991 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for "The Simpsons: Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment", and later return as one of the sequence directors on "The Simpsons Movie" in 2007.


title: Rich Moore

text: In 1994, Moore became a producer and supervising director for the animated series "The Critic". He then oversaw the creative development and production of "Futurama" as the show's supervising director. He also directed several episodes of the animated series from 1999 to 2001, including the classic "Roswell That Ends Well", for which he won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program.


title: Rich Moore

text: Moore's other television animation directing credits include Comedy Central's "Drawn Together" and "Spy vs. Spy" for "MADtv". He served as supervising director on the 2009 animated Fox television series "Sit Down, Shut Up".


title: Rich Moore

text: In 2004, Moore directed the Warner Bros. animated short film "Duck Dodgers in Attack of the Drones". In 2008, he was invited by John Lasseter to join Walt Disney Animation Studios as a director, with the suggestion that he develop a story set in the world of video games. This would become the 2012 animated feature "Wreck-It Ralph", Moore's feature directing debut, and a box office and critical success. Moore also supplied the voices for the film's characters Sour Bill and Zangief. "Wreck-It Ralph" won five Annie Awards, including Best Animated Feature and a Best Director award for Moore, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.


title: Rich Moore

text: Moore's next animated feature film was Disney's "Zootopia", which he directed alongside Byron Howard and co-director Jared Bush. The film, released on March 4, 2016, became the second highest-grossing animated feature film of 2016 with a worldwide box office gross of over $1.023 billion. The film also won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.


title: Rich Moore

text: After "Zootopia", Moore returned to direct "Ralph Breaks the Internet", the sequel to "Wreck-It Ralph", with fellow filmmaker Phil Johnston. The film was a financial success, outgrossing the original film with over $529.3 million worldwide. It was also nominated for multiple awards in the Best Animated Feature category, including the Academy Awards, Annie Awards, and Golden Globe Awards.


title: Rich Moore

text: On April 8, 2019, Moore revealed that he had left Disney to join Sony Pictures Animation, where he would direct and produce original animated films for the studio, with the first being "Vivo".


title: Rich Moore

text: On March 16, 2022, Moore revealed that he has entered into an exclusive, multi-year overall deal with Skydance Animation.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: The Epistle to the Colossians is the twelfth book of the New Testament. It was written, according to the text, by Paul the Apostle and Timothy, and addressed to the church in Colossae, a small Phrygian city near Laodicea and approximately from Ephesus in Asia Minor.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: Some scholars have increasingly questioned Paul's authorship and attributed the letter to an early follower instead, but others still defend it as authentic. If Paul was the author, he probably used an amanuensis, or secretary, in writing the letter (Col 4:18), possibly Timothy.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: During the first generation after Jesus, Paul's epistles to various churches helped establish early Christian theology. According to Bruce Metzger, it was written in the 60s while Paul was in prison. Colossians is similar to Ephesians, also written at this time. Some critical scholars have ascribed the epistle to an early follower of Paul, writing as Paul. The epistle's description of Christ as pre-eminent over creation marks it, for some scholars, as representing an advanced christology not present during Paul's lifetime. Defenders of Pauline authorship cite the work's similarities to the letter to Philemon, which is broadly accepted as authentic.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: The letter's authors claim to be Paul and Timothy, but authorship began to be authoritatively questioned during the 19th century. Pauline authorship was held to by many of the early church's prominent theologians, such as Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen of Alexandria and Eusebius.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: However, as with several epistles attributed to Paul, critical scholarship disputes this claim. One ground is that the epistle's language doesn't seem to match Paul's, with 48 words appearing in Colossians that are found nowhere else in his writings and 33 of which occur nowhere else in the New Testament. A second ground is that the epistle features a strong use of liturgical-hymnic style which appears nowhere else in Paul's work to the same extent. A third is that the epistle's themes related to Christ, eschatology and the church seem to have no parallel in Paul's undisputed works.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: Advocates of Pauline authorship defend the differences that there are between elements in this letter and those commonly considered the genuine work of Paul (e.g. 1 Thessalonians). It is argued that these differences can come by human variability, such as by growth in theological knowledge over time, different occasion for writing, as well as use of different secretaries (or amanuenses) in composition. As it is usually pointed out by the same authors who note the differences in language and style, the number of words foreign to the New Testament and Paul is no greater in Colossians than in the undisputed Pauline letters (Galatians, of similar length, has 35 hapax legomena). In regard to the style, as Norman Perrin, who argues for pseudonymity, notes, "The letter does employ a great deal of traditional material and it can be argued that this accounts for the non-Pauline language and style. If this is the case, the non-Pauline language and style are not indications of pseudonymity." Not only that, but it has been noted that Colossians has indisputably Pauline stylistic characteristics, found nowhere else in the New Testament. Advocates of Pauline authorship also argue that the differences between Colossians and the rest of the New Testament are not as great as they are purported to be.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: The connection between Colossians and to Philemon, an undisputed epistle, (Philemon 2, Colossians 4:17), the greetings of both epistles bear similar names (Philemon 23–24, Colossians 4:10–14) is used as evidence by those who advocate Pauline authorship.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: The letter may have been written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment. Paul likely wrote it at roughly the same time that he wrote Philemon and Ephesians, as all three letters were sent with Tychicus and Onesimus. A date of 62 AD assumes that the imprisonment Paul speaks of is his Roman imprisonment that followed his voyage to Rome.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: Other scholars have suggested that it was written from Caesarea or Ephesus. If the letter is not considered to be an authentic part of the Pauline corpus, then it might be dated during the late 1st century, possibly as late as AD 90.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: Colossae is in the same region as the seven churches of the Book of Revelation. In Colossians there is mention of local brethren in Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis. Colossae was approximately from Laodicea and from Hierapolis.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: References to "the elements" and the only mention of the word "philosophy" in the New Testament have led scholar Norman DeWitt to conclude that early Christians at Colossae must have been under the influence of Epicurean philosophy, which taught atomism. The Epistle to the Colossians proclaimed Christ to be the supreme power over the entire universe, and urged Christians to lead godly lives. The letter consists of two parts: first a doctrinal section, then a second regarding conduct. Those who believe that the motivation of the letter was a growing heresy in the church see both sections of the letter as opposing false teachers who have been spreading error in the congregation. Others see both sections of the letter as primarily encouragement and edification for a developing church.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: The doctrinal part of the letter is found in the first two chapters. The main theme is developed in chapter 2, with a warning against being drawn away from him in whom dwelt all the fullness of the deity, and who was the head of all spiritual powers. offers firstly a "general warning" against accepting a purely human philosophy, and then a "more specific warning against false teachers".


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: In these doctrinal sections, the letter proclaims that Christ existed before all creation (he was not created) and is supreme over all that has been created. All things were created through him and for him, and the universe is sustained by him. God had chosen for his complete being to dwell in Christ. The "cosmic powers" revered by the false teachers had been "discarded" and "led captive" at Christ's death. Christ is the master of all angelic forces and the head of the church. Christ is the only mediator between God and humanity, the unique agent of cosmic reconciliation. It is the Father in Colossians who is said to have delivered us from the domain of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of His beloved Son. The Son is the agent of reconciliation and salvation not merely of the church, but in some sense redeems the rest of creation as well ("all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven").


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: Colossians praises the spiritual growth of its recipients because of their love for all the set-apart ones in Christ. It calls them to grow in wisdom and knowledge that their love might be principled love and not sentimentality. "Christ in you is your hope of glory!".


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: One of the themes of the doctrinal section of Colossians is promise of union with Christ through the indwelling life of God the Holy Spirit. For example, Colossians 1:27, "To them God has chosen to make known among the Gentiles the glorious riches of this mystery, which is Christ in you, the hope of glory." The Apostle Paul wrote to remind them of this promise and guard them against moving their ongoing trust from Christ to other philosophies and traditions which did not depend on Christ.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: The practical part of the Epistle, enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above Colossians 3:1–4, to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man. Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character. The letter ends with customary prayer, instruction, and greetings.


title: Epistle to the Colossians

text: Colossians is often categorized as one of the "prison epistles", along with Ephesians, Philippians, and Philemon. Colossians has some close parallels with the letter to Philemon: names of some of the same people (e.g., Timothy, Aristarchus, Archippus, Mark, Epaphras, Luke, Onesimus, and Demas) appear in both epistles, and both are claimed to be written by Paul.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: Jute mallow or nalta jute ("Corchorus olitorius", also known as "Jew's mallow", "tossa jute", "bush okra", "krinkrin", "etinyung", "Mulukhiyah", Ademe (Adémé, in Togo) and "West African sorrel", among many other local names, often invoking the most important traits) is a species of shrub in the family Malvaceae. Together with "C. capsularis" it is the primary source of jute fiber. The leaves and young fruits are used as a vegetable, the dried leaves are used for tea and as a soup thickener, and the seeds are edible.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: It is unclear whether "Corchorus olitorius" originated in Africa or in Asia. Some authorities consider that it comes from the Indo-Burmese area or from India, along with several other related species. Others point out that there is a greater genetic variation in Africa and a larger number of wild species in the genus "Corchorus". Wherever it originated, it has been under cultivation for a very long time in both continents and probably grows, wild or as a crop, in every country in tropical Africa.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: In classical antiquity, Pliny recorded that jute plants were used as food in Ancient Egypt. It may have also been cultivated by the Jews in the Near East, which gives the plant its name.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: "Corchorus olitorius" is an erect herbaceous plant, fairly branched and grows about 1.5 m high. However, if grown for fibre production, it can reach heights up to 4 m. The taproot leads to a sturdy and hairless stem, which is green with a faint red-brownish hue and sometimes turns a little woody on ground level. The serrate acute leaves alternate, are 6 to 10 cm long and 2 to 4 cm wide. The plant carries the flowers solitary or in two-flowered cymes opposite of the leaf. The flowers sit on the end of a short stem, count 5 sepals, 5 petals and 10 free and yellow stamina. The fruit is spindle-shaped, dehiscent and divided into transversal sections through five valves. The fruit measures 2 to 8 cm in length and colors vary from greyish-blue to green or brownish-black. Every seed chamber contains 25 to 40 seeds, which sum up to 125 to 200 seeds per fruit.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: "Corchorus olitorius" is an annual crop. The plant grows well in the lowland tropics, ranging from warm temperate zones through tropical desert to wet forest life zones. It can tolerate an annual precipitation between 400 and 4290 mm (optimum 1000 mm per year). Some cultivars are sensitive to waterlogging, especially when they are young. Temperatures between 16.8 and 27.5 °C are optimal for the plant growth. For the soil a pH of 4.5 to 8.2 is needed. The plant prefers a fertile, humus-rich, well-drained alluvial soil but also grows well in suboptimal soil conditions. Before sowing, the soil is prepared carefully by plowing and the seeds are broadcast or dribbled behind the plow in the wet season. Twenty-four hours before seeding, the seeds must be pre-soaked for ten seconds in hot water (around 93 °C) to overcome dormancy. If the small seeds are mixed with sand, it makes it easier to sow them. And if the soil is wet, germination takes place two to three days after sowing. In some systems, the seedlings are transplanted at a height of 10 cm. The plants are grown in rows with a spacing of 20–50 cm. When the plant achieves a height of 8–25 cm, the seedlings are harrowed with a rake three to four times and weeded two to three times. Cow dung, wood ashes or rotted water hyacinth ("Eichhornia crassipes") or its ashes are used as manure. The yield of the crop responds more to water availability and soil organic matter than to high mineral nutrient status.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: The most serious pests are nematodes from the genus "Meloidogyne", leaf-eating beetles and caterpillars. If it is dry, eight to ten weeks after planting, yield losses can occur due to leaf bugs and spider mites attacks resulting in terminal shoot wilt. Damage by nematodes can be minimized by crop rotation. Application of insecticides is also possible, but agent and application time should be chosen carefully since the leaves are harvested for consumption. Attacks were also observed by weevils species "(Myllocerus spp".), semilooper ("Anomis sabulifera)", and yellow mites ("Polyphagotarsonemus latus"). Diseases (bacterial and viruses infections) are not as serious as pests (insect and nematode attacks). Seedling damp-off occurs but can be reduced by good drainage and cultivation in humus-rich soils with adequate water holding capacity. Attacks by "Sclerotium rolfsii" in dry weather of the late season can lead to wilts at the stem collar. Anthracnose spots caused by "Colletotrichum gloeosporioides" may infect the crop but can be easily controlled by spraying copper oxychloride.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: Harvest can begin after about six weeks: The whole plant can be directly harvested (for jute production) or leaves are harvested by pruning several times during the vegetation period (for food production). The shoot regeneration highly depends on variety, soil fertility, adequate water supply and control of weeds and pests. Amount of pruned shoots and quality reduces with each harvest. Under farming conditions the yield usually reaches around 2.5 t per hectare of edible leaves. Under experimental conditions and with very high fertility application, yields of about 28 t per hectare have been reported.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: For fresh consumption the leaves should be stored above 8 °C and below 15 °C. Low temperatures from 1-8 °C lead to browning of the leaves and too high storage temperatures are manifested in leaf yellowing. To produce seeds, the fruits can be harvested six weeks after flowering. The dried capsules are threshed and can be stored for eight to twelve months in well sealed jars. For storage, the moisture should be around nine percent.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: Leaves of "Corchorus olitorius" are mainly known to have rich sources of many chemical compound. There are 17 active nutrients compounds in Jute leaves including protein, fat, carbohydrate, fiber, ash, calcium, potassium, iron, sodium, phosphorus, beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic acid.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: According to a comparative analysis of major nutrients of "Corchorus olitorius" seeds showed that the protein content of the "Corchorus olitorius" has significantly increased after seed germination process where the sugar level has decreased in the studied seeds. It can be seen from this study that the level of nutrients in the "Corchorus olitorius" seed changes during the germination process.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: "C. olitorius" could be grown in a floating system with nutrient solution and could produce baby leaves, which would be interesting for the fresh cut leafy vegetable industry in Europe.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: Jute fibre is made from the bark tissue of "C. olitorius" and "C. capsularis", especially in South Asian countries, though fibre made from "C. olitorius" is considered to be of lesser quality. Finished fibres appear golden and silky with a length of up to 3 metres and with a diameter of 2.4 µm. The plant stalk is cut and then processed by pulling up, rippling, partial retting, breaking, spinning and combing to obtain fine fibres that are well separated from unwanted woody material. Afterwards the fibres are cured and dried.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: Many textiles are made of jute, such as yarn, twine, sacking, carpet backing cloth and other blended textiles. It is also used as raw material for cords and strings.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: In Africa and the Middle East, a different type is grown with the leaves and shoots being used for food while the fibre is considered of little importance.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: "C. olitorius" is cultivated in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt as a potherb and its culinary use goes back at least as far as the Ancient Egyptians. It is an important leafy vegetable in Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Nigeria, Ghana, Cameroon, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Zimbabwe. It is also cultivated and eaten in the Caribbean and Brazil, in the Middle East and in India, Bangladesh, Japan and China. Its leaves are a special favourite of the Boros of northeast India, who make a mucilaginous preparation with its dried leaves mixed with fatty pork and lye called "narji". In Nigeria, the leaves are boiled to make a sticky, mucilaginous sauce which is served with balls of cassava which are otherwise rather dry. In Vietnamese cuisine, it known as "rau đay" and made into a soup with shrimp.


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: The edible part of jute is its leaves. Richness in potassium, vitamin B6, iron, vitamin A and vitamin C make this crop particularly important, where people cover a high share of their energy requirement by micronutrient-poor staple crops. This vegetable is predominantly eaten in Africa and Asia. A traditional Syrian, Lebanese, Tunisian, Turkish Cypriot, Jordanian, Palestinian and Egyptian dish made of "C. olitorius" leaves is "mulukhiyah".


title: Corchorus olitorius

text: Consumption of the leaves is reported to be demulcent, deobstruent, diuretic, lactagogue, purgative, and tonic. It is also a folk remedy for aches and pains, dysentery, enteritis, fever, pectoral pains, and tumors. Ayurvedics use the leaves for ascites, pain, piles, and tumors. Elsewhere the leaves are used for cystitis, dysuria, fever, and gonorrhea. The cold infusion is said to restore the appetite and strength. It can act anti-inflammatory, and it has gastroprotective properties.


title: Sütterlin

text: The ministry had asked for "modern" handwriting scripts to be used in offices and to be taught in school. created two scripts in parallel with the two typefaces that were in use (see Antiqua–Fraktur dispute). The scripts were introduced in Prussia in 1915, and from the 1920s onwards, it began to replace the relatively similar old German handwriting () in schools. In 1935, the style officially became the only German script taught in schools.


title: Sütterlin

text: The Nazi Party banned all "broken" blackletter typefaces in 1941, which were seen as chaotic, including , and replaced them with Latin-type letters like Antiqua. However, many German-speakers who had been brought up with that writing system continued to use it well into the postwar period.


title: Sütterlin

text: The lower-case 'e' contains two vertical bars close together, in which the origin of the umlaut diacritic (¨) from a small 'e' written above the modified vowel can be seen.


title: Sütterlin

text: Sütterlin is based on the old German handwriting, which is a handwriting form of the Blackletter scripts such as or , the German print scripts which were used during the same time.


title: Sütterlin

text: It also had the long s (ſ), as well as several standard ligatures such as (f-f), (ſ-t), (s-t), and ß (ſ-z or ſ-s).


title: Sütterlin

text: Because of their distinctiveness, letters can be used on the blackboard for mathematical symbols, which would use letters in print. The lower-case d in and is used in proofreading for " ("let it be deleted").


title: Marrano

text: Marranos were Spanish and Portuguese Jews living in the Iberian Peninsula who converted or were forced to convert to Christianity during the Middle Ages, but continued to practice Judaism in secrecy.


title: Marrano

text: The term specifically refers to the charge of crypto-Judaism, whereas the term "converso" was used for the wider population of Jewish converts to Catholicism, whether or not they secretly still practised Jewish rites. Converts from either Judaism or Islam were referred to by the broader term of "New Christians."


title: Marrano

text: The term "marrano" came into later use in 1492 with the Castilian Alhambra Decree, which prohibited the practice of Judaism in Spain and required all remaining Jews to convert or leave, under the premise that, "If they are not good Christians, their descendants will be."


title: Marrano

text: By then, the vast majority of Jews in Spain had converted to Catholicism, perhaps under pressure from the Massacre of 1391, and "conversos" numbered hundreds of thousands. They were monitored by the Spanish Inquisition and subject to suspicions by Catholics of the secret practice of Judaism, also known as "Marranism."


title: Marrano

text: In modern use "marrano" may be considered offensive; and "crypto-Jew" is occasionally preferred in scholarly works.


title: Marrano

text: The origin of the term "marrano" as applied to crypto-Jews is debatable, since there are at least three possible etymologies for the word.


title: Marrano

text: One source of the term derives from an Arabic word for "forbidden, illicit", "muḥarram". The Arabic word in this context means "swine" or "pork", and either expresses the same repulsion towards the converts that the converts previously had for these ritually unclean meat, or insinuate suspicion that the converts continued to be loyal to Judaism. However, as applied to crypto-Jews, the term marrano may also derive from the Spanish verb "marrar" (of Germanic rather than Arabic origin) meaning "to deviate" or "to err", in the sense that they deviated from their newly adopted faith by secretly continuing to practice Judaism. A third origin has been cited from Galician-Portuguese, where "marrar" means "to force" and "marrano" means "forced one", indicating the compulsory nature of the religious conversions. José Meir Estrugo Hazán writes in his book "Los Sefardíes" that "marrano" is the term the Spanish Jews prefer.


title: Marrano

text: Under state pressure in the late 14th and early 15th century, over half of Jews in the Iberian Peninsula converted to Christianity, thus avoiding the Decree of Expulsion which affected Spain's remaining openly Jewish population in 1492. The numbers who converted and the effects of various migrations in and out of the area have been the subject of historical debate. A phylogeographic study in 2008 of 1,150 volunteer Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups appeared to support the idea that the number of conversions has been significantly underestimated, as 20% of the tested Iberian population had haplogroups consistent with Sephardi ancestry. This percentage was suggested as representing the proportion of Sephardi in the population at the time of mass conversions in the 14th and 15th centuries. However, the authors concede that other historical population movements from the Near East such as Syrians and Phoenicians may also account for these results.


title: Marrano

text: Some Portuguese "conversos" or "cristãos-novos" continued to practice as crypto-Jews. In the early 20th century, historian Samuel Schwartz wrote about crypto-Jewish communities discovered in northeastern Portugal (namely, Belmonte, Bragança, Miranda, and Chaves). He claimed that members had managed to survive more than four centuries without being fully assimilated into the Old Christian population. The last remaining crypto-Jewish community in Belmonte officially returned to Judaism in the 1970s and opened a synagogue in 1996. In 2003, the American Sephardi Federation founded the Belmonte Project to raise funds to acquire Judaic educational material and services for the Belmonte community, who then numbered 160–180.


title: Marrano

text: Two documentary films have been made in north-eastern Portugal where present-day descendants of marranos were interviewed about their lives. In 1974 for "The Marranos of Portugal", the Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA) sent reporter Ron Ben-Yishai to conduct interviews with families about their religious practice. After being asked to prove he knew Hebrew before they would talk, he found people still reluctant to speak openly. Nevertheless he did eventually gain a remarkable insight into their version of Jewish customs, prayers and songs. The film was commended at the 1976 Jerusalem Jewish Film and TV Festival. Another documentary, "The Last Marranos", was made by the New York Jewish Media Fund in 1997.


title: Marrano

text: After the expulsion of Jews and Muslims from Spain (1492) and the Forced Conversion by Portugal's King Manuel I in Portugal (1497), "conversos" continued to be suspect in socially strained times. In Lisbon in 1506, a months-long plague caused people to look for scapegoats. Some became suspicious that "conversos" might be practicing Judaism and therefore be at fault. On April 17, 1506, several "conversos" were discovered who had in their possession "some lambs and poultry prepared according to Jewish custom; also unleavened bread and bitter herbs according to the regulations for the Passover, which festival they celebrated far into the night." Officials seized several but released them after a few days.


title: Marrano

text: On the same day on which the "conversos" were freed, the Dominicans displayed a crucifix and a reliquary in glass from which a peculiar light issued in a side-chapel of their church, where several New Christians were present. A New Christian who tried to explain the miracle as due to natural causes was dragged from the church and killed by an infuriated woman. A Dominican roused the populace still more. Friar João Mocho and the Aragonese friar Bernardo, crucifix in hand, were said to have gone through the streets of the city, crying "Heresy!" and calling upon the people to destroy the "conversos". Attracted by the outcry, sailors from Holland, Zeeland and others from ships in the port of Lisbon, joined the Dominicans and formed a mob with local men to pursue the "conversos".


title: Marrano

text: The mob dragged "converso" victims from their houses and killed some. Old Christians who were in any way associated with New Christians were also attacked. The mob attacked the tax-farmer João Rodrigo Mascarenhas, a New Christian; although a wealthy and distinguished man, his work also made him resented by many. They demolished his house. Within 48 hours, many "conversos" were killed; by the third day all who could leave escaped, often with the help of other Portuguese. The killing spree lasted from 19 to 21 April, in what came to be known as the Lisbon massacre.


title: Marrano

text: King Manuel severely punished those who took part in the killings. The ringleaders and the Dominicans who encouraged the riot were also executed. Local people convicted of murder or pillage suffered corporal punishment and their property was confiscated. The king granted religious freedom for 20 years to all "conversos" in an attempt at compensation. Lisbon lost "Foral" (municipal) privileges. The foreigners who had taken part generally escaped punishment, leaving with their ships.


title: Marrano

text: New Christians were attacked in Gouveia, Alentejo, Olivença, Santarém, and other places. In the Azores and the island of Madeira, mobs massacred former Jews. Because of these excesses, the king began to believe that a Portuguese Inquisition might help control such outbreaks.


title: Marrano

text: The Portuguese "conversos" worked to forestall such actions, and spent immense sums to win over the "Curia" and most influential cardinals. Spanish and Portuguese "conversos" made financial sacrifices. Alfonso Gutierrez, Garcia Alvarez "el Rico" (the rich), and the Zapatas, "conversos" from Toledo, offered 80,000 gold crowns to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, if he would mitigate the harshness of the Inquisition.


title: Marrano

text: The Mendes of Lisbon and Flanders also tried to help. None were successful in preventing the Inquisition Papal Bull Meditatio Cordis of July 16, 1547, Inquisition in Portugal. This Bull Meditatio Cordis still did not have the "Power of Confiscation". Portuguese Marranos continued, with many bribes of the Popes in Rome, and with prolonged negotiation against this "Power of Confiscation" succeeded to delay it 32 years, but finally conceded this "deadly weapon" in 1579. The Portuguese Inquisition now had been endowed, 101 years after the Spanish Inquisition of November 1, 1478, with the same extremities of rigor as the Spanish prototype. The suffered immensely both from mob violence and interrogation and testing by the Inquisition. Attacks and murders were recorded at Trancoso, Lamego, Miranda, Viseu, Guarda, and Braga.


title: Marrano

text: At Covilhã, there were rumors that the people planned to massacre all the New Christians on one day. In 1562, prelates petitioned the "Cortes" to require "conversos" to wear special badges, and to order Jewish descendants to live in ghettos ("judiarias") in cities and villages as their ancestors had before the conversions.


title: Marrano

text: In 1641 João IV of Portugal ennobled the Curiel family, a Marrano family who served as Agents to the Crown of Spain and Portugal. They held diplomatic positions across Europe until the late 18th century.


title: Marrano

text: According to historian Cecil Roth, Spanish political intrigues had earlier promoted the anti-Jewish policies which culminated in 1391, when Regent Queen Leonora of Castile gave the Archdeacon of Écija, Ferrand Martinez, considerable power in her realm. Martinez gave speeches that led to violence against the Jews, and this influence culminated in the sack of the Jewish quarter of Seville on June 4, 1391. Throughout Spain during this year, the cities of Ecija, Carmona, Córdoba, Toledo, Barcelona and many others saw their Jewish quarters destroyed and inhabitants massacred.


title: Marrano

text: It is estimated that 200,000 Jews saved their lives by converting to Christianity in the wake of these persecutions. Other Jews left the country altogether and around 100,000 openly practicing Jews remained.


title: Marrano

text: In 1449, feelings rose against "conversos", breaking out in a riot at Toledo. Instigated by two canons, Juan Alfonso and Pedro Lopez Galvez, the mob plundered and burned the houses of Alonso Cota, a wealthy "converso" and tax-farmer. They also attacked the residences of wealthy New Christians in the quarter of la Magdelena. Under Juan de la Cibdad, the "conversos" opposed the mob, but were repulsed. They were executed with their leader. As a result, several prominent "converso" men were deposed from office, in obedience to a new statute.


title: Marrano

text: Nearly 20 years later in July 1467, another riot occurred where a mob attacked "conversos" in Toledo. The chief magistrate ("alcalde mayor") of the city was Alvar Gomez de Cibdad Real, who had been private secretary to King Henry IV of Castile. He was a protector of the "conversos." Together with prominent "conversos" Fernando and Alvaro de la Torre, Alvar wished to take revenge for an insult by the counts de Fuensalida, leaders of the Old Christians. His intention was to seize control of the city, but fierce conflict erupted. Opponents set fire to houses of New Christians near the cathedral. The conflagration spread so rapidly that 1,600 houses were consumed. Both Old Christians and "conversos" perished. The brothers De la Torre were captured and hanged.


title: Marrano

text: Tensions arose in Córdoba between Old Christians and "conversos", where they formed two hostile parties. On March 14, 1473, during a dedication procession, a girl accidentally threw dirty water from the window of the house of one of the wealthiest "conversos" (the customary way to dispose of it.) The water splashed on an image of the Virgin being carried in procession in honor of a new society (from which "conversos" had been excluded by Bishop D. Pedro.) A local blacksmith started arousing a rabble against the Jews, who he blamed for the insult, which immediately joined in a fierce shout for revenge.


title: Marrano

text: The mob went after "conversos", denouncing them as heretics, killing them, and burning their houses. To stop the excesses, the highly respected D. Alonso Fernandez de Aguilar, whose wife was a member of the "converso" family of Pacheco, together with his brother D. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba ("El Gran Capitán"), and a troop of soldiers, hastened to protect the New Christians. D. Alonso called upon the mob to retire. Its leader insulted the count, who immediately felled him with his lance. Aroused, the people considered him a martyr. Incited by Alonso de Aguilar's enemy, they again attacked the "conversos". The rioting lasted three days. Those who escaped sought refuge in the castle, where their protectors also took shelter. The government decreed that Jews and "conversos" should remain in their neighborhood or leave the city.


title: Marrano

text: In 1473, attacks on "conversos" arose in numerous other cities: Montoro, Bujalance, Adamuz, La Rambla, Santaella, and elsewhere. Mobs attacked "conversos" in Andújar, Úbeda, Baeza, and Almodóvar del Campo also. In Valladolid, groups looted the belongings of the New Christians. At Segovia, there was a massacre (May 16, 1474). D. Juan Pacheco, a "converso", led the attacks. Without the intervention of the alcalde, Andres de Cabrera, all New Christians might have died. At Carmona, it was reported that not one "converso" was left alive.


title: Marrano

text: Tens of thousands of Jews were baptised in the three months before the deadline for expulsion, some 40,000 if one accepts the totals given by Kamen: most of these undoubtedly to avoid expulsion, rather than as a sincere change of faith. These "conversos" were the principal concern of the Inquisition; being suspected of continuing to practice Judaism put them at risk of denunciation and trial.


title: Marrano

text: During 1492, about 12,000 "conversos" entered Navarre from Aragon's repression, where they were allowed to remain. Tudela in Navarre turned into a "converso" haven. The Tudelans had already proclaimed in 1486 that ""if any inquisitor enters their city, he will be thrown into the Ebro river."" Later the resistance to the inquisitors was so strong that its aldermen ordered commissioners and attorneys to ask the Catholic Monarchs to limit the power of the Inquisition in 1510.


title: Marrano

text: The most intense period of persecution of "conversos" lasted until 1530. From 1531 to 1560, however, the percentage of "conversos" among the Inquisition trials dropped to 3% of the total. There was a rebound of persecutions when a group of crypto-Jews was discovered in Quintanar de la Orden in 1588; and there was a rise in denunciations of "conversos" in the last decade of the sixteenth century. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, some "conversos" who had fled to Portugal began to return to Spain, fleeing the persecution of the Portuguese Inquisition, founded in 1536. This led to a rapid increase in the trials of crypto-Jews, among them a number of important financiers. In 1691, during a number of "autos-da-fé" in Majorca, 37 "chuetas", or "conversos" of Majorca, were burned.


title: Marrano

text: During the eighteenth century the number of "conversos" accused by the Inquisition decreased significantly. Manuel Santiago Vivar, tried in Córdoba in 1818, was the last person tried for being a crypto-Jew.