title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: The exports and imports are halted in sea ports due to the cyclone. Some people lose their jobs as well. A mature tropical cyclone can release heat at a rate upwards of watts. Tropical cyclones on the open sea cause large waves, heavy rain, and high winds, disrupting international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks. Generally, after its passage, a tropical cyclone stirs up ocean water, lowering sea surface temperatures behind it. This cool wake can cause the region to be less favorable for a subsequent tropical cyclone. On rare occasions, tropical cyclones may actually do the opposite. 2005's Hurricane Dennis blew warm water behind it, contributing to the unprecedented intensity of Hurricane Emily, which followed it closely. Hurricanes help to maintain the global heat balance by moving warm, moist tropical air to the mid-latitudes and polar regions and also by influencing ocean heat transport. Were it not for the movement of heat poleward (through other means as well as hurricanes), the tropical regions would be unbearably hot.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Shipwrecks are common with the passage of strong tropical cyclones. Such shipwrecks can change the course of history, as well as influence art and literature. A hurricane led to a victory of the Spanish over the French for control of Fort Caroline, and ultimately the Atlantic coast of North America, in 1565. The "Sea Venture" was wrecked near Bermuda in 1609 which led to the colonization of Bermuda and provided the inspiration for Shakespeare's "The Tempest".


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Mariners have a way to safely navigate around tropical cyclones. They split tropical cyclones in two, based on their direction of motion, and maneuver to avoid the right segment of the cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere (the left segment in the Southern Hemisphere). Sailors term the right side the dangerous semicircle since the heaviest rain and strongest winds and seas were located in this half of the storm, as the cyclone's translation speed and its rotational wind are additive. The other half of the tropical cyclone is called the navigable semicircle since weather conditions are lessened (subtractive) in this portion of the storm (but are still potentially quite hazardous). The rules of thumb for ship travel when a tropical cyclone is in their vicinity are to avoid them if at all possible and do not cross their forecast path (crossing the T). Those traveling through the dangerous semicircle are advised to keep to the true wind on the starboard bow and make as much headway as possible. Ships moving through the navigable semicircle are advised to keep the true wind on the starboard quarter while making as much headway as possible.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: The most significant effects of a tropical cyclone occur when they cross coastlines, making landfall then it destroys ships and lives.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, trees, personal property and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles. In the United States, major hurricanes comprise just 21% of all land-falling tropical cyclones, but account for 83% of all damage. Tropical cyclones often knock out power to tens or hundreds of thousands of people, preventing vital communication and hampering rescue efforts. Tropical cyclones often destroy key bridges, overpasses, and roads, complicating efforts to transport food, clean water, and medicine to the areas that need it. Furthermore, the damage caused by tropical cyclones to buildings and dwellings can result in economic damage to a region, and to a diaspora of the population of the region.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths. The relatively quick surge in sea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes. The NOAA report about sea level states that the likeliness of storm surges during a hurricane has increased due to climate change, and by 2050, the chance of moderate flooding occurring will have increased by 10 times. The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish-breeding locales.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: The thunderstorm activity in a tropical cyclone produces intense rainfall, potentially resulting in flooding, mudslides, and landslides. Inland areas are particularly vulnerable to freshwater flooding, due to residents not preparing adequately. Heavy inland rainfall eventually flows into coastal estuaries, damaging marine life in coastal estuaries. The wet environment in the aftermath of a tropical cyclone, combined with the destruction of sanitation facilities and a warm tropical climate, can induce epidemics of disease which claim lives long after the storm passes. Infections of cuts and bruises can be greatly amplified by wading in sewage-polluted water. Large areas of standing water caused by flooding also contribute to mosquito-borne illnesses. Furthermore, crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they affect and bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. Hurricanes in the eastern north Pacific often supply moisture to the Southwestern United States and parts of Mexico. Japan receives over half of its rainfall from typhoons. Hurricane Camille (1969) averted drought conditions and ended water deficits along much of its path, though it also killed 259 people and caused $9.14 billion (2005 USD) in damage.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: On the other hand, the occurrence of tropical cyclones can cause tremendous variability in rainfall over the areas they affect: indeed cyclones are the primary cause of the most extreme rainfall variability in the world, as observed in places such as Onslow and Port Hedland in subtropical Australia where the annual rainfall can range from practically nothing with no cyclones to over if cyclones are abundant.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: The broad rotation of a land-falling tropical cyclone often (though not commonly) spawns tornadoes, particularly in their right front quadrant. While these tornadoes are normally not as strong as their non-tropical counterparts, heavy damage or loss of life can still occur. Tornadoes can also be spawned


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: During the last two centuries, tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of about 1.9 million people worldwide. It is estimated that 10,000 people per year perish due to tropical cyclones. The deadliest tropical cyclone was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which had a death toll of anywhere from 300,000 to 500,000 lives.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Before Hurricane Katrina, which combined storm-tide flooding with levee-breach (dam) flooding from Lake Pontchartrain, the average death rate for tropical cyclones in the United States had been decreasing. The main cause of storm-related fatalities had been shifting away from storm surge and towards freshwater (rain) flooding. However, the median death rate per storm had increased through 1979, with a lull during the 1980–1995 period. This was due to greater numbers of people moving to the coastal margins and into harm's way. Despite advances in warning strategies and reduction in track forecast error, this increase in fatalities is expected to continue for as long as people migrate towards the shore.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: While tropical cyclones may well seriously damage settlement, total destruction encourages rebuilding. For example, the destruction wrought by Hurricane Camille on the Gulf coast spurred redevelopment, greatly increasing local property values. Research indicates that the typical hurricane strike raises real house prices by a few percent for a number of years, with a maximum effect of between 3 percent to 4 percent three years after occurrence. However, disaster response officials point out that redevelopment encourages more people to live in clearly dangerous areas subject to future deadly storms. Hurricane Katrina is the most obvious example, as it devastated the region that had been revitalized after Hurricane Camille. Many former residents and businesses do relocate to inland areas away from the threat of future hurricanes as well.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: In isolated areas with small populations, tropical cyclones may cause enough casualties to contribute to the founder's effect as survivors repopulate their place. For example, around 1775, a typhoon hit Pingelap Atoll, and in combination with a subsequent famine, reduced the island's population to a low level. Several generations after the disaster, as many as 10% of Pingelapese have a genetic form of color-blindness called achromatopsia. This is due to one of the survivors of the depopulation brought on by the typhoon having a mutated gene, which the population bottleneck caused to be at a higher-than-usual level in succeeding generations.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Tropical cyclones reshape the geology near the coast by eroding sand from the beach as well as offshore, rearranging coral, and changing dune configuration onshore. Their rainwater gets absorbed into stalagmites within caves, creating a record of past tropical cyclone impacts.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Waves and storm surges accompanying tropical cyclones undersea sands, erode shell deposits, break off corals from near shore reefs in their paths, and carry all this detritus landwards in a rolling wave of material that is deposited onshore, above highest astronomical tide as a ridge of sand, shell and coral. For example, each severe tropical cyclone (i.e. Category 4–5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale) crossing northeast Australia's tropical coastline since the last significant change in sea levels (about 5,000 years ago) has 'emplaced' such ridges within the coastal landscape forming, in some places, series of ridges and a geomorphological record of highest magnitude cyclones hitting the coast over 3,000–5,000 years.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Eyewitness accounts verify ridges of this kind are formed by severe tropical cyclones and two clear examples cited are the long, wide, high coral shingle ridge deposited on Funafuti Atoll (Central South Pacific) by Cyclone Bebe in October 1972, and the large coral shingle ridge deposited on Jaluit Atoll (Marshall Islands) by Typhoon Ophelia in January 1958. In tropical northeast Australia, an intense tropical cyclone hit in March 1918 (crossing over the town of Innisfail), at which time there were eyewitness accounts of a to high ridge of pumice being deposited by that cyclone's surge as it crossed the coast.).


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: When tropical cyclones cross land, thin layers of calcium carbonate of 'light' composition (i.e. unusual isotopic ratio of Oxygen-18 and Oxygen-16) are deposited onto stalagmites in limestone caves up to from the cyclone's path.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: As the cloud tops of tropical cyclones are high and cold, and their air is humid – their rainwater is 'lighter'. In other words, the rainfall contains significantly higher quantities of unevaporated Oxygen-18 than other tropical rainfall. The isotopically lighter rainwater soaks into the ground, percolates down into caves, and, within a couple of weeks, Oxygen-18 transfers from the water into calcium carbonate, before being deposited in thin layers or 'rings' within stalagmites. A succession of such events created within stalagmites maintain a record of cyclones tracking within a radius of caves going back centuries, millennia, or even millions of years.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: At Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in central Belize, researchers drilling stalagmites with a computer- controlled dental drill accurately identified and verified evidence of isotopically light rainfall for 11 tropical cyclones occurring over a 23-year period (1978–2001).


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: At the Chillagoe limestone caves in northeast Australia ( inland from Cairns) researchers identified and matched evidence of isotopically light rainfall with 100 years of cyclone records, and from this have created a record of tropical cyclones from 2004 back to 1200 A.D. (an 800-year record).


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Severe tropical cyclones defoliate tropical forest canopy trees, remove vines and epiphytes from the trees, break tree crown stems, and cause tree falls. The degree of damage they do along their paths, at a landscape level (i.e. > ), can be catastrophic yet variable and patchy. Trees will break at , regardless of size and type. Stripping trees and scattering forest debris also provides fuel for wildfires, such as a blaze that lasted three months in 1989 and burned of forest that had been stripped by Hurricane Gilbert.


title: Effects of tropical cyclones

text: Assessments of cyclone damage done to tropical rainforest landscapes in northeast Australia, have produced the following typology for describing and 'mapping' the variable impacts they have along their paths, as follows:


title: Ambush

text: An ambush is a long-established military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind mountaintops. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare. In the 20th century, an ambush might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a choke point such as a mountain pass, or a small irregulars band or insurgent group attacking a regular armed force patrols. Theoretically, a single well-armed and concealed soldier could ambush other troops in a surprise attack. Sometimes an ambush can involve the exclusive or combined use of improvised explosive devices, that allow the attackers to hit enemy convoys or patrols while minimizing the risk of being exposed to return fire.


title: Ambush

text: This use by early people of ambushing may date as far back as two million years when anthropologists have recently suggested that ambush techniques were used to hunt large game.


title: Ambush

text: One example from ancient times is the Battle of the Trebia river. Hannibal encamped within striking distance of the Romans with the Trebia River between them, and placed a strong force of cavalry and infantry in concealment, near the battle zone. He had noticed, says Polybius, a "place between the two camps, flat indeed and treeless, but well adapted for an ambuscade, as it was traversed by a water-course with steep banks, densely overgrown with brambles and other thorny plants, and here he proposed to lay a stratagem to surprise the enemy". When the Roman infantry became entangled in combat with his army, the hidden ambush force attacked the Roman infantry in the rear. The result was slaughter and defeat for the Romans. Nevertheless, the battle also displays the effects of good tactical discipline on the part of the ambushed force. Although most of the legions were lost, about 10,000 Romans cut their way through to safety, maintaining unit cohesion. This ability to maintain discipline and break out or maneuver away from a kill zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation. (See Ranger reference below).


title: Ambush

text: Ambushes were widely utilized by the Lusitanians, in particular by their chieftain Viriathus. Their usual tactic, called "concursare", involved repeatedly charging and retreating, forcing the enemy to eventually give them chase, in order to set up ambushes in difficult terrain where allied forces would be awaiting. In his first victory, he eluded the siege of Roman praetor Gaius Vetilius and attracted him to a narrow pass next to the Barbesuda river, where he destroyed his army and killed the praetor. Viriathus's ability to turn chases into ambushes would grant him victories over a number of Roman generals. Another famous Lusitanian ambush was performed by Curius and Apuleius on Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who led a numerically superior army complete with war elephants and Numidian cavalry. The ambush allowed Curius and Apuleius to steal Servilianus's loot train, although a tactic error in their retreat led to the Romans retaking the train and putting the Lusitanians to flight. Viriathus later defeated Servilianus with a surprise attack.


title: Ambush

text: Possibly the most famous ambush in ancient warfare was that sprung by Germanic warchief Arminius against the Romans at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This particular ambush was to affect the course of Western history. The Germanic forces demonstrated several principles needed for a successful ambush. They took cover in difficult forested terrain, allowing the warriors time and space to mass without detection. They had the element of surprise, and this was also aided by the defection of Arminius from Roman ranks prior to the battle. They sprang the attack when the Romans were most vulnerable; when they had left their fortified camp, and were on the march in a pounding rainstorm.


title: Ambush

text: The Germans did not dawdle at the hour of decision but attacked quickly, using a massive series of short, rapid, vicious charges against the length of the whole Roman line, with charging units sometimes withdrawing to the forest to regroup while others took their place. The Germans also used blocking obstacles, erecting a trench and earthen wall to hinder Roman movement along the route of the killing zone. The result was mass slaughter of the Romans, and the destruction of three legions. The Germanic victory caused a limit on Roman expansion in the West. Ultimately, it established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years, until the decline of the Roman influence in the West. The Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts to conquer Germania beyond the Rhine.


title: Ambush

text: There are many notable examples of ambushes during the Roman-Persian Wars. A year after their victory at Carrhae, the Parthians invaded Syria but were driven back after a Roman ambush near Antigonia. Roman Emperor Julian was mortally wounded in an ambush near Samarra in 363 during the retreat from his Persian campaign. A Byzantine invasion of Persian Armenia was repelled by a small force at Anglon who performed a meticulous ambush by using the rough terrain as force multiplier and concealing in houses. Heraclius' discovery of a planned ambush by Shahrbaraz in 622 was a decisive factor in his campaign.


title: Ambush

text: According to Muslim tradition, Islamic Prophet Muhammad used ambush tactics in his military campaigns. His first such use was during the Caravan raids. In the Kharrar caravan raid, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas was ordered to lead a raid against the Quraysh. His group consisted of about twenty Muhajirs. This raid was about a month after the previous one. Sa'd, with his soldiers, set up an ambush in the valley of Kharrar on the road to Mecca and waited to raid a Meccan caravan returning from Syria. However, the caravan had already passed and the Muslims returned to Medina without any loot.


title: Ambush

text: Arab tribes during Muhammad's era also used ambush tactics. One example retold in Muslim tradition is said to have taken place during the First Raid on Banu Thalabah. The Banu Thalabah tribe were already aware of the impending attack; so they lay in wait for the Muslims, and when Muhammad ibn Maslama arrived at the site, the Banu Thalabah with 100 men ambushed the Muslims while they were making preparation to sleep and, after a brief resistance, killed them all except for Muhammad ibn Maslama, who feigned death. A Muslim who happened to pass that way found him and assisted him to return to Medina. The raid was unsuccessful.


title: Ambush

text: In modern warfare, an ambush is most often employed by ground troops up to platoon size against enemy targets, which may be other ground troops, or possibly vehicles. However, in some situations, especially when deep behind enemy lines, the actual attack will be carried out by a platoon, a company-sized unit will be deployed to support the attack group, setting up and maintaining a forward patrol harbour from which the attacking force will deploy, and to which they will retire after the attack.


title: Ambush

text: Ambushes are complex multi-phase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail. First, a suitable killing zone is identified. This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It is generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a typical example.


title: Ambush

text: One important feature of the ambush was that the target units should 'pile up' after being attacked, thus preventing them any easy means of withdrawal from the kill zone and hindering their use of heavy weapons and supporting fire. Terrain was usually selected which would facilitate this and slow down the enemy. Any terrain around the ambush site which was not favorable to the ambushing force, or which offered some protection to the target, was heavily mined and booby trapped or pre-registered for mortars.


title: Ambush

text: Other elements might also be included if the situation demanded, such as a sniper screen along a nearby avenue of approach to delay enemy reinforcements.


title: Ambush

text: Command posts: When deploying into an ambush site, the NVA first occupied several observation posts, placed to detect the enemy as early as possible and to report on the formation it was using, its strength and firepower, as well as to provide early warning to the unit commander. Usually one main OP and several secondary OPs were established. Runners and occasionally radios were used to communicate between the OPs and the main command post. The OPs were located so that they could observe enemy movement into the ambush and often they would remain in position throughout the ambush in order to report routes of reinforcement and withdrawal by the enemy as well as his maneuver options. Frequently the OPs were reinforced to squad size and served as flank security. The command post was situated in a central location, often on terrain which afforded it a vantage point overlooking the ambush site.


title: Ambush

text: Recon methods: Reconnaissance elements observing a potential ambush target on the move generally stayed 300–500 meters away. Sometimes a "leapfrogging" recon technique was used. Surveillance units were echeloned one behind the other. As the enemy drew close to the first, it fell back behind the last recon team, leaving an advance group in its place. This one in turn fell back as the enemy again closed the gap, and the cycle rotated. This method helped keep the enemy under continuous observation from a variety of vantage points, and allowed the recon groups to cover one another.


title: CCR5

text: C-C chemokine receptor type 5, also known as CCR5 or CD195, is a protein on the surface of white blood cells that is involved in the immune system as it acts as a receptor for chemokines.


title: CCR5

text: In humans, the "CCR5" gene that encodes the CCR5 protein is located on the short (p) arm at position 21 on chromosome 3. Certain populations have inherited the "Delta 32" mutation, resulting in the genetic deletion of a portion of the CCR5 gene. Homozygous carriers of this mutation are resistant to M-tropic strains of HIV-1 infection.


title: CCR5

text: The CCR5 protein belongs to the beta chemokine receptors family of integral membrane proteins. It is a G protein–coupled receptor which functions as a chemokine receptor in the CC chemokine group.


title: CCR5

text: CCR5's cognate ligands include CCL3, CCL4 (also known as MIP 1"α" and 1"β", respectively), and CCL3L1. CCR5 furthermore interacts with CCL5 (a chemotactic cytokine protein also known as RANTES).


title: CCR5

text: CCR5 is predominantly expressed on T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, eosinophils, microglia and a subpopulation of either breast or prostate cancer cells. The expression of CCR5 is selectively induced during the cancer transformation process and is not expressed in normal breast or prostate epithelial cells. Approximately 50% of human breast cancer expressed CCR5, primarily in triple negative breast cancer. CCR5 inhibitors blocked the migration and metastasis of breast and prostate cancer cells that expressed CCR5, suggesting that CCR5 may function as a new therapeutic target. Recent studies suggest that CCR5 is expressed in a subset of cancer cells with characteristics of cancer stem cells, which are known to drive therapy resistance, and that CCR5 inhibitors enhanced the number of cells killed by current chemotherapy. It is likely that CCR5 plays a role in inflammatory responses to infection, though its exact role in normal immune function is unclear. Regions of this protein are also crucial for chemokine ligand binding, the functional response of the receptor, and HIV co-receptor activity.


title: CCR5

text: Modulation of CCR5 activity contributes to a non-pathogenic course of infection with Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in several African non-human primate species that are long-term natural hosts of SIV and avoid immunodeficiency upon the infection. These regulatory mechanisms include: genetic deletions that abrogate cell surface expression of CCR5, downregulation of CCR5 on the surface of CD4+ T cells, in particular on memory cells, and delayed onset of CCR5 expression on the CD4+ T cells during development.


title: CCR5

text: HIV-1 most commonly uses the chemokine receptors CCR5 and/or CXCR4 as co-receptors to enter target immunological cells. These receptors are located on the surface of host immune cells whereby they provide a method of entry for the HIV-1 virus to infect the cell. The HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein structure is essential in enabling the viral entry of HIV-1 into a target host cell. The envelope glycoprotein structure consists of two protein subunits cleaved from a Gp160 protein precursor encoded for by the HIV-1 "env" gene: the Gp120 external subunit and the Gp41 transmembrane subunit. This envelope glycoprotein structure is arranged into a spike-like structure located on the surface of the virion and consists of a trimer of Gp120-Gp41 hetero-dimers. The Gp120 envelope protein is a chemokine mimic. Though it lacks the unique structure of a chemokine, it is still capable of binding to the CCR5 and CXCR4 chemokine receptors. During HIV-1 infection, the Gp120 envelope glycoprotein subunit binds to a CD4 glycoprotein and a HIV-1 co-receptor expressed on a target cell, forming a heterotrimeric complex. The formation of this complex stimulates the release of a fusogenic peptide, causing the viral membrane to fuse with the membrane of the target host cell. Because binding to CD4 alone can sometimes result in gp120 shedding, gp120 must next bind to co-receptor CCR5 in order for fusion to proceed. The tyrosine-sulfated amino terminus of this co-receptor is the "essential determinant" of binding to the gp120 glycoprotein. The co-receptor also recognizes the V1-V2 region of gp120 and the bridging sheet (an antiparallel, 4-stranded β sheet that connects the inner and outer domains of gp120). The V1-V2 stem can influence "co-receptor usage through its peptide composition as well as by the degree of N-linked glycosylation." Unlike V1-V2 however, the V3 loop is highly variable and thus is the most important determinant of co-receptor specificity. The normal ligands for this receptor, RANTES, MIP-1β, and MIP-1α, are able to suppress HIV-1 infection "in vitro". In individuals infected with HIV, CCR5-using viruses are the predominant species isolated during the early stages of viral infection, suggesting that these viruses may have a selective advantage during transmission or the acute phase of disease. Moreover, at least half of all infected individuals harbor only CCR5-using viruses throughout the course of infection.


title: CCR5

text: CCR5 is the primary co-receptor used by gp120 sequentially with CD4. This bind results in gp41, the other protein product of gp160, released from its metastable conformation and inserted into the membrane of the host cell. Although it has not been confirmed, binding of gp120-CCR5 involves two crucial steps: 1) The tyrosine-sulfated amino terminus of this co-receptor is an "essential determinant" of binding to gp120 (as stated previously) 2) Following step 1., there must be reciprocal action (synergy, intercommunication) between gp120 and the CCR5 transmembrane domains.


title: CCR5

text: CCR5 is essential for the spread of the R5-strain of the HIV-1 virus. Knowledge of the mechanism by which this strain of HIV-1 mediates infection has prompted research into the development of therapeutic interventions to block CCR5 function. A number of new experimental HIV drugs, called CCR5 receptor antagonists, have been designed to interfere with binding between the Gp120 envelope protein and the HIV co-receptor CCR5. These experimental drugs include PRO140 (CytoDyn), Vicriviroc (Phase III trials were cancelled in July 2010) (Schering Plough), Aplaviroc (GW-873140) (GlaxoSmithKline) and Maraviroc (UK-427857) (Pfizer). Maraviroc was approved for use by the FDA in August 2007. It is the only one thus far approved by the FDA for clinical use, thus becoming the first CCR5 inhibitor. A problem of this approach is that, while CCR5 is the major co-receptor by which HIV infects cells, it is not the only such co-receptor. It is possible that under selective pressure HIV will evolve to use another co-receptor. However, examination of viral resistance to AD101, molecular antagonist of CCR5, indicated that resistant viruses did not switch to another co-receptor (CXCR4), but persisted in using CCR5: they either bound to alternative domains of CCR5 or to the receptor at a higher affinity. However, because there is still another co-receptor available, it is probable that lacking the CCR5 gene does not make one immune to the virus; it would simply be more challenging for the individual to contract it. Also, the virus still has access to CD4. Unlike CCR5, which is not required (as evidenced by those living healthy lives even when lacking the gene as a result of the delta32 mutation), CD4 is critical in the body's immune defense system. Even without the availability of either co-receptor (even CCR5), the virus can still invade cells if gp41 were to go through an alteration (including its cytoplasmic tail) that resulted in the independence of CD4 without the need of CCR5 and/or CXCR4 as a doorway.


title: CCR5

text: Expression of CCR5 is induced in breast and prostate epithelial cells upon transformation. The induction of CCR5 expression promotes cellular invasion, migration, and metastasis. The induction of metastasis involves homing to the metastatic site. CCR5 inhibitors including maraviroc and leronlimab have been shown to block lung metastasis of human breast cancer cell lines. In preclinical studies of immune competent mice CCR5 inhibitors blocked metastasis to the bones and brain. CCR5 inhibitors also reduce the infiltration of tumor associated macrophages. A Phase 1 clinical study of a CCR5 inhibitor in heavily pretreated patients with metastatic colon cancer demonstrated an objective clinical response and reduction in metastatic tumor burden.


title: CCR5

text: Increased levels of CCR5 are part of the inflammatory response to stroke and death. Blocking CCR5 with Maraviroc (a drug approved for HIV) may enhance recovery after stroke.


title: CCR5

text: In the developing brain, chemokine receptors such as CCR5 influence neuronal migration and connection. After stroke, they seem to decrease the number of connection sites on neurons near the damage.


title: CCR5

text: CCR5 Δ32 is a 32-base-pair deletion that introduces a premature stop codon into the CCR5 receptor locus, resulting in a nonfunctional receptor. CCR5 is required for M-tropic HIV-1 virus entry. Individuals homozygous (denoted Δ32/Δ32) for CCR5 Δ32 do not express functional CCR5 receptors on their cell surfaces and are resistant to HIV-1 infection, despite multiple high-risk exposures. Individuals heterozygous (+/Δ32) for the mutant allele have a greater than 50% reduction in functional CCR5 receptors on their cell surfaces due to dimerization between mutant and wild-type receptors that interferes with transport of CCR5 to the cell surface. Heterozygote carriers are resistant to HIV-1 infection relative to wild types and when infected, heterozygotes exhibit reduced viral loads and a 2-3-year-slower progression to AIDS relative to wild types. Heterozygosity for this mutant allele also has shown to improve one's virological response to anti-retroviral treatment. CCR5 Δ32 has an (heterozygote) allele frequency of 9% in Europe, and a homozygote frequency of 1%.


title: CCR5

text: Recent research indicates that CCR5 Δ32 enhances cognition and memory. In 2016, researchers showed that removing the CCR5 gene from mice significantly improved their memory. CCR5 is a powerful suppressor for neuronal plasticity, learning, and memory; CCR5 over-activation by viral proteins may contribute to HIV-associated cognitive deficits.


title: CCR5

text: The CCR5 Δ32 allele is notable for its recent origin, unexpectedly high frequency, and distinct geographic distribution, which together suggest that (a) it arose from a single mutation, and (b) it was historically subject to positive selection.


title: CCR5

text: Two studies have used linkage analysis to estimate the age of the CCR5 Δ32 deletion, assuming that the amount of recombination and mutation observed on genomic regions surrounding the CCR5 Δ32 deletion would be proportional to the age of the deletion. Using a sample of 4000 individuals from 38 ethnic populations, Stephens et al. estimated that the CCR5-Δ32 deletion occurred 700 years ago (275-1875, 95% confidence interval). Another group, Libert et al. (1998), used microsatellite mutations to estimate the age of the CCR5 Δ32 mutation to be 2100 years (700-4800, 95% confidence interval). On the basis of observed recombination events, they estimated the age of the mutation to be 2250 years (900-4700, 95% confidence interval). A third hypothesis relies on the north-to-south gradient of allele frequency in Europe, which shows that the highest allele frequency occurred in the Nordic countries and lowest allele frequency in southern Europe. Because the Vikings historically occupied these countries, it may be possible that the allele spread throughout Europe due to the Viking dispersal in the 8th to 10th centuries. Vikings were later replaced by the Varangians in Russia, which may have contributed to the observed east-to-west cline of allele frequency.


title: CCR5

text: HIV-1 was initially transmitted from chimpanzees ("Pan troglodytes") to humans in the early 1900s in Southeast Cameroon, Africa, through exposure to infected blood and body fluids while butchering bushmeat. However, HIV-1 was effectively absent from Europe until the 1980s. Therefore, given the average age of roughly 1000 years for the CCR5-Δ32 allele, it can be established that HIV-1 did not exert selection pressure on the human population for long enough to achieve the current frequencies. Hence, other pathogens have been suggested as agents of positive selection for CCR5 Δ32, including bubonic plague ("Yersinia pestis") and smallpox ("Variola" major).


title: CCR5

text: Other data suggest that the allele frequency experienced negative selection pressure as a result of pathogens that became more widespread during Roman expansion. The idea that negative selection played a role in the allele's low frequency is also supported by experiments using knockout mice and Influenza A, which demonstrated that the presence of the CCR5 receptor is important for efficient response to a pathogen.


title: CCR5

text: Several lines of evidence suggest that the CCR5 Δ32 allele evolved only once. First, CCR5 Δ32 has a relatively high frequency in several different European populations but is comparatively absent in Asian, Middle Eastern and American Indian populations, suggesting that a single mutation occurred after divergence of Europeans from their African ancestor. Second, genetic linkage analysis indicates that the mutation occurs on a homogeneous genetic background, implying that inheritance of the mutation occurred from a common ancestor. This was demonstrated by showing that the CCR5 Δ32 allele is in strong linkage disequilibrium with highly polymorphic microsatellites. More than 95% of CCR5 Δ32 chromosomes also carried the IRI3.1-0 allele, while 88% carried the IRI3.2 allele. By contrast, the microsatellite markers IRI3.1-0 and IRI3.2-0 were found in only 2 or 1.5% of chromosomes carrying a wild-type CCR5 allele. This evidence of linkage disequilibrium supports the hypothesis that most, if not all, CCR5 Δ32 alleles arose from a single mutational event. Finally, the CCR5 Δ32 allele has a unique geographical distribution indicating a single Northern origin followed by migration. A study measuring allele frequencies in 18 European populations found a North-to-South gradient, with the highest allele frequencies in Finnish and Mordvinian populations (16%), and the lowest in Sardinia (4%).


title: CCR5

text: In the absence of selection, a single mutation would take an estimated 127,500 years to rise to a population frequency of 10%. Estimates based on genetic recombination and mutation rates place the age of the allele between 1000 and 2000 years. This discrepancy is a signature of positive selection.


title: CCR5

text: It is estimated that HIV-1 entered the human population in Africa in the early 1900s; however symptomatic infections were not reported until the 1980s. The HIV-1 epidemic is therefore far too young to be the source of positive selection that drove the frequency of CCR5 Δ32 from zero to 10% in 2000 years. Stephens, et al. (1998), suggest that bubonic plague ("Yersinia pestis") had exerted positive selective pressure on CCR5 Δ32. This hypothesis was based on the timing and severity of the Black Death pandemic, which killed 30% of the European population of all ages between 1346 and 1352. After the Black Death, there were less severe, intermittent epidemics. Individual cities experienced high mortality, but overall mortality in Europe was only a few percent. In 1655-1656 a second pandemic called the "Great Plague" killed 15-20% of Europe's population. Importantly, the plague epidemics were intermittent. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease, primarily infecting rodents, spread by fleas, and only occasionally infecting humans. Human-to-human infection of bubonic plague does not occur, though it can occur in pneumonic plague, which infects the lungs. Only when the density of rodents is low are infected fleas forced to feed on alternative hosts such as humans, and under these circumstances a human epidemic may occur. Based on population genetic models, Galvani and Slatkin (2003) argue that the intermittent nature of plague epidemics did not generate a sufficiently strong selective force to drive the allele frequency of CCR5 Δ32 to 10% in Europe.


title: CCR5

text: To test this hypothesis, Galvani and Slatkin (2003) modeled the historical selection pressures produced by plague and smallpox. Plague was modeled according to historical accounts, while age-specific smallpox mortality was gleaned from the age distribution of smallpox burials in York (England) between 1770 and 1812. Smallpox preferentially infects young, pre-reproductive members of the population since they are the only individuals who are not immunized or dead from past infection. Because smallpox preferentially kills pre-reproductive members of a population, it generates stronger selective pressure than plague. Unlike plague, smallpox does not have an animal reservoir and is only transmitted from human to human. The authors calculated that if plague were selecting for CCR5 Δ32, the frequency of the allele would still be less than 1%, while smallpox has exerted a selective force sufficient to reach 10%.


title: CCR5

text: The hypothesis that smallpox exerted positive selection for CCR5 Δ32 is also biologically plausible, since poxviruses, like HIV, enter white blood cells using chemokine receptors. By contrast, "Yersinia pestis" is a bacterium with a very different biology.


title: CCR5

text: Although Europeans are the only group to have subpopulations with a high frequency of CCR5 Δ32, they are not the only population that has been subject to selection by smallpox, which had a worldwide distribution before it was declared eradicated in 1980. The earliest unmistakable descriptions of smallpox appear in the 5th century A.D. in China, the 7th century A.D. in India and the Mediterranean, and the 10th century A.D. in southwestern Asia. By contrast, the "CCR5 Δ"32 mutation is found only in European, West Asian, and North African populations. The anomalously high frequency of CCR5 Δ32 in these populations appears to require both a unique origin in Northern Europe and subsequent selection by smallpox.


title: CCR5

text: CCR5 Δ32 can be beneficial to the host in some infections (e.g., HIV-1, possibly smallpox), but detrimental in others (e.g., tick-borne encephalitis, West Nile virus). Whether CCR5 function is helpful or harmful in the context of a given infection depends on a complex interplay between the immune system and the pathogen.


title: CCR5

text: In general, research suggests that the CCR5 Δ32 mutation may play a deleterious role in post-infection inflammatory processes, which can injure tissue and create further pathology. The best evidence for this proposed antagonistic pleiotropy is found in flavivirus infections. In general many viral infections are asymptomatic or produce only mild symptoms in the vast majority of the population. However, certain unlucky individuals experience a particularly destructive clinical course, which is otherwise unexplained but appears to be genetically mediated. Patients homozygous for CCR5 Δ32 were found to be at higher risk for a neuroinvasive form of tick-borne encephalitis (a flavivirus). In addition, functional CCR5 may be required to prevent symptomatic disease after infection with West Nile virus, another flavivirus; CCR5 Δ32 was associated with early symptom development and more pronounced clinical manifestations after infection with West Nile virus.


title: CCR5

text: This finding in humans confirmed a previously observed experiment in an animal model of CCR5 Δ32 homozygosity. After infection with West Nile Virus, CCR5 Δ32 mice had markedly increased viral titers in the central nervous system and had increased mortality compared with that of wild-type mice, thus suggesting that CCR5 expression was necessary to mount a strong host defense against West Nile virus.


title: CCR5

text: A genetic approach involving intrabodies that block CCR5 expression has been proposed as a treatment for HIV-1 infected individuals. When T-cells modified so they no longer express CCR5 were mixed with unmodified T-cells expressing CCR5 and then challenged by infection with HIV-1, the modified T-cells that do not express CCR5 eventually take over the culture, as HIV-1 kills the non-modified T-cells. This same method might be used in vivo to establish a virus-resistant cell pool in infected individuals.


title: CCR5

text: This hypothesis was tested in an AIDS patient who had also developed myeloid leukemia, and was treated with chemotherapy to suppress the cancer. A bone marrow transplant containing stem cells from a matched donor was then used to restore the immune system. However, the transplant was performed from a donor with 2 copies of CCR5-Δ32 mutation gene. After 600 days, the patient was healthy and had undetectable levels of HIV in the blood and in examined brain and rectal tissues. Before the transplant, low levels of HIV X4, which does not use the CCR5 receptor, were also detected. Following the transplant, however, this type of HIV was not detected either. However, this outcome is consistent with the observation that cells expressing the CCR5-Δ32 variant protein lack both the CCR5 and CXCR4 receptors on their surfaces, thereby conferring resistance to a broad range of HIV variants including HIVX4. After over six years, the patient has maintained the resistance to HIV and has been pronounced cured of the HIV infection.


title: CCR5

text: Enrollment of HIV-positive patients in a clinical trial was started in 2009 in which the patients' cells were genetically modified with a zinc finger nuclease to carry the CCR5-Δ32 trait and then reintroduced into the body as a potential HIV treatment. Results reported in 2014 were promising.


title: CCR5

text: Inspired by the first person ever to be cured of HIV, The Berlin Patient, StemCyte began collaborations with Cord blood banks worldwide to systematically screen Umbilical cord blood samples for the CCR5 mutation beginning in 2011.<ref name="CCR5Δ32/Δ32 HIV-resistant cord blood"></ref>


title: CCR5

text: In November 2018, Jiankui He announced that he had edited two human embryos, to attempt to disable the gene for CCR5, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier, and that the girls still carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 (mosaicism), hence being still vulnerable to HIV. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: Guardian Media Group plc (GMG) is a British-based mass media company owning various media operations including "The Guardian" and "The Observer". The group is wholly owned by the Scott Trust Limited, which exists to secure the financial and editorial independence of "The Guardian" in perpetuity.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: The Group's 2018 annual report (year ending 1 April 2018) indicated that the Scott Trust Endowment Fund was valued at £1.01 billion (2017: £1.03bn).


title: Guardian Media Group

text: The company was founded as the Manchester Guardian Ltd. in 1907 when C.P. Scott bought "The Manchester Guardian" (founded in 1821) from the estate of his cousin Edward Taylor.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: It became the Manchester Guardian and Evening News Ltd when it bought out the "Manchester Evening News" in 1924, later becoming the Guardian and Manchester Evening News Ltd to reflect the change in the morning paper's title. It adopted its current name in 1993.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: In 1991, it had a 20% stake in a consortium which included London Weekend Television, Scottish Television, The Walt Disney Company and Carlton Communications for a new ITV breakfast franchise called GMTV.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: "Guardian Monthly" was a glossy magazine published by the Guardian Media Group for readers around the world. Launched in November 2006, it made selections from "The Guardian" and "The Observer"’s magazine supplements available to an international audience of English-speakers. Issues contained interviews with cultural figures, features about world issues, and regular articles on travel, books, sport, health, fashion, food and photography. In July 2007, the Guardian Media Group announced the cancellation of the "Guardian Monthly". In a letter to subscribers, Will Ricketts, "Guardian Monthly"'s publisher, explained the reasons for the cancellation of the monthly magazine:


title: Guardian Media Group

text: In March 2007, GMG sold 49.9% of Trader Media Group to Apax Partners, in a deal that valued Trader Media Group at £1.35 billion. In December 2007, it was announced that GMG and Apax had made a successful bid to buy Emap's business-to-business arm for around £1 billion.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: In February 2010, the group sold its GMG Regional Media division (consisting of two companies MEN Media and S&B Media which operated 31 local and regional newspaper titles) to Trinity Mirror for £44.8 million. The sale eroded the connection between "The Guardian" and Manchester as the sale of the "Manchester Evening News" was included in the package. The division's local television station for Greater Manchester, Channel M, and two newspapers in Woking were not included in the sale.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: Carolyn McCall was the chief executive of Guardian Media Group and chair of Guardian News and Media Limited from 2006 until June 2010, when she was appointed chief executive of EasyJet. Andrew Miller, previously the chief financial officer of the Group, was chief executive from July 2010 to 2015. David Pemsel took his place in 2015.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: In October 2017, the Guardian Media Group reported a plan to launch a new £42 million venture capital fund. That plan was consummated, making the Scott Trust a limited partner in GMG Ventures LP. According to the GMG 2018 annual report, "this £42m venture capital fund is designed to contribute financial returns and to support GMG’s strategy by investing in early stage businesses focused on developing the next generation of media technology".


title: Guardian Media Group

text: In January 2020, it was announced that Annette Thomas would become the new chief executive in March 2020. Thomas was formerly editor of "Nature", MD of Nature Publishing Group and chief executive of Macmillan Science and Education. She replaced David Pemsel who left to take up a role at the Premier League.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: In May 2021, "The Daily Telegraph" reported "Guardian" editor Katharine Viner and Thomas were in conflict over finances and the direction the newspaper should take. The previous year "The Guardian" announced 180 job cuts. Thomas had earlier said at a media industry conference "we have quality content in spades ... the job at hand is to now go further by strengthening the growing elements of our business". Viner wanted renewed investment after better than feared financial results in 2020. On 9 June 2021, it was announced that Thomas would leave the Guardian Media Group at the end of the month.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: GMG's core business is Guardian News & Media Limited, publisher of theguardian.com, and "The Guardian" and "The Observer" newspapers. Guardian News & Media was formed as Guardian Newspapers Limited in 1967, adopting its present name in 2006.


title: Guardian Media Group

text: Guardian Media Group exists to support the core purpose of its owner, Scott Trust Limited: to secure the financial and editorial independence of "The Guardian" in perpetuity, but in the 2011/12 year the group lost £75.6 million, and for the three years up to June 2012, the paper itself lost £100,000 a day - leading "Intelligent Life" magazine to question whether "The Guardian" can survive. In late 2013, GMG sold their GMG Property Services Group to private equity firm Lloyds Development Capital (rebranded to Property Software Group), citing that it would allow them to focus on investing in the core part of their business—Guardian News and Media. In 2014, "The Guardian" launched a membership scheme, aiming to avoid introducing a paywall and maintaining open access to the website. As of 2018, this approach was considered successful, having brought more than 1 million subscriptions or donations, with the paper hoping to break even by April 2019, a goal they achieved in May 2019.


title: Cytosine

text: Cytosine () (symbol C or Cyt) is one of the four nucleobases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2). The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.


title: Cytosine

text: Cytosine was discovered and named by Albrecht Kossel and Albert Neumann in 1894 when it was hydrolyzed from calf thymus tissues. A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year.


title: Cytosine

text: In 1998, cytosine was used in an early demonstration of quantum information processing when Oxford University researchers implemented the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm on a two qubit nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer (NMRQC).


title: Cytosine

text: In March 2015, NASA scientists reported the formation of cytosine, along with uracil and thymine, from pyrimidine under the space-like laboratory conditions, which is of interest because pyrimidine has been found in meteorites although its origin is unknown.


title: Cytosine

text: Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, as part of RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide. As cytidine triphosphate (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP).


title: Cytosine

text: In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination). This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA.


title: Cytosine

text: Cytosine can also be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. The difference in rates of deamination of cytosine and 5-methylcytosine (to uracil and thymine) forms the basis of bisulfite sequencing.


title: Cytosine

text: When found third in a codon of RNA, cytosine is synonymous with uracil, as they are interchangeable as the third base.


title: Cytosine

text: When found as the second base in a codon, the third is always interchangeable. For example, UCU, UCC, UCA and UCG are all serine, regardless of the third base.


title: Cytosine

text: Active enzymatic deamination of cytosine or 5-methylcytosine by the APOBEC family of cytosine deaminases could have both beneficial and detrimental implications on various cellular processes as well as on organismal evolution. The implications of deamination on 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, on the other hand, remains less understood.


title: Cytosine

text: Until October 2021, Cytosine had not been found in meteorites, which suggested the first strands of RNA and DNA had to look elsewhere to obtain this building block. Cytosine likely formed within some meteorite parent bodies, however did not persist within these bodies due to an effective deamination reaction into uracil.


title: Cytosine

text: In October 2021, Cytosine was announced as having been found in meteorites by researchers in a joint Japan/NASA project, that used novel methods of detection which avoided damaging nucleotides as they were extracted from meteorites.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The Philippine National Railways (PNR) ( and ) is a state-owned railway company in the Philippines which operates one commuter rail service between Metro Manila and Laguna, and local services between Sipocot, Naga and Legazpi in the Bicol Region. It is an attached agency of the Department of Transportation.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: PNR began operations on November 24, 1892, as the Manila Railway Company, during the Spanish colonial period, and later becoming the Manila Railroad Company (MRR) during the American colonial period. It became the Philippine National Railways on June 20, 1964, by virtue of Republic Act No. 4156. PNR used to operate over of route from La Union to the Bicol Region. However, neglect reduced PNR's service. Persistent problems with informal settlers in the 1990s and natural disasters in the 2000s contributed further to PNR's decline. The government is currently in the process of reinvesting in the railway through numerous projects set to revive defunct lines and create new ones.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The origins of the Philippine National Railways can be traced to Edmund Sykes' concession, the Manila Railway Company, Limited. Sykes was granted concession rights by the Spanish government to construct a rail line from Manila to Dagupan on June 1, 1887. The line opened as the Ferrocarril de Manila a Dagupan on November 24, 1892, and the Manila Railway Company was formally incorporated in Manila and in London.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The Manila Railway was later renamed the Manila Railroad in 1906 and became a state-owned enterprise in 1916. By 1923, the MRR elected José Paez as its first Filipino general manager. By 1939, the MRR had of track throughout Luzon. However, the MRR's network and fleet was heavily destroyed during World War II. With most of the railroads rebuilt by the 1950s, the MRR initiated its transition from steam to diesel power. Flagship services with steam ended on August 12, 1956, while regular services ended in 1963. Not long after, the Manila Railroad was reorganized into the Philippine National Railways.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR was created in 1964 through the Republic Act 4156 during the presidency of Diosdado Macapagal. According to the PNR's website, the agency experienced its heyday during its early years in the 1960s and early 1970s during the early years of president Ferdinand Marcos. It enjoyed thousands of daily riders in its system and had an expansive commuter rail network in and out of Metro Manila.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR later suffered from a multitude of reasons which contributed to its decline, including natural disasters and a lack of support from the government. Government funding during the 1970s were shifted to road-based infrastructure such as highways. On July 23, 1979, President Marcos issued Executive Order No. 546, which designated the Philippine National Railways as an attached agency of the then-Ministry of Transportation and Communications. This however did not prevent the agency from suffering heavy losses. In 1983, underfunding has resulted in more cutting of services and the layoff of 1,000 employees which resulted in protests the following year.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The North Main Line was later closed in stages. In 1984, services were cut short to Paniqui, Tarlac due to a bridge collapse. Services were then again cut short to Caloocan in 1988 during the term of President Corazon Aquino. However, commuter services were briefly extended to Malolos starting in 1990 under the "Metrotren" project and was later closed in 1997. When Ramos succeeded Corazon Aquino, he decided to rehabilitate the South Main Line from Tutuban to Legaspi, and appointed Jose B. Dado as the new PNR general manager. A railway system running from Manila to Clark was also set to be constructed in the 1990s, when Ramos signed a memorandum of agreement with Juan Carlos I of Spain for its construction in September 1994, but the project was later cancelled due to disagreement on the source of funding.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The government under the administration of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo actively pursued the rehabilitation of the Philippine National Railways through various investments and projects designed to revive Philippine rail transport, despite the numerous problems involved. Total reconstruction of rail bridges and tracks, including replacement of the current 35-kilogram (77-pound) track with newer 50-kilogram (110-pound) tracks and the refurbishing of stations, were part of the rehabilitation and expansion process. The first phase of the South Korea-funded Northrail-Southrail Linkage Project, converting all the lines of the Manila metropolitan area, were completed in 2009. On July 14, 2009, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo presided over the launch of the new diesel multiple units from Hyundai Rotem for the Philippine National Railways. As part of its new image, a new brand name, "PNR Filtrack" was added and a new PNR logo was unveiled until the succeeding administration decided to revert to the original logo.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The San Cristobal bridge in Calamba, Laguna was rebuilt in May 2011. The Bicol Express train service was inaugurated on June 29, with a maiden voyage between Manila and Naga, Camarines Sur plus a return trip back to the terminus on July 1. This inaugural trip was marred by the collapse of the embankment at Malaguico, Sipocot. It was discovered before the train passed through and was repaired. The restored Bicol Express intercity service was offered on a daily basis, running mostly during night time.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: On September 14, 2002, a memorandum of understanding was signed by NorthRail and China National Machinery and Equipment Group (CNMEG) for the NorthRail project. The NorthRail project involved the upgrading of the existing single track to an elevated dual-track system, converting the rail gauge from narrow gauge to standard gauge, and linking Manila to Malolos in Bulacan and further on to Angeles City, Clark Special Economic Zone, Clark International Airport. The railway project was contracted out by the Arroyo administration in 2003 to China National Machinery and Equipment Corporation (CNMEC) for an original cost of $421 million. This project was estimated to cost around US$500 million, with China offering to provide some US$400 million in concessionary financing. Construction of the railway was halted, then temporarily continued in January 2009, and then stopped again in March 2011, due to a series of anomalies with the foreign contractor, before finally being scrapped in 2011 by the Aquino administration on lingering legal issues and corruption allegations. The project was later restarted as the North–South Commuter Railway in 2013.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR is currently working to revive and revitalize the railway network with the establishment of the North–South Commuter Railway, from New Clark City in Tarlac to Calamba in Laguna.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Also in the pipeline is the rehabilitation of the current South Commuter line and the reestablishment of long-haul services to the south. After nearly 20 years, PNR reopened the Metro North Commuter line, and launched the Caloocan-Dela Rosa shuttle line, on August 1, 2018. This would be followed by a steady expansion and reintroduction of rail services to the north, currently reaching to Malabon, which has not seen rail activity for nearly 20 years. A plan to reactivate the Carmona line was bared as well, and the revival of cargo rail from Port Area, Manila to Laguna is now being planned.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: On November 16, 2018, PNR became a provisional member of International Union of Railways. On June 14, 2019, PNR became ISO 9001-certified (ISO 9001:2015) for railway repair, rehabilitation, restoration and maintenance, train control and rolling stock maintenance, station operation and other related services. The certification was announced on October 2, 2019.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR currently operates in Metro Manila and the neighboring Laguna province. At the last years of regular intercity service along the system's entire length in the late 1980s, it served from Tutuban to San Fernando, La Union on the North Main Line and Legazpi, Albay on the South Main Line. Various branch lines also led to Batangas, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Rizal and Tarlac. One of the branch lines that led to Carmona was intended to be reopened by 2019. This was not yet realized as of March 2020, presumably due to the COVID-19 pandemic, among other developments.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR operates almost every day of the year unless otherwise announced. Special schedules via the social media pages of the agency and also in newspapers and other mass media. During Holy Week, a public holiday in the Philippines, operations are suspended for annual maintenance, owing to fewer commuters and traffic around the metro. Normal operation resumes on Easter Sunday.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The reactivated "Metro North Commuter" ran initially from Caloocan to Makati and uses a single special fare matrix of for ordinary, and for air-conditioned. This was later extended to reach FTI in Taguig, now with a distance-based fare matrix. A Caloocan-Tutuban shuttle service also exists, using the original right-of-way once used for the Dagupan line. Originally terminating at 10th Avenue station while the historical Caloocan station was still being prepared for activation, the station now terminates at its originally intended station since September 10.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: DOTr and PNR are also working on reviving and reactivating rail services in areas prepared for NorthRail, such as Malabon and possibly Valenzuela. First proposed and planned last September 2018, the extension to Gov. Pascual Avenue and the re-establishment of the Governor Pascual Station (formerly called Acacia Station) in Malabon has been done, with new rail ties and narrow gauge rail tracks being restored. It reopened to the public on December 3, 2018.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Another extension, this time targeting Valenzuela City (likely Polo area) has been bared on August 14, 2019, and will require rebuilding a railway bridge crossing Tullahan river that has been previously destroyed.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The line is provisional and services will be potentially interrupted when the elevated tracks are to be constructed, likely after the construction of NLEX Segment 10.1. The reconstructed lines are targeted for freight use as well as part of the system's extension to the north.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The trains currently used in this service is the Hyundai Rotem DMUs and 8000 class DMUs, with the KiHa 52 DMU and KiHa 350 DMU formerly used in this service.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The "Metro Commuter" (also known by then-remaining active service "MSC" or "Metro South Commuter"), which was formerly called "Commuter Express "(also "Commex"), serves as the commuter rail service for the Manila metropolitan area, extending as far south as Calamba and Los Baños, both in Laguna. The PNR uses GE locomotives such as 900 Class, 2500 Class, and 5000 Class hauling 203 series EMUs, including 18 (3 car trains, 6 sets) Hyundai Rotem DMUs, KiHa 52 DMUs, the PT INKA 8000 class DMUs, 8100 class DMUs, and the INKA CC300 locomotive with 8300 class coaches for this service. The 8000 class DMUs occasionally perform "MSC" trips when the Hyundai Rotem DMUs occupy the Metro North Commuter trips. The GE locomotives formerly haul 7A-2000 Commex passenger coaches. "MSC " service using the Hyundai Rotem DMUs, KiHa 52, KiHa 350, 203 series EMUs, 8000 class and 8100 class DMUs, and the INKA CC300 locomotive with 8300 class coaches is currently offered between Tutuban and Alabang in Muntinlupa. Currently, MSC makes 32 return services, 16 in each direction.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The "Shuttle Service" is a commuter rail service initially introduced on January 27, 2014. This service used Hyundai Rotem DMUs and JR KiHa 52. There were 2 routes of the Shuttle Service, where trains stop at all stations along the routes: Tutuban – Sucat and Santa Mesa – Sucat. This train service ended May 23, 2014, to conduct maintenance on the rolling stocks and due to the consecutive three weeks of delays and cancellations of this train service.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Formerly, plans for a third route plying Alabang – Calamba was to be introduced sometime in 2017. This service would use the reliveried two-car KiHa 350; This did not push through in 2018. However, with the commissioning of the new DOST Hybrid Train in 2019, this route is now under test run, currently free of charge, but with limited schedules.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: In 2018, a new shuttle line was introduced with the 10th Avenue – Dela Rosa route since August 1, 2018, as part of the renovation of the line and the return of train services to Caloocan. The revived train service had its first extension towards Sangandaan, the original Caloocan station since September 10, extending through FTI. Since December 3, 2018, the line was extended northwards to Governor Pascual (formerly called Acacia) in Malabon, and since December 16, 2019, the shuttle service was extended southwards to Bicutan as its new terminus from FTI.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: A new shuttle line leading to the once-abandoned Carmona branch line is planned for reopening in 2019, and will originate from the Dela Rosa station in Makati City.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The "Bicol Commuter" service is a commuter rail service in the Bicol Region, between stations in Tagkawayan, Quezon, and Legazpi, Albay, with Naga in Camarines Sur acting as a central terminal. The service was launched on September 16, 2009, in time for the feast of Our Lady of Peñafrancia in Naga. The trains made seven trips a day, alternating between Tagkawayan, Sipocot, Naga City and Legazpi. All services used KiHa 52 in revised blue livery.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: After further reductions, only the service between Naga and Sipocot was operating as of December 2013. Service resumed between Naga and Legazpi on September 18, 2015, with one train a day.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Definitive plans to restore the entire route from Sipocot, Naga and Legazpi were bared with an inspection trip from Tutuban on September 20, 2019, with a rerailment crew, including certain areas of Quezon Province, in preparation of the restoration of more routes previously suspended. As of July 15, 2020, the service has a daily ridership of 400 to 600, with a low ridership implied due to the COVID-19 community quarantines in the Philippines limiting the capacity of trains to 20%.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: As of 2021, the train used in this service is the KiHa 350 DMU pulled by a 5000/2500 class locomotive. The greatly-varying land gradients in the area necessitated the locomotive's utilization.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: PNR's intercity operations on its two main lines, the North Main Line and South Main Line, both located in Luzon, have been indefinitely suspended since 2014.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The South Main Line then served as the primary intercity service after the permanent closure of the northern line in 1991. However, PNR also ended its regular intercity services in 2006 due to natural disasters and poor track conditions, although the "Bicol Express" ran irregularly between 2009 and 2014. In Camarines Sur, liquefaction of the track's embankment caused a section of the line in Sipocot to sink. This allowed the inaugural service of the new "Bicol Express" in 2011 to slow down to a near-stop while passing through the area.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: There are plans to revitalize both lines. The North Main Line is currently reserved for building the fully-elevated portion of the North–South Commuter Railway to Capas, Tarlac. The South Main Line is planned to be rebuilt and extended to Matnog, Sorsogon. The spur line to Batangas City will also be rebuilt. Test runs along the South Main Line were conducted in September 2019. On September 21, 2019, a KiHa 59 and a rerailment train consisting of a newly repainted PNR 900 class locomotive and a CMC coach conducted a test run from Tutuban to Naga.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The North Main Line was first opened when the Manila–Dagupan Railway was opened in 1892. At its height between the 1950s and 1960s, the line once boasted full double-track railways from Tutuban to Dagupan and also served until San Fernando, La Union. It also had branch lines to various areas in Central Luzon. However, its services severely deteriorated in the 1980s. All regular operations outside Metro Manila ended in 1988. However, there was irregular service to Meycauayan railway station until all stations in Central Luzon were closed by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Intercity services on the South Main Line ran between Manila and Legazpi between 1916 and 2014, including the intermittent "Bicol Express" and "Mayon/Isarog Limited" services between 2009 and 2014. The services also briefly extended to Sorsogon in the 1960s due to the trains' popularity as a form of transportation with the masses.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Freight services used to be a key component of PNR's operations, and the same applies to its predecessors being the Manila Railway and Railroad companies. Freight services lasted until 2003 when International Container Terminal Services used PNR tracks to transfer intermodal containers from the Port of Manila to its facility in Cabuyao, Laguna. Since then, there have been proposals to revive freight services as part of its PNR Long Haul projects.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The Manila Railroad was also the owner of the Manila Hotel during its early years prior to its handover to the Government Services Insurance System. They also hosted "hospital trains" in the 1930s, with 70 class tank locomotive No. 79 and a converted American Car-built express coach used as a hospital.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The Philippine National Railways operates on two main lines, the North Main Line and the South Main Line, alongside three major spur lines, which served various parts of Luzon with its 138 (once) active stations.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: All PNR stations were and are presently at-grade, with most stations using a side platform layout. Most have only basic amenities, platforms and ticket booths. Rehabilitated stations along the Metro Manila line have been fitted with ramps for passengers using wheelchairs. Several stations have extended platforms, having an upper platform catering to DMU services, and a lower platform for regular locomotive-hauled services. As of August 2017, most of the stations are being extended and equipped with platform-length roofing, better ticketing office, and restrooms.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Future railway systems under the PNR, such as the North–South Commuter Railway line, will have elevated, at-grade, and depressed stations similar to that of Manila LRT and MRT stations.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR system has suffered from decades of neglect and therefore, several plans to restore and expand the network has been proposed by various administrations. The Republic of Korea, the People's Republic of China, Japan and Indonesia have contributed to these plans. Most of these concern the revitalization and modernization projects of the mainlines in Luzon. The government plans a complete overhaul of the PNR system, which involves electrification and conversion from narrow gauge to standard gauge, as well as from single to double track. The standard gauge system is estimated to have a total track length of around .


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The North–South Commuter Railway (NSCR) is the latest project to revitalize both the historic North and South Main Lines, particularly sections in the Greater Manila Area. First planned in the 1990s, the project's previous incarnations were hounded by funding problems and disagreements. It finally came into shape in November 2017 after a resolution of a five-year dispute between the government and a Chinese contractor. The NSCR will be a 36 station, elevated railway system from New Clark City in Capas, Tarlac to Calamba, Laguna. It will be the first electrified main line in the country. Construction oon the railway began in 2019. Once fully completed by 2025, it will accommodate at least 300,000 passengers between Northern Metro Manila and Bulacan alone. While the elevated line will be served by electrified trains, the existing lines below will be used for freight trains and/or existing commuter trains.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: As part of the infrastructure program by president Rodrigo Duterte, East-West Rail was proposed by the East-West Rail Transit Corp., a consortium between Megawide, A. Brown Company Inc., and Private Equity Investment and Development Corp. It involves the financing, design, construction, and maintenance of a mostly-elevated rapid transit line from Diliman in Quezon City to Quiapo in Manila. In 2018, the PNR has said that it will help in building and operating the line. The line will have 11 stations on of mostly elevated track. The project is currently awaiting approval from NEDA to proceed. It is also currently tackling right-of-way issues, such as that of the España Boulevard alignment.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The South Long Haul project, also known as PNR Bicol, is a planned reconstruction of the intercity line between Metro Manila and the Bicol Region. Originally proposed as a simple reconstruction of the existing network at narrow-gauge and a maximum speed of , the project now involves a complete overhaul of the railway and its conversion to standard-gauge, replacing the existing line. The line will be initially built as a single-track system. However, there are provisions for an upgrade to double-track or electrification in the future. Stations will be allowed to use passing sidings so that express train travel is uninterrupted.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: President Rodrigo Duterte expressed his support for the establishment of a railway system in the entire island of Mindanao which could be in operation after his term ends. The railway system to be built in Mindanao will have about 2,000 kilometers of track, and considered one of Rodrigo Duterte's primary infrastructure projects. The first phase, which is , would start construction in the third quarter of 2018 and was expected to be completed by 2022.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: In 2016, PNR has been interested in reviving its freight services with a planned signing of a memorandum of agreement between the railway and rail freight operator MRAIL (a Meralco subsidiary firm) for the rehabilitation of the rail lines to North Harbor and to restart the freight services starting 2017, which will also help reduce traffic congestion and truck use in the NCR. If completed, MRail will jointly operate the freight service with the PNR, which will end a long absence of railway freight services in the country. This will be the second time the PNR will partner with ICTSI.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: A statement made by MRail Inc., a subsidiary of Metro Pacific Investments Corp., said that discussions regarding PNR freight service revival from Port of Manila to the Laguna Gateway Inland Container Terminal resulted in the appointment of a new board at the Philippine National Railways. Representatives of PNR and ICTSI conducted an inspection of the ROW where the former railtracks leading to the North Harbor existed, signalling the start of the action to realize the cargo rail revival.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: As of 2021, the freight revival plans are currently not in effect, as with the agency's other railway plans, the cause presumed to be the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: PNR has operated several types of locomotives, carriages and multiple units as part of its fleet. As of 2019, the rolling stock used are primarily powered by diesel. The DOST Hybrid Electric Train may also function as a battery electric multiple unit although it is started by a diesel engine. All present rolling stock are in . PNR also has rail mounted cranes as supporting equipment with varying capacities between .


title: Philippine National Railways

text: In late 2019, improvements with the current rolling stocks have been seen. KiHa 59 KoGaNe, KiHa 350 Set 3, and two sets of Hyundai Rotem DMUs received a new blue-orange livery with window screen. One unit of 900 Class has been overhauled and repainted to blue-orange and filtrack livery. PNR also have expanded their line and added more trips in their service, KoGaNe has served the Tutuban-Calamba Line (Limited Chosen Stops only) from October 24 to December 2, 2019, then got extended to IRRI in Los Baños, Laguna on December 3, 2019. KiHa 350 Set 3 also have served the Alabang-Calamba-IRRI Line but it only lasted a couple of weeks, PNR train will go to bicol after renovation of railway tracks.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The Manila-Dagupan Railway, the Manila Railroad Company and the Philippine National Railways sported various liveries representing various eras of the company, usually to celebrate the arrival of new rolling stock. Each of these are painted by hand.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: There were no available colored images of Manila-Dagupan Railway and the Manila Railroad Company's rolling stock before the war so the color scheme of the carriages remains unknown. However, based on the surviving locomotives, the steam locomotives owned by the two companies sported a black-only livery like most of the notable American steam engines.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The Cummins railmotors were colored black or white, and orange. The pre-war carriages salvaged and refurbished in the late 1940s also used this color scheme.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The MRR celebrated the arrival of its first diesel rolling stock with its colors changed to dark green and yellow, or alternately to yellow-orange and dark green. The livery was retained when the Philippine government took over and renamed it the Philippine National Railways. During the transition to PNR, the old MRR monogram with a diamond-shaped seal was painted out and the PNR circular seal and monogram was placed on the front of the cab with yellow wing-like symbols outside it. The PNR acronym is also placed on the sides as well. By the 1980s, the diesel multiple units will have a yellow body and the wing-like symbols are colored dark green. A few locomotives sported a yellow-orange livery at that time.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: During the late 1970s, the Commuter Motor Coaches used on PNR's local train services in Metro Manila and the Bicol Region was colored white and navy blue.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: When President Corazon Aquino inaugurated the rebranded Manila commuter service as "Metrotren" in 1990, the CMC coaches were repainted to navy blue, white and red. This was also used for the 1998 restocking of the "Bicol Express" with the old "Peñafrancia Express" IC-888 train. This was used until the mid-2000s when both multiple unit types were changed to the navy blue livery.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The GE Universal Series-based 900, 2500 and 5000 classes sported a red livery celebrating Fidel Ramos' Philippines 2000 program. Although the PNR revised this livery after 2000, some retained it due to lack of maintenance funds and a 900 class survived with this livery in use until 2008. Some of the freight carriages had the Philippines 2000 name spray-painted on top the old green and yellow livery.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: A navy blue livery was introduced after the expiry of the Philippines 2000 program. This followed after PNR acquired locomotive-hauled 12 and 14 series coaches from Japan. There are subtle differences with the coaches used on the "Commuter Express" (formerly "Metrotren") and the "Bicol Express". The "Commuter Express" trainsets were navy blue with orange highlights while the "Bicol Express" were navy blue with gold highlights. The PNR symbol on the "Commuter Express" was white while on the "Bicol Express" was gold. The locomotives' colors were also changed to navy blue and orange.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: PNR attempted to revitalize the "Bicol Express" in 2009 with the support of president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. This was supported with a change of logo and liveries. The coaches in PNR service used white and orange while the locomotives' cabs were colored white while the PNR monogram logo was sealed out. The trains also sported the "Filtrack" brand on the coaches and on the side of the locomotives. However, this was short lived after the "Bicol Express" stopped its services indefinitely. By 2015, all of the rolling stock followed the 2000s navy blue livery.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The PNR announced another logo change and changes to its livery in 2019. This is after the Duterte administration under the Department of Transportation announced major reforms to the PNR. The PNR's monogram is now fully incorporated on a seal-type logo, bearing the agency's name and the year it was founded. The seal was also changed from orange and blue to golden yellow and blue. At the same time, the rolling stock also changed its liveries with regards to the arrival of the new rolling stock from Indonesia. The 203 series-based passenger cars' liveries did not change as of 2022.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The first among the old rolling stock was the KiHa 350 and KiHa 59 series trains. After this was the Hyundai Rotem DMUs and finally, 900 series locomotives DEL 917, 902, 913, 921, and 922, 5000 series locomotive DEL 5007 and 5001, and 2500 series locomotive DEL 2540 changed its livery to orange. All multiple units were fitted with new window screen to resist stoning. The colors however varied from one type of rolling stock to another but the common theme was the inclusion of navy blue-orange (as the highlight color), Blue (as the main stock color), orange (as the side line color) and black (as the bottom color).


title: Philippine National Railways

text: The latest effort to the revitalization of the South Main Line, particularly the "Bicol Express" intercity service, was unveiled in 2019 dubbed the "South Long Haul" project. A scale model of the train that would have been used was revealed during a contract signing ceremony between the Philippine National Railways, its superior agency the Department of Transportation, and the Chinese rolling stock manufacturer CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive. The three-car train will also feature a red-orange livery with black stripes on its windows. This train would have arrived in 2021.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: However, on February 24, 2021, PNR cancelled the contract with CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive due to the procurement process being questioned by the Commission on Audit, and the failure of CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive to submit post-qualification bidding requirements.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: In line with the construction of the North–South Commuter Railway, the Department of Transportation ordered 104 train cars (13 sets) of electric multiple units from Sumitomo Corporation and Japan Transport Engineering Company on July 16, 2019. The original proposal featured a bluish-purple livery in the 2019 scale model of the Sustina Commuter.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: However, the livery design was changed when PNR revealed a mock-up of the front cab for the PNR EM10000 class trains on June 29, 2021. The livery now features a red-orange color livery and eagle design highlights on the sides of the lead cars of the train.


title: Philippine National Railways

text: Various rolling stocks in the Philippine National Railways appeared in multiple movies. Most of the rolling stock were old ones and they were filmed before becoming inactive or scrapped.


title: William Booth

text: William Booth (10 April 182920 August 1912) was an English Methodist preacher who, along with his wife, Catherine, founded the Salvation Army and became its first "General" (1878–1912). His 1890 book In Darkest England and The Way Out outlining The Salvation Army social campaign became a best-seller. The fundamentalist Christian evangelical movement, with a quasi-military structure and government as founded in 1865, then spread from London, England, to many parts of the world and is known today as one of the largest distributors of humanitarian aid.


title: William Booth

text: William Booth was born in Sneinton, Nottingham, the second son of five children born to Samuel Booth and his second wife, Mary Moss. Booth's father was relatively wealthy by the standards of the time, but during William's childhood, the family descended into poverty. In 1842, Samuel Booth, who could no longer afford his son's school fees, apprenticed the 13-year-old William Booth to a pawnbroker. Samuel Booth died on 23 September 1842.


title: William Booth

text: Two years into his apprenticeship Booth had a religious conversion. He then read extensively and trained himself in writing and in speech, becoming a Methodist local preacher. Booth was encouraged to be an evangelist primarily through his best friend, Will Sansom. Sansom and Booth both began in the 1840s to preach to the poor and the sinners of Nottingham, and Booth would probably have remained as Sansom's partner in his new Mission ministry, as Sansom titled it, if Sansom had not died of tuberculosis, in 1849.


title: William Booth

text: When his apprenticeship ended in 1848, Booth was unemployed and spent a year looking in vain for work. In 1849, Booth reluctantly left his family and moved to London, where he again found work with a pawnbroker. Booth tried to continue lay preaching in London, but the small amount of preaching work that came his way frustrated him, and so he resigned as a lay preacher and took to open-air evangelising in the streets and on Kennington Common.


title: William Booth

text: In 1851, Booth joined the Reformers (Methodist Reform Church), and on 10 April 1852, his 23rd birthday, he left pawnbroking and became a full-time preacher at their headquarters at Binfield Chapel in Clapham. William styled his preaching after the revivalist American James Caughey, who had made frequent visits to England and preached at the church in Nottingham where Booth was a member, Broad Street Chapel. Just over a month after he started full-time preaching, on 15 May 1852, William Booth became formally engaged to Catherine Mumford.


title: William Booth

text: Interested in the Congregationalist approach, Booth consulted David Thomas at Stockwell about the ministry. Through Thomas, he met John Campbell and then James William Massie. The recommendation was training under Rev. John Frost; but Booth disliked Frost's school, and left shortly. In November 1853, he was invited to become the Reformers' minister at Spalding, in Lincolnshire. He married Catherine Mumford on 16 June 1855 at Stockwell Green Congregational Church in London.


title: William Booth

text: In the summer of 1857 the Booth family moved to Brighouse in the West Riding of Yorkshire, where he was appointed preacher at the Bethel Chapel. William and Catherine campaigned against the employment of seven-year-old girls in a local mill. By 1859 he and his wife had left Brighouse and moved to Gateshead. There is a blue plaque on the wall of the old Bethel Church in Bethel Street, which is now a Wetherspoons pub, commemorating the fact William Booth served at this church between 1858 and 59.


title: William Booth

text: Though Booth was now a prominent Methodist evangelist, he was unhappy that the annual conference of the denomination kept assigning him to a pastorate, the duties of which he had to neglect to respond to the frequent requests that he do evangelistic campaigns. At the Liverpool conference in 1861, after having spent three years at Gateshead, his request to be freed for evangelism full-time was refused yet again, and Booth resigned from the ministry of the Methodist New Connexion.


title: William Booth

text: Soon he was barred from campaigning in Methodist congregations, so he became an independent evangelist. His doctrine remained much the same, though; he preached that eternal punishment was the fate of those who do not believe the Gospel of Jesus Christ and the necessity of repentance from sin, and the promise of holiness. He taught that this belief would manifest itself in a life of love for God and mankind. The "Ethical" characteristic of William Booth's business ventures was evident in the manufacture of boxes of Salvation Army matches which bore the slogan "Lights in darkest England, Security from fire, Fair wages for fair work". His match factory on Old Ford paid 4 pence a gross, while the larger firms only paid 2 1/2 pence.


title: William Booth

text: The tent was set up on an old Quaker burial ground on Mile End Waste in Whitechapel, with an initial goal to deliver the good news to all.


title: William Booth

text: By 1865, Booth and his wife Catherine had opened 'The Christian Revival Society' in the East End of London, which held regular evening meetings to share the repentance that Booth believed Christian salvation could bring both the poor and marginalised. The Christian Revival Society was later renamed The Christian Mission, subsequently to become the "East London Christian Mission".


title: William Booth

text: The Christian Mission's slow growth was hard work for Booth; His wife writes that he would "stumble home night after night haggard with fatigue, often his clothes were torn and bloody bandages swathed his head where a stone had struck[.]"


title: William Booth

text: Evening meetings were held in an old warehouse where urchins threw stones and fireworks through the window. Outposts were established throughout the city, attracting converts, but the Christian Mission remained just one of the five hundred charitable groups working in London's East End.


title: William Booth

text: Booth practised various types of charity himself, such as opening "Food for the Million" (soup kitchens).


title: William Booth

text: Having been founded as the "East London Christian Mission" in 1865, the name "The Salvation Army" developed from an incident in May 1878. William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton and said, "We are a volunteer army." Bramwell Booth heard his father and said, "Volunteer, I'm no volunteer, I'm a regular!" Railton was instructed to cross out the word "volunteer" and substitute the word "salvation".(The printer's proof copy of the Missions' report for 1878 declared "The Christian Mission Is A Volunteer Army", but the corrected proof read "The Christian Mission Is ... A Salvation Army") The Salvation Army was modelled after the military, with its own flag (or colours) and its own music, often with Christian words to popular and folkloric tunes sung in the pubs. Booth and the other soldiers in "God's Army" would wear the army's own uniform, 'putting on the armour,' for meetings and ministry work. He became the "General" and his other ministers were given appropriate ranks as "officers". Other members became "soldiers".


title: William Booth

text: Though the early years were lean ones, with the need of money to help the needy an ever growing issue, Booth and The Salvation Army persevered. In the early 1880s, operations were extended to other countries, notably the United States, France, Switzerland, Sweden and others, including to most of the countries of the British Empire: Australia, Canada, India, Cape Colony, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.


title: William Booth

text: Often the beginnings in other countries occurred through "salvationist" activities by non-officers who had emigrated. With some initial success they would contact London to 'send officers.'


title: William Booth

text: In other cases, like in Argentina, a non-salvationist told Booth that there were thousands of British people there who needed salvation. The four officers sent in 1890 found that those British were scattered all over the pampas. But the missionaries started ministry in the Spanish language and the work spread throughout the country – initially following the rail-road development, since the British in charge of building the rail-roads were usually sympathetic to the movement.


title: William Booth

text: During his lifetime, William Booth established Army work in 58 countries and colonies, travelling extensively and holding, "salvation meetings."


title: William Booth

text: Booth regularly published a magazine and was the author of a number of books; he also composed several songs. His book "In Darkest England and the Way Out" not only became a best-seller after its 1890 release, it set the foundation for the army's modern social welfare approach. It compared what was considered "civilised" England with "Darkest Africa" – a land then considered poor and backward. What Booth suggested was that much of London and greater England after the Industrial Revolution was not better off in the quality of life than those in the underdeveloped world. He proposed a strategy to apply the Christian Gospel and work ethic to the problems. The book speaks of abolishing vice and poverty by establishing homes for the homeless, farm communities such as Hadleigh Farm where the urban poor can be trained in agriculture, training centres for prospective emigrants, homes for fallen women and released prisoners, aid for the poor, and help for drunkards. He also lays down schemes for poor men's lawyers, banks, clinics, industrial schools and even a seaside resort.


title: William Booth

text: During its early years The Salvation Army faced a great deal of opposition, especially from those in the alcohol-selling industry who were concerned that the activities of Booth and his followers would persuade the poorer classes to stop drinking. One group opposed to Booth and The Salvation Army was the Skeleton Army, a diffuse group, particularly in Southern England, that opposed and disrupted The Salvation Army's marches against alcohol from the early 1880s until about 1892. Clashes between the two groups led to the deaths of several Salvationists and injuries to many others. During 1882 alone 662 Salvation Army soldiers were assaulted: 251 of them were women and 23 of them were under fifteen years of age.