title: Herman Kahn

text: In 1961, Kahn, Max Singer and Oscar Ruebhausen founded the Hudson Institute, a think tank initially located in Croton-on-Hudson, New York, where Kahn was living at the time. He recruited sociologist Daniel Bell, political philosopher Raymond Aron and novelist Ralph Ellison (author of the 1952 classic "Invisible Man").


title: Herman Kahn

text: In 1967, Herman Kahn and Anthony J. Wiener published "The Year 2000: A Framework for Speculation on the Next Thirty-Three Years", which included contributions from staff members of the Hudson Institute and an introduction by Daniel Bell. Table XVIII in the document contains a list called "One Hundred Technical Innovations Very Likely in the Last Third of the Twentieth Century". The first ten predictions were:


title: Herman Kahn

text: In Kahn's view, capitalism and technology held nearly boundless potential for progress, while the colonization of space lay in the near, not the distant, future. Kahn's 1976 book "The Next 200 Years", written with William Brown and Leon Martel, presented an optimistic scenario of economic conditions in the year 2176. He also wrote a number of books extrapolating the future of the American, Japanese and Australian economies and several works on systems theory, including the well-received 1957 monograph "Techniques of System Analysis".


title: Herman Kahn

text: During the mid-1970s, when South Korea's GDP per capita was one of the lowest in the world, Kahn predicted that the country would become one of the top 10 most powerful countries in the world by the year 2000.


title: Herman Kahn

text: In his last year, 1983, Kahn wrote approvingly of Ronald Reagan's political agenda in "The Coming Boom: Economic, Political, and Social" and bluntly derided Jonathan Schell's claims about the long-term effects of nuclear war. On July 7 that year, he died of a stroke, aged 61.


title: Herman Kahn

text: Herman Kahn was the son of Abraham Kahn and Yetta Kahn. His wife was Rosalie "Jane" Kahn. He and Jane had two children, David and Debbie.


title: Herman Kahn

text: Along with John von Neumann, Edward Teller and Wernher von Braun, Kahn was, reportedly, an inspiration for the character "Dr. Strangelove" in the eponymous film by Stanley Kubrick released in 1964. After Kubrick read Kahn's book "On Thermonuclear War", he began a correspondence with him which led to face-to-face discussions between Kubrick and Kahn. In the film, Dr. Strangelove refers to a report on the Doomsday Machine by the "BLAND Corporation". Kahn gave Kubrick the idea for the "Doomsday Machine", a device which would immediately cause the destruction of the entire planet in the event of a nuclear attack. Both the name and the concept of the weapon are drawn from the text of "On Thermonuclear War". Louis Menand observes, "In Kahn’s book, the Doomsday Machine is an example of the sort of deterrent that appeals to the military mind but that is dangerously destabilizing. Since nations are not suicidal, its only use is to threaten."


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The great storm of 1987 was a violent extratropical cyclone that occurred on the night of 15–16 October, with hurricane-force winds causing casualties in the United Kingdom, France, and the Channel Islands as a severe depression in the Bay of Biscay moved northeast. Among the most damaged areas were Greater London, the East Anglian coast, the Home Counties, the west of Brittany, and the Cotentin Peninsula of Normandy, all of which weathered gusts typically with a return period of 1 in 200 years.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Forests, parks, roads, and railways were strewn with fallen trees and schools were closed. The British National Grid suffered heavy damage, leaving thousands without power. At least 22 people were killed in England and France. The highest measured gust of was recorded at Pointe Du Roc, Granville, France and the highest gust in the UK of was recorded at Shoreham. The storm has been termed a weather bomb due to its rapid development.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: That day's weather reports had failed to indicate a storm of such severity, an earlier, correct forecast having been negated by later projections. The apparent suggestion by the BBC's Michael Fish of a false alarm is celebrated as a classic gaffe, though he claims he was misquoted. As a result of this storm, major improvements were later implemented in atmospheric observation, relevant computer models, and the training of forecasters.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: On the Sunday before the storm struck, the farmers' forecast had predicted bad weather on the following Thursday or Friday, 15–16 October. By midweek, however, guidance from weather prediction models was somewhat equivocal. Instead of stormy weather over a considerable part of the UK, the models suggested that severe weather would reach no farther north than the English Channel and coastal parts of southern England.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: During the afternoon of 15 October, winds were very light over most parts of the UK. The pressure gradient was slack. A depression was drifting slowly northwards over the North Sea off eastern Scotland. A trough lay over England, Wales, and Ireland. Over the Bay of Biscay, a depression was developing.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The first gale warnings for sea areas in the English Channel were issued at 0630 UTC on 15 October and were followed, four hours later, by warnings of severe gales. At 1200 UTC on 15 October, the depression, which originated in the Bay of Biscay, was centred near 46° N, 9° W and its depth was 970 mb (28.6 inHg). By 1800 UTC, it had moved north-east to about 47° N, 6° W, and deepened to 964 mb (28.5 inHg).


title: Great storm of 1987

text: At 2235 UTC, winds of Force 10 were forecast. By midnight, the depression was over the western English Channel, and its central pressure was 953 mb (28.1 inHg). At 0140 on 16 October, warnings of Force 11 were issued. The depression now moved rapidly north-east, filling a little as it did, reaching the Humber Estuary at about 0530 UTC, by which time its central pressure was 959 mb (28.3 inHg). Dramatic increases in temperature were associated with the passage of the storm's warm front.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: In some sea areas, warnings of severe weather were both timely and adequate, although forecasts for land areas left much to be desired.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: During the evening of 15 October, radio and TV forecasts mentioned strong winds, but indicated that heavy rain would be the main feature, rather than wind. By the time most people went to bed, exceptionally strong winds had not been mentioned in national radio and TV weather broadcasts.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Warnings of severe weather had been issued, however, to various agencies and emergency authorities, including the London Fire Brigade. Perhaps the most important warning was issued by the Met Office to the Ministry of Defence (MoD) at 0135 UTC, 16 October. It warned that the anticipated consequences of the storm were such that civil authorities might need to call on assistance from the military.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: A highest gust of is estimated from satellite data at Quimper, Brittany, with the highest measured gust at at Pointe du Roc, Granville, Normandy.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: In south-east England, where the greatest damage occurred, gusts of or more were recorded continually for three or four consecutive hours.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: During this time, the wind veered from southerly to south-westerly. To the north-west of this region, there were two maxima in gust speeds, separated by a period of lower wind speeds. During the first period, the wind direction was southerly. During the latter, it was south-westerly. Damage patterns in south-east England suggested that tornadoes accompanied the storm.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: In the UK, winds at Shoreham-by-Sea, Sussex reached before the anemometer failed. Many anemometers were reliant on mains power, and ceased recording as the south east of the United Kingdom was blacked-out by power cuts, thus losing much valuable data.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Winds with an estimated 200-year return period hit the counties of Kent, Sussex, Berkshire, Hampshire, and along the coastal strip of Essex, Suffolk, and South Eastern Norfolk. North of a line from Portland Bill, Dorset to Cromer, Norfolk the return period of the respective gusts were under 10 years.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Sustained winds speeds greater than were recorded for over an hour in southern Britain. According to the Beaufort scale of wind intensities, this storm had winds of hurricane force 12 ( or greater); as the term "hurricane" refers to tropical cyclones originating in the North Atlantic or North Pacific, the descriptor "great storm" has tended to be reserved for those storms in recent years reaching this velocity. Hurricanes have a very different wind profile and distribution from storms, and significantly higher precipitation levels.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The storm made landfall in Cornwall, and tracked north-east towards Devon and then over the Midlands, going out to sea via The Wash. The strongest gusts, of up to , were recorded along the south-eastern edge of the storm, hitting mainly Berkshire, Hampshire, Sussex, Essex, and Kent. The Royal Sovereign lighthouse off Eastbourne recorded the highest hourly-mean wind speed in the UK on its instruments at . The counties of Dorset and Surrey were also heavily affected.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The storm caused substantial damage over much of England, felling an estimated 15 million trees (including six of the seven eponymous oaks in Sevenoaks, historic specimens in Kew Gardens, Wakehurst Place, Nymans Garden, Hyde Park, London and Scotney Castle and most of the trees making up Chanctonbury Ring). At Bedgebury National Pinetum, Kent almost a quarter of the trees were brought down. There have been many claims that the damage to forestry was made worse by broadleaf trees still being in leaf at the time of the storm, though this was not borne out by an analysis by the Forestry Commission.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Fallen trees blocked roads and railways and left widespread structural damage primarily to windows and roofs. Several hundred thousand people were left without power, not fully restored until more than two weeks later. Local electric utility officials later said they lost more wires in the storm than in the preceding decade. At sea, as well as many small boats being wrecked, a Sealink cross-channel ferry, the MV "Hengist", was driven ashore at Folkestone and the bulk carrier MV "Sumnea" capsized at Dover, Kent. The Radio Caroline ship, MV "Ross Revenge" weathered the storm in the north sea, being one of the few ships to be in the North Sea during the storm, it being a radio ship, it also provided radio broadcasts to thousands while most stations were offline.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The National Grid sustained heavy damage during the event, as crashing cables short-circuited, which in some cases overheated the main system. Its headquarters faced the choice of keeping the grid online to help London as the storm approached but risk an incremental system breakdown, failure and burnout, or to shut down most of South East England including London and avert that risk. The headquarters made the decision, the first one like it since before World War II: to shut down the South East power systems to maintain the network as soon as signs of overheating began.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: At Clayton, West Sussex, one of the village's recently restored windmills, Jill, sustained severe damage to its mechanisms and caught fire during the storm. The mill's brakes had been applied prior to the storm, but the high winds were able to rotate the sails and overcome the brakes, creating friction which set the mill's antique timbers on fire. Members of the Jack and Jill Windmills Society were able to put the fire out, carrying water up the hill to douse the flames.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: In London, many of the trees lining streets, particularly plane trees, were blown down overnight, blocking roads and crushing parked cars. Building construction scaffolding and billboards collapsed in many places, and many buildings were damaged. The following morning, the BBC's largest broadcasting site, Lime Grove Studios in Shepherd's Bush, was unable to function due to a power failure – ITV's TV-am and BBC1's "Breakfast Time" programmes were broadcast from different emergency facilities in emergency formats. TV-am broadcast from Thames Television's Euston Road studios, while BBC newsreader Nicholas Witchell had to broadcast from the BBC1 continuity studio at BBC Television Centre, with the wall decorations used for Children's BBC hastily taken down. Much of the public transport in the capital was not functioning, and people were advised against trying to go to work. TV-am host Anne Diamond did go back to the regular TV-am studio with reporter Kay Burley, whilst Richard Keys remained in the Thames Television studio in case the power supply situation became even worse, and indeed, power did go back down at around 8:15am.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The départements of Finistère, Morbihan, Côtes-d'Armor, and Ille-et-Vilaine in Brittany, and the Cotentin Peninsula (Manche and part of Calvados) in Normandy were the areas in France most affected by the storm, which followed a line from Morbihan and Rennes to Deauville. 1.79 million homes were left without electricity supply and water, and a quarter of Brittany's forest was destroyed. The total damage was estimated at ₣23 billion.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Météo France announced "" (a little storm coming in from the Azores), which reached Brittany's coast at about 18:00, later than expected. This depression caused little damage, with only winds. A much deeper depression hit Ushant on the extreme western tip of Brittany at midnight. It was measured at 948 mb (28 inHg) at the Brest-Guipavas weather station, the lowest reading in its records dating back to 1945.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Weather stations on the coast at pointe du Raz, pointe Saint-Mathieu and Penmarch gave no readings, as they were damaged by the high winds. The wind speed measured at Brest was . The centre of the storm crossed Brittany from Penmarch to Saint-Brieuc at , with gusts of wind up to at Quimper, at Ushant, and at la pointe de Penmarch and Granville. Waves were measured at off Ushant and Belle Île.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The church at Concarneau was damaged but never rebuilt, and was finally demolished a few years later.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The MS "Herald of Free Enterprise" was caught in the storm off Cape Finisterre as it was making its way for scrapping in Taiwan. The ship was cast adrift after its tow rope parted, finally resuming its journey on 19 October 1987.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The storm cost the insurance industry £2 billion, making it the second most expensive UK weather event on record to insurers after the Burns' Day Storm of 1990. Peak wind velocities were in the early hours of the morning, which may have helped reduce the death toll.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The storm hit the Isle of Wight at 02:00. Shanklin Pier, a central landmark in the seaside resort of Shanklin on the south-east coast of the island was broken into three pieces as a result of mountainous waves in Sandown Bay that struck the structure. Plans to rebuild the pier were soon abandoned as the company supervising the pier's refurbishment prior to the storm went bankrupt, and the rest of the pier was demolished by contractors shortly afterwards. A monument now stands in front of what used to be the pier entrance.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: A great deal of effort and money was put into the post-storm clean-up of forests and wooded areas. The writer Oliver Rackham and the charity Common Ground were active in trying to prevent unnecessary destruction of trees which, although fallen, were still living. Some landowners, such as the National Trust, did not attempt complete clearing and replanting, realising that there was a unique opportunity to study the patterns of natural regeneration after such an event.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: A number of wild boar may have escaped from captivity during the storm, after enclosures were damaged by falling trees. These boar have since bred and established populations in woods across southern England.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: A more positive aspect could be found among some British gardeners; as Heather Angel wrote in the Royal Horticultural Society's "Journal":


title: Great storm of 1987

text: In some places this natural disaster has resulted in splendid vistas- views long since forgotten by some and never before seen by a whole new generation. Because of gaps left by fallen trees, visitors to Arundel Castle, the ancestral home of the Dukes of Norfolk, can now look out over the picturesque town... At the renowned woodland rhododendron garden at Leonardslee, Sussex, the gale... opened magnificent views by removing about a thousand trees which owner Robin Loder said he would never have had the courage to thin out himself.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The Met Office was severely criticised by most of the national press for failing to forecast the storm correctly.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The Met Office conducted an internal inquiry, scrutinised by two independent assessors, and a number of recommendations were made. Chiefly, observational coverage of the atmosphere over the ocean to the south and west of the UK was improved by increasing the quality and quantity of observations from ships, aircraft, buoys and satellites. Continued refinements were made to the computer models used in forecasting, and changes were made in the training of forecasters. In addition, reforms in the way the Met Office reports warnings of severe weather were implemented, leading to substantially more warnings being issued in the future. Further deployment of improved tracking devices and improvements in the computer model simulations were supported by the purchase of an additional Cray supercomputer. Warnings for the Burns' Day Storm just over two years later were accurate and on time, although the model forecast hinged on observations from two ships in the Atlantic near the developing storm the day before it reached the UK.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: BBC meteorologist Michael Fish drew particular criticism for reporting several hours before the storm hit: Earlier on today, apparently, a woman rang the BBC and said she heard there was a hurricane on the way; well, if you're watching, don't worry, there isn't, but having said that, actually, the weather will become very windy, but most of the strong winds, incidentally, will be down over Spain and across into France.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Fish has subsequently claimed that his comments about a hurricane had nothing to do with the UK; they referred to Florida, USA, and were linked to a news story immediately preceding the weather bulletin, but had been so widely repeated out of context that the British public remains convinced that he was referring to the approaching storm. According to Fish, the woman in question was actually a colleague's mother who was about to go on holiday in the Caribbean, and had called regarding Hurricane Floyd to see if it would be safe to travel. Fish has also claimed that "nobody phoned up" and that she was a "non-existing woman", apparently contradicting the previous declaration, when interviewed about Anita Hart's claims of being the woman who made the call.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Fish went on to warn viewers that it would be "very windy" across the south of England, but predicted that the storm would move further south along the English Channel and the British mainland would escape the worst effects. The remainder of his warning has frequently been left out when this forecast has been repeated on television, which only adds to the public's misconception of that day's forecasting. His analysis has been defended by weather experts. In particular, the lack of a weather ship in the Southwest Approaches, due to Met Office cutbacks, meant the only manner of tracking the storm was by using satellite data, as automatic buoys had not been deployed at the time.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Ironically, earlier forecasts as far back as the preceding weekend had correctly identified that gale-force winds would affect Southern England. However, later runs of the model had indicated a more southerly track for the low pressure system, incorrectly indicating that the strongest winds would be confined to Northern and Central France. The French meteorological office used a different computer weather model to the British, and the French model proved more accurate in predicting the severity of the storm in the Channel.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: The French meteorological service did correctly predict and warn for the storm and its intensity, but it might have been otherwise. Indeed, the ECMWF model forecast from 14 October 12 UTC failed to predict the strong winds and the storm position (although previous runs were closer to reality), and this could have led to inadequate warnings. This unusual inconsistency of ECMWF could have been a data assimilation issue, or came from poor data. In contrast, the large scale model EMERAUDE made better predictions, while still underestimating the winds. It is recognized that without the experience of the forecasters, the exceptional aspects of the storm would have been missed.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: It has been said that as 15–16 October 1987 approached, shipping weather forecasts warned of storm movements in the North Atlantic, with the result that ships stayed away from North Atlantic storm tracks, depriving North Atlantic meteorology of a major necessary source of weather report data.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Following the storm, meteorologists at the University of Reading led by Professor Keith Browning developed the sting jet concept. During reanalysis of the storm they identified a mesoscale flow where the most damaging winds were shown to be emanating from the evaporating tip of the hooked cloud head on the southern flank of the cyclone. This cloud, hooked like a scorpion's tail, gives the wind region its name the "sting jet".


title: Great storm of 1987

text: It is claimed this storm was the worst since the Great Storm of 1703, which has been challenged as a myth. Storms of this strength regularly form over the North Atlantic, where they typically track to the north of Scotland. Storms of such a strength have a return period of 30 to 40 years. The unusual aspect of the storm was that it struck the densely populated southeast of England. That winds in the South East had return periods of 1 in 200 years does not mean the winds of this strength occur once every 200 years, but that the winds have a 0.5% probability of happening in a given year.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Following this storm 1.3 million incidents of damage were reported, which is only exceeded by the Gale of January 1976 where destruction covered a wider area of the UK, with 1.5 million incidents of damage reported. The Burns' Day storm hit the United Kingdom in January 1990, less than three years later and with comparable intensity. The Great Storm of 1968 (Hurricane Low Q) had crossed Great Britain between the Pennines and Perthshire with the highest-ever recorded peak wind speeds (134 mph). The 1968 storm, for which no warning was given, devastated agriculture and 5% of forestry in Scotland, toppled shipbuilding cranes on the Clyde, and left almost 2000 people homeless in the Central Belt.


title: Great storm of 1987

text: Following the storm, few dealers made it to their desks, and stock market trading was suspended twice; the market closed early at 12:30. The disruption meant the City was unable to respond to the late trading at the beginning of the Wall Street fall-out on Friday 16 October, when the Dow Jones Industrial Average recorded its greatest-ever one-day slide at the time, a fall of 108.36. City traders and investors spent the weekend, 17–18 October, repairing damaged gardens in between trying to guess market reaction and assessing the damage. 19 October, Black Monday, was memorable as being the first business day of the London markets after the Great Storm.


title: Joy to the World

text: "Joy to the World" is an English Christmas carol. The carol was written in 1719 by the English minister and hymnwriter Isaac Watts, and its lyrics are an interpretation of Psalm 98 celebrating the birth of Jesus Christ. Today, the carol is usually sung to an 1848 arrangement by the American composer Lowell Mason.


title: Joy to the World

text: Since the 20th century, "Joy to the World" has been the most-published Christmas hymn in North America.


title: Joy to the World

text: "Joy to the World" was written by English minister and hymnist Isaac Watts, based a Christian interpretation of Psalm 98. The song was first published in 1719 in Watts' collection "The Psalms of David: Imitated in the language of the New Testament, and applied to the Christian state and worship". The paraphrase is Watts' Christological interpretation. Consequently, he does not emphasize with equal weight the various themes of Psalm 98. In first and second stanzas, Watts writes of heaven and earth rejoicing at the coming of the King. Watts also didn't write this to originally be a Christmas carol, as the lyrics do not reflect the Virgin birth of Jesus, but rather Christ's Second Coming. An interlude that depends more on Watts' interpretation than the psalm text, stanza three speaks of Christ's blessings extending victoriously over the realm of sin. The cheerful repetition of the non-psalm phrase "far as the curse is found" has caused this stanza to be omitted from some hymnals. But the line makes joyful sense when understood from the New Testament eyes through which Watts interprets the psalm. Stanza four celebrates Christ's rule over the nations." The nations are called to celebrate because God's faithfulness to the house of Israel has brought salvation to the world.


title: Joy to the World

text: Watts's 1719 preface says the verses "are fitted to the Tunes of the Old PSALM-BOOK" and includes the instruction "sing all entitled COMMON METER". In the late 18th century, "Joy to the World" was printed with music several times, but the tunes were unrelated to the one commonly used today.


title: Joy to the World

text: The tune usually used today is from an 1848 edition by Lowell Mason for "The National Psalmist" (Boston, 1848). Mason was by that time an accomplished and well-known composer and arranger, having composed tunes such as "Bethany", which was used for the hymn "Nearer, My God, to Thee." Mason's 1848 publication of the current tune was the fourth version to have been published. The first, published in his 1836 book "Occasional Psalm and Hymn Tunes", featured the present day tune (in a different arrangement) with the present-day lyrics; the first such publication to do so. The name of this tune was given as "Antioch", and was attributed as being "From Handel". A very similar arrangement of the tune to today's arrangement, and also with the present-day lyrics, was published in Mason's 1839 book "The Modern Psalmist". It was also titled "Antioch" and attributed to Handel.


title: Joy to the World

text: Musically, the first four notes of "Joy to the World" are the same as the first four in the chorus "Lift up your heads" from Handel's "Messiah" (premiered 1742), and, in the third line, the same as found in another "Messiah" piece: the arioso, "Comfort ye". Consequently, and with Mason's attribution to Handel, there has long been speculation over how much a part Handel's "Messiah" had in "Joy to the World". It is known Mason was a great admirer and scholar of Handel's music, and had in fact became president of the Boston Handel and Haydn Society in 1827 and was also an editor for them. However, resemblances between "Messiah" and "Joy to the World", have been dismissed as 'chance resemblance' by Handel scholars today.


title: Joy to the World

text: Moreover, several tunes have been found from the early 1830s closely resembling that of "Antioch", the earliest of which was published in 1832 under the title "Comfort" (possibly as a nod to Handel's "Comfort ye"). This would make it at least four years older than Mason's first publication of "Antioch". Other publications from the early 1830s further suggest the tune may have been around for some time before Mason published his arrangement. Thomas Hawkes published the "Comfort" tune in 1833 in his "Collection of Tunes". In it, the attribution was given simply as "Author Unknown", suggesting it may have been older. A 1986 article by John Wilson also showed "Antioch"'s close resemblance to an 1833 publication of "Comfort" and its associated Wesley hymn "O Joyful Sound".


title: Joy to the World

text: A version by the Trinity Choir was very popular in 1911. As of the late 20th century, "Joy to the World" was the most-published Christmas hymn in North America.


title: Dvārakā

text: Dvārakā, also known as "Dvāravatī" (Sanskrit द्वारका "the gated [city]", possibly meaning having many gates, or alternatively having one or several very grand gates), is a sacred historic city in the sacred literature of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. It is also alternatively spelled as Dvarika. The name Dvaraka is said to have been given to the place by Krishna, a major deity in Hinduism. Dvaraka is one of the Sapta Puri (seven sacred cities) of Hinduism.


title: Dvārakā

text: In the "Mahabharata", it was a city located in what is now Dwarka, formerly called Kushasthali, the fort of which had to be repaired by the Yadavas. In this epic, the city is described as a capital of the Anarta Kingdom. According to the "Harivamsa" the city was located in the region of the Sindhu Kingdom.


title: Dvārakā

text: In the Hindu epics and the Puranas, Dvaraka is called Dvaravati and is one of seven Tirtha (pilgrimage) sites for spiritual liberation. The other six are Mathura, Ayodhya, Kashi, Kanchipuram, Avantika (Ujjain) and Puri.


title: Dvārakā

text: The following description of Dvaraka during Krishna’s presence there appears in the "Bhagavata Purana" ("Srimad-Bhagavatam"; 10.69.1-12) in connection with the sage Narada’s visit.


title: Dvārakā

text: The City was filled with the sounds of birds and bees flying about the parks and pleasure gardens, while its lakes, crowded with blooming indivara, ambhoja, kahlara, kumuda, and utpala lotuses, resounded with the calls of swans and cranes.


title: Dvārakā

text: Dvaraka boasted 900,000 royal palaces, all constructed with crystal and silver and splendorously decorated with huge emeralds. Inside these palaces, the furnishings were bedecked with gold and jewels.


title: Dvārakā

text: Traffic moved along a well laid-out system of boulevards, roads, intersections, and marketplaces, and many assembly houses and temples of demigods graced the charming city. The roads, courtyards, commercial streets, and residential patios were all sprinkled with water and shaded from the sun’s heat by banners waving from flagpoles.


title: Dvārakā

text: In the city of Dvaraka was a beautiful private quarter worshiped by the planetary rulers. This district, where the demigod Vishvakarma had shown all his divine skill, was the residential area of Lord Hari Krishna, and thus it was gorgeously decorated by the sixteen thousand palaces of Lord Krishna’s queens. Narada Muni entered one of these immense palaces.


title: Dvārakā

text: Supporting the palace were coral pillars decoratively inlaid with vaidurya gems. Sapphires bedecked the walls, and the floors glowed with perpetual brilliance. In that palace Tvashta had arranged canopies with hanging strands of pearls; there were also seats and beds fashioned of ivory and precious jewels. In attendance were many well-dressed maidservants bearing lockets on their necks, and also armor-clad guards with turbans, fine uniforms, and jeweled earrings.


title: Dvārakā

text: The glow of numerous jewel-studded lamps dispelled all darkness in the palace. My dear king, on the ornate ridges of the roof danced loudly crying peacocks, who saw the fragrant aguru incense escaping through the holes of the latticed windows and mistook it for a cloud.


title: Dvārakā

text: During 1983-1990, the Marine Archaeology Unit of India's National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) carried out underwater excavations at Dwarka and Bet Dwarka. According to S. R. Rao "The available archaeological evidence from onshore and offshore excavations confirms the existence of a city-state with a couple of satellite towns in 1500 B.C." He considered it reasonable to conclude that this submerged city is the Dvaraka as described in the "Mahabharata".


title: Dvārakā

text: In the "Mausala Parva" of the "Mahabharata", Arjuna witnesses the submergence of Dvaraka and describes it as follows:


title: Rake (poker)

text: Rake is the scaled commission fee taken by a cardroom operating a poker game. It is generally 2.5% to 10% of the pot in each poker hand, up to a predetermined maximum amount. There are also other non-percentage ways for a casino to take the rake.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Poker is a player-versus-player game, and the house does not wager against its players (unlike blackjack or roulette), so this fee is the principal mechanism to generate revenue.


title: Rake (poker)

text: It is primarily levied by an establishment that supplies the necessary services for the game to take place. In online poker it covers the various costs of operation such as support, software, and personnel. In traditional brick and mortar casinos it is also used to cover the costs involved with providing a dealer (though in many places tips provide the bulk of a dealer's income) for the game, support staff (from servers to supervisors), use of gaming equipment, and the physical building in which the game takes place. The rake in live games is generally higher than for online poker.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Some cardrooms will not take a percentage rake in any community card poker game like Texas hold 'em when a hand does not have a flop. This is called "no flop, no drop".


title: Rake (poker)

text: To win when playing in poker games where the house takes a cut, a player must not only beat opponents, but also the financial drain of the rake.


title: Rake (poker)

text: There are several ways for the rake to be taken. Most rake is a fixed percentage of the pot, taken on a sliding scale, with a capped maximum amount that can be removed from the pot regardless of pot size. Less frequently, the rake is a fixed amount no matter what the size of the pot.


title: Rake (poker)

text: A percentage rake is taken directly from the pot. In a live casino, the dealer manually removes chips from the pot while the hand is being played and sets them aside to be dropped into a secure box after completion of the hand. When playing online, the rake is taken automatically by the game software. Some software shows the rake amount next to a graphical representation of the dealer and takes it incrementally between the rounds of betting, whereas other software programs wait until the entire hand is over and then take it from the pot total before giving the rest to the winner of the hand. This is the prevalent method of collecting rake in online poker.


title: Rake (poker)

text: The fee is placed on the dealer button each hand by the player in that position and taken in by the dealer before any cards are dealt.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Time collection (also "timed rake" or "table charge") is a set fee collected (typically) every half-hour during the game. This form of rake is collected in one of two ways:


title: Rake (poker)

text: The above examples are used in ring games, also known as cash games. The rake for participation in poker tournaments is collected as an entrance fee. This may be displayed by showing the tournament buy-in as $100+$20, with the $20 being the house fee or "Vig". Other times they will show their buy-in as $100 and list the percentage they take for expenses.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Some online cardrooms charge a monthly subscription fee and then do not rake individual pots or tournaments.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Some online poker websites have done away with the rake altogether. These "rake free" poker rooms generate revenue by increasing traffic to the company's other profitable businesses (such as a casino or sportsbook) or by charging monthly membership or deposit fees. Some sites are only completely rake-free for frequent players, while offering reduced rake instead for other customers. Due to high fixed costs of operating a poker room, such as marketing, few online poker rooms have been successful in offering rake-free game, often going bankrupt or sustaining themselves by exploiting loopholes in offshore jurisdictions to refuse to honor players' cash withdrawals. However, some financially sound poker rooms have on occasion offered rake-free games to entice new sign-ups or to encourage players to try out new game formats.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Rakeback is a player rewards method that began in 2004, whereby some online poker sites or their affiliate partners return part of the rake or tournament entries a player pays as an incentive for them to continue playing on that site


title: Rake (poker)

text: Rakeback in cash games can be calculated using two different methods: dealt and contributed. The dealt method awards the same amount of rakeback to each player dealt into a hand, and the contributed method rewards players based on their actual contribution to the pot. In poker tournaments, rakeback is deducted from the cardroom's entry fee. Rakeback is similar to comps in "brick and mortar" casinos.


title: Rake (poker)

text: As online poker becomes more mainstream online poker professionals have begun using rakeback as a means of increasing profits or cutting their losses. Depending upon the stakes the player is playing, how many tables they are playing at once, and the number of hours played daily, online poker pros can earn thousands of dollars in rakeback every month. This gave rise to so-called rakeback pros, players using a less intensive losing strategy at many tables simultaneously while offsetting their losses through rakeback.


title: Rake (poker)

text: Not every online poker room offers rakeback. Some allow affiliates to offer rakeback as a direct percentage of rake and tournament entries paid back to the players. Other card rooms such as PokerStars, PartyPoker, Ongame Network and the iPoker Network forbid affiliates to give rakeback. Instead they offer in-house loyalty programs that gives cash and other rewards to players based upon how much they play. At such networks, rakeback deals are sometimes cut between an affiliate and a player without the poker operator's knowledge. Such deals, if discovered, tend to result in the expulsion of either offending party, and, sometimes, in penalties for the poker operator, if they are part of a bigger poker network.


title: Rake (poker)

text: In brick and mortar rooms, the floorperson may offer a rake reduction or rake-free play to players willing to start a table shorthanded.


title: Rake (poker)

text: In most legal jurisdictions, taking a rake from a poker table is explicitly illegal if the party taking the rake does not have the proper gaming licences and/or permits. The laws of many jurisdictions do not prohibit the playing of poker for money at a private dwelling, provided that no one takes a rake.


title: African fish eagle

text: The African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer) or the African sea eagle, is a large species of eagle found throughout sub-Saharan Africa wherever large bodies of open water with an abundant food supply occur. It is the national bird of Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. As a result of its large range, it is known in many languages. Examples of names include: Vis Arend in Afrikaans, "nkwazi" in Chewa, "aigle pêcheur" in French, "hungwe" in Shona, "inkwazi" in isiZulu, and "ntšhu" (pronounced "ntjhu") in Northern Sotho. This species may resemble the bald eagle in appearance; though related, the two species occurs on different continents, with the bald eagle being resident in North America.


title: African fish eagle

text: The African fish eagle is a species placed in the genus "Haliaeetus" (sea eagles). Its closest relative appears to be the critically endangered Madagascar fish eagle ("H. vociferoides"). Like all sea eagle species pairs, this one consists of a white-headed species (the African fish eagle) and a tan-headed one (Madagascar fish eagle). These are an ancient lineage of sea eagles; like other sea eagles, they have dark talons, beaks, and eyes Both species have at least partially white tails even as juveniles. The scientific name is derived from "Haliaeetus", New Latin for "sea eagle" (from the Ancient Greek "haliaetos"), and "vocifer" is derived from its original genus name, so named by the French naturalist François Levaillant, who called it 'the vociferous one'.


title: African fish eagle

text: The African fish eagle is a large bird. The female, at is larger than the male, at . This is typical sexual dimorphism in birds of prey. Males usually have wingspans around , while females have wingspans of . The body length is . The adult is very distinctive in appearance with a mostly brown body with a white head like the bald eagle and large, powerful, black wings. The head, breast, and tail of African fish eagles are snow white, with the exception of the featherless face, which is yellow. The eyes are dark brown in colour. The hook-shaped beak, ideal for a carnivorous lifestyle, is yellow with a black tip. The plumage of the juvenile is brown, and the eyes are paler than the adult's. The feet have rough soles and are equipped with powerful talons to enable the eagle to grasp slippery aquatic prey. While this species mainly subsists on fish, it is opportunistic and may take a wider variety of prey such as waterbirds. Its distinctive cry is, for many, evocative of the spirit or essence of Africa. The call, shriller when uttered by males, is a "weee-ah, hyo-hyo" or a "heee-ah, heeah-heeah".


title: African fish eagle

text: This species is still quite common near freshwater lakes, reservoirs, and rivers, although it can sometimes be found near the coast at the mouths of rivers or lagoons. African fish eagles are indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa, ranging over most of continental Africa south of the Sahara Desert. Several examples of places where they may be resident include the Orange River in South Africa and Namibia, the Okavango Delta in Botswana, and Lake Malawi bordering Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique. The African fish eagle is thought to occur in substantial numbers around the locations of Lake Victoria and other large lakes in central Africa, particularly the Rift Valley lakes. This is a generalist species, requiring only open water with sufficient prey and a good perch, as evidenced by the number of habitat types in which this species may be found, including grassland, swamps, marshes, tropical rainforest, fynbos, and even desert-bordering coastlines, such as that of Namibia. The African fish eagle is absent from arid areas with little surface water.


title: African fish eagle

text: African fish eagles breed during the dry season, when water levels are low. They are believed to mate for life. Pairs often maintain two or more nests, which they frequently reuse. Because nests are reused and built upon over the years, they can grow quite large, some reaching 2.0 m (6.5 ft) across and deep. The nests are placed in a large tree and are built mostly of sticks and other pieces of wood.


title: African fish eagle

text: The female lays one to three eggs, which are primarily white with a few reddish speckles. Incubation is mostly done by the female, but the male incubates when the female leaves to hunt. Incubation lasts for 42 to 45 days before the chicks hatch. Siblicide does not normally occur in this taxon, and the parents often successfully rear two or three chicks. Chicks fledge around 70 to 75 days old. Postfledgling dependence lasts up to three months, whereafter the juveniles become nomadic and may congregate in groups away from territorial adults. Those that survive their first year have a life expectancy of some 12 to 24 years.


title: African fish eagle

text: The African fish eagle feeds mainly on fish, which it swoops down upon from a perch in a tree, snatching the prey from the water with its large, clawed talons. The eagle then flies back to its perch to eat its catch. Like other sea eagles, the African fish eagle has structures on its toes called spiricules that allow it to grasp fish and other slippery prey. The osprey, a winter visitor to Africa, also has this adaptation. African fish eagles usually catch fish around , but fish up to can be taken. If it catches a fish too heavy to allow the eagle to sustain flight, it will drop into the water and paddle to the nearest shore with its wings. Mullets and catfish ("Clarias") are common prey, though various fish such as cichlids, tilapias ("Oreochromis"), lungfish ("Protopterus"), and characins can be also taken. Even African tigerfish ("Hydrocynus vittatus") can be preyed upon by fish eagles, especially while predating barn swallows ("Hirundo rustica") in flight.


title: African fish eagle

text: It also feeds on birds, especially waterbirds such as ducks and greater and lesser flamingos. Other prey include small turtles and terrapins, baby crocodiles, Nile monitors, skinks, frogs, and carrion. Occasionally, it may even take mammalian prey, such as hyrax, monkeys, rats, hares, and dik diks. It has also been observed feeding on domestic fowl (chickens). The African fish eagle is known to steal the catch of other bird species, a practice known as kleptoparasitism. Targeted species are usually large wading birds such as Goliath herons and shoebills, which usually hunt large fish and take a long time to handle them.


title: African fish eagle

text: This species is listed as least concern by the IUCN. The estimated population size is about 300,000 individuals with a distribution area of 18,300,000 km.


title: African fish eagle

text: In the form of the Zimbabwe Bird, it is the national bird of Zimbabwe and appears on the Zimbabwean flag. The bird also figures in the coats of arms of Malawi, Namibia, Zambia, and South Sudan, and on the Zambian flag.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Berliner Fussball Club Dynamo e. V., commonly abbreviated to BFC Dynamo () or BFC (), alternatively sometimes called Dynamo Berlin, is a German football club based in the locality of Alt-Hohenschönhausen of the borough of Lichtenberg of Berlin. BFC Dynamo was founded in 1966 from the football department of SC Dynamo Berlin and became one of the most successful clubs in East German football. The club is the record champion of East Germany with ten consecutive league championships from 1979 through 1988. BFC Dynamo competes in the fourth tier Regionalliga Nordost. The club enjoys a cross-city rivalry with 1. FC Union Berlin and a historical rivalry with SG Dynamo Dresden. The rivalry with Union Berlin is part of the Berlin derby.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The traditional colours of BFC Dynamo are claret and white. The colours were inherited from SC Dynamo Berlin and followed the claret colour scheme of SV Dynamo. BFC Dynamo has been playing in claret and white since its founding, with the exception of a period in the 1990s. The home kit has traditionally been a claret shirt, paired with claret or white shorts and socks. The team is occasionally nicknamed "die Weinroten", which means "the Clarets".


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The club was rebranded as FC Berlin on 19 February 1990 and subsequently adopted a new red and white colour scheme in the 1990–91 season. The club played in red and white home kits for most of the FC Berlin era, but wore a black and red striped home shirt, paired with black shorts and black socks from the 1996–97 season through the 1998–99 season. The club reverted to its original name on 3 May 1999 and consequently also later returned to its traditional colour scheme.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The crest of BFC Dynamo during the East German era featured a stylized "D" for SV Dynamo and the lettering "BFC" in red and yellow on a white background, surrounded by a yellow wreath. BFC Dynamo abandoned its East German crest when it was rebranded as FC Berlin on 19 February 1990. The club used two different crests during the FC Berlin era. The first crest featured a stylized image of the roof of the Brandenburg Gate with the lettering "FCB" underneath and the club name "Fussballclub Berlin" in capital letters in white on a red background. It was only used during the spring of 1990. The second crest featured a stylized image of a football with the Brandenburg Gate on top and the lettering "FCB" and the club name "FC Berlin" in red on a white background.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo reclaimed its East German crest when the club reverted to its original name on 3 May 1999. But the club was no longer in possession of the crest. The club had neglected to seek legal protection for its East German crest after German reunification. The neglect was likely due to managerial inexperience. Protection of trademarks was neither necessary nor common in East Germany. The crest was now owned by Peter Klaus-Dieter Mager, commonly known as "Pepe". Pepe Mager was a famous fan of Hertha and a fan merchandise dealer. The club tried to recover the crest from Mager though court action, without success. The ownership of the crest was instead passed on to Rayk Bernt and his company RA-BE Immobilien- und Handelsgesellschaft mbH.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo continued to use the disputed crest on its kits and webpage. But the club would have to ask the owner of the crest every time it wanted to have a pennant made and was unable to exploit the commercial value of the crest for its own benefit. The legal situation around the crest would also have caused problems in the event of an advance to the Regionalliga, as the German football Association (DFB) required clubs to own their crests. In order establish independence, the club finally decided to adopt a new crest in 2009.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The new crest abandoned the traditional stylized "D" and the lettering "BFC", as they would have met legal challenges. The new crest featured a black Berlin bear on claret and white stripes, together with the club name and the founding year. The first version of the new crest sparked controversy. The word "fußball" in the club name had been written in lower case with a double "s" instead of the graphene "ß". This was contrary to German spelling rules, where it is only permissible to write "fußball" with a double "s" when the word is written in upper case. Club President Norbert Uhlig ensured that there was absolutely no ulterior motive behind the spelling and claimed that the word had always been spelled like that on club pennants and scarfes. The chairman of the Economic Council Peter Meyer later claimed that the spelling was a deliberate marketing ploy, in order to have new crest immediately known across Germany. A second version of the crest was soon made public, where the club name was written in upper case. The new crest has been used by BFC Dynamo since the 2009–10 season.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Many clubs in East Germany rushed to drop their East German names during the Peaceful revolution. BFC Dynamo was among the clubs to do so, in an attempt to distance the club from the Stasi. The club was rebranded as FC Berlin on 19 February 1990 and consequently abandoned its East German crest.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Pepe Mager was a famous fan of Hertha BSC and fan merchandise dealer. Mager had organized away trips for the fans Hertha in the early 1960s and was one of the founders of the notorious supporter group "Hertha-Frösche". He now sold his own fan merchandise from a mobile stand outside the Olympiastadion. Mager inquired with the register of associations in Charlottenburg in 1991 about all deleted names of East German clubs. He immediately found BFC Dynamo and saw business opportunities. Mager claimed that he first secured the former crest of BFC Dynamo for 80 D-Marks in 1992.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The name FC Berlin never became popular with the fans. Fans continued to identify themselves with the former name and crest. An overwhelming majority voted for the club to revert to its original name at the general meeting on 3 May 1999. Of the 135 present, 125 voted in favor, three against and seven abstained. BFC Dynamo thus reclaimed its East German crest, but the rights to the crest now belonged to Mager. Mager had registered the crest in his name at the German Patent and Trademark Office on 13 May 1997.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo contacted Mager for a co-operation, but an agreement could not be reached. Mager held the opinion that the club should buy its merchandise from him, or simply buy the rights to the crest. He later informed the club that he had received interest from foreign buyers and offered the club to buy the rights. He claimed that the crest was worth 200,000 D-Marks. BFC Dynamo on the other hand claimed that the crest should legally belong to the club. The club sued Mager in court on 20 November 2000, but eventually lost the case. The club decided to suspend the legal dispute with Mager in the summer of 2001 and instead wanted to find a solution outside court. Mager was repeatedly exposed to minor threats from the environment around BFC Dynamo and eventually sold the crest to Rayk Bernt and his company RA-BE Immobilien- und Handelsgesellschaft mbH for a price of 50,000 D-Marks in June 2002.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Bernt was a close associate of André Sommer. Bernt and Sommer had assisted the club at the opening of the insolvency proceedings in 2001–2002. Both were long time fans of BFC Dynamo. But the duo was controversial for their connections to Hells Angels. Bernt and Sommer were almost as restrictive towards the club when it came to the crest as Mager had been. Bernt organized the production of fan merchandise in his own regime. The club would have to ask his company every time it wanted to have a pennant made. Bernt and Sommer usually agreed, manufactured the pennant and then sold it at their own fan merchandise stand at the stadium. BFC Dynamo continued to use the crest and would at times be given ten percent of the revenues from their sales. The club eventually offered 5,000 Euros for the crest, but was turned down. Bernt demanded a seven-digit sum, according to former Club President Mario Weinkauf. The lawyer representing RA-BE Immobilien- und Handelsgesellschaft mbH allegedly claimed the crest was worth around 600,000 Euros at the time.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: President Weinkauf planned to recover the rights to the former crest with the help of Thomas Thiel and the company Treasure AG before the general meeting on 23 June 2007. Thiel was a co-owner of Treasure AG, which was intended as a new major sponsor. Bernt sold parts of the rights to the former crest to Thiel. The price was allegedly a six-digit sum. According to the plan, the club would be given the rights of use to the crest. The profits would thus go to the club. The club would pay a symbolic sum of 1 Euro per month for the rights of use. BFC Dynamo would then have a right of first refusal after the ten-year contract had expired and thus have the opportunity to eventually acquire ownership of the crest. However, Weinkauf was ultimately rejected by club members in a vote of no-confidence at the general meeting on 23 June 2007. Weinkauf would then be contacted by the former president of Tennis Borussia Berlin Peter Antony. Treasure AG became a sponsor of Tennis Borussia Berlin instead and Weinkauf would later become president of the club.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Thiel sold his rights to the crest back to Bernt and his company BFC Dynamo Vermarktungsgesellschaft m.b.H in 2009. The rights to the old crest are now fully held by the company RA-BE Immobilien- und Handelsgesellschaft mbH as of 2021. The company is controlled by Bernt, who sells occasional items with the former crest at his own webpage. BFC Dynamo sells its official fan merchandise with the new crest at its official fan shop.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The German Football League (DFL) introduced a system of championship stars in the 2004–05 season. The system was meant to honor the most successful teams in the Bundesliga by allowing teams to display stars on their shirts for the championships they have won. The system awarded one star for three titles, two stars for five titles, and three stars for ten titles. However, the system only counted titles won in the Bundesliga since the 1963–64 season.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo submitted an application to the DFL and the DFB on 9 August 2004 to receive three stars for it ten titles in the DDR-Oberliga. The club asked for equal rights and argued that the DFB had absorbed the German Football Association of the GDR (DFV) with all its statistics, international matches and goal scores. BFC Dynamo received support from Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Magdeburg in its attempts to achieve recognition for East German titles.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The DFL responded that it was not the responsible body, but the DFB remained silent for a long time. The DFB eventually declared itself responsible and recommended BFC Dynamo to submit a formal application for a new title symbol in accordance with a relevant paragraph. BFC Dynamo sent a new letter to the DFB in January 2005. The DFB announced that the application of BFC Dynamo was going to be negotiated in a meeting with the DFB presidium. The meeting with the DFB presidium on 18 March 2005 agreed that all titles won in East Germany, as well all others titles won in Germany since the first recognized championship in 1903, should qualify for stars. However, the decision was subject to approval by the DFL. No final decision had yet been made by the DFB presidium.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: However, BFC Dynamo took matters in its own hands and unilaterally emblazoned its shirts with three stars. The team displayed the three stars for first time in the match against FC Energie Cottbus II on 25 March 2005. The claim by BFC Dynamo was controversial because the club had been the favorite club of Erich Mielke and had a connection to the Stasi during the East German era. Critics in the DFB environment pointed to politically influenced championships in East Germany. BFC Dynamo had been sponsored by the Stasi and was given advantages. The club had privileged access to talents and a permanent training camp at Uckley in Königs Wusterhausen. However, also other clubs in East Germany had enjoyed similar advantages, which put the DFB in a difficult situation. Also former East German referee and CDU parliamentarian Bernd Heynemann spoke out for recognition of all East German titles.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The DFL rejected the application from the DFB and recommended the DFB to only honor clubs that were champions in the Bundesliga. However, the DFB chose to not follow the recommendation. The DFB presidium instead decided on a compromise solution on 19 July 2005 and adopted a new regulation for the 2005–06 season which gave all clubs the right to wear one single star for the championships they have won in the former East Germany and in Germany since 1903. Clubs were also allowed to indicate the number of championships they have won in the center of the star. The regulation only applies to clubs playing in a league under the DFB umbrella. It does not apply to clubs playing in the 2. Bundesliga and Bundesliga, which are organized by the DFL.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The new regulation meant that BFC Dynamo was finally allowed to emblazon its shirts with a championship star. The regulation also affected other former East German teams including Dynamo Dresden with its eight titles, 1. FC Frankfurt with its six titles and Magdeburg with its three titles in the Oberliga. BFC Dynamo has since then used the championship star in accordance with DFB graphic standards, displaying a star inscribed with the number ten for its ten East German titles.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The long-time home and training area of BFC Dynamo is the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen in Alt-Hohenschönhausen in Berlin. The Sportforum is the location of the club offices and the base of the youth teams. It is considered the spiritual home of the club. The Sportforum was known as the Dynamo-Sportforum during the East German era. The sports complex was built as a training center for elite sport and was home to sports club SC Dynamo Berlin with its many sports, disciplines and squads. Development began in 1954 and expansion continued into the 1980s. The Sportforum is still unique as of today. The sports complex covers an area of 45 to 50 hectares and comprises 35 sports facilities as of 2020.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: SC Dynamo Berlin played its first seasons at the Walter-Ulbricht-Stadion in Mitte. The team moved its home matches to the football stadium in the Dynamo-Sportforum after the construction of the Berlin wall in the autumn of 1961. The football stadium in the Dynamo-Sportforum was opened in 1959 and held a capacity of 10,000 spectators at the beginning of the 1961–62 season. The team drew average attendances between 3,000 and 6,000 spectators at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum in the 1960s. The capacity of the football stadium in the Dynamo-Sportforum was gradually expanded during the 1960s.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo began to play some matches in the larger and more centrally located Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in Prenzlauer Berg during the 1971–72 season. The Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark had become vacant when FC Vorwärts Berlin was relocated to Frankfurt an der Oder on 31 July 1971. The large stadium in the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark was also equipped with floodlights, unlike the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum. Nevertheless, BFC Dynamo played its home matches in the 1972-73 UEFA Cup at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum. The capacity of the stadium was 20,000 spectators from the 1972–73 season. The attendance of 20,000 spectators during the match against Liverpool on 29 November 1972 is still a record attendance for the stadium. BFC Dynamo eventually moved its home matches parmanentely to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in the mid-1970s. The Sportforum would primarily serve as a training facility from then. The Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum would be used mostly by the reserve team BFC Dynamo II.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: A permanent training camp for BFC Dynamo was built in Uckley in the Zernsdorf district of Königs Wusterhausen in Bezirk Potsdam in the late 1960s. It was located in the woods and completely sealed off from the surroundings. The training camp covered an area of around 10 hectares. The complex was equipped with a boarding school, several football pitches, a sports hall, a swimming pool, a fitness area and a sauna. The team would gather in Uckley days before its European matches. The players would have access to catering facilities, a nearby lake, a bowling alley, a cinema and pinball machines, among other things.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion was built in 1951 and had a capacity of 30,000 spectators at the time. The team celebrated nine of its ten DDR-Oberliga titles in the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadium and played most of its home matches in the European competitions at the stadium. BFC Dynamo hosted teams such as FC Dynamo Moscow, Red Star Belgrade, Nottingham Forest, Aston Villa, AS Roma and FC Aberdeen at the stadium in the 1970s and 1980s. The average home attendance of 16,538 spectators for BFC Dynamo at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion in the 1975-76 DDR-Oberliga was the highest average league attendance in club history. However, all matches against local rival Union Berlin were played at the neutral Stadion der Weltjugend from the 1976–77 season, for security reasons. BFC Dynamo also played its home matches in the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga and the 1986-87 European Cup at the Sportforum, as the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion was under renovation during the 1986–87 season. The current grandstand and the floodlights of the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion dates from this time.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: FC Berlin returned to the Sportforum for the 1992–93 season. However, the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion would occasionally still be used for larger matches. FC Berlin made plans to buy and redevelop the stadium in 1998 under Club President Volkmar Wanski, but the plans did not materialize for a lack of funds. Supporters of BFC Dynamo equipped the stadium with buckets seats during the summer of 2002. The Stadion im Sportforum now has a capacity of 10,000 standing places and 2,400 seated places, of which 400 are roofed. The stadium was then equipped with a 25-meter player tunnel and plexiglass-clad coaching benches in November 2004. BFC Dynamo made new plans for a modern football stadium in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen in 2006 under Club President Mario Weinkauf. The club now wanted to build a new modern stadium for 10,000–15,000 spectators. However, these plans did not materialize either. The Stadion im Sportforum was closed at the end of the 2005–06 season following the riots during the match between BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Union Berlin on 13 May 2006. BFC Dynamo temporarily had to move to the Friedrich-Ludwg-Jahn-Sportpark. The team was only allowed to return to the Stadion im Sportforum by the Northeastern German Football Association (NOFV) when the stadium could be considered safe again. The stadium was then refurbished in 2006–2007 to increase safety and meet the requirements of the NOFV. The refurbishment included a new fence. Active supporters of BFC Dynamo have traditionally been found on the Nordwall stand and in the Block D of the back strait () at the Stadion im Sportforum.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo moved its home matches to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark following its advance to the Regionalliga Nordost in 2014. The Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion had a capacity of 19,708 spectators as of 2020. Active supporters of BFC Dynamo are found on the grandstand and on the back strait, which is the side opposite the grandstand. BFC Dynamo had to play matches at the Stadion im Sportforum at the end of the 2018–19 season due to safety issues relating to the dilapidated floodlights at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion. The move was greeted by some supporters as a move to the true home of the club. The club was then set to return to the Sportforum in the 2020–21 season the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion was planned to be demolished for a complete redevelopment. The team was allowed to continue play in the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion until 31 December 2020.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The German Football Association (DFB) has earlier classified the football stadium in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen as suitable for third division play, if only a few remaining requirements are met. But the Sportforum suffers from a large investment backlog. BFC Dynamo is cooperating with those responsible for the Sportforum and the Berlin Football Association (BFV) to find common solutions for the most urgently needed construction work. The Senate of Berlin is planning to invest €3 million in the Sportforum as of 2020. The money is part of the budget for the demolition of the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo officially announced on 21 March 2021 that it has now returned to the Sportforum, as the operating permit for the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion expired on 31 December 2020. The Sportforum was equipped with a floodlight system in April 2021. The club organized a work effort in the summer of 2021 to get the stadium in shape for the upcoming Regionalliga season.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion is planned to be demolished during the 2020–21 season for a complete redevelopment. BFC Dynamo is planned to become one of the main tentants of the new stadium. The new Fredrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark is going to be multi-sports facility with 20,000 seats. The stadium will be designed as an inclusive sports facility and offer second division fit. The new Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Stadion is planned to be opened in 2025.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo played only a minor role in football in Berlin until the relocation of FC Vorwärts Berlin to Frankfurt an der Oder in 1971. The club initially had modest support, but with its growing successes in the 1970s, the club began to attract young fans, primarily from the central areas around the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark, such as Prenzlauer Berg and Mitte. Many came from working class families in Prenzlauer Berg. One of the first big supporter groups of BFC Dynamo was Black Eagle. The fan club was founded in 1972 and was one of the earliest fan clubs in East German football. Fans of BFC Dynamo were the first to sew their embroidered fan club badges on their jackets. This was a novelty among football supporters in East Germany in the 1970s.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The supporter scene became a focal point for various subcultures in the late 1970s and beginning of the 1980s. There were punks, rockers, hippies and a few early skinheads. Some were left-leaning and others were right-leaning. Football and stadium life offered free spaces that were difficult for the authorities to control. For some fans, being part of the supporter scene was an opportunity to rebel against the East German regime. Most supporters of BFC Dynamo had little to do with the state. It was more important for them to protest, do their own thing and break out from everyday life. Despite cheering for a club associated the Stasi, supporters of BFC Dynamo were not true to the line. Many active fans in the 1980s were against the regime.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Young people were gradually attracted by the provocative image of the club: its reputation as a Stasi club, its successes and the hatred of opposing fans. Some fans of BFC Dynamo found delight in the unpopularity of their club and took pride in the hatred they met. One fan recalled that the 1980s "were my greatest years, as we always had glorious success in provoking other fans" and another one that "we were really hated by everyone". Fans of BFC Dynamo would sometimes respond to the hatred they met by singing chants in praise of Erich Mielke as a provocation. They would also throw tropical fruits, that were only available in East Berlin, at home fans during away matches in Saxony.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo came to be associated with areas such as Prenzlauer Berg, Pankow, Weißensee, Hohenschönhausen and certain cafés and restaurants in vicinity of Alexanderplatz. The supporter scene included groups such as Black Eagle, Norbert Trieloff, Bobbys, Iron Fist, Beatles BFC Club, Die Ratten, Berliner Wölfe, Heavy Horses, Black Pahnter and Madness boys of Preussen in the 1980s. Fashion played a big role in the BFC Dynamo supporter scene. Football supporters in East Berlin shared a sense of superiority over their counterparts in the regional districts. This was also the case with the supporters of Union Berlin, but notably with the supporters of BFC Dynamo. A saying among the supporters of BFC Dynamo was "We are few, but awesome!".


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Football-related violence spread in East Germany in the 1970s. The supporter scene of BFC Dynamo was still young at the time, while clubs such Union Berlin and BSG Chemie Leipzig had large followings. A trip to Leipzig or Dresden was a difficult task. Supporters of BFC Dynamo responded to the hostile environment, and learned to compensate their smaller numbers, by being more aggressive and better organized. The dislike against BFC Dynamo in stadiums around the country and the hatred of opposing fans welded its supporters together. One fan of BFC Dynamo recalled: "It was really rumbling at away trips, and only then you felt your own strength. When we went with 200 people against 1,000 Unioners and you noticed: If you stick together, you have an incredible amount of violence." Supporters of BFC Dynamo would eventually gain a reputation for being particularly violent and organized. One fan of Union Berlin recalled: "There was hardly an enemy mob against us, we were just too many. But the people who stood in the way of the violence-seeking BFC:ers were very few. The BFC:ers were completely organized. These hundred and fifty people, everyone knew each other. They stood as a block like a wall." The book "Riot Boys!" by Jochen Schramm depicts the supporter scene of BFC Dynamo and contains stories of violent away trips in the early 1980s. Jochen "Ellis" Schramm was a member of the hooligan scene of BFC Dynamo in the 1980s.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The development in the supporter scene of BFC Dynamo would eventually catch the attention of the authorities. The Stasi conducted a study on the violent structures of the supporter scene at the beginning of the 1980s. It found that 80 percent of those committing violent acts were 16–25 years old. Most of them were workers or students. It also found that 20 percent came from families of the socialist intelligentia. The Stasi assigned a group of two full-time officers from the district administration to the supporter scene during 1982–83 season. From then, supporters were accompanied, observed and documented. This was a measure that had previously also been applied to the supporter scene of Union Berlin. The authorities had allegedly been particularly alarmed when supporters of BFC Dynamo unfurled a poster in memory of Lutz Eigendorf with the text "Iron Foot, we mourn you!" during a match at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in April 1983. Supporters had also started a fan club in honour of Eigendorf. The Stasi would try to control the supporter scene with a broad catalogue of measures: persistent talks, intimidation attempts, reporting requirements and arrests. It would also attempt to infiltrate the fan clubs by unofficial collaborators (IM). All football fan clubs in East Germany had to undergo registration. According to Stasi information, BFC Dynamo had six registered fan clubs and 22 unauthorized fan clubs in 1986. Unauthorized fan clubs were those that were unregistered or did not meet DFV guidelines.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The supporter scene of BFC Dynamo came to be increasingly associated with skinheads and far-right tendencies from the mid-1980s. More and more supporters of BFC Dynamo began to embrace skinhead fashion in the early 1980s. Skinhead fashion was now considered the most provocative outfit. The club had become one of the most popular football clubs in the growing skinhead movement by the mid-1980s. The reputation of BFC Dynamo as the hated Stasi club also attracted skinheads, who used the club as a stage for their provocations. Right-wing slogans and fascist chants were considered as the most challenging provocations, as anti-fascism was state doctrine and Nazism officially did not exist in East Germany. For young people, being a Nazi was sometimes considered the sharpest form of opposition. However, instances of Nazi provocations did not necessarily reflect genuine political convictions. At least some part of the "drift to the right" among East German youth during the 1980s was rooted in a desire to position oneself wherever the state was not.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: One fan of BFC Dynamo said: "None of us really knew anything about politics. But to raise your arm in front of the Volkspolizei was a real kick. You did that and for some of them, their whole world just fell apart".


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The first East German hooligan group developed from the supporter scene of BFC Dynamo in the 1980s. The development was partly a response to the increasing state repression against the supporter scene, notably from the Stasi. An organized hooligan scene with groups, structures and training rooms that was unique in East Germany would eventually emerge at BFC Dynamo. The final of the 1987-88 FDGB-Pokal between BFC Dynamo and Carl Zeiss Jena on 4 June 1988 saw some of the most serious violence ever witnessed at an East German football match. A group of 100 to 150 skinheads and other hooligans marched through Pankow to the Stadion der Weltjugend for the match. They chanted fascist slogans and clashed with other supporters. Riots then broke out in one of the blocks shortly before the end of the match. Supporters destroyed fences and threw seats at match stewards. A group of 300 supporters of BFC Dynamo had attempted to invade the pitch during the victory ceremony. They caused extensive damage to 60 seats. Abour a year later, during the match against AS Monaco in the 1989–90 European Cup Winners' Cup on 1 November 1989, supporters of BFC Dynamo would also destroy large parts of a block of the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: A wave of violence swept through the football stadiums of East Germany in 1990. The collapse of the East German regime resulted in a security vacuum. The Volkspolizei was overwhelmed by the amount of disorder and often reluctant to use enough force, due to the political situation. Masked supporters of FC Berlin rioted in central Jena before the away match against FC Carl Zeiss Jena in the 1989-90 DDR-Oberliga on 8 April 1990. They broke shop windows, smashed windscreens of police vehicles with stones and left a trail of destruction in the city center. Supporters of FC Berlin also fired flares at police officers during the match. The disorder at the stadium would not cease and the match was eventually interrupted. The riots in Jena caught rare attention by East German state media, which until then had been generally silent about football related disorder.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Hooligans who had left East Germany for various reasons in recent years rejoined the hooligan scene after the opening of the Berlin Wall. Some were former skinheads who had been deported by the Stasi to West Germany in the late 1980s. Now they chanted things such as "Who should be our Führer? Erich Mielke!" as a provocative fun, to the dismay of the club. Supporters who returned from West Germany also brought back a new fashion based on designer clothing labels and expensive sportswear, which was adopted by the supporter scene. While combat boots and bomber jackets were now common at many places in East Germany, some supporters of BFC Dynamo wanted to differentiate themselves. Expensive sneakers was now the new fashion in the supporter scene. Brands such as Diesel, Iceberg, Chevignon, Adidas, Best Company, New Balance and Ray Ban became popular.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Hooligans of FC Berlin stormed the home end of the Stadion an der Alten Försterei armed with clubs and flares and hunted down supporters of Union Berlin during the match between Union Berlin and FC Berlin in the second round of the 1990-91 FDGB-Pokal on 23 September 1990. Serious riots broke out in the city after the match, involving hundreds of supporters. Street battles broke out in areas of East Berlin, even spreading to Kreuzberg in West Berlin. One supporter of FC Berlin said: "In 1990, thanks to the many departures to the West, it became clear relatively quickly that there was no flowerpot to be won with the current team. We then turned our attention to other things." Hooligans in East Germany unleashed almost unbridled violence against the representatives of the disintegrating East German state. Violent riots had occurred in Rostock, Dresden, Erfurt and East Berlin. Police had been forced to shoot warning shots during violent riots in Leipzig and one match in the 1990-91 NOFV-Oberliga had already been abandonned due to riots in the stadium.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The situation peaked during a match between FC Sachsen Leipzig and FC Berlin on 3 November 1990. Supporters of FC Berlin travelled in large numbers to Leipzig for the match. The police had only 219 officers available for the match. There were clashes at the Leipzig main railway station, with one police officer injured and 50 supporters taken into custody. A first group of around 100 supporters of FC Berlin entered the Georg-Schwarz-Sportpark in time for kick-off. They had been joined by hooligans of 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, who had forced their way into the stadium. Supporters of both camps tried to attack each other in the stadium and the police had difficulties in maintaining a buffer zone. A second group of around 400 supporters of FC Berlin arrived later at the nearby Leipzig-Leutzsch S-Bahn station at Am Ritterschlößchen street. Fireworks were fired as they made their way to the stadium. The group was blocked from entering the stadium by police equipped with helmets and shields, despite showing valid tickets. The supporters were not given any reason. They were then pushed back by the police using tear gas and truncheons. The group returned to the S-Bahn station and made an attempt to reach the stadium from the Pettenkofer Straße instead. They were again blocked by police who immediately used truncheons.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Riots broke out at the S-Bahn station. The station building was vandalized and numerous cars were smashed or burned, including at least one W 50 police truck and one police car. The police was allegedly outnumbered. However, the high number of supporters of FC Berlin at the scene claimed by the police has been disputed. Cobblestones were thrown at the police waiting at the Pettenkofer Straße. The police now decided to use their firearms. 18-year old supporter Mike Polley () from the locality of Malchow in Berlin was hit by several bullets and instantly killed. He was allegedly about to bend down to a friend when hit. Several others were injured and at least another three people were seriously injured. One supporter of FC Berlin was hit in the head and suffered critical injuries, but survived. The police had fired between 50 and 100 shots in about a minute, from 11 different police pistols. Reports and sources vary on what happened on the scene and how the situation was. The police claim that they were surrounded. But this was rebuffed by an eyewitness. Shots had been fired from distances as long as 30–40 meters. The police had also fired at fleeing supporters. One supporter was hit while trying to escape into an S-Bahn train. Not every injured had come with the supporters of FC Berlin. Also an uninvolved woman was shot in the leg.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: After the shootings, some supporters of FC Berlin left the S-Bahn station by train. Many were shaken, but other wanted to take revenge. A group of supporters stopped a tram, kicked the driver out and maneuvered it down town. Riots now continued in central Leipzig, where policed presence was low. The riots in central Leipzig continued for several hours and the damage was extensive. Supporters of FC Berlin devastated entire streets. All shop windows on the Nikolaistraße opposite the main railway station were broken. There was rampage at the Park Hotel. The ground floor of a department store on Brühl was destroyed. Numerous cars were demolished and up to 31 shops were smashed and looted. Supporters clashed with transport police at the main railway station. New shots were fired by the police, but no one was injured.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Stadium attendance collapsed in 1990. Many supporters stopped attending matches after the Peaceful revolution, as the best players were sold off to clubs in West Germany, sports performance slumped, tickets prices rose, mass unemployment spread and hooligans had come to dominate the stands. Some shifted their focus to ice hockey instead. The average league attendance of the 1990–91 NOFV-Oberliga was by far the lowest in the league history. BFC Dynamo was hit particularly hard by the decline. Average attendance at BFC Dynamo had dropped from 8,385 in the 1988–89 season to 1,076 in the 1990–91 season. Ordinary supporters had disappeared. Only young supporters remained in the stadium at FC Berlin in 1990 and 1991.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The violent faction of FC Berlin would come to shape the entire 1990–91 season. Matches involving FC Berlin were all security matches. A group of 500–600 supporters of FC Berlin travelled with a special train to Rostock for an away match against F.C. Hansa Rostock on 16 March 1991. The police did not manage to control the situation despite a record strong presence of more than 600 officers. Riots broke out in central Rostock, where supporters smashed shops, demolished cars and attacked people. Supporters without tickets stormed the Ostseestadion and there were fights with supporters of F.C. Hansa Rostock around the stadium. Riots at the train station after the match had to be suppressed by the police with tear gas and water cannons. The damage was again extensive. Up to 17 shops at the Wismarischen Straße were smashed and looted, the train station was devastated and the special train was vandalized. Two police officers were injured in the turmoil.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The hooligan scene of FC Berlin at the beginning of the 1990s was considered the most notorious for years in Germany. Hooligans of FC Berlin were subsequently involved in many fights in stadiums, woods and meadows. The youth television programme Elf99 on Deutscher Fernsehfunk (DFF) ran a special story on the hooligans of FC Berlin in August 1991. The story was called "Elf-Spezial: Das randalierende Rätsel – Der Berliner Hooligans zwischen Wahn und Scham?" and can be found on YouTube as of 2020. Hooligans of FC Berlin attacked an asylum shelter in Greifswald in connection to an away match against Greifswalder SC 1926 in the 1991-92 NOFV-Oberliga Nord on 3 November 1991. SV Hafen Rostock 61 subsequently postponed its upcoming league match at home against FC Berlin for security reasons.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Playing for meager crowds in regional leagues, the club eventually became a meeting place for individuals from the Berlin far-right, hooligan and criminal underground. The hooligan scene of FC Berlin developed a connection to the eastern Berlin bouncer scene in the mid-1990s. The eastern Berlin bouncer scene would eventually be almost completely organized from the hooligan scene of BFC Dynamo. One of those involved in the assault on French policeman Daniel Nivel during the 1998 FIFA World Cup had connections to the hooligan scene of FC Berlin. The same man was later linked to organized crime and eventfully involved in a high-profile drug trafficking case.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The match between BFC Dynamo and Berlin Türkspor 1965 in the final of the 1998–99 Berlin Cup on 11 May 1999 was marked by violence. Supporters of BFC Dynamo directed far-right chants and others provocations against Berlin Türkspor 1965 during the match. 400 supporters of BFC Dynamo invaded the pitch after the final whistle to celebrate the title. Some supporters also attacked players of Berlin Türkspor 1965. Two players of Berlin Türkspor 1965 were injured, one of them had suffered a stab wound. BFC Dynamo Club President Volkmar Wanski was able to prevent a total escalation by giving a calming speech over the stadium microphone. He immediately apologized for the behavior of the supporters at the press conference after the match. Older supporters of BFC Dynamo openly expressed their contempt for the far-right supporters that had visited the match. BFC Dynamo and Berlin Türkspor 1965 agreed to meet in a friendly match later in the season and to organize a joint meal for players and responsible. Wanski made it clear in the speakers ahead of the last home match against FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt in the 1998-99 Regionalliga Nordost on 15 May 1999 that "anyone who cannot behave has no business in our stadium".


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Serious riots broke out in Prenzlauer Berg after the match between BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Union Berlin in the quarter finals of the 2000–01 Berlin Cup at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 25 March 2001. Around 150 supporters of BFC Dynamo attacked the police after the match. The police employed water cannons against supporters at Eberswalder Straße and Schönhauser Allee. Nine people, including four police officers, were injured. BFC Dynamo Club President Karin Halsch () and 1. FC Union Berlin Club President Heiner Bertram criticized the police in unison for provocations during the match and for triggering riots. Karin Halsch simultaneously expressed sadness that the riots destroyed a lot of reconstruction work in the club and announced that there would be many stadium bans. Also coach Jürgen Bogs spoke out about "senseless violence" that would once again fall back on the club, but also criticized the police for provocations. Many of those involved in the riots did not come from the supporter scene of BFC Dynamo. Many were visitors from other cities in Germany.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo had the highest number of violent supporters in Germany in 2005. Violence broke out during the match between Tennis Borussia Berlin and BFC Dynamo in the 2004-05 NOFV-Oberliga Nord at the Mommsenstadion on 11 February 2005. A flare was lit and a couple of bangers set off in the guest block at the beginning of the second half. Police then decided to intervene against away supporters. Police officers were pelted with beer cups and attacked by supporters of BFC Dynamo when they entered gest block. Eight police officers were injured and 11 supporters of BFC Dynamo arrested. BFC Dynamo criticized the police operation as "disproportionate". Supporters of BFC Dynamo claimed that they had been called "Nazis", "Ossis" and "Unioners" by police officers. Riots had broken out also when Tennis Borussia Berlin played 1. FC Union Berlin in round of 16 of the 2004-05 Berlin Cup at the Mommsenstadion a couple of weeks before.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Fighting between supporters of BFC Dynamo and police again broke out in connection with the match between BFC Dynamo and SV Yeşilyurt at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 24 April 2005. The mood had been tense during the match. The situation escalated when celebrating supporters of BFC Dynamo attacked the fence after the final whistle. Police intervened with water hoses, batons and tear gas against supporters of BFC Dynamo. Four police officers were injured and five hooligans arrested. One police officer suffered a broken nose and another one a concussion. Riots again broke out in connection to a match between BFC Dynamo and SV Yeşilyurt at the opening of the 2005-06 NOFV-Oberliga Nord at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark 5 August 2005. The match was attended by 1,200 supporters of BFC Dynamo. Hooligans in the crowd threw bottles and stones at police officers during the match. Fights between hooligans and police then broke out after match. Around 150 hooligans had participated in the riots, according to police information. BFC Dynamo spokesperson Yiannis Kaufmann claimed that those involved were a "mob of travelling fans who wants to cause trouble everywhere and now discredit the BFC". As many as 13 police officers were injured in the riots.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Police made a controversial raid against the discotheque Jeton in Friedrichshain where supporters of BFC Dynamo and other people had gathered to celebrate in connection to a fan tournament in memory of Mike Polley on the night of 20 August 2005. The fan tournament had been visited by numerous teams, including teams from FC St. Pauli, 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, Aberdeen F.C., VfL Bochum and Malmö FF. The large-scale police operation involved 300 officers, including 100 members of the SEK. 158 persons were arrested. Among the detainees were 19 Category C-supporters and 22 Category B-supporters. Supporters filed numerous complaints against the police for use of excessive violence. 39 people at the discotheque were injured. Also bystanders were affected. Police initially claimed they had been pelted with bottles and furnishings, but later corrected their statement and admitted that there had been no resistance. The police had allegedly beaten defenseless people. Police stated that the raid was a preventative measure on short notice to prevent hooligans from organizing for the upcoming match against Union Berlin on 21 August 2005. There were speculations that police also took revenge for riots during the match between BFC Dynamo and SV Yeşilyurt at the opening of the season. More than 1,000 police officers were deployed to the derby and the match was played without crowd trouble. Banners in solidarity with the supporters of BFC Dynamo were displayed in 17 football stadiums across Germany during the following matchdays.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The return match between BFC Dynamo and Union Berlin in the 2005–06 NOFV-Oberliga Nord was played at the Stadion im Sportforum on 13 May 2006. The standing was 1–1 when supporters of BFC Dynamo invaded the pitch in an attempt to storm the block of Union Berlin around the 75th minute. Supporters of Union Berlin fled in panic. The match was abandoned and Union Berlin was awarded a 2–0 win. The players of BFC Dynamo wore the motto "No power of violence" on their shirts in the following match against BFC Preussen away on 17 May 2006. The Stadion im Sportforum was temporarily closed for matches in the NOFV-Oberliga Nord after the riots. The riots during the match against 1. FC Union Berlin threw the club into a financial crisis. Treasurer Sven Radicke concluded: "Four years of our work were ruined in five minutes".


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: BFC Dynamo has often attracted hooligans from outside, and hooligans who are otherwise not involved in the supporter scene, to high-profile matches. The club has repeatedly complained about so-called "riot tourists". Riots broke out after the match against Berliner AK 07 in the final of the 2009–10 Berlin Cup at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 2 June 2010. Around 100–150 supporters of BFC Dynamo attempted to invade the pitch after the final whistle. Match stewards and players of BFC Dynamo threw themselves in to restrain supporters and prevent further riots. Goalkeeper Nico Thomaschewski later received an award from the Berlin Football Association (BFV) for his actions. Polish fans of Pogoń Szczecin were allegedly linked to the riots. Those who had invaded the pitch were whistled by other supporters of BFC Dynamo when they returned to the stands.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Major riots then occurred after the match against 1. FC Kaiserslautern in the first round of the 2011-12 DFB-Pokal at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 3 July 2011. Around 200–300 supporters of BFC Dynamo invaded the buffer zone and stormed the guest block after the match. 18 police officers and many supporters from Kaiserslautern were injured in the attack. The Chairman of the Economic Council Peter Meyer openly expressed his embarrassment and disappointment over the behavior of some supporters and publicly apologized. There were allegations that hooligans outside the BFC Dynamo environment had been involved. While the police stated that most of those arrested were from Berlin, the club claimed it had never seen most of the recent perpetrators before.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The contemporary supporter scene contains various subcultures and categories of supporters. It ranges from older supporters to younger ultras. Older supporters constitute an essential part of the supporter scene. Many are active in the supporter group 79er. The group is credited for its commitment to the club, notably the youth teams. Its members have been supporters of BFC Dynamo since the late 1970s.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: The supporter scene played an important part in saving the club from bankruptcy in 2001. Supporters organized a demonstration against the impending bankruptcy. The demonstration marched from the Sportforum to the Rotes Rathaus where it was met by the former club president and SPD politician Karin Halsch. Supporters threw parties and organized collections, made donations and travelled to countries such as Austria and Switzerland to convince creditors to accept smaller pay-offs in order to save the cub. Supporters also installed bucket seats at the Stadion im Sportforum and built a new clubhouse in the Sportforum during the insolvency. The insolvency crisis remains a defining moment for older supporters. The supporter scene has traditionally arranged an annual Mike-Polley-Gedenkturnier, which is a football fan tournament in memory of Mike Polley. The first edition of the fan tournament was arranged in the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen in 2003 and comprised 28 teams. A march in memory of Mike Polley in Leipzig in 2018 was attended by 850 supporters of BFC Dynamo.


title: Berliner FC Dynamo

text: Supporter group Fraktion H was founded in 2006 by younger supporters who wanted to create more atmosphere in the stadium. A minor ultras scene then emerged with the founding of Ultras BFC in 2011. The ultras of BFC Dynamo have initiated campaigns such as "Brown is not Claret" and have also engaged in football tournaments for refugees. The club has encouraged the new groups of younger supporters and club management has taken a stand against racism and right-wing extremism. Fraktion H maintains a friendship with the supporters of Eintracht Trier, while members of Ultras BFC have contacts with the ultras of Swedish side GAIS.