title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Zhikong Hydro Power Station lies between the middle and lower reaches of the Lhasa River, also called the Kyi River.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The rural counties generally have numerous primary schools at the village level, with high levels of attendance, and at least one secondary school.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In 2010 there were 28 schools in Dagzê County, including one junior high school and one kindergarten.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Outside Lhasa most of the Tibetans do not understand the Chinese language, so Tibetan is the natural language for basic instruction. However, this may be affected by the availability of teachers and the preference of the local administration.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: As of 2003 the former bilingual mode of instruction had been changed to giving instruction in Chinese in some of the counties near Lhasa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Examination results were already poor in subjects such as mathematics and physics. Marks dropped further after the change.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: There were seven hospitals in Damxung in 2009, including a county hospital, with a total of 40 beds. The first drug rehabilitation center in Tibet was being constructed in Duilongdeqing County in 2009. It was planned to provide physiological rehabilitation, psychological therapy and job training for up to 150 drug addicts.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Lhünzhub County has 23 health care establishments, including a County People's Hospital with 30 beds.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Maizhokunggar has been selected as a Cooperative Medical System experimental site, which has resulted in a very high percentage of people with health care coverage.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Nyêmo County has a county hospital with 42 medical staff, eight rural health centers and 26 village clinics.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Lhünzhub County has a local radio and television station. TV coverage is received by 72.1% of the population, and radio by 83.4% of the population.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The first mobile phone service was launched in 1993 with just one base station in Lhasa, and as late as 2005 mobile phones were expensive status symbols. Since then both mobile phones and internet usage have grown fast.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: As of 1996 the sole prison ("jianyu") for judicially-sentenced political prisoners in Tibet was TAR Prison No. 1, also called Drapchi Prison after the neighborhood in Lhasa where it stands. It is for men serving sentences of five or more years. There is a labor camp ("laogai") in Lhasa for men serving shorter sentences.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: There are various other institutions where prisoners from "Lhasa shi" are held while they are being investigated, or where they undergo reform-through-labor.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of Tibet by king Songtsän Gampo (died 649) at a time when the rise of Hinduism was sweeping away Buddhism in India, the land of its birth. Over the next two centuries Buddhism became established in Tibet, now the center of the religion.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Its buildings were arranged in a mandala pattern after the Odantapuri monastery in Bihar. The three-story monastery was completed in 766 and consecrated in 767.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Seven Tibetans took monastic vows in a ceremony that marked the start of the long Tibetan tradition of monastic Buddhism.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Yerpa, on a hillside in Dagze County, is known for its meditation cave connected with Songtsän Gampo.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The cliffs contain some of the earliest known meditation sites in Tibet, some dating back to pre-Buddhist times. There are a number of small temples, shrines and hermitages.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Jokhang in Chengguan District is the most sacred temple in Tibet, built in the 7th century when Songtsän Gampo transferred his capital to Lhasa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It was designed to house an image of Buddha that the Nepalese queen Tritsun had brought. Later rulers and Dalai Lamas enlarged and elaborated the temple.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Ramoche Temple to the north of Jokhang is considered the most important temple in Lhasa after Jokhang, and was completed about the same time.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Muru Nyingba Monastery is a small monastery located between the larger Jokhang temple and Barkhor in the city of Lhasa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It was destroyed during the persecution of Buddhism under Langdarma () but rebuilt by Atiśa (980–1054).


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The monastery was part of the Sakya sect at one time. but became Gelug under Sonam Gyatso, the 3rd Dalai Lama (1543–89).


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Some sources say that Atiśa (980–1054) built the monastery, which was expanded after his death by his pupil Dromtön (1004–64).


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: When the Gedain sect joined the Gelug sect in the 16th century the monastery adopted the reincarnation system.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Tsurphu Monastery in Doilungdêqên District was built in 1189 and is treated as a regional cultural relic reserve.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It was destroyed in 1290 by Mongols led by a general from the rival Sakya sect, and although rebuilt was never able to regain its power.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Yangpachen Monastery in Yangbajain, Damxung County was historically the seat of the Shamarpas of Karma Kagyu.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It is the main monastery of the Red Hat school of the Karma Kagyu sect. It was built in 1490, and through extensive repairs and additions grew into a major architectural complex that contained a large collection of cultural relics. The Red Hat school of Karma Kagyu died out in 1791.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Other monasteries founded outside the Gelug tradition include Taklung Monastery of the Kagyu school, founded in 1180 in Lhünzhub County, and Nyêmo Chekar monastery of the Bodongpa school, founded in the 16th century in Nyêmo County.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Ganden Monastery was built after 1409 at the initiative of Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelug sect, and is the most important of this sect. It is from Lhasa on the slopes of Wangbori Mountain at an elevation of , on the south bank of the Lhasa River in Dagze County. The mountain is said to have the shape of a reclining elephant.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Drepung Monastery in Chengguan District was founded in 1416 by Jamyang Choge Tashi Palden (1397–1449), one of Tsongkhapa's main disciples.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: At one time Drepung Monastery, with up to 10,000 resident monks, was the largest in the world. Sera Monastery was not much smaller.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Sera Monastery, about north of Lhasa, was founded in 1419 by Jamchen Chöjé Shakya Yeshé (1354–1435), a close disciple of Tsongkhapa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Nechung Monastery, former home of the Nechung Oracle, is located in Naiquong township, also in Duilongdeqing County. Nechung was built by the 5th Dalai Lama (1617–82). Other Gelug foundations include Sanga Monastery (1419, Dagzê County), Ani Tsankhung Nunnery (15th century, Chengguan District), Kundeling Monastery (1663, Chengguan District), and Tsomon Ling (17th century, Chengguan District).


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Most of the monasteries in the prefecture-level city suffered damage, and many were destroyed, before and during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76).


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Jokhang was used as a military barracks and a slaughterhouse during the Cultural Revolution, and then as a hotel for Chinese officials.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Many of the statues were taken, or were damaged or destroyed, so most of the present statues are recent copies.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Ramoche Temple was badly damaged during the Cultural Revolution but has been restored with assistance from the Swiss.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Nyethang Drolma Temple survived the Cultural Revolution without much damage, and was able to preserve most of its valuable artifacts, due to the intervention of Premier Zhou Enlai at the request of the government of what is now Bangladesh.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Reting Monastery was devastated by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution, and has only been partially restored.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Before and during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) Drigung Monastery was looted of almost all its collection of statues, stupas, thangkas, manuscripts and other objects apart from a few small statues that the monks managed to hide. The buildings were severely damaged.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Nine sites in the Lhasa valley were listed in 1985 by the TAR Cultural Relics Authority as "regionally protected buildings".


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: These were Tsangkung Nunnery, Meru Monastery and Great Kashmiri Mosque in the old city, and the Karmashar Temple, Meru Nyingba Monastery and Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western Rigsum Temples elsewhere in the former prefecture.


title: On the Run II Tour

text: The On the Run II Tour was the second co-headlining stadium tour by American singer Beyoncé and rapper Jay-Z. The tour began on June 6, 2018, in Cardiff and ended on October 4, 2018, in Seattle. This is their first tour together since On the Run Tour in 2014.


title: On the Run II Tour

text: "Billboard" stated the tour could double the On the Run Tour's gross, predicting it could gross between $180 million and $200 million, if the success of the previous tour is replicated.


title: On the Run II Tour

text: Following the first day of general sale, an extra show was added in Amsterdam, after the first date sold out within an hour, as well as in Paris, Landover, East Rutherford, Chicago, Atlanta, Houston, Pasadena and London. Newly added shows were also announced on March 20, in Columbus, Columbia, Seattle, and London.


title: On the Run II Tour

text: Billboard ranked On the Run II Tour as the 3rd-highest-grossing tour of the year, selling over 2,177,049 tickets and grossing over $253 million.


title: On the Run II Tour

text: The opening show in Cardiff received positive reviews. Mark Sutherland from "Rolling Stone" gave the opening show in Cardiff a positive review. He called it a sort of reaffirmation of dominance for the pair as they deliver a "a hits-packed, visually stunning show". Writing for "The Guardian", Rachel Aroesti awarded the concert four out of five stars and noted that the concept of the show revolved around the singers showing the "deathless nature of their love rather than its perfection". Beyoncé was critiqued after some of her "biggest hits" were left out of the set list on the opening night, including "Halo" and "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)". However, with over 60 songs rehearsed for the tour, the set list was believed to change between shows.


title: On the Run II Tour

text: Bonginkosi Tshabalala of "No Name" publications added that the show at Houston proved that "no matter what happens LOVE wins".


title: Star cluster

text: Star clusters are large groups of stars. Two main types of star clusters can be distinguished: globular clusters are tight groups of ten thousand to millions of old stars which are gravitationally bound, while open clusters are more loosely clustered groups of stars, generally containing fewer than a few hundred members, and are often very young. Open clusters become disrupted over time by the gravitational influence of giant molecular clouds as they move through the galaxy, but cluster members will continue to move in broadly the same direction through space even though they are no longer gravitationally bound; they are then known as a stellar association, sometimes also referred to as a "moving group".


title: Star cluster

text: Open clusters are very different from globular clusters. Unlike the spherically distributed globulars, they are confined to the galactic plane, and are almost always found within spiral arms. They are generally young objects, up to a few tens of millions of years old, with a few rare exceptions as old as a few billion years, such as Messier 67 (the closest and most observed old open cluster) for example. They form H II regions such as the Orion Nebula.


title: Star cluster

text: Open clusters usually contain up to a few hundred members, within a region up to about 30 light-years across. Being much less densely populated than globular clusters, they are much less tightly gravitationally bound, and over time, are disrupted by the gravity of giant molecular clouds and other clusters. Close encounters between cluster members can also result in the ejection of stars, a process known as 'evaporation'.


title: Star cluster

text: The most prominent open clusters are the Pleiades and Hyades in Taurus. The Double Cluster of h+Chi Persei can also be prominent under dark skies. Open clusters are often dominated by hot young blue stars, because although such stars are short-lived in stellar terms, only lasting a few tens of millions of years, open clusters tend to have dispersed before these stars die.


title: Star cluster

text: Establishing precise distances to open clusters enables the calibration of the period-luminosity relationship shown by Cepheids variable stars, which are then used as standard candles. Cepheids are luminous and can be used to establish both the distances to remote galaxies and the expansion rate of the Universe (Hubble constant). Indeed, the open cluster NGC 7790 hosts three classical Cepheids which are critical for such efforts.


title: Star cluster

text: Embedded clusters are groups of very young stars that are partially or fully encased in an Interstellar dust or gas which is often impervious to optical observations. Embedded clusters form in molecular clouds, when the clouds begin to collapse and form stars. There is often ongoing star formation in these clusters, so embedded clusters may be home to various types of young stellar objects including protostars and pre-main-sequence stars. An example of an embedded cluster is the Trapezium Cluster in the Orion Nebula. In ρ Ophiuchi cloud (L1688) core region there is an embedded cluster.


title: Star cluster

text: The embedded cluster phase may last for several million years, after which gas in the cloud is depleted by star formation or dispersed through radiation pressure, stellar winds and outflows, or supernova explosions. In general less than 30% of cloud mass is converted to stars before the cloud is dispersed, but this fraction may be higher in particularly dense parts of the cloud. With the loss of mass in the cloud, the energy of the system is altered, often leading to the disruption of a star cluster. Most young embedded clusters disperse shortly after the end of star formation.


title: Star cluster

text: The open clusters found in the Galaxy are former embedded clusters that were able to survive early cluster evolution. However, nearly all freely floating stars, including the Sun, were originally born into embedded clusters that disintegrated.


title: Star cluster

text: Globular clusters are roughly spherical groupings of from 10 thousand to several million stars packed into regions of from 10 to 30 light-years across. They commonly consist of very old Population II stars – just a few hundred million years younger than the universe itself – which are mostly yellow and red, with masses less than two solar masses. Such stars predominate within clusters because hotter and more massive stars have exploded as supernovae, or evolved through planetary nebula phases to end as white dwarfs. Yet a few rare blue stars exist in globulars, thought to be formed by stellar mergers in their dense inner regions; these stars are known as blue stragglers.


title: Star cluster

text: In the Milky Way galaxy, globular clusters are distributed roughly spherically in the galactic halo, around the Galactic Center, orbiting the center in highly elliptical orbits. In 1917, the astronomer Harlow Shapley made the first respectable estimate of the Sun's distance from the Galactic Center, based on the distribution of globular clusters.


title: Star cluster

text: Until the mid-1990s, globular clusters were the cause of a great mystery in astronomy, as theories of stellar evolution gave ages for the oldest members of globular clusters that were greater than the estimated age of the universe. However, greatly improved distance measurements to globular clusters using the Hipparcos satellite and increasingly accurate measurements of the Hubble constant resolved the paradox, giving an age for the universe of about 13 billion years and an age for the oldest stars of a few hundred million years less.


title: Star cluster

text: Our Galaxy has about 150 globular clusters, some of which may have been captured cores of small galaxies stripped of stars previously in their outer margins by the tides of the Milky Way, as seems to be the case for the globular cluster M79. Some galaxies are much richer in globulars than the Milky Way: The giant elliptical galaxy M87 contains over a thousand.


title: Star cluster

text: A few of the brightest globular clusters are visible to the naked eye; the brightest, Omega Centauri, was observed in antiquity and catalogued as a star, before the telescopic age. The brightest globular cluster in the northern hemisphere is M13 in the constellation of Hercules.


title: Star cluster

text: Super star clusters are very large regions of recent star formation, and are thought to be the precursors of globular clusters. Examples include Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way.


title: Star cluster

text: In 2005, astronomers discovered a new type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy, which is, in several ways, very similar to globular clusters although less dense. No such clusters (which also known as "extended globular clusters") are known in the Milky Way. The three discovered in Andromeda Galaxy are M31WFS C1 M31WFS C2, and M31WFS C3.


title: Star cluster

text: These new-found star clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars, a similar number to globular clusters. The clusters also share other characteristics with globular clusters, "e.g." the stellar populations and metallicity. What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger – several hundred light-years across – and hundreds of times less dense. The distances between the stars are thus much greater. The clusters have properties intermediate between globular clusters and dwarf spheroidal galaxies.


title: Star cluster

text: How these clusters are formed is not yet known, but their formation might well be related to that of globular clusters. Why M31 has such clusters, while the Milky Way has not, is not yet known. It is also unknown if any other galaxy contains this kind of clusters, but it would be very unlikely that M31 is the sole galaxy with extended clusters.


title: Star cluster

text: Another type of cluster are "faint fuzzies" which so far have only been found in lenticular galaxies like NGC 1023 and NGC 3384. They are characterized by their large size compared to globular clusters and a ringlike distribution around the centres of their host galaxies. As the latter they seem to be old objects.


title: Star cluster

text: Star clusters are important in many areas of astronomy. The reason behind this is that almost all the stars in old clusters were born at roughly the same time. Various properties of all the stars in a cluster are a function only of mass, and so stellar evolution theories rely on observations of open and globular clusters. This is primarily true for old globular clusters. In the case of young (age < 1Gyr) and intermediate-age (1 < age < 5 Gyr), factors such as age, mass, chemical compositions may also play vital roles. Based on their ages, star clusters can reveal a lot of information about their host galaxies. For example, star clusters residing in the Magellanic Clouds can provide essential information about the formation of the Magellanic Clouds dwarf galaxies. This, in turn, can help us understand many astrophysical processes happening in our own Milky Way Galaxy. These clusters, especially the young ones can explain the star formation process that might have happened in our Milky Way Galaxy.


title: Star cluster

text: Clusters are also a crucial step in determining the distance scale of the universe. A few of the nearest clusters are close enough for their distances to be measured using parallax. A Hertzsprung–Russell diagram can be plotted for these clusters which has absolute values known on the luminosity axis. Then, when similar diagram is plotted for a cluster whose distance is not known, the position of the main sequence can be compared to that of the first cluster and the distance estimated. This process is known as main-sequence fitting. Reddening and stellar populations must be accounted for when using this method.


title: Star cluster

text: Nearly all stars in the Galactic field, including the Sun, were initially born in regions with embedded clusters that disintegrated. This means that properties of stars and planetary systems may have been affected by early clustered environments. This appears to be the case for our own Solar System, in which chemical abundances point to the effects of a supernova from a nearby star early in our Solar System's history.


title: Star cluster

text: Technically not star clusters, star clouds are large groups of many stars within a galaxy, spread over very many light-years of space. Often they contain star clusters within them. The stars appear closely packed, but are not usually part of any structure. Within the Milky Way, star clouds show through gaps between dust clouds of the Great Rift, allowing deeper views along our particular line of sight. Star clouds have also been identified in other nearby galaxies. Examples of star clouds include the Large Sagittarius Star Cloud, Small Sagittarius Star Cloud, Scutum Star Cloud, Cygnus Star Cloud, Norma Star Cloud, and NGC 206 in the Andromeda Galaxy.


title: Star cluster

text: In 1979, the International Astronomical Union's 17th general assembly recommended that newly discovered star clusters, open or globular, within the Galaxy have designations following the convention "Chhmm±ddd", always beginning with the prefix "C", where "h", "m", and "d" represent the approximate coordinates of the cluster centre in hours and minutes of right ascension, and degrees of declination, respectively, with leading zeros. The designation, once assigned, is not to change, even if subsequent measurements improve on the location of the cluster centre. The first of such designations were assigned by Gosta Lynga in 1982.


title: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave

text: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is an 1845 memoir and treatise on abolition written by famous orator and former slave Frederick Douglass during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts. It is generally held to be the most famous of a number of narratives written by former slaves during the same period. In factual detail, the text describes the events of his life and is considered to be one of the most influential pieces of literature to fuel the abolitionist movement of the early 19th century in the United States.


text: "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass" encompasses eleven chapters that recount Douglass's life as a slave and his ambition to become a free man. It contains two introductions by well-known white abolitionists: a preface by William Lloyd Garrison, and a letter by Wendell Phillips, both arguing for the veracity of the account and the literacy of its author.


text: Douglass begins by explaining that he does not know the date of his birth (he later chose February 14, 1818), and that his mother died when he was 7 years old. He has very few memories of her (children were commonly separated from their mothers), only of the rare nighttime visit. He thinks his father is a white man, possibly his owner. At a very early age, he sees his Aunt Hester being whipped. Douglass details the cruel interaction that occurs between slaves and slaveholders, as well as how slaves are supposed to behave in the presence of their masters. Douglass says that fear is what kept many slaves in forced servitude, for when they told the truth they were punished by their owners.


text: At this point in the "Narrative", Douglass is moved to Baltimore, Maryland. This move is rather important for him because he believes that if he had not been moved, he would have remained a slave his entire life. He even starts to have hope for a better life in the future. He also discusses his new mistress, Mrs. Sophia Auld, who begins as a very kind woman but eventually turns cruel. Douglass learns the alphabet and how to spell small words from this woman, but her husband, Mr. Auld, disapproves and states that if slaves could read, they would not be fit to be slaves, being unmanageable and sad. Upon hearing why Mr. Auld disapproves of slaves being taught how to read, Douglass realizes the importance of reading and the possibilities that this skill could help him. He takes it upon himself to learn how to read and learn all he can, but at times, this newfound skill torments him. Douglass then gains an understanding of the word "abolition" and develops the idea to run away to the North. He also learns how to write and how to read well.


text: At the age of ten or eleven, Douglass's master dies and his property is left to be divided between the master's son and daughter. The slaves are valued along with the livestock, causing Douglass to develop a new hatred of slavery. He feels lucky when he is sent back to Baltimore to live with the family of Master Hugh.


text: He is then moved through a few situations before he is sent to St. Michael's. His regret at not having attempted to run away is evident, but on his voyage he makes a mental note that he traveled in the North-Easterly direction and considers this information to be of extreme importance. For some time, he lives with Master Thomas Auld who is particularly cruel, even after attending a Methodist camp. Douglass is pleased when he eventually is lent to Mr. Covey for a year, simply because he would be fed. Mr. Covey is known as a "negro-breaker", who breaks the will of slaves.


text: While under the control of Mr. Covey, Douglass is a field hand and has an especially hard time at the tasks required of him. He is harshly whipped almost on a weekly basis, apparently due to his awkwardness. He is worked and beaten to exhaustion, which finally causes him to collapse one day while working in the fields. Because of this, he is brutally beaten once more by Covey. Douglass eventually complains to Thomas Auld, who subsequently sends him back to Covey. A few days later, Covey attempts to tie up Douglass, but he fights back. After a two-hour long physical battle, Douglass ultimately conquers Covey. After this fight, he is never beaten again. Douglass is not punished by the law, which is believed to be due to the fact that Covey cherishes his reputation as a "negro-breaker", which would be jeopardized if others knew what happened. When his one-year contract ends under Covey, Douglass is sent to live on William Freeland's plantation. Douglass comments on the abuse suffered under Covey, a religious man, and the relative peace under the more favorable, but more secular, Freeland. On Freeland's plantation, Douglass befriends other slaves and teaches them how to read. Douglass and a small group of slaves make a plan to escape, but before doing so, they are caught and Douglass is put in jail. Following his release about a week later, he is sent to Baltimore once more, but this time to learn a trade. He becomes an apprentice in a shipyard under Mr. Gardner where he is disliked by several white apprentices due to his slave status and race; at one point he gets into a fight with them and they nearly gouge out his left eye. Woefully beaten, Douglass goes to Master Hugh, who is kind regarding this situation and refuses to let Douglass return to the shipyard. Master Hugh tries to find a lawyer but all refuse, saying they can only do something for a white person. Sophia Auld, who had turned cruel under the influence of slavery, feels pity for Douglass and tends to the wound at his left eye until he is healed. At this point, Douglass is employed as a caulker and receives wages, but is forced to give every cent to Master Auld in due time. Douglass eventually finds his own job and plans the date in which he will escape to the North. He succeeds in reaching New Bedford, but does not give details of how he does so in order to protect those who help him to allow the possibility for other slaves to escape by similar means. Douglass unites with his fiancée and begins working as his own master. He attends an anti-slavery convention and eventually becomes a well-known orator and abolitionist.


text: Douglass's appendix clarifies that he is not against religion as a whole; instead he referred to "the "slaveholding religion" of this land, and with no possible reference to Christianity proper". He condemns the hypocrisy in southern Christianity between what is taught and the actions of the slaveowners who practice it. He compares their Christianity to the practices of "the ancient scribes and Pharisees" and quotes passages from Matthew 23 calling them hypocrites. At the end, he includes a satire of a hymn "said to have been drawn, several years before the present anti-slavery agitation began, by a northern Methodist preacher, who, while residing at the south, had an opportunity to see slaveholding morals, manners, and piety, with his own eyes", titled simply "A Parody". It criticizes religious slaveowners, each stanza ending with the phrase "heavenly union", mimicking the original's form.


text: The "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass" was published on May 1, 1845, and within four months of this publication, five thousand copies were sold. By 1860, almost 30,000 copies were sold. After publication, he left Lynn, Massachusetts and sailed to England and Ireland for two years in fear of being recaptured by his owner in the United States. While in Britain and Ireland, he gained supporters who paid $710.96 to purchase his emancipation from his legal owner. One of the more significant reasons Douglass published his "Narrative" was to offset the demeaning manner in which white people viewed him. When he spoke in public, his white abolitionist associates established limits to what he could say on the platform. More specifically, they did not want him to analyze the current slavery issues or to shape the future for black people. However, once "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass" was published, he was given the liberty to begin more ambitious work on the issue rather than giving the same speeches repetitively. Because of the work in his "Narrative", Douglass gained significant credibility from those who previously did not believe the story of his past. While Douglass was in Ireland, the Dublin edition of the book was published by the abolitionist printer Richard D. Webb to great acclaim and Douglass would write extensively in later editions very positively about his experience in Ireland. His newfound liberty on the platform eventually led him to start a black newspaper against the advice of his "fellow" abolitionists. The publication of "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass" opened several doors, not only for Douglass's ambitious work, but also for the anti-slavery movement of that time.


text: "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass" received many positive reviews, but there was a group of people who opposed Douglass's work. One of his biggest critics, A. C. C. Thompson, was a neighbor of Thomas Auld, who was the master of Douglass for some time. As seen in "Letter from a Slave Holder" by A. C. C. Thompson, found in the Norton Critical Edition of "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave", he claimed that the slave he knew was "an unlearned, and rather an ordinary negro". Thompson was confident that Douglass "was not capable of writing the Narrative". He also disputed the "Narrative" when Douglass described the various cruel white slave holders that he either knew or knew of. Prior to the publication of "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass", the public could not fathom how it was possible for a former slave to appear to be so educated. Upon listening to his oratory, many were skeptical of the stories he told. After Douglass's publication, however, the public was swayed. Also found in "The Norton Critical Edition", Margaret Fuller, a prominent book reviewer and literary critic of that era, had a high regard of Douglass's work. She claimed, "we have never read [a narrative] more simple, true, coherent, and warm with genuine feeling". She also suggested that "every one may read his book and see what a mind might have been stifled in bondage — what a man may be subjected to the insults of spendthrift dandies, or the blows of mercenary brutes, in whom there is no whiteness except of the skin, no humanity in the outward form". Douglass's work in this "Narrative" was an influential piece of literature in the anti-slavery movement.


text: Angela Y. Davis analyzed Douglass's "Narrative" in two lectures delivered at UCLA in 1969, titled "Recurring Philosophical Themes in Black Literature." Those lectures were subsequently published during Davis's imprisonment in 1970–1971 as the 24-page pamphlet "Lectures on Liberation". The lectures, along with a 2009 introduction by Davis, were republished in Davis's 2010 new critical edition of the "Narrative".


text: The first chapter of this text has also been mobilized in several major texts that have become foundational texts in contemporary Black studies: Hortense Spillers in her article "Mama's Baby, Papa's Maybe: An American Grammar Book” (1987); Saidiya Hartman in her book "Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America" (1997), and Fred Moten in his book "In the Break: The Aesthetics of the Black Radical Tradition" (2003). Each author uniquely contends with and navigates through Douglass’ writing. Specifically, each author has a divergent approach to revisiting or reproducing narratives of the suffering enslaved body. These divergences on Douglass are further reflected in their differing explorations of the conditions where subject and object positions of the enslaved body are produced and/or troubled. Spillers mobilizes Douglass’ description of his and his siblings’ early separation from their mother and subsequent estrangement from each other to articulate how the syntax of subjectivity, in particular “kinship”, has a historically specific relationship to the objectifying formations of chattel slavery which denied genetic links and familial bonds between the enslaved. This denial was part of the processes that worked to reinforce the enslaved position as property and object. Spillers frames Douglass’ narrative as writing that, although frequently returned to, still has the ability to “astonish” contemporary readers with each return to this scene of enslaved grief and loss (Spillers, “Mama’s Baby”, 76). By tracing the historical conditions of captivity through which slave humanity is defined as “absence from a subject position” narratives like Douglass’, chronicles of the Middle Passage, and Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, are framed as impression points that have not lost their affective potential or become problematically familiar through repetitions or revisions (Spillers, “Mama’s Baby”, 66). Spillers own (re)visitation of Douglass’ narrative suggests that these efforts are a critical component to her assertion that “[i]n order for me to speak a truer word concerning myself, I must strip down through layers of attenuated meanings, made an excess in time, over time, assigned by a particular historical order, and there await whatever marvels of my own inventiveness” (Spillers, "Mama's Baby", 65).


text: In contrast to Spiller’s articulation that repetition does not rob Douglass’ narrative of its power, Saidiya Hartman explores how an over familiarity with narratives of the suffering enslaved body is problematic. In Hartman's work, repeated “exposure of the violated body” is positioned as a process that can lead to a benumbing “indifference to suffering” (Hartman, Scenes of Objection, 4). This turn away from Douglass’ description of the violence carried out against his Aunt Hester is contextualized by Hartman's critical examination of 19th century abolitionist writings in the Antebellum South. These abolitionist narratives included extreme representations of violence carried out against the enslaved body which were included to establish the slave's humanity and evoke empathy while exposing the terrors of the institution. However, Hartman posits that these abolitionist efforts, which may have intended to convey enslaved subjectivities, actually aligned more closely to replications of objectivity since they “reinforce[d] the ‘thingly’ quality of the captive by reducing the body to evidence” (Hartman, Scenes of Subjection, 19). Instead of concentrating on these narratives that dramatized violence and the suffering black body, Hartman is more focused on revealing the quotidian ways that enslaved personhood and objectivity were selectively constructed or brought into tension in scenes like the coffle, coerced performances of slave leisure on the plantation, and the popular theater of the Antebellum South.


text: Fred Moten's engagement with "Narrative of The Life of Frederick Douglass" echoes Spillers assertion that “every writing as a revision makes the ‘discovery’ all over again” (Spillers, 69). In his book chapter “Resistance of the Object: Aunt Hester’s Scream” he speaks to Hartman's move away from Aunt Hester's experience of violence. Moten questions whether Hartman's opposition to reproducing this narrative is not actually a direct move through a relationship between violence and the captive body positioned as object, that she had intended to avoid. Moten suggests that as Hartman outlines the reasons for her opposition, her written reference to the narrative and the violence of its content may indeed be an inevitable reproduction. This is reflected in his question “of whether performance in general is ever outside the economy of reproduction” (Moten, In the Break, 4). A key parameter in Moten's analytical method and the way he engages with Hartman's work is an exploration of blackness as a positional framework through which objectivity and humanity are performed. This suggests that an attempt to move beyond the violence and object position of Aunt Hester would always be first a move through these things. Through this framework of the performativity of blackness Moten's revisitation of Douglass’ narrative explores how the sounds of black performance might trouble conventional understandings of subjectivity and subjective speech.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Carlos Tavares (born 14 August 1958) is a Portuguese businessman, and the chief executive officer (CEO) of Stellantis, the world's sixth largest automaker by sales, formed by the merger of the PSA Group and Fiat Chrysler Automobiles. He was formerly the chief operating officer at Renault.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Carlos Tavares was born in 1958 in Lisbon, his father was an accountant working for a French insurer and his mother was a French teacher. His passion for cars came at the age of 14 when he discovered motor racing, during an open day at the Estoril circuit, near Lisbon.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: After studying at the Lycée français Charles-Lepierre in Lisbon, he left his native country for France at the age of 17 to follow a preparatory course in maths at the Lycée Pierre-de-Fermat in Toulouse. He then graduated as an engineer from the École centrale Paris in 1981.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Between 2004 and 2011, he worked for Nissan, Renault's partner in the Renault–Nissan Alliance (now Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance), first as programme director and then as vice-president, product strategy and product planning. In 2005 Tavares was appointed executive vice-president, joining the board of directors. By 2009, he oversaw Nissan's presence in North and South America.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: By 2011, he moved back to Renault to become chief operating officer, the number two executive under Carlos Ghosn, the chairman and chief executive officer of Renault and Nissan. Tavares had much in common with Ghosn, as both were "raised in Portuguese-speaking environments. Both went on to graduate from French Grandes Ecoles and - perhaps less surprisingly - both like fast cars". However, Tavares resigned from Renault on August 29, 2013, two weeks after publicly saying that he wanted to become CEO at an automaker, and Tavares reportedly refusing Ghosn's demand that he apologize to staff for the gaffe. It was said that Tavares was ambitious and sought more responsibilities at Renault, however Ghosn was only four years older and had no plans to step aside soon.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Tavares has served as the chief executive officer and Chairman of the Managing Board of Groupe PSA since 2014, replacing . During his tenure, he has spearheaded cost-cutting measures and increased the company's market share in China, which returned Groupe PSA back to profitability after several years of losses. In 2014, under his leadership, DS Automobiles is created as a stand-alone brand.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Tavares became CEO of Groupe PSA in 2014. As CEO, he gathered praise for the PSA take over of Opel and return to profitability of Opel, and for PSA's record sales and profits. However, PSA sales in China slipped again. Furthermore, he instigated the proposed merger of PSA with Fiat Chrysler Automobiles.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: On January 16, 2021, Tavares became the first chief executive officer of the multinational automobile group Stellantis, resulting from the merger between the PSA group and Fiat Chrysler Automobiles.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: On January 19, 2021, during the group's first press conference, he announced that he wanted to achieve 5 billion euros in synergies, particularly in terms of investment, sharing of engines and platforms, and development. He also announced that he wanted to relaunch the most fragile brands, which could benefit from new investments.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: In their campaigns ahead of the 2022 French presidential election, incumbent President Emmanuel Macron and his challenger Marine Le Pen called Tavares' 2021 compensation package – around 19 million euros ($20.5 million), plus a stock package worth some additional 32 million euros and long-term compensation of about 25 million euros – "shocking".


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Tavares is married and father of three children. He is also known to be close to the former Prime Minister of Portugal José Sócrates.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: Passionate about cars, he already volunteered at the age of 14 to be a track marshal on the Estoril circuit. He has been an amateur racing driver since the age of twenty-two.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: In 1983, he started as a driver in rallies and endurance races with his friends Bruno Cébile, as co-driver, and Arnaud Montagné, as technical assistant. He notably participated in the Monte-Carlo Rally and he has his own team "Clementeam Racing", by analogy with his daughter's first name.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: In 2014, together with Jean-Louis Daughter, Denis Gibaud and Jérôme Maudet, Carlos Tavares won the A2 class of the Barcelona 24 Hours with a "Peugeot RCZ Cup" operated by Milan Competition.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: He also collects classic cars and owns a "Peugeot 504 V6 Coupé" from 1979, an "Alpine A110" from 1976 and a "Porsche 912" from 1966.


title: Carlos Tavares

text: He is a member of the jury at the Chantilly Arts & Elegance Richard Mille 2017 and 2019, an automobile elegance competition.


title: Natalie Anderson

text: Natalie Jane Anderson (born on 24 October 1981) is an English actress, singer and television presenter. She is known for her roles as Stella Davenport in the medical drama "The Royal" from 2005 to 2008 and Alicia Metcalfe in the ITV soap opera "Emmerdale" from 2010 to 2015. She also played the role of Nessarose in the London production "Wicked" from May 2009 to March 2010. In 2015, she began appearing on the ITV talk shows "This Morning" and "Loose Women" on a recurring basis; Anderson also portrayed the role of Lexi Calder in the Channel 4 soap opera "Hollyoaks" from 2021 to 2022.


title: Natalie Anderson

text: Anderson was born in Bradford, West Yorkshire, England. She was once a Bradford Bulls chearleader. Anderson married fiancé James Shepherd at a ceremony in Harrogate on 6 June 2008. On 1 August 2012, Anderson and her husband had their first son.


title: Natalie Anderson

text: In 2001, Anderson competed in "Pop Idol"; she narrowly missed out on a place in the live finals after finishing third in her group. Anderson appeared as Nurse Stella Davenport in the ITV drama series "The Royal" between 2005 and 2008. Then in 2008, she released an album, "Return to Me". Anderson joined the cast of "Emmerdale" in 2010 as Alicia Gallagher, Leyla Harding's (Roxy Shahidi) sister. On 24 May 2015, Anderson announced she would be not be renewing her contract for "Emmerdale" and would leave the soap after five years.


title: Natalie Anderson

text: On 9 February 2014, Anderson appeared on the ITV entertainment show, "All Star Family Fortunes" with her family, who were competing against Steve Redgrave and his family. On 27 September 2014, Anderson appeared in a celebrity episode of "The Chase". In 2015, she began appearing on the ITV talk shows "Loose Women" and "This Morning" as an occasional presenter. In 2016, she launched the lifestyle brand, the Capsule; the brand focuses on fashion, beauty and wellbeing, and in 2019, its accompanying podcast "The Capsule in Conversation" interviewing celebrities and experts was launched. From 2018 to 2019, Anderson hosted "Mishaps Podcast" with Jodie Prenger and Neil Hurst. In October 2021, she began appearing in the Channel 4 soap opera "Hollyoaks" as Lexi Calder. Natalie played Maryanne Borden in the Liam Neeson action feature "Memory", released 29 April 2022.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: The AFC Women's Asian Cup (formerly known as the AFC Women's Championship) is a quadrennial competition in women's football for national teams which belong to the Asian Football Confederation (AFC). It is the oldest women's international football competition and premier women's football competition in the AFC region for national teams. The competition is also known as the Asian Women's Football Championship and the Asian Women's Championship. 20 tournaments have been held, with the current champions being China PR. The competition also serves as Asian qualifying tournament for the FIFA Women's World Cup.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: The competition was set up by the "Asian Ladies Football Confederation" (ALFC), a part of the AFC responsible for women's football. The first competition was held in 1975 and was held every two years after this, except for a period in the 1980s where the competition was held every three years. The ALFC was initially a separate organisation but was absorbed into the AFC in 1986.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: The competition has been dominated by countries from the Pacific Rim or Eastern Asia (including East and Southeast Asia), with the China women's national football team having won 9 times, including a series of 7 consecutive victories as of 2022 edition. Countries from Central and West Asia have been rather less successful, with only Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Jordan and Iran having qualified so far. Eastern Asia has also been far more frequent in participating in the FIFA Women's World Cup, with five strongest women's teams of Asia (China, North Korea, Japan, Australia and South Korea) hail from this part.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: The tournament frequency changed to every 4 years effective from 2010, after AFC had announced that the Asian Cup will additionally serve as the qualification rounds of the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: Until 2003, teams were invited by the AFC to compete. From 2006, a separate qualification was established and the number of teams will be decided by the merit by qualification process. The name of the tournament was also changed to as the ""AFC Women's Asian Cup"", to reflect the change and reforms of the competition.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: All of the 47 members of the AFC who have a women's national team are eligible to participate in the qualification tournament.


title: AFC Women's Asian Cup

text: Starting from 2022 edition, a total of twelve teams participate in the final tournament including the hosts, top three finishers of the previous edition and eight teams from the qualification tournament.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Jonathan Turley is an American attorney, legal scholar, writer, commentator, and legal analyst in broadcast and print journalism. A professor at George Washington University Law School, he has testified in United States Congressional proceedings about constitutional and statutory issues. He has also testified in multiple impeachment hearings and removal trials in Congress, including the impeachment of President Bill Clinton and both the first and second impeachments of President Donald Trump. Turley is a First Amendment advocate and writes frequently on free speech restrictions in the private and public sectors.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: As an attorney, Turley has worked on notable cases in civil rights defense including the defense of Dr. Sami Al-Arian, NSA whistleblower David Faulk, protesters at the World Bank/IMF demonstrations in 2000, and the Brown family in their challenge to Utah polygamy laws. Turley has also served as counsel on prominent Federal cases including the defense of Area 51 workers, and as lead counsel in the 2014 challenge to the Affordable Care Act.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley grew up in Chicago as the youngest of five children. His father, John (Jack) Turley was an international architect, partner at Skidmore, Owens, and Merrill, and the former associate of famed modernist architect Mies van der Rohe. Turley has written about his father's influence on his constitutional theories. His mother, Angela Piazza Turley, was a social worker and activist who was the former president of Jane Addams Hull-House in Chicago. He is of Irish and Italian ancestry.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley served as a House leadership page in 1977 and 1978 under the sponsorship of Illinois Democrat Sidney Yates


title: Jonathan Turley

text: He received a bachelor's degree from the University of Chicago in 1983, and a Juris Doctor degree from Northwestern University School of Law in 1987. He served as Executive Articles Editor of "Northwestern University Law Review".


title: Jonathan Turley

text: During the Reagan Administration, Turley worked as an intern with the general counsel’s office of the National Security Agency (NSA).


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley holds the Shapiro Chair for Public Interest Law at The George Washington University Law School, where he teaches torts, criminal procedure, and constitutional law. He is the youngest person to receive an academic chair in the school's history. He runs the Project for Older Prisoners (POP), the Environmental Law Clinic, and the Environmental Legislation Project.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Prior to joining George Washington University, he was on the faculty of Tulane University Law School.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: His articles on legal and policy issues have appeared in national publications; he has had articles published in "The New York Times", "The Washington Post", "USA Today", the "Los Angeles Times", and the "Wall Street Journal". He frequently appears in the national media as a commentator on a multitude of subjects ranging from the 2000 U.S. presidential election controversy to the Terri Schiavo case in 2005. He often is a guest on Sunday talk shows, with more than two-dozen appearances on "Meet the Press", "ABC This Week", "Face the Nation", and "Fox News Sunday". He served as a contributor on "Countdown with Keith Olbermann" from 2003 until 2011 on MSNBC, and later on Current TV in 2011 and early 2012.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Since the 1990s, he has been a legal analyst for NBC News, CBS News, the BBC and Fox News, covering stories that ranged from the Clinton impeachment to presidential elections. He is on the board of contributors of "USA Today" and is a columnist with "The Hill". He is currently a legal analyst with Fox News.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In appearances on "Countdown with Keith Olbermann" and "The Rachel Maddow Show", he called for criminal prosecution of Bush administration officials for war crimes, including torture.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In "USA Today" in October 2004, he argued for the legalization of polygamy, provoking responses from writers such as Stanley Kurtz.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: He has opined that the Supreme Court is injecting itself into partisan politics. He frequently has expressed the view that recent nominees to the court hold extreme views.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In October 2006, in an interview by Keith Olbermann of MSNBC, he expressed strong disapproval of the Military Commissions Act of 2006. Commenting on the Military Commissions Act of 2006, which he contends does away with "habeas corpus", Turley says, "It's something that no one thought—certainly I didn't think—was possible in the United States. And I am not too sure how we got to this point. But people clearly don't realize what a fundamental change it is about who we are as a country. What happened today changed us."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: When the U.S. Senate was about to vote on Michael Mukasey for U.S. attorney general, Turley said, "The attorney general nominee's evasive remarks on 'water-boarding' should disqualify him from the job." On the treatment of terrorism suspect José Padilla, Turley says, "The treatment of Padilla ranks as one of the most serious abuses after 9/11... This is a case that would have shocked the Framers. This is precisely what many of the drafters of the Constitution had in mind when they tried to create a system of checks and balances." Turley considers the case of great import on the grounds that "Padilla's treatment by the military could happen to others."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley has said, "It is hard to read the Second Amendment and not honestly conclude that the Framers intended gun ownership to be an individual right."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: When Congressional Democrats asked the Justice Department to investigate the CIA's destruction of terrorist interrogation tapes Turley said, "these are very serious allegations, that raise as many as six identifiable crimes ranging from contempt of Congress, to contempt of Justice, to perjury, to false statements."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley disagrees with the theory that dealing with bullies is just a part of growing up, claiming that they are "no more a natural part of learning than is parental abuse a natural part of growing up" and believes that "litigation could succeed in forcing schools to take bullying more seriously".


title: Jonathan Turley

text: He has written extensively in opposition to the death penalty, noting, "Human error remains a principal cause of botched executions... eventually society will be forced to deal directly with a fundamental moral question: Has death itself become the intolerable element of the death penalty?"


title: Jonathan Turley

text: He is a critic of special treatment for the church in law, asking why there are laws that "expressly exempt faith-based actions that result in harm."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: On October 11, 2016, Libertarian Party candidate for President, Gary Johnson, announced that if he was elected President, Turley would be one of his two top choices for the Supreme Court seat that remained open following the death of Justice Antonin Scalia. Turley has been repeatedly named as a top pick for the Court by libertarian presidential candidates, including in 2020.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In a 2017 column for "The Hill", Turley was critical of military intervention in the Middle East and questioned its constitutionality. He also mentioned that he supported the Supreme Court nomination of Neil Gorsuch.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In the wake of the 2020 U.S. presidential election, Turley argued that, despite his doubts that fraud existed, Americans should welcome the involvement of the courts to vet and validate the election results.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: in November 2020, after the election, Turley appeared on "Fox & Friends" and claimed that election machines In Michigan had switched “thousands of votes“ from Donald Trump to Joe Biden, suggesting problems with the results. Fox host Steve Doocy quickly corrected Turley’s claim by responding, “I looked into it. With that Dominion software, five counties in Michigan and Georgia had problems. And the Dominion software was used in two of the counties and in every instance largely it was human error, a problem, but the software did not affect the vote counts.”


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In another commentary, Turley defended Judge Henry E. Hudson's ruling declaring the individual mandate in health insurance unconstitutional for violating the Commerce Clause of the Constitution: "It's very thoughtful—not a screed. I don't see any evidence this is motivated by Judge Hudson's personal beliefs... Anybody who's dismissing this opinion as a political screed has obviously not read the opinion."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley described U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder in an op-ed as President Barack Obama's sin-eater, writing:


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In a December 2013 congressional hearing, responding to a question from Rep. Bob Goodlatte (R-VA) about presidential power in the Obama administration, Turley said:


title: Jonathan Turley

text: On November 21, 2014, Turley agreed to represent House Speaker John Boehner and the Republican Party in a suit filed against the Obama administration alleging unconstitutional implementation of the Affordable Care Act, specifically the individual mandate. In 2016, the federal court ruled that the Obama Administration violated the separation of powers in ordering billions to be paid to insurance companies without an appropriation of Congress.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: The conceptual thread running through many of the issues taken on by Turley is that they involve claims of executive privilege. For example, he said that the president's claim of executive authority based on Article Two "would put our system on a slippery slope." He has argued against national security exceptions to fundamental constitutional rights.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: He is a frequent witness before the House and Senate on constitutional and statutory issues, as well as tort reform legislation.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley has testified regularly during national controversies. He testified at the confirmation hearings of Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch, Attorney General Loretta Lynch, and Attorney General William Barr. He also testified during the Clinton impeachment hearings. Turley, in his capacity as a constitutional scholar, testified in favor of the Clinton impeachment. He was quoted extensively by congressman James Rogan during the impeachment of Bill Clinton.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley also has testified in Congress against President Bush's warrantless domestic surveillance program and was lead counsel in a case challenging it. In regard to warrantless wiretaps he noted that, "Judge Anna Diggs Taylor chastised the government for a flagrant abuse of the Constitution and, in a direct message to the president, observed that "there are no hereditary kings in America.""


title: Jonathan Turley

text: On December 4, 2019, Turley testified before the House Judiciary Committee regarding the constitutional grounds for presidential impeachment in the impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump, arguing against a Trump impeachment. In his testimony, Turley objected to the effort to craft articles of impeachment around four criminal allegations: bribery, extortion, obstruction of justice, and campaign finance violations. He argued that the evidence did not meet the standard definitions of those crimes, contrary to the testimony of the three Democratic witnesses that such legal definitions have always been used as a measure for impeachment deliberations. Turley objected to the lower of the impeachment standards to "fit a paucity of evidence and an abundance of anger." The Committee ultimately rejected all four of those articles and adopted the two that Turley argued could be legitimate if proven: abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. Where the Committee departed from the testimony was the rejection of Turley's call for more time to develop a more complete record rather than fulfill a promise to impeach by Christmas—an issue that was rekindled by the delay in the submission of the articles to the Senate as new evidence emerged in 2020.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: It was observed that his prior reasoning for the impeachment of President Bill Clinton contradicted the opinions he shared against the impeachment of President Donald Trump. Turley sought to clarify his positions regarding the two impeachments the next day in an op-ed. Turley noted that in both hearings he stressed that a president could be impeached for non-criminal acts, including abuse of power, and House Judiciary Chairman Jerry Nadler ended the Trump impeachment hearings by quoting him to that effect. He has noted that the only disagreement was the sufficiency of the record and his calling on House to issue subpoenas for key witnesses like former national security adviser John Bolton. The push for additional time was due in part to Turley's concern that the House was going to impeach a president for going to the courts rather than yielding to congressional demands for witnesses and documents. Given the short period of investigation, Turley objected that such a move would effectively make seeking judicial review as high crime and misdemeanor. He noted that both Presidents Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton were able to go all the way to the Supreme Court on their challenges before impeachment. While Turley told the Committee that such judicial opinions were not required to impeach on obstruction, the abbreviated period of investigation undermined the foundation of that article.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley was cited by both the White House and House managers in their arguments before the United States Senate in the Trump impeachment trial. During the trial, Turley opposed the White House argument that impeachment requires a criminal allegation. Turley wrote in the Washington Post that "If some of the president’s critics are adopting a far too broad understanding of impeachable offenses, the White House is adopting a far too narrow one."


title: Jonathan Turley

text: After the second impeachment of Donald Trump he said there could not be a trial after Trump left office. Turley's views were also cited on the House floor in the second impeachment of President Donald Trump in January 2021, particularly his opposition to what he called a "snap impeachment." Turley opposed the decision to forego any hearing to consider the implications of such a rapid impeachment, consider changes to the language, and allow for a formal response from President Trump. While Turley said that Trump's conduct could amount to impeachable conduct, he expressed reservations over the specific language of the article on free speech grounds. He condemned Trump's speech before the riot on Twitter when it was still being given and opposed the challenge to the electoral votes from the outset. He argued for a bipartisan, bicameral vote of censure to condemn Trump for the harm that he caused the nation with his speech. Turley declined to represent President Trump but did speak to Republican senators before both the first Trump trial and the second Trump trial.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley was ranked as 38th in the top 100 most cited "public intellectuals" (and second most cited law professor) in a 2001 study by Judge Richard Posner of intellectuals referenced in the media and public debates.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In 2005, Turley was given the Columnist of the Year award for Single-Issue Advocacy for his columns on civil liberties by the Aspen Institute and "The Week" magazine.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In 2008 he was awarded an honorary doctorate of law from John Marshall Law School in recognition of his career as an advocate of civil liberties and constitutional rights.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: He was ranked among the nation's top 500 lawyers in 2008. Turley was found to be the second most cited law professor in the country as well as being ranked as one of the top ten military lawyers.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: In 2008 his blog was ranked as the top law professor blog and legal theory blog by the "American Bar Association Journal" survey of the top 100 blogs. His work with older prisoners has been honored in various states, including his selection as the 2011 recipient of the Dr. Mary Ann Quaranta Elder Justice Award at Fordham University. He has also been ranked in the top five most popular law professors on Twitter.  He has received other awards including the James Madison award and was declared one of four university fellows at the Utah Valley University in 2019.


title: Jonathan Turley

text: Turley has served as counsel in notable cases; representing whistleblowers, military personnel, and a wide range of other clients in national security, environmental, and constitutional law cases. His cases as lead counsel have secured decisions striking down both a federal and a state law, among them:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: There is no universal agreement on the legal definition of terrorism, although there exists a consensus academic definition created by scholars.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism, and governments have been reluctant to formulate and agreed-upon a legally binding definition. Difficulties arise from the fact that the term has become politically and emotionally charged. A simple definition proposed to the United Nations Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (CCPCJ) by terrorism studies scholar Alex P. Schmid in 1992, based on the already internationally accepted definition of war crimes, as "peacetime equivalents of war crimes", was not accepted.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Scholars have worked on creating various academic definitions, reaching a consensus definition published by Schmid and A. J. Jongman in 1988, with a longer revised version published by Schmid in 2011, some years after he had written that "the price for consensus [had] led to a reduction of complexity".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The United Nations General Assembly condemned terrorist acts by using the following political description of terrorism in December 1994 (GA Res. 49/60):


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In the United States of America, terrorism is defined in Title 22 Chapter 38, of the U.S. Code as "premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The term "terrorism" comes from French , from , "great fear", "dread", related to the Latin verb , "to frighten". The was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105 BCE.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The French National Convention declared in September 1793 that "terror is the order of the day". The period 1793–94 is referred to as (Reign of Terror). Maximilien Robespierre, a leader in the French revolution proclaimed in 1794 that "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The Committee of Public Safety agents that enforced the policies of "The Terror" were referred to as "Terrorists". The word "terrorism" was first recorded in English-language dictionaries in 1798 as meaning "systematic use of terror as a policy".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Although the Reign of Terror was imposed by the French government, in modern times "terrorism" usually refers to the killing of people by non-governmental political activists for political reasons, often as a public statement. This meaning originated with Russian radicals in the 1870s. Sergey Nechayev, who founded the "People's Reprisal" (Народная расправа) in 1869, described himself as a "terrorist". German radicalist writer Johann Most helped popularize the modern sense of the word by dispensing "advice for terrorists" in the 1880s.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: According to Myra Williamson (2009): "The meaning of "terrorism" has undergone a transformation. During the reign of terror a regime or system of terrorism was used as an instrument of governance, wielded by a recently established revolutionary state against the enemies of the people. Now the term "terrorism" is commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by "non-state or subnational entities" against a state".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The following criteria of violence or threat of violence usually fall outside of the definition of terrorism:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Schmid (2004) summarised many sources when he wrote: "It is widely agreed that international terrorism can only be fought by international cooperation". If states do not agree on what constitutes terrorism, the chances of cooperation between countries is reduced; for example, agreement is needed so that extradition is possible.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Ben Saul has noted (2008): "A combination of pragmatic and principled arguments supports the case for defining terrorism in international law". Reasons for why terrorism needs to be defined by the international community include the need to condemn violations to human rights; to protect the state and its constitutional orders which protects rights; to differentiate public and private violence; to ensure international peace and security, and "control the operation of mandatory Security Council measures since 2001".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Carlos Diaz-Paniagua, who coordinated the negotiations of the proposed United Nations Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (proposed in 1996 and note yet achieved), noted (2008) the need to provide a precise definition of terrorist activities in international law: "Criminal law has three purposes: to declare that a conduct is forbidden, to prevent it, and to express society's condemnation for the wrongful acts. The symbolic, normative role of criminalization is of particular importance in the case of terrorism. The criminalization of terrorist acts expresses society's repugnance at them, invokes social censure and shame, and stigmatizes those who commit them. Moreover, by creating and reaffirming values, criminalization may serve, in the long run, as a deterrent to terrorism, as those values are internalized." Thus, international criminal law treaties that seek to prevent, condemn and punish terrorist activities, require precise definitions:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: There are many reasons for the failure to achieve universal consensus regarding the definition of terrorism, not least that it is such a "complex and multidimensional phenomenon". In addition, the term has been used broadly, to describe so many different incidents and events that scholar Louise Richardson has said that the term "has become so widely used in many contexts as to become almost meaningless". An analysis of 73 different definitions in 2004 came up with only five common elements, which excluded any reference to victims, fear/terror, motive, non-combatant targets or the criminal nature of the tactics used.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Historically, the dispute on the meaning of terrorism arose since the laws of war were first codified in 1899. The Martens Clause was introduced as a compromise wording for the dispute between the Great Powers who considered francs-tireurs to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture, and smaller states who maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: More recently the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, which applies in situations Article 1. Paragraph 4 "... in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes...", contains many ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In a briefing paper for the Australian Parliament in 2002, Angus Martyn resported that "[t]he international community [had] never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations attempts to define the term foundered mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination." These divergences have made it impossible to conclude a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism that incorporates a single, all-encompassing, legally binding, criminal-law definition of terrorism. In the meantime, the international community adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define and criminalize various types of terrorist activities.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Diaz-Paniagua (2008) has noted that, to "create an effective legal regime against terrorism, it would be necessary to formulate a comprehensive definition of that crime that, on the one hand, provides the strongest moral condemnation to terrorist activities while, on the other hand, has enough precision to permit the prosecution of criminal activities without condemning acts that should be deemed to be legitimate". Nonetheless, due to major divergences at the international level on the question of the legitimacy of the use of violence for political purposes, either by states or by self-determination and revolutionary groups, this has not yet been possible." In this sense, M. Cherif Bassiouni (1988) notes:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Sami Zeidan, a diplomat and scholar, explained the political reasons underlying the current difficulties to define terrorism as follows (2004):


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In the same vein, Jason Burke (2003), a British reporter who writes about radical Islamist activity, said:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The political and emotional connotation of the term "terrorism" makes difficult its use in legal discourse. In this sense, Saul (2004) notes that:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: As scholar Bruce Hoffman (1998) has noted: "terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. (...) Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization 'terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism." For this and for political reasons, many news sources (such as Reuters) avoid using this term, opting instead for less accusatory words like "bombers", "militants", etc.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The term has been depicted as carrying racist, xenophobic and ethnocentric connotations when used as an ethnic slur aimed at Arabs or Middle Easterners, or at someone of Arab or Greater Middle Eastern descent or when used by white supremacists.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: These difficulties led Pamala Griset (2003) to conclude that: "the meaning of terrorism is embedded in a person's or nation's philosophy. Thus, the determination of the 'right' definition of terrorism is subjective".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: To elaborate an effective legal regime to prevent and punish international terrorism—rather than only working on a single, all-encompassing, comprehensive definition of terrorism—the international community has also adopted a "...'sectoral' approach aimed at identifying offences seen as belonging to the activities of terrorists and working out treaties in order to deal with specific categories thereof". The treaties that follow this approach focus on the wrongful nature of terrorist activities rather than on their intent:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Following this approach, the international community adopted 12 sectoral counter-terrorism conventions, open to the ratification of all states, between 1963 and 2005 (see below), relating to types of acts (such as aboard an aircraft, taking hostages, bombings, nuclar terrorism, etc.).


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Byrnes notes that "this act-specific approach to addressing problems of terrorism in binding international treaties has continued up until relatively recently. Although political denunciation of terrorism in all its forms had continued apace, there had been no successful attempt to define 'terrorism' as such in a broad sense that was satisfactory for legal purposes. There was also some scepticism as to the necessity, desirability and feasibility of producing an agreed and workable general definition." Nonetheless, the same committee of the United Nations General Assembly which authored the 1997 Bombing Convention and the 1999 Financing Convention has been working on a proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, given renewed impetus by the September 11 attacks in 2001.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The international community has worked on two comprehensive counter-terrorism treaties, the League of Nations' 1937 Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of Terrorism, which never entered into force, and the United Nations' proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, which has not yet been finalized.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In the late 1930s, the international community made a first attempt at defining terrorism. Article 1.1 of the League of Nations' 1937 Convention for the prevention and punishment of Terrorism defined "acts of terrorism" as "criminal acts directed against a State and intended or calculated to create a state of terror in the minds of particular persons or a group of persons or the general public". Article 2 included as terrorist acts, if they were directed against another state and if they constituted acts of terrorism within the meaning of the definition contained in article 1, the following:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 1996 an Ad Hoc Committee on Terrorism was set up, with the remit of drafting several conventions condemning various aspects of terrorism, with the intention of producing a final Comprehensive Convention which would either supplement or replace the series of sectoral conventions.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Since January 1997, the United Nations General Assembly has been negotiating a Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism. The definition of the crime of terrorism on the negotiating table reads as follows (GA Resolution 51/210, Declaration to Supplement the 1994 Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, December 1996; adopted January 1997):


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Among the negotiators, the 1996/7 definition is not controversial in itself; the deadlock in the negotiations arises instead from the opposing views on whether such a definition would be applicable to the armed forces of a state and to self-determination movements. Thalif Deen described the situation as follows: "The key sticking points in the draft treaty revolve around several controversial yet basic issues, including the definition of ´terrorism´. For example, what distinguishes a "terrorist organisation" from a 'liberation movement'? And do you exclude activities of national armed forces, even if they are perceived to commit acts of terrorism? If not, how much of this constitutes 'state terrorism'?"


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 2002, the coordinator of the negotiations, supported by most western delegations, proposed the following exceptions to address those issues:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The state members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference proposed instead the following exceptions:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The various sectoral counter-terrorism conventions, or treaties, define as terrorist particular categories of activities. These include:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Article 2.1 of the 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings defines the offence of terrorist bombing as follows:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Article 19 expressly excluded from the scope of the convention certain activities of state armed forces and of self-determination movements as follows:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Article 2.1 of the 1999 sectoral United Nations International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism (Terrorist Financing Convention) defines the crime of terrorist financing as the offence committed by "any person" who "by any means, directly or indirectly, unlawfully and wilfully, provides or collects funds with the intention that they should be used or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in full or in part, in order to carry out" an act "intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any other person not taking an active part in the hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act, by its nature or context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The 2005 United Nations International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism defines the crime of nuclear terrorism as follows:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Article 4 of the convention expressly excluded from the application of the convention the use of nuclear weapons during armed conflicts without, though, recognizing the legality of the use of those weapons:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In parallel with the criminal law codification efforts, some United Nations organs have put forward some broad political definitions of terrorism.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The United Nations did not focus any debate on terrorism until 1972, after the terrorist attack at the Olympic Games in Munich.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 1972 the General Assembly passed a resolution entitiled "Measures to prevent international terrorism which endangers or takes innocent human lives or jeopardises fundamental freedoms, and study of the underlying causes of those forms of terrorism and acts ofviolence which lie in misery, frustration, grievance and despair, and which cause some people to sacrifice human lives, including their own, in anattempt to effect radical changes". An Ad Hoc Committee on International Terrorism, consisting of three sub-committees, was established, but no consensus was reached on the various draft proposals submitted, and the matter was again put aside until the Cold War had ended (1991).


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 1994, the General Assembly agreed on a declaration that terrorism was "criminal and unjustifiable", condemning all such acts "wherever and by whomever committed", in its "Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism" (GA Res. 49/60).


title: Definition of terrorism

text: A 1996 non-binding United Nations Declaration to Supplement the 1994 Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism (which described terrorism as "Criminal acts intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be invoked to justify them") annexed to the UN General Assembly Resolution 51/210, described terrorist activities in the following terms:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Antonio Cassese has argued that the language of this and other similar UN declarations "sets out an acceptable definition of terrorism."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Each year, a legal committee of the General Assembly meets to discuss international cooperation to counter terrorism, and in 2019 the committee "reaffirmed the importance of the negotiations on and successful conclusion of the draft comprehensive convention on international terrorism" and the need for consensus for this and in particular stressed "the importance of negotiating an internationally agreed definition of terrorism".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 1999, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1269 unanimously, which "unequivocally condemn[ed] all acts, methods and practices of terrorism as criminal and unjustifiable, regardless of their motivation".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Also in 2004, a High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change composed of independent experts and convened by the Secretary-General of the United Nations called states to set aside their differences and to adopt, in the text of a proposed Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism, the following political "description of terrorism":


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The following year, Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan endorsed the High Level Panel's definition of terrorism and asked states to set aside their differences and to adopt that definition within the proposed comprehensive terrorism convention before the end of that year. He said:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The suggestion of incorporating this definition of terrorism into the comprehensive convention was rejected. Some United Nations' member states contended that a definition such as the one proposed by the High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and Change, and endorsed by the Secretary General, lacked the necessary requirements to be incorporated in a criminal law instrument. Diaz-Paniagua stated that a comprehensive definition of terrorism to be included in a criminal law treaty must have "legal precision, certainty, and fair-labeling of the criminal conduct - all of which emanate from the basic human rights obligation to observe due process".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The European Union defines terrorism for legal/official purposes in Art. 1 of the "Framework Decision on Combating Terrorism" (2002). This provides that terrorist offences are certain criminal offences set out in a list consisting largely of serious offences against persons and property that:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: NATO defines terrorism in the AAP-06 NATO Glossary of Terms and Definitions, Edition 2019 as "The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence, instilling fear and terror, against individuals or property in an attempt to coerce or intimidate governments or societies, or to gain control over a population, to achieve political, religious or ideological objectives".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: , the "Criminal Code Act 1995" (known as the Criminal Code), representing the federal government's criminal law and including Australia's laws against terrorism, defines "terrorist act" in Section 5.3. The definition, after defining in (a) the harms that may be caused (and excluding accidental harm or various actions undertaken as advocacy) defines a terrorist act as:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Within the Criminal Code, a variety of offences are defined with reference to the definition of a terrorist act, for example financing terrorism, activities which advocate violent terrorist acts, etc.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The Argentine National Reorganization Process dictatorship, which lasted from 1976 to 1983, defined "terrorist" as "not only who set bombs and carry guns, but also those who spread ideas opposite to Christian and western civilization".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 2016, Brazil passed a law that defines acts of terrorism and establishes punishment for committing, planning, enabling, sponsoring, inciting and participating in terrorist acts. The bill lists a series of acts that provoke social and general terror or endanger people, property, infrastructure, or public peace, for reasons of xenophobia, discrimination or prejudice of race, color, ethnicity and religion. Shortly after the creation of the law, Federal Police's Operation Hashtag arrested eleven suspects of planning a terrorist attack in the run-up to the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In Canada, section 83.01 of the "Criminal Code" defines terrorism as an act committed "in whole or in part for a political, religious or ideological purpose, objective or cause" with the objective of intimidating the public "with regard to its security, including its economic security, or compelling a person, a government or a domestic or an international organization to do or to refrain from doing any act."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In 1986, France adopted its first "anti-terrorism" law. The French legal definition of "acts of terrorism" as in force since 2016 is to be found in the French Code pénal, article 421. The article starts with:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The Supreme Court of India quoted Alex P. Schmid's definition of terrorism in a 2003 ruling (Madan Singh vs. State of Bihar), "defin[ing] acts of terrorism veritably as 'peacetime equivalents of war crimes.'"


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The now lapsed Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act specified the following definition of terrorism:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: (a) in order to, or if the effect of his actions will be to, strike terror or create a sense of fear and insecurity in the people, or any section of the people, does any act or thing by using bombs, dynamite or other explosive or inflammable substances, or such fire-arms or other lethal weapons as may be notified, or poisons or noxious gases or chemicals, in such a manner as to cause, or be likely to cause, the death of, or injury to, any person or persons, or damage to, or destruction of, property on a large scale, or a widespread disruption of supplies of services essential to the life of the community, or threatens with the use of force public servants in order to prevent them from discharging their lawful duties; or


title: Definition of terrorism

text: (b) commits a scheduled offence, the effect of which will be, or be likely to be, to strike terror, or create a sense of fear and insecurity in the people, or any section of the people, or to adversely affect harmony among different sections of the people; or


title: Definition of terrorism

text: (c) commits an act of gang rape, child molestation, or robbery coupled with rape as specified in the Schedule to this Act; or


title: Definition of terrorism

text: “Calling for atheist thought in any form, or calling into question the fundamentals of the Islamic religion on which this country is based” and anyone who questions the King or the government or supports any group, party, organization other than that of the ruling elite inside or outside the Kingdom is a terrorist.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: After the United States attack on Abu Kamal, the Syrian Foreign Minister Walid Muallem defined terrorism as "Killing civilians in international law means a terrorist aggression."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The definition of "Terrorism" in Article 1 of Anti-Terror Law 3713 is: "Terrorism is any kind of act done by one or more persons belonging to an organization with the aim of changing the characteristics of the Republic as specified in the Constitution, its political, legal, social, secular and economic system, damaging the indivisible unity of the State with its territory and nation, endangering the existence of the Turkish State and Republic, weakening or destroying or seizing the authority of the State, eliminating fundamental rights and freedoms, or damaging the internal and external security of the State, public order or general health by means of pressure, force and violence, terror, intimidation, oppression or threat."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Section 34 of the Terrorism Act 2006 amended sections 1(1)(b) and 113(1)(c) of Terrorism Act 2000 to include "international governmental organisations" in addition to "government".


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Successive Independent Reviewers of Terrorism Legislation (most recently in a report of July 2014) have commented on the UK's definition of terrorism.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Title 22, Chapter 38, Section 2656f, of the United States Code (regarding the Department of State) contains a definition of terrorism in its requirement that annual country reports on terrorism be submitted by the Secretary of State to Congress every year. It reads:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Title 18 of the United States Code (regarding criminal acts and criminal procedure) defines international terrorism as:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: Commenting on the genesis of this provision, Edward Peck, former U.S. Chief of Mission in Iraq (under Jimmy Carter) and former ambassador to Mauritania said:


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations defines terrorism as "the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives" (28 C.F.R. Section 0.85).


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The U.S. Department of Defense recently changed its definition of terrorism. Per Joint Pub 3-07.2, "Antiterrorism," (24 November 2010), the Department of Defense defines it as "the unlawful use of violence or threat of violence to instill fear and coerce governments or societies. Terrorism is often motivated by religious, political, or other ideological beliefs and committed in the pursuit of goals that are usually political."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The new definition distinguishes between motivations for terrorism (religion, ideology, etc.) and goals of terrorism ("usually political"). This is in contrast to the previous definition which stated that the goals could be religious in nature.


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The new definition does not require that the act needs to be politically motivated. The FEMA also said that terrorism "include threats of terrorism; assassinations; kidnappings; hijackings; bomb scares and bombings; cyber attacks (computer-based); and the use of chemical, biological, nuclear and radiological weapons" and also states that "[h]igh-risk targets for acts of terrorism include military and civilian government facilities, international airports, large cities, and high-profile landmarks. Terrorists might also target large public gatherings, water and food supplies, utilities, and corporate centers. Further, terrorists are capable of spreading fear by sending explosives or chemical and biological agents through the mail."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: The U.S. National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) define terrorism the same as United States Code 22 USC § 2656f(d)(2). The Center also defines a terrorist act as a "premeditated; perpetrated by a sub-national or clandestine agent; politically motivated, potentially including religious, philosophical, or culturally symbolic motivations; violent; and perpetrated against a non-combatant target."


title: Definition of terrorism

text: In September 2002, the U.S. national security strategy defined terrorism as "premeditated, politically motivated violence against innocents." This definition did not exclude actions by the United States government and it was qualified some months later with "premeditated, politically motivated violence against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents".