title: Nuclear shell model

text: The electric dipole of a nucleus is always zero, because its ground state has a definite parity, so its matter density ("ψ", where "ψ" is the wavefunction) is always invariant under parity. This is usually the situations with the atomic electric dipole as well.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: Higher electric and magnetic multipole moments cannot be predicted by this simple version of the shell model, for the reasons similar to those in the case of deuterium.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: For nuclei having two or more valence nucleons (i.e. nucleons outside a closed shell) a residual two-body interaction must be added. This residual term comes from the part of the inter-nucleon interaction not included in the approximative average potential. Through this inclusion, different shell configurations are mixed and the energy degeneracy of states corresponding to the same configuration is broken.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: These residual interactions are incorporated through shell model calculations in a truncated model space (or valence space). This space is spanned by a basis of many-particle states where only single-particle states in the model space are active. The Schrödinger equation is solved on this basis, using an effective Hamiltonian specifically suited for the model space. This Hamiltonian is different from the one of free nucleons as it among other things has to compensate for excluded configurations.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: One can do away with the average potential approximation entirely by extending the model space to the previously inert core and treating all single-particle states up to the model space truncation as active. This forms the basis of the no-core shell model, which is an ab initio method. It is necessary to include a three-body interaction in such calculations to achieve agreement with experiments.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: In 1953, the first experimental examples were found of rotational bands in nuclei, with their energy levels following the same J(J+1) pattern of energies as in rotating molecules. Quantum mechanically, it is impossible to have a collective rotation of a sphere, so this implied that the shape of these nuclei was nonspherical. In principle, these rotational states could have been described as coherent superpositions of particle-hole excitations in the basis consisting of single-particle states of the spherical potential. But in reality, the description of these states in this manner is intractable, due to a large number of valence particles—and this intractability was even greater in the 1950s when computing power was extremely rudimentary. For these reasons, Aage Bohr, Ben Mottelson, and Sven Gösta Nilsson constructed models in which the potential was deformed into an ellipsoidal shape. The first successful model of this type is the one now known as the Nilsson model. It is essentially the harmonic oscillator model described in this article, but with anisotropy added, so that the oscillator frequencies along the three Cartesian axes are not all the same. Typically the shape is a prolate ellipsoid, with the axis of symmetry taken to be z. Because the potential is not spherically symmetric, the single-particle states are not states of good angular momentum J. However, a Lagrange multiplier formula_10, known as a "cranking" term, can be added to the Hamiltonian. Usually the angular frequency vector ω is taken to be perpendicular to the symmetry axis, although tilted-axis cranking can also be considered. Filling the single-particle states up to the Fermi level then produces states whose expected angular momentum along the cranking axis formula_11 is the desired value.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: Igal Talmi developed a method to obtain the information from experimental data and use it to calculate and predict energies which have not been measured. This method has been successfully used by many nuclear physicists and has led to deeper understanding of nuclear structure. The theory which gives a good description of these properties was developed. This description turned out to furnish the shell model basis of the elegant and successful interacting boson model.


title: Nuclear shell model

text: A model derived from the nuclear shell model is the alpha particle model developed by Henry Margenau, Edward Teller, J. K. Pering, T. H. Skyrme, also sometimes called the Skyrme model. Note, however, that the Skyrme model is usually taken to be a model of the nucleon itself, as a "cloud" of mesons (pions), rather than as a model of the nucleus as a "cloud" of alpha particles.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: Brian Gerard O'Driscoll (born 21 January 1979) is an Irish former professional rugby union player. He played at outside centre for the Irish provincial team Leinster and for Ireland. He captained Ireland from 2003 until 2012, and captained the British & Irish Lions for their 2005 tour of New Zealand. He is regarded by critics as one of the greatest rugby players of all time.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll is the fourth most-capped player in rugby union history, having played 141 test matches: 133 for Ireland (83 as captain), and 8 for the Lions. He scored 46 tries for Ireland and 1 try for the Lions in 2001, making him the highest try scorer of all time in Irish Rugby. He is the 8th-highest try scorer in international rugby union history, and the highest scoring centre of all time.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll holds the Six Nations record for most tries scored with 26. He has scored the most Heineken Cup tries (30) by an Irishman. O'Driscoll was chosen as Player of the Tournament in the 2006, 2007 and 2009 Six Nations Championships.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: He was inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame on 17 November 2016 at the opening ceremony for the Hall's first location in Rugby, Warwickshire.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll was involved in Irish Rugby's unsuccessful bid to host the 2023 World Cup. He now works as a rugby analyst for BT Sport and ITV Sport in the United Kingdom. He is also involved in a number of business ventures including the Ultimate Rugby mobile app.He his supreme leader in Letterkenny.ref></ref> and Zipp, an Irish e-scooter start-up.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll was born in Dublin to Frank and Geraldine O'Driscoll, both physicians. O'Driscoll's family was steeped in rugby. His father, Frank, played two games for Ireland and a cousin of his father, Barry, won four caps. However it was another cousin of Frank's, Barry's brother John, who really put the O'Driscoll name on the map: he represented Ireland 26 times and was a member of the Lions side that toured 1980 British Lions tour to South Africa and 1983 British Lions tour to New Zealand.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: As a child, Brian played Gaelic football before switching to rugby. For his secondary education, he attended Blackrock College, where he played in the Senior Cup team in 1996 and 1997 after coming up through the ranks from the lower-level teams.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: Although O'Driscoll started the first two rounds of the competition in 1996, he was subsequently dropped to the bench for the remainder of the competition, and was an unused replacement in the team's victorious final appearance, in which Leo Cullen and Bob Casey were the second row. In 1997 they were beaten in the quarter-final by Clongowes, who had Gordon D'Arcy in their side. He was capped three times for Ireland Schools in 1996.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 1998, O'Driscoll played for the Ireland U-19 side, which won the Under 19 Rugby World Championship.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: After leaving school, he attended University College Dublin (UCD) on a scholarship and graduated with a Diploma in Sports Management in 1998.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: While at UCD, he first made the under-20 side, before being promoted to the top team near the end of his first year. His coach John McClean moved O'Driscoll from the fly-half position to centre. O'Driscoll made his Ireland under-21 debut in February 1999, and eventually gained four caps.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2009 Brian received the UCD Foundation Day Medal for his outstanding sporting achievements, courage, commitment, creativity and determination he demonstrated on the field of play.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll made his debut for Leinster in 1999, and under head coach Matt Williams and backs coach Alan Gaffney he became an explosive force in the Leinster backline, forming a highly effective centre partnership with Shane Horgan. In 2001, Leinster won the inaugural Celtic League beating Munster in Lansdowne Road. In 2003, Leinster were heavy favourites for that year's Heineken Cup but were beaten by Perpignan in the semi-finals.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: Leinster appointed Michael Cheika in the summer of 2005 and despite rumours of O'Driscoll moving to France, O'Driscoll agreed to another year in Ireland. That year, O'Driscoll returning from a shoulder injury suffered on the Lions tour, would assume the captaincy for the season. Under backs coach David Knox and the movement of Argentine international Felipe Contepomi to fly half, the Leinster back line became one of the most potent in Europe.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll excelled in wins over Bath Rugby and Toulouse away from home. These victories would set up a Heineken Cup semi-final in Lansdowne Road against Munster, but defeat against the eventual champions Munster would deny O'Driscoll and his team a final berth. Leinster were also denied a Magners League title, with David Humphreys of Ulster slotting an injury time drop goal to give victory to Ulster in their final game of the season.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2007, Wasps beat Leinster in the quarter-finals of the Heineken Cup. In 2008, Leinster lost in the group stages. In 2007, Leinster reached the final hurdle of the Magners league only to be denied by the Ospreys and Cardiff. In 2008, Leinster won that title ahead of Munster, marking O'Driscoll's second honour with the province, his first and only as captain.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: The 2008–09 season marked a shift in focus for O'Driscoll. While retaining the Irish captaincy under new coach Declan Kidney, he handed the honour of Leinster captain to Leo Cullen. O'Driscoll scored two tries in the defeat of English champions London Wasps, however this victory was followed by away defeats for Leinster to both London Wasps and Castres. Leinster advanced to the quarter-finals to face Harlequins at the Twickenham Stoop. When O'Driscoll was absent through injury in April 2009, Leinster relinquished their Magners League crown to Munster at Thomond Park. Against Harlequins, Leinster scored a 6–5 victory, the game infamous for the Bloodgate incident.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In the semi-final against rivals Munster in Croke Park, an 82,206 sell out, O'Driscoll was awarded the man of the match award (which he later dedicated to the entire team) after an intercept try completed a convincing win for Leinster and sent O'Driscoll to his first Heineken Cup final. Leinster captured the Heineken Cup against Leicester Tigers on 23 May 2009. The 19–16 Heineken Cup victory included a drop goal from O'Driscoll who was suffering from a shoulder injury.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In the 2010–11 season, O'Driscoll won his second Heineken Cup with Leinster. Having suffered a knee injury in a Magners League game one week before the final, O'Driscoll was a major doubt, but he recovered sufficiently and was named in the starting XV. In the final held at the Millennium Stadium, Cardiff on 21 May 2011, Leinster came from behind to defeat Northampton 33–22.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In the 2012 Heineken Cup Final O'Driscoll won his third Heineken cup with Leinster. They beat Ulster 42–14 in an entertaining battle. Seán O'Brien opened the scoring for Leinster to put them ahead 7–3. At half time the score was 14–6, with Cian Healy scoring the second try for Leinster but there was still a lot to play for. A penalty try was then awarded for Leinster but Ulster pulled a try back from second-row Dan Tuohy. Heinke van der Merwe then settled the game with a try for Leinster and Seán Cronin made sure of Leinster's success.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: His final appearance for Leinster, and for any team, was in the 2014 Pro12 Grand Final on 31 May in Leinster's home ground, the RDS in Dublin, in which Leinster defeated the Glasgow Warriors 34–12. He left the field injured early in the first half to be replaced by Ian Madigan. His final act as a rugby player was assisting club captain Leo Cullen – who also finished his career on this day – in lifting the Pro12 trophy


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 1999, O'Driscoll was selected for the senior squad and was on the bench for a match against Italy, although he did not play. He won his first Test cap at age 20 on 12 June 1999 in a 46–10 loss to Australia in Brisbane as part of the tour of Australia. O'Driscoll played for Ireland before he played for the senior Leinster team.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2000, O'Driscoll scored a Hat-trick of tries in a Six Nations Championship victory against France in Paris, propelling Ireland to their first win in Paris since 1972.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll's popularity in Ireland was expressed by supporters wearing T-shirts bearing the motto "In BOD We Trust". In 2002, O'Driscoll was handed the captaincy for the first time in Ireland's 18–9 win over Australia, the first Irish victory over the Wallabies since 1979. In 2003, following the international retirement of long-time Ireland captain Keith Wood, O'Driscoll was awarded the captaincy on a permanent basis. In that year, O'Driscoll led Ireland to second place in the Six Nations Championship. This was followed by Triple Crowns in 2004 (Ireland's first crown since 1985), 2006 and 2007. In 2004, O'Driscoll captained Ireland to a 17–12 victory over South Africa, the first Irish win over the Springboks since 1965.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2009, O'Driscoll was again selected as captain, leading Ireland to win the Triple Crown, Six Nations Championship and their first Grand Slam in 61 years. He scored a try in every match except one, culminating in a 17–15 victory in Cardiff in which O'Driscoll again scored a try and was the RBS man of the match. On 27 March 2009, he was named as player of the 2009 Six Nations Championship, winning the fans' online poll. In May 2009, he was named the Bord Gáis Energy IRUPA Players' Player of the Year for the past season.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: On 15 November 2009, in a 20–20 draw against Australia at Croke Park, O'Driscoll scored a last minute try. The next day, he was named as one of the seven nominations for the 2009 International Rugby Board player of the year, but controversially missed out to Richie McCaw for this title by a solitary point.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll started for and captained Ireland for every match during the 2010 Six Nations Championship. He picked up his 100th test cap for Ireland against Wales. He scored his 40th test try against New Zealand on 12 June 2010. He started every match for Ireland in the 2010 Autumn Tests. He played for Ireland in the last four World Cups (17 caps, 7 tries). He became Ireland's most capped player on 26 June 2010 against Australia, winning his 103rd cap.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In the 2011 Six Nations Championship, O'Driscoll's 47th minute try against England, took him past Ian Smith's 78-year-old record of 24 tries to become the leading Championship try scorer of all time with 25 Tries. The same day, O'Driscoll tied John Smit's International Captaincy caps record of 75.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll was ruled out of the entire 2012 Six Nations after undergoing shoulder surgery. In his absence, Keith Earls was chosen to partner inside centre Gordon D'Arcy, starting four of the five championship games in the position usually occupied by O'Driscoll.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: He returned as captain for the tour of New Zealand in 2012 and he also equalled John Smit's record as captaining an international side (83 times) but All Black Captain Richie McCaw tied the O'Driscoll/Smit record during the 2013 Rugby Championship against South Africa and McCaw overtook the record when playing in Japan on 2 November 2013. O'Driscoll was fit to play in the 2013 tournament, but before the tournament it was announced that O'Driscoll, who had missed the Autumn internationals earlier that season through injury, would not be reinstated as captain. Declan Kidney named O'Driscoll's Leinster teammate Jamie Heaslip as captain, in his place. O'Driscoll still started each game of the 2013 Championship for Ireland.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: On 8 March 2014, in his last home international for Ireland, O'Driscoll led the team out against Italy in the 2014 Six Nations Championship and contributed to three tries in the game as Ireland won 46–7, for which he was awarded Man of the Match. At this point O'Driscoll achieved a world record for the highest number of international caps, with 140, overtaking George Gregan's record with Australia.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In his last international match, the finale of the 2014 Six Nations Championship on 15 March 2014, O'Driscoll and the Irish team beat France in Paris for only the second time in 42 years, crowning Ireland the 2014 Six Nations Championship champions. In the post-match interview, an emotional O'Driscoll remarked he could not have wished to finish his career in a better way.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll appeared in all three British & Irish Lions Tests on the team's 2001 tour of Australia where he announced himself as a world star with an outstanding individual try in the 1st Test victory at the Gabba in Brisbane.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll was named captain of the team for their 2005 tour of New Zealand. Prior to that tour, he had been named captain of the Northern Hemisphere side for the IRB Rugby Aid Match (a 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami fundraiser) held at Twickenham in March 2005, but was forced to withdraw due to a shoulder injury, but appeared pitch-side for the match.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll's playing contribution to the 2005 Lions ended in the opening minutes of the first Test against the All Blacks in Christchurch on 25 June 2005, when he was carried off the field on a stretcher with a dislocated shoulder just after being tackled by All Blacks skipper Tana Umaga and Keven Mealamu at a ruck. The independent citing commissioner found that the New Zealand players had no case to answer, and the Lions management were criticised by New Zealanders for attempting to divert attention from the team's poor performance. However, four months later, The International Rugby Board's communications manager Greg Thomas stated "that dangerous tackles like this have no part in the game". Rules were changed to outlaw spear tackles after the 2007 World Cup. Although unable to play, O'Driscoll remained as non-playing captain on a losing tour and only underwent surgery on his return. He then released a DVD entitled "Brian O'Driscoll's Lions Diary" in which he described his tour experience and his opinion of the events that transpired.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: On 21 April 2009, O'Driscoll was selected as part of the 2009 British & Irish Lions tour to South Africa. On 1 June 2009, he was named as captain of the Lions for the game against the Golden Lions taking place on 3 June, in place of the rested Paul O'Connell. He was also named in the outside centre position for the Lions in their first test of the 2009 tour against South Africa, in which he made two assists as the Lions lost 26 – 21. He was forced to withdraw from the tour on 30 June before the third and final test due to a head injury and subsequent concussion he suffered in the second test.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: On 30 April 2013, O'Driscoll was named in the squad for his fourth British & Irish Lions tour. O'Driscoll is only the third player in 125 years of the tournament to achieve this. The tour commenced on Saturday 1 June 2013 when the Lions beat the Barbarians at the Hong Kong Stadium. He was selected at outside centre for the first two tests of the tour. He was controversially dropped from the squad for the final test, which the Lions won by 41 points to 16.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll has appeared three times for the invitational Barbarians rugby team: against South Africa on 10 December 2000, against Scotland on 22 May 2004, and against England on 30 May 2004. Against South Africa, O'Driscoll scored his only try as a part of the Barbarians team.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2001, 2002 and 2009, O'Driscoll was nominated for the IRB World Player of the Year. In 2001, he lost out to his Irish teammate Keith Wood; in 2002, to Fabien Galthié; and, in 2009, when widely regarded as favourite for the award, to Richie McCaw by a solitary point, with one judge, who would otherwise have given O'Driscoll the award, citing a flawed voting system.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll was chosen as Player of the Tournament in the 2006, 2007 and 2009 RBS Six Nations Championships.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2007, former England centre and captain Will Carling published his list of the '50 Greatest Rugby players' in The Daily Telegraph, and ranked O'Driscoll the tenth greatest player of all time.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In summer 2008, he received the Dubliner of the Year Award from "The Dubliner" magazine. In January 2010, he was voted World Rugby Player of the Decade (2000–09) by the magazine "Rugby World".


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll has received Honorary Doctorates from Dublin City University in 2013, Queen's University Belfast in 2014, and Trinity College Dublin in 2017.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll was in a long-term relationship with model and TV3 Xpose presenter Glenda Gilson for a number of years until they split up in 2005. In his autobiography he reveals that he received some playful teasing over the relationship from his teammates.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: O'Driscoll married actress Amy Huberman in July 2010 in Lough Rynn Castle. Their first child, a daughter named Sadie, was born just hours before a Six Nations clash with England on 10 February 2013. Their second child, a son named Billy, was born on 20 November 2014. Their third child Ted was born on December 28 2020.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: He has published one book, "A Year in the Centre" (2005), a memoir of a year as a professional rugby player. A biography called "In BOD We Trust", by Marcus Stead was published in March 2008. A revised and extended version of Stead's book was published in August 2011, "Brian O'Driscoll: The Biography". In February 2011, O'Driscoll and his wife were invited to the wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and Catherine Middleton, but only Huberman attended, because of his club team's (Leinster) preparation for their Heineken Cup semi-final against Toulouse the day after the wedding.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In 2009, O'Driscoll stated in a post-game interview after the Six Nations Championship match against England, "Knowledge is knowing that a tomato is a fruit. Wisdom is knowing not to put it in a fruit salad." Later he admitted incorporating this quote into an interview was part of a bet with Gordon D'Arcy, and not some impromptu repartee.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: On 18 May 2011, O'Driscoll attended a state dinner hosted by President Mary McAleese to mark Queen Elizabeth II's visit to the Republic of Ireland.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In June 2014, it was announced that he would be joining Newstalk as a rugby pundit and co-presenter on Off The Ball. He also works for BT Sport as an analyst. O'Driscoll was part of ITV Sport's team of studio pundits for the 2015 Rugby World Cup in England, and has continued to work for ITV during their coverage of the Six Nations Championship from 2016 onwards.


title: Brian O'Driscoll

text: In October 2014, O'Driscoll's new book "The Test: My Autobiography" was published. It was originally to be written by award-winning sports journalist and ghostwriter Paul Kimmage, but the relationship between O'Driscoll and Kimmage broke down after three years of work together. The book won Sports Book of the Year at the 2014 Irish Book Awards. O'Driscoll is a supporter of English football club Manchester United F.C.


title: Gamut

text: In color reproduction, including computer graphics and photography, the gamut, or color gamut , is a certain "complete subset" of colors. The most common usage refers to the subset of colors which can be accurately represented in a given circumstance, such as within a given color space or by a certain output device.


title: Gamut

text: Another sense, less frequently used but still correct, refers to the complete set of colors found within an image at a given time. In this context, digitizing a photograph, converting a digitized image to a different color space, or outputting it to a given medium using a certain output device generally alters its gamut, in the sense that some of the colors in the original are lost in the process.


title: Gamut

text: The term "gamut" was adopted from the field of music, where in middle age Latin "gamut" meant the entire range of musical notes of which musical melodies are composed; Shakespeare's use of the term in "The Taming of the Shrew" is sometimes attributed to the author/musician Thomas Morley. In the 1850s, the term was applied to a range of colors or hue, for example by Thomas De Quincey, who wrote "Porphyry, I have heard, runs through as large a gamut of hues as marble."


title: Gamut

text: In color theory, the gamut of a device or process is that portion of the color space that can be represented, or reproduced. Generally, the color gamut is specified in the hue–saturation plane, as a system can usually produce colors over a wide intensity range within its color gamut; for a subtractive color system (such as used in printing), the range of intensity available in the system is for the most part meaningless without considering system-specific properties (such as the illumination of the ink).


title: Gamut

text: When certain colors cannot be expressed within a particular color model, those colors are said to be "out of gamut".


title: Gamut

text: A device that can reproduce the entire visible color space is an unrealized goal within the engineering of color displays and printing processes. Modern techniques allow increasingly good approximations, but the complexity of these systems often makes them impractical.


title: Gamut

text: While processing a digital image, the most convenient color model used is the RGB model. Printing the image requires transforming the image from the original RGB color space to the printer's CMYK color space. During this process, the colors from the RGB which are out of gamut must be somehow converted to approximate values within the CMYK space gamut. Simply trimming only the colors which are out of gamut to the closest colors in the destination space would burn the image. There are several algorithms approximating this transformation, but none of them can be truly perfect, since those colors are simply out of the target device's capabilities. This is why identifying the colors in an image which are out of gamut in the target color space as soon as possible during processing is critical for the quality of the final product.


title: Gamut

text: The gamut of reflective colors in nature has a similar, though more rounded, shape. An object that reflects only a narrow band of wavelengths will have a color close to the edge of the CIE diagram, but it will have a very low luminosity at the same time. At higher luminosities, the accessible area in the CIE diagram becomes smaller and smaller, up to a single point of white, where all wavelengths are reflected exactly 100 percent; the exact coordinates of white are determined by the color of the light source.


title: Gamut

text: In the beginning of the 20th century, industrial demands for a controllable way to describe colors and the new possibility to measure light spectra initiated intense research on mathematical descriptions of colors.


title: Gamut

text: The idea of optimal colors was introduced by the Baltic German chemist Wilhelm Ostwald. Erwin Schrödinger showed in his 1919 article "" (Theory of Pigments with Highest Luminosity) that the most-saturated colors that can be created with a given total reflectivity are generated by surfaces having either zero or full reflectance at any given wavelength, and the reflectivity spectrum must have at most two transitions between zero and full.


title: Gamut

text: Thus two types of "optimal color" spectra are possible: Either the transition goes from zero at both ends of the spectrum to one in the middle, as shown in the image at right, or it goes from one at the ends to zero in the middle. The first type produces colors that are similar to the spectral colors and follow roughly the horseshoe-shaped portion of the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, but are generally less saturated. The second type produces colors that are similar to (but generally less saturated than) the colors on the straight line in the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, leading to magenta-like colors.


title: Gamut

text: Schrödinger's work was further developed by David MacAdam and . MacAdam was the first person to calculate precise coordinates of selected points on the boundary of the optimal color solid in the CIE 1931 color space for lightness levels from Y = 10 to 95 in steps of 10 units. This enabled him to draw the optimal color solid at an acceptable degree of precision. Because of his achievement, the boundary of the optimal color solid is called the "MacAdam limit".


title: Gamut

text: On modern computers, it is possible to calculate an optimal color solid with great precision in seconds or minutes. The MacAdam limit, on which the most saturated (or "optimal") colors reside, shows that colors that are near monochromatic colors can only be achieved at very low luminance levels, except for yellows, because a mixture of the wavelengths from the long straight-line portion of the spectral locus between green and red will combine to make a color very close to a monochromatic yellow.


title: Gamut

text: Light sources used as primaries in an additive color reproduction system need to be bright, so they are generally not close to monochromatic. That is, the color gamut of most variable-color light sources can be understood as a result of difficulties producing pure monochromatic (single wavelength) light. The best technological source of monochromatic light is the laser, which can be rather expensive and impractical for many systems. However, as optoelectronic technology matures, single-longitudinal-mode diode lasers are becoming less expensive, and many applications can already profit from this; such as Raman spectroscopy, holography, biomedical research, fluorescence, reprographics, interferometry, semiconductor inspection, remote detection, optical data storage, image recording, spectral analysis, printing, point-to-point free-space communications, and fiber optic communications.


title: Gamut

text: Systems that use additive color processes usually have a color gamut which is roughly a convex polygon in the hue-saturation plane. The vertices of the polygon are the most saturated colors the system can produce. In subtractive color systems, the color gamut is more often an irregular region.


title: Gamut

text: Following is a list of representative color systems more-or-less ordered from large to small color gamut:


title: Gamut

text: The Ultra HD Forum defines a wide color gamut (WCG) as a color gamut wider than that of BT.709 (Rec. 709). Color spaces with WCGs include:


title: Gamut

text: The print gamut achieved by using cyan, magenta, yellow, and black inks is sometimes a limitation, for example when printing colors of corporate logos. Therefore, some methods of color printing use additional ink colors to achieve a larger gamut. For example, some use green, orange, and violet inks to increase the achievable saturation of hues near those. These method are variously called heptatone color printing, extended gamut printing, and 7-color printing, etc.


title: Kwon Mina

text: Kwon Mina (born September 21, 1993) mononymously known as Mina"," is a South Korean singer and actress. She is best known as a former member of the girl group AOA. Kwon has acted in television dramas, including "Modern Farmer" (2014) and "All About My Mom" (2015).


title: Kwon Mina

text: Kwon was born on September 21, 1993, in Busan, South Korea. She auditioned for FNC in 2009, and her family moved from Busan to Seoul soon after.


title: Kwon Mina

text: On July 30, 2012, Kwon made her debut as a member of AOA on Mnet's "M Countdown" with the song "Elvis" from their debut single album, "Angels' Story". She was also part of band unit AOA Black, established in 2013. Due to her father's death on November 29, 2014, Kwon took some time off from career activities and did not participate in some promotions for "Like a Cat".


title: Kwon Mina

text: In 2013, Kwon debuted as an actress with the KBS2 drama special "Adolescence Medley", where she played Yoon Jin-yeong. In February 2014, she played the younger role of Kim Hee-sun's character, Cha Hye-won, in the KBS drama "Wonderful Days". Kwon had her first lead role in the SBS weekend drama "Modern Farmer", which aired from October to December 2014.


title: Kwon Mina

text: On February 26, 2015, Kwon appeared in the music video for solo singer Shade's song "Bad". In May, Kwon made her debut as an MC with Y-Star's variety show "Gourmet Road". In August, she was appointed as co-MC on "Weekly Idol" with Apink's Hayoung and VIXX's N, starting from September 2. On September 9, Kwon and Nam Joo-hyuk appeared in the music video for solo singer Kangnam's song "Chocolate". On December 5, she joined the cast of the KBS weekend drama "All About My Mom", starting from episode 33. She played Go Aeng-doo, a pretty and innocent, yet mysterious young lady.


title: Kwon Mina

text: In March 2016, Kwon starred in the seven-part web drama "Click Your Heart", produced by her agency FNC Entertainment, where she played a cheerful, but clumsy, 18-year-old high school student who forms friendships and love triangles with four boys. In 2017, she has been cast in the remake of 1986's horror movie "Woman's Wail", and in the hospital drama "Hospital Ship" as a nurse. She compiled an essay collection of quotes and wisdom that are personally meaningful to her titled "Stars Don't Lose Their Way at Night" that was published on November 1, 2017.


title: Kwon Mina

text: In February 2018, it was revealed that Kwon will also join the cast of KBS weekday drama "Queen of Mystery 2" as police officer Shin Na-ra. The same year, she was cast in the web drama "Wind-Bell" and in "Loss Time Life", the remake of a Japanese drama of the same name.


title: Kwon Mina

text: On July 3, 2020, Kwon alleged in an Instagram post that AOA member Shin Ji-min had bullied her for a decade, which led to her withdrawal from the group in 2019. She posted a photo of her scarred wrist and claimed to have attempted suicide as a result of the bullying. Shin reportedly responded to the accusations by posting the word "fiction" to her Instagram Stories before deleting it shortly after. Kwon criticized the post, stating, "Fiction? It's too scary to say it's fiction." On July 4, Shin posted an apology to her Instagram page while FNC Entertainment released a statement announcing that she had been removed from AOA and would be halting all entertainment activities.


title: Kwon Mina

text: On August 6, 2020, Kwon posted a photograph on Instagram with the caption "Jinri-ya, I miss you", which was believed to be a reference to Sulli (Choi Jin-ri) of f(x), who committed suicide in 2019. In a separate post, Kwon revealed that she had recently been hospitalized after a relapse in self harm, following a KakaoTalk conversation she had with an FNC Entertainment representative who believed Shin's apology to be sincere. She expressed anger at the possibility of Shin resuming activities and finished the post by begging the company to be more considerate of their artists. Two days later, in a since-deleted Instagram post, Kwon shared a graphic image of her slit wrist accompanied by an apparent suicide note stating:


title: Kwon Mina

text: Her agency officials notified authorities immediately upon seeing the post and she was transported to the hospital in non-life-threatening condition. At the end of October Kwon left the agency and went on a career hiatus to focus on her recovery.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham ( ) is a market town and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England, in the Chiltern Hills, northwest of central London, south-east of Aylesbury and north-east of High Wycombe. Amersham is part of the London commuter belt.


title: Amersham

text: Old Amersham occupies the valley floor of the River Misbourne. This is a chalk stream which dries up periodically. The river occupies a valley much larger than it is possible for a river the size of the present River Misbourne to cut, which makes it a misfit stream. The valley floor is at around OD, and the valley top is at around OD. It is likely that the valley was formed under conditions akin to those required to form a dry valley. Amersham-on-the-Hill is built on the north side of the Misbourne valley on a small plateau that forms the watershed between the Misbourne and the neighbouring River Chess.


title: Amersham

text: Records date back to pre-Anglo-Saxon times when it was known as "Agmodesham", and by the time that the Domesday Book was written, around 1086, it had become known as "Elmodesham". Further spelling variations are seen in 1460 as " Agmondysham" and " Amytysham"


title: Amersham

text: Queen Edith was the wife of Edward the Confessor and sister of King Harold, and after her death in 1075, the land passed to William the Conqueror, who granted it to Geoffrey de Mandeville (died c. 1100).


title: Amersham

text: In 1200, his descendant Geoffrey de Mandeville (who became the Earl of Essex in 1213) obtained a charter for Amersham allowing him to hold a Friday market and a fair on 7 and 8 September. In 1613, another charter was granted to Edward, Earl of Bedford, changing the market day to Tuesday, and establishing a statute fair on 19 September.


title: Amersham

text: In 1521, seven Lollard dissenters (William Tylsworth, John Scrivener, Thomas Barnard, James Morden, Robert Rave, Thomas Holmes and Joan Norman) were burned at the stake in Amersham. A memorial to them was built in 1931 and is inscribed as follows: "In the shallow of depression at a spot 100 yards left of this monument seven Protestants, six men and one woman were burned to death at the stake. They died for the principles of religious liberty, for the right to read and interpret the Holy Scriptures and to worship God according to their consciences as revealed through God's Holy Word". The "Universal Magazine" for September 1749 (p. 139) quotes that 'William Tylesworth' was in fact burnt in 1506, and that Thomas Bernard and James Morden (a labourer), were burnt about two years later.


title: Amersham

text: In 1931, the architect Amyas Connell completed the Grade II-listed art deco house, "High & Over" in Amersham. It has been used as a film location.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham sent two Members of Parliament (MPs) to the unreformed House of Commons from 1625, and was considered a rotten borough until the Reform Act 1832 stripped it of its representation. The town was then part of the county constituency of Buckinghamshire. From 1885 it was in the Aylesbury constituency, in 1950 it formed part of the South Buckinghamshire seat and in 1974 the current Chesham and Amersham constituency was created. Since then Ian Gilmour (1974–1992) and then Cheryl Gillan (1992–2021) have represented the constituency on behalf of the Conservative party. In the 2019 General Election Ms Gillan was returned with 55.4% of the vote. After her death on 4 April 2021, the seat went to the Liberal Democrats for the first time since its creation when Sarah Green won the ensuing by-election on 17 June 2021.


title: Amersham

text: There are two tiers of local government in Amersham, at parish (town) and county level: Amersham Town Council and Buckinghamshire Council. The town council is based at Flint Barn Court on Church Street in the old town.


title: Amersham

text: From 1894 until local government reorganisation in 1974 the area was administered by Amersham Rural District Council, which was based at the Amersham Union Workhouse on Whielden Road until 1931 and at Elmodesham House at 42 High Street from 1931 to 1974. Amersham Parish Council was also established in 1894 and initially met at Amersham Market Hall, a prominent neoclassical style structure in the High Street. In 1974 Amersham Rural District Council merged with Chesham Urban District Council to form Chiltern District Council, whilst Amersham Parish Council became Amersham Town Council. Chiltern District Council was abolished in 2020, merging with Buckinghamshire County Council and the other Buckinghamshire district councils to form a new unitary authority called Buckinghamshire Council.


title: Amersham

text: The town is located at the junction of the A355 from Slough and Beaconsfield, the A404 linking Maidenhead, High Wycombe and Rickmansworth, the A416 from Chesham and Berkhamsted and the A413.


title: Amersham

text: The area of the town now known as Amersham-on-the-Hill was referred to as Amersham Common until after the arrival of the railway in 1892. After this date the growth of the new area of the town gradually accelerated, with much work being done by the architect John Kennard. It is now known as "Amersham-on-the-Hill", "Amersham Town" or the "New Town".


title: Amersham

text: The town features in the 1973 John Betjeman documentary "Metro-land" about the growth of suburban London in the 20th century. The construction of the railway line was controversial and objections from local landowners prevented its construction until 1892. The station was built a mile to the north of the old market town and has provided the focus of Amersham-on-the-Hill ever since. Chiltern Railways share the railway track with London Underground and run services from Marylebone to Aylesbury Vale Parkway.


title: Amersham

text: In March 2010, the Government announced the route of HS2, the proposed high-speed railway from London to Birmingham. The line will cross the Colne Valley and the M25 motorway on a viaduct, and then through a tunnel under the Chiltern Hills to emerge near South Heath, northwest of Amersham. The route runs roughly parallel to the A413 and the London to Aylesbury Line. A campaign of opposition is co-ordinated by a protest group, Amersham Action Group, which with other protest groups is part of the HS2 Action Alliance.


title: Amersham

text: Early trade at Amersham Market was in local grain, much of which was sold to London merchants. During the 17th century and 18th century a key industry in the town was brewing. Giles Watkins (died 1636) built a brewery near St Mary's church in 1634. His brother Henry Watkins was a royal servant, a page of the robes to Anne of Denmark. William Weller of High Wycombe purchased a brewery in 1775. He, and his heirs, expanded the business by buying a number of local public houses during the next 150 years. In 1929 Gerrard Weller sold the brewery and 133 tied public houses to Benskins of Watford for £360,000, a move that led to the end of brewing in Amersham.


title: Amersham

text: In addition to brewing, tanning, lace manufacture and brickmaking all had a prominent place in the manufacturing past of the town. During the Second World War, the Radiochemical Centre, a scientific research establishment, arrived in the town. This became Amersham International, then Amersham plc, and now, after a number of changes of ownership and name, is part of GE Healthcare. Halma, specialists in hazard and life protection products and headquartered in Old Amersham, is now a member of the FTSE 100 index.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham-on-the-Hill has a free church which is United Reformed and Baptist, the Methodist church St. John's and the Church of England St Michael & All Angels.


title: Amersham

text: In Old Amersham stands the Grade I listed Church of England St Mary's Church, a 13th-century building that has been altered over the years. The present exterior is largely Victorian but the building contains a 14th-century font, 17th century glass from Lamer Manor in Hertfordshire, and monuments in the chancel and in the Drake Chapel to 17th and 18th century notables.


title: Amersham

text: Also in the town there is the Grade II* listed Amersham Meeting House (a Quaker meeting house), two Methodist churches, St John's in Woodside Road and another in the High Street, and King's Church Amersham, a free church.


title: Amersham

text: There are two secondary schools located in Amersham: Dr Challoner's Grammar School for boys, and Amersham School, a non selective co-educational academy. Additionally, Amersham is included in the catchment areas of both Dr Challoner's High School, a girls' grammar school in Little Chalfont, and Chesham Grammar School, a co-educational grammar school in Chesham.


title: Amersham

text: The Dr Challoner's schools share a common foundation dating back to 1624 when the grammar school (then for boys only) started in Old Amersham. Dr Challoner's Grammar School moved to its present site in Amersham-on-the-Hill in 1905 when it became co-educational. In 1937 the school was incorporated into the state system. After rapid growth it was decided to establish Dr Challoner's High School for Girls in nearby Little Chalfont in 1962 and Dr Challoner's Grammar School reverted to being for boys only. In 2015 Dr Challoner's Grammar School once again welcomed girls into its Sixth Form.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham School opened on its current site in 1964 as the Brudenell County Secondary School (for girls). Following the closure of the Raans County Secondary School (for boys) in 1988, Brudenell became co-educational and was renamed Amersham School.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham is served by several primary schools, including Our Lady's Roman Catholic Primary, Chestnut Lane School, Elangeni School, Chesham Bois Church of England School, St. Mary's Church of England Primary School, St. George's Church of England Infant School and Woodside Junior School.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham Golf Club (now defunct) was founded in 1897. The club continued until the onset of the First World War.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham has a King George's Field in memorial to King George V. Near the playing field is the "Chiltern Pools", one of the five venues used by the Amersham Swimming Club. The Chiltern Pools complex also contains the Climb, an indoor climbing wall, unique to the region. Chiltern Pools consists of three swimming pools, including a 25-metre main pool, a fun pool with three water slides and a diving pool with a moveable floor to allow all ages to progress in swimming ability. Chiltern Pools also includes a large gym facility with cardiovascular and weights equipment. Since 2007 a third generation muga with synthetic grass allows all year play.


title: Amersham

text: Amersham Town F.C. play football at Spratley's Meadow in Old Amersham, while various football teams use council facilities at Hervines Park (Amersham-on-the-Hill) and Barn Meadow (Old Amersham).


title: Amersham

text: Situated also at the Barn Meadow site, (School Lane, Old Amersham) is the 61 Judo Club, a family-orientated, successful and competitive judo club catering for serious and social players alike. It has currently (2020) around 90 active members, and has provided several members of recent British Junior, Senior and Masters squads.


title: Amersham

text: Hervines Park and Barn Meadow host some cricket in the summer, but the main cricket clubs in the town are Amersham Cricket Club, which play in the grounds of Shardeloes, and Amersham Hill Cricket Club. Amersham and Chiltern Rugby Football Club play rugby union at Weedon Lane in Amersham-on-the-Hill. The Chiltern Harriers Athletics Club is the local athletics club. Amersham and Chalfont Hockey Club is the local hockey club with its own playing facility on the Amersham Campus of the Buckinghamshire College Group (formerly Amersham & Wycombe College). The club has around 600 playing members, including one of the largest junior sections in the country.


title: Amersham

text: The local newspaper covering Amersham and the surrounding area was the "Buckinghamshire Examiner" founded in 1889. Another Buckinghamshire newspaper with a circulation area covering Amerham is the "Bucks Free Press".


title: Amersham

text: The Ofcom licenced community radio station for the Chilterns is "Chiltern Voice", which broadcasts on 107.4fm.


title: Amersham

text: Due to its position in a fold in the hill, TV and radio reception in Amersham can be poor and the town now has its own TV mast (at Chesham Bois). In the 1970s, Amersham was one of the last towns in the south east to receive BBC2, and parts of it still cannot receive Channel 5. Houses taking their TV reception from the Chesham Bois transmitter have vertically polarised aerials, whilst those in a good enough position receive their signal from the Crystal Palace Transmitter in London with horizontally polarised aerials – they always could receive BBC2 (and indeed Channel 4 & Channel 5). Digital terrestrial television coverage is patchy for much the same reason. Mobile phone reception can be poor in the steeper parts of Chesham and outlying villages.


title: Nihari

text: Nihari (; ; ) is a stew originating in Lucknow, the capital of 18th-century Awadh under the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. It consists of slow-cooked meat, mainly a shank cut of beef, lamb and mutton, or goat meat, as well as chicken and bone marrow. It is flavoured with long pepper (), a relative of black pepper.


title: Nihari

text: The name originates from Arabic " (), meaning "morning"; it was originally eaten by nawabs in the Mughal Empire as a breakfast course following Fajr prayer.


title: Nihari

text: According to many sources, nihari originated in the royal kitchens of Lucknow, Awadh (modern-day Uttar Pradesh, India), in the late 18th century, during the last throes of the Mughal Empire. It was originally meant to be consumed as a heavy, high-energy breakfast dish on an empty stomach by working-class citizens, particularly in colder climates and seasons. However, the dish later gained a significant amount of popularity and eventually became a staple of the royal cuisine of Mughal-era nawabs.


title: Nihari

text: Nihari developed with the overall cuisine of the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. It remains a popular delicacy, especially in parts of Old Delhi, Lucknow, Dhaka, and Chittagong. The dish is known for its spiciness, taste, texture, and gravy.


title: Nihari

text: Nihari is a traditional dish among the Indian Muslim communities of Lucknow, Delhi, and Bhopal. Following the partition of India in 1947, many Urdu-speaking Muslims from northern India migrated to Karachi in West Pakistan and Dhaka in East Pakistan, and established a number of restaurants serving the dish. In Karachi, nihari became a large-scale success and soon spread in prominence and availability across Pakistan.


title: Nihari

text: In some restaurants, a few kilograms from each day's leftover nihari is added to the next day's pot; this reused portion of the dish is known as and is believed to provide a unique flavour. Some nihari outlets in Old Delhi claim to have kept an unbroken cycle of " going for more than a century.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Jean-Paul Goude (born 8 December 1938 in Montreuil (France)) is a French graphic designer, illustrator, photographer, advertising film director and event designer. He worked as art director at "Esquire" magazine in New York City during the 1970s, and famously choreographed the 1989 Bicentennial Parade in Paris to mark the 200th anniversary of the French Revolution. In addition, over the last three decades, he has created well-known campaigns and illustrations for brands including Perrier, Citroën, Kodak, Chanel, Kenzo, Shiseido, Cacharel, H&M, Galeries Lafayette and Desigual.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: After "Goudemalion" his enormously successful retrospective at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris (2011), other retrospective exhibitions followed: such as "Image makers", along with David Lynch, Bob Wilson and Norikata Tatehana at the 21 21 Design Sight (2015), "In Goude we trust!" at Chanel Nexus Hall (2018) in Tokyo, as well as "So Far So Goude" at the Kyotographie photography festival in Kyoto (2018), his work has been regularly exhibited at the Paris Centre Pompidou since 2015.He has also been the guest of Kyotographie Festival in 2018 with an exhibition entitled "So Far So Goude", then presents In Goude We Trust at Chanel Nexus Hall in Tokyo (2018) and at Palazzo Giureconsulti in Milano (2019).


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Jean-Paul Goude was born on 8 December 1938 to an American ballet dancer, and a French elevator repairman, and grew up in the Paris suburb of Saint-Mande. As a child, Goude's mother recognized his natural sense of rhythm, but the most notable characteristic that Goude acknowledged in his childhood self, was a fascination with Aboriginal and black people. From as early as he can remember, Goude would draw images of aboriginals and black people, and would write stories about the characters he created. For Goude, Aboriginals were his heroes; he would draw them fighting white cowboys, and unsurprisingly, the Aboriginals would always win. Although they were his heroes, black people would soon hold a larger place in his heart.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude and his mother shared a fascination with black people. As a ballet dancer, his mother envied the beauty of the black dancers she worked with and described to her son the jet-black skin of the chorus girls, as well as the unique ways in which the women would move their bodies. Her eyes would light up as she spoke of the black performers, and Goude would listen, soaking in the views of his mother. In Goude's book "Jungle Fever", he shares an image of his mother dancing in the middle of several men sporting blackface makeup. Goude would also utilize blackface in his photography career. Over the years, this fascination with black people would only become more feverish, and as Goude began to dabble in fashion drawings, the models he depicted would always have dark skin. The seldom times that Goude would produce imagery of whites in his drawings, they always had flat noses and thick lips, described by the artist as "Negroid features". These characteristics can still be seen in Goude's work, as the vast majority of his models are black women. Even decades later, the views developed with the help of his mother continue to fuel Goude's passion for photography. She also inspired him by exposing him to different forms of print media. "At home, we received American magazines," Goude told "Vogue" magazine. "The advertising, in the 1960s, was extraordinary. The first time an issue of "Esquire" arrived with a cover by George Lois, I said to myself, that's what I want to do." He studied at the Ecole Nationale Superieure des Arts Decoratifs in Paris before embarking on his career as an illustrator.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: In 1968, Harold Hayes, editor of "Esquire" magazine, asked Goude to art direct a special edition of the magazine to celebrate its 75th issue. Several months later, Goude was asked to become the magazine's full-time art editor, despite having limited experience working with layouts. Goude told WWD, "Harold Hayes...called and asked if I knew anyone that would be good for the job of art director; I proposed myself. A few days later, he offered me the job. I took everything I owned and moved to New York. I stayed for seven years and it was great, but I was not prepared for the literary world. I wish I had known more about it. I would see Gore Vidal in the hallways of "Esquire". It was exciting." There, his illustrations for the magazine, including an oil-on-photo painting of Chairman Mao Zedong breasting the waves of the Yangtze River with a rubber Donald Duckie, have been described as skirting on the edges of surrealism.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude worked closely with model-turned-pop-singer Grace Jones, consulting on her image, choreographing her live stage performances, directing her music videos, and creating her album covers. The two met during New York's disco scene, stating in a 2009 interview "In 1977 or '78, I met Grace and it was a period of decadence. People were still doing lots of drugs and I had been working so hard for so long and she made me part of her lifestyle, made me go out dancing at Studio 54. She became an obsession and we did everything together." Soon after meeting, Goude and Jones pursued a romantic relationship, and he began stage-managing her live shows and creating her album covers. Goude used retouching before computer manipulation to depict Jones in an impossible pose for her "Island Life" album. Jones also appeared in much of Goude's other work, including his 1985 Citroën CX 2 commercial.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude is often recognized for his humorous and illusory style. Creating post-modern art, Goude is recognized as avant-garde, "constantly [blurring] the boundaries between publicity and high art" in his advertising campaigns. In comparing Goude's advertisements to his "art pieces", several distinctions can be made. To begin, advertisements that Goude creates on commission almost never display black men or women, are often colourful, and are read as humorous and playful.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude's book, "Jungle Fever", has been described as an autobiographical exploration of his career. Published in 1983, "Jungle Fever" includes many of Goude's photographs and manipulations of black women, as well as insights to his personal life with his muses, and his beliefs about the black female form. The book does not feature any of Goude's commercial imagery, displaying only his artistic representations of ethnic minorities, with an emphasis on black people. The book is separated into several chapters, each titled with the name of the models used in his photographs. Goude was known for creating exaggerated and manipulated forms using collage and post-production tactics and the book shows the progression of several works from sketch to finished work. Examples of these techniques can be found within the book in images such as "Carolina Beaumont" and "Island Life". In "Island Life," a photo which he created for cover for Grace Jones's album of the same name, Goude photographed her in several different positions, then overlaid the images to elongate the neck, and legs, and to display her torso completely turned forward. He would then paint in the gaps between body parts to make the image appear natural. The position is wholly unnatural, and aside from highlighting features that are stereotypically fetishized in black women, the image also implies that no woman other than Jones could assume such a position. Such an effect is achieved by painting over the printed images during the post-production phase of Goude's process. This effect can be seen several times in the Grace Jones chapter of the book, first in comparing the final "Island Life" cover to the photo in the process of being edited, and secondly in "Blue-black in black on brown," in which her skin is painted a dark, blue-black tone.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: In 2014, Goude photographed Kim Kardashian for "Paper" magazine. When the photos were released, their popularity and topicality were said to "break the Internet," just as the magazine's accompanying caption indicated. One of the images was a recreation of Goude's earlier work "Carolina Beaumont". Like the earlier image, the new photo features Kardashian holding an exploding champagne bottle, with the spray arcing over her head and landing in a champagne glass balanced on her buttocks. Others have drawn the comparison between these photos and depictions of Sarah Baartman, seeing them as part of the continuing history of the exploitation of black women's bodies.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude's first television advertisement was a TV spot for Lee Cooper Jeans in 1982, in which he filmed a 10-minute mini opera set to Igor Stravinsky's "The Rite of Spring". He has also created advertisements for clients such as Azzedine Alaia, Perrier, and Cacharel. In 1984, Goude shot a spot for Kodak that followed the adventures of the Kodakettes, mischievous kids clad in red-and-white stripes. In 1992, he filmed an ad for Chanel Fragrance in which he put model Vanessa Paradis in a birdcage, because he thought she looked like Tweety.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Some of Goude's most celebrated print campaigns have been for Galeries Lafayette, a leading Parisian department store. Goude has worked with the company for more than 10 years, and has been given considerable creative freedom. He's opted to shoot the ongoing adventures of "a comic book character, half way between Hergé's Tintin and a heroine of an early Pearl Buck novel".


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Throughout his career, Goude associated with numerous models. Goude dated several of these muses, including Farida Khelfa, Toukie Smith, Radiah Frye, and, most notably, Grace Jones.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude's relationship with Jones began in 1977, when Jones asked Goude for advice in creating album artwork and music videos. Goude was instantly attracted to her, believing that she was an embodiment of his ideal woman. In their relationship, the curiosity and mystery of dating a foreigner drew the two together. As his muse, Grace Jones figured prominently in Goude's work.


title: Jean-Paul Goude

text: Goude has a son, Paulo (b. 12 November 1979), with Grace Jones. He has another son, Theo, and a daughter, Loreleï, with his wife Karen Park Goude.


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: Jarlsberg ( , ) is a mild cheese made from cow's milk, with large, regular eyes, originating from Jarlsberg, Norway. It is produced in Norway, as well as in Ireland and the US state of Ohio, licensed from Norwegian dairy producers. It is classified as a Swiss-type cheese.


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: Jarlsberg cheese has a yellow wax rind (outer layer) and a semi-firm yellow interior. It is a mild, buttery cheese. The flavour has been described as "clean and rich, with a slightly sweet and nutty flavour". It is an all-purpose cheese, used for both cooking and eating as a snack. It has a characteristic smooth, shiny-yellow body, and a creamy, supple texture. It is aged a minimum of three months and is distinguished by medium to large holes. Some variations are aged a minimum of 9, 12 or 15 months. It is usually produced in wheels with an approximate diameter of and a height of . The characteristic holes or "eyes" are the result of the action of the bacteria "Propionibacterium freudenreichii" which naturally occurs in milk and is added back into the cheese during production according to a closely guarded secret formula.


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: The history of this cheese can be traced back to the middle 1850s. Anders Larsen Bakke (1815–1899), a farmer and pioneer in Norway's dairy industry, produced cheese in the village of Våle in what was then the county of Jarlsberg and Larviks Amt (now Vestfold), south of Oslo. The cheese shares similarities with Emmental, introduced to Vestfold by Swiss cheese makers during the 1830s. The cheese was first noted in the annual county report of Jarlsberg and Larviks Amt in 1855. After several years of popularity marked by a large volume of production Jarlsberg disappeared from the market.


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: Modern Jarlsberg cheese was developed in 1956 by Ole Martin Ystgaard of the Dairy Institute at the Agricultural University of Norway. Ystgaard's interest was sparked by the thesis of a dairy sciences student, Per Sakshaug, on the cheese historically made in Vestfold. It was named for a Norwegian nobleman, Count Wedel Jarlsberg, who owned land near Oslo in an area where an earlier version of the cheese was produced in the early 1800s, or for the eponymous county. The recipe was developed from formulae originating with Swiss cheesemakers who moved to Norway at that time.


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: "Jarlsberg" is a trademark first registered by Tine SA in 1972, and the exact nature and formula for the process of making Jarlsberg cheese is a trade secret. The largest producer of Jarlsberg cheese is Tine SA. Tine is the largest Norwegian dairy product cooperative. Jarlsberg cheese accounts for 80% of Tine's total exports. Tine's United States subsidiary, Norseland, has sold 150 million wheels of Jarlsberg cheese in the U.S. .


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: Jarlsberg cheese was introduced in the United States in 1964. Imports to the U.S. in 1965 were . Since 1979 imports to the U.S. have been limited to . Jarlsberg is the most popular imported cheese in the U.S. , of Jarlsberg cheese was made in the U.S. in Ohio. It is also produced in Ireland by Dairygold.


title: Jarlsberg cheese

text: Annual sales of Jarlsberg cheese in the United Kingdom are £6.9m . Jarlsberg cheese is also popular in Australia.


title: Kill Dil

text: Kill Dil () is a 2014 Indian Hindi-language romantic action comedy film directed by Shaad Ali and produced by Aditya Chopra under the Yash Raj Films banner. The film stars Ranveer Singh, Ali Zafar and Parineeti Chopra in lead roles with Govinda portraying the antagonist. The film was released on 13 November 2014. The movie received mixed reviews with praise directed towards the music, humour and Govinda's performance but criticism aimed towards it's screenplay and direction.


title: Kill Dil

text: Tutu (Ali Zafar) and Dev Dharma (Ranveer Singh) are two orphans who were raised by a local gangster Bhaiyaji (Govinda) to be assassins. Their life takes a turn when they meet Disha (Parineeti Chopra) at a club and she and Dev fall in love with each other. Dev's indifference towards work starts irritating Bhaiyaji, but Tutu defends Dev. When Dev is unable to kill one of their targets, he decides to change his life. This enrages Bhaiyaji and he threatens to kill Dev. Tutu intervenes and suggests Dev lookout for a job but should accompany him every time Bhaiyaji calls them to give killing contracts.


title: Kill Dil

text: Tutu gets Dev a fake MBA degree which helps Dev join an insurance company. Dev and Disha make plans to get married, while Disha is unaware of Dev's past. Bhaiyaji on learning the truth about Dev's job decides to play a trick to get him back. He sends one of his goons, Batuk, to kill Dev and informs Tutu. He also calls up Disha and tells her about Dev and Tutu's real identity. Just when Batuk is about to kill Dev, Tutu shoots him down in front of Disha. Disha is shocked with the reality and breaks up with Dev. This results in Dev again becoming an assassin.


title: Kill Dil

text: Bhaiyaji gives them a fresh contract to kill his arch-enemy Baban Pehlwan. Dev and Tutu record a video telling the tale of how they became gangsters and send it to Disha. During a shootout, Dev is again unable to fire the gun and gets shot. Tutu takes him to the hospital, where after an operation, Dev finds Disha waiting for him and they both reconcile. Bhaiyaji gets killed by Baban Pehlwan. Dev and Disha get married while Tutu has a job interview in the same insurance company with a fake MBA degree.


title: Kill Dil

text: Early on in February 2014, many shots of the movie were taken in Greater Noida's Gautam Buddha University and Galgotias Campus One and at The Grand Venice Mall. Ali, Ranveer Singh and Govinda share the dance floor in the movie. Through March the film was shot at various locations in Delhi. Later in April 2014, a schedule of the film with leads Ali Zafar, Ranveer Singh and Parineeti Chopra was shot at Lavasa And (Kharghar) Mumbai in Maharashtra.


title: Kill Dil

text: Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" said "It has random songs, birdbrained logic and a romance that's about as exciting as toothpaste." Saibal Chaterjee from NDTV gave the film 2 stars and said "Watch "Kill Dil" if you have plenty of time to kill. It is unlikely to deliver much joy to your dil, though." Koimoi gave 2 stars and said the film has bad writing and poor direction. DNA said that it fails to connect with audiences and gave 2 stars, while praising Govinda's performance.


title: Kill Dil

text: The film grossed in India on its opening weekend, recouping most of its budget. Overseas it collected across its opening weekend, making worldwide in its first three days. In Pakistan, "Kill Dil" had the third-highest opening weekend gross of 2014 behind "Kick" and "Happy New Year". In its first week it collected a total of according to Box Office India.


title: Kill Dil

text: The music of "Kill Dil" was composed by Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy (Shankar Mahadevan, Ehsaan Noorani and Loy Mendonsa), with lyrics by Gulzar. The soundtrack comprises 8 songs. The soundtrack was released on 9 October 2014.


title: Kill Dil

text: The title song of the film sung by Sonu Nigam and Shankar Mahadevan was released on 25 September 2014.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Bruce Charles Sudano (born September 26, 1948) is an American singer-songwriter, noted for creating songs for artists such as Michael Jackson, Dolly Parton, Reba McEntire and his late wife, the Grammy Award-winning singer Donna Summer. Sudano is the founder of indie record label, Purple Heart Recording Company.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Sudano was born in Flatbush, Brooklyn, New York City to Margaret Alessio (1924–2012) and Louis Sudano (1923–2008). At the age of four, Sudano learned to play his first instrument, the accordion. He later taught himself to play piano and guitar. He soon developed a reputation in his community as a talented musician and got his first paid gig at the age of twelve.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: By the mid-1960s, Sudano was playing bass guitar in his first band Silent Souls. He spent much of his time rehearsing and was soon playing live shows at popular New York City nightclubs.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: While playing at the Cheetah, Sudano met Tommy James of Tommy James and the Shondells. Sudano became the protégé of James, who performed the classic pop song "Mony, Mony" written by Bobby Bloom & Richie Cordel,Jeff Barry REF:by Joseph Nicoletti Singer-Songwriter/Producer-ASCAP Publisher,Nicoletti Consulting-Global Village Music co.(ascap) Laguna Beach,California,Cousin of the Late Bobby Bloom.]" While working his way through college at St. John's University, where he earned a BA in theatre, Sudano learned to craft songs with James at Allegro Studios.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 1969, while only 20, Sudano scored his first hit on the music charts with the song "Ball of Fire" which he co-wrote with his mentor.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 1968, Sudano became the keyboard player in the pop rock band Alive N Kickin', which he co-founded with Pepe Cardona. Tommy James wrote a song for the band called "Tighter, Tighter" with Bob King. James also produced the track and sang backing vocals. The song was released on Roulette Records in 1970 and went to No. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Alive N Kickin' did a promotional tour of the United States as the opening act for Chicago and Frank Zappa. However, Sudano left Alive 'N Kickin' in 1972 and moved to Los Angeles, California where wrote and performed folk songs as a solo singer.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 1973, Sudano returned to Brooklyn where he continued writing and performing but also began rehearsing and playing gigs with Joe "Bean" Esposito, Eddie Hokenson and Louis Hokenson.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 1977, Sudano, Esposito and Hokenson moved to Los Angeles, formed the band Brooklyn Dreams and signed a recording deal with Millennium Records. That same year, Skip Konte of Three Dog Night produced their self-titled debut. The trio scored a modest hit with the single "Music, Harmony and Rhythm", which they performed on "American Bandstand".


title: Bruce Sudano

text: On March 13, 1977, Sudano met Donna Summer, who was signed to Casablanca Records. Casablanca was the distributor for Sudano's label Millennium Records. The Brooklyn Dreams and Summer immediately began writing songs together and within a few months Sudano and Summer were dating. In 1978, the band penned "Take It to the Zoo" with Summer for the "Thank God It's Friday" soundtrack. The same year, the Brooklyn Dreams appeared in the movie "American Hot Wax" performing as the Planotones, a group created for the movie with long time friend Kenny Vance. They scored a Top 5 hit when they appeared on the single "Heaven Knows" with Esposito and Summer singing a duet. The song peaked at No. 4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and became a certified million-selling Gold single in 1979.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 1979, Brooklyn Dreams and Summer wrote the title track "Bad Girls" for the best selling album of Summers' career "Bad Girls". In addition to the title track, Sudano also co-wrote the songs "Lucky" and "On My Honor" with Summer and Harold Faltermeyer as well as "Can't Get to Sleep At Night" with Bob Conti. He then wrote the song "I'm A Rainbow", which was the title track to Summer's next LP. Unfortunately, it was shelved by Geffen Records and not released until 1996.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: When Millennium Records changed their distribution to RCA, the Brooklyn Dreams contract was transferred to Casablanca Records. Under their new recording contract, Brooklyn Dreams recorded three more studio LPs. They released two albums in 1979: "Sleepless Nights", produced by Bob Esty, and "Joyride" produced by Jürgen Koppers, an engineer for Giorgio Moroder. In 1980, they made their fourth and final album "Won't Let Go", which they produced themselves. A song from this record, "Hollywood Knights" became the title track for the comedy "The Hollywood Knights" starring Tony Danza, Michelle Pfeiffer and Fran Drescher. In 2008, "Hollywood Knights" was sampled by Snoop Dogg on his song "Deez Hollywood Nights".


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Brooklyn Dreams amicably disbanded in 1980 when Hokensen returned to New York after his mother died. Sudano and Summer continued writing songs together and were married the same year.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Sudano was signed as a solo artist by RCA and released his first record "The Fugitive Kind" in 1981. It featured a song "Starting Over Again" that Sudano had co-written with his wife Donna Summer about his parents' divorce. In 1980, the song was recorded and released by Dolly Parton on the album "Dolly, Dolly, Dolly", and hit No. 1 on the U.S. country charts on May 24, 1980. The song was recorded by Reba McEntire in 1995. Sudano spent two decades managing Summer's career. They toured together, with Sudano playing keyboards and singing background vocals.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 1984, Sudano wrote "Tell Me I'm Not Dreamin' (Too Good to Be True)" with Michael Omartian. Jermaine Jackson and Michael Jackson recorded the song as a duet for the album "Jermaine Jackson". The song was nominated at the 1985 Grammy Awards for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. In 1988, the song was covered by Robert Palmer. During the same period, he co-wrote four songs on Summer's "She Works Hard for the Money" album. One of which was the adult contemporary hit, "Love Has A Mind of Its Own". In 1986, he co-wrote "Closest Thing To Perfect", the title track for the John Travolta, Jamie Lee Curtis movie "Perfect".


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 2004, Sudano released a second solo record called "Rainy Day Soul" and scored three top ten Adult Contemporary hits and earned him the "New Music Weekly" 2004 Adult Contemporary Artist of the Year award.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Sudano's third solo record "Life and the Romantic" was released in 2009 and won the "New Music Weekly" Adult Contemporary Song of the Year award for the track "It's Her Wedding Day" which Sudano wrote about his daughter Brooklyn's marriage. Footage from younger daughter Amanda's wedding to her Johnnyswim bandmate Abner Ramirez was included in the song's music video. Johnnyswim performed with Sudano on the track "Morning Song". The songs "A Glass of Red & the Sunset" and "Beyond Forever" performed well on the smooth jazz charts.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In 2014, after the death of his wife, Sudano released the CD "With Angels on a Carousel". Here he delicately and soulfully crafted songs that reflected his experience through this difficult ordeal.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In the fall of 2015, Sudano released a new album, "The Burbank Sessions". While playing shows throughout 2014 with his newly formed Candyman Band, he continued writing and incorporated the new material into the sets. Once the dates for the year were concluded, he went into his rehearsal studio and recorded these new songs as he performed them, giving the CD a spontaneous and almost live feel. He followed the release with a run of US shows and an extensive European tour.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: In May 2017, Sudano released "21st Century World", a record that features the most culturally and politically charged songwriting of his career. Touching on topics from self-serving government, extremism and demonization, the loss of common sense, the epidemic of single motherhood, and the illusion of social media, to hypocrisy and the meaning of Christianity. A number of videos and live shows followed in support of this record. At the same time, he was steadily immersing himself in the production of a musical based on the life and music of his late wife. In April 2018, "" opened on Broadway. Sudano ended his 2019 tour in the UK, before heading into a two year COVID lockdown. He spent that time writing and recording three albums: Spirals Vol 1, Spirals Vol 2 and Ode to a Nightingale, released in October 2021. He resumed touring in April 2022.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: Sudano was born in New York City, in Brooklyn. Three years after their first meeting, Sudano and singer Donna Summer were married by Pastor Jack Hayford on July 16, 1980, at The Church on the Way in Los Angeles, California. He became the stepfather to Summer's daughter, Natalia Pia Melanie Sommer, also called Mimi (born 1973), from her first marriage to Austrian actor Helmuth Sommer. Sudano and Summer had two daughters together. The family settled on a 56-acre ranch in Thousand Oaks, California.


title: Bruce Sudano

text: The couple had daughter Brooklyn (born 1981), who was named after the New York City borough Sudano was from. The next child was daughter Amanda Grace (born 1982). In 1991, the family moved to Connecticut and remained there for four years. In 1995, they relocated to Nashville, Tennessee, keeping a second home in Naples, Florida, and later buying a third home in New York City, in Manhattan. On May 17, 2012, Donna Summer Sudano died from lung cancer.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Epidemic typhus, also known as louse-borne typhus, is a form of typhus so named because the disease often causes epidemics following wars and natural disasters where civil life is disrupted. Epidemic typhus is spread to people through contact with infected body lice, in contrast to endemic typhus which is usually transmitted by fleas.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Though typhus has been responsible for millions of deaths throughout history, it is still considered a rare disease that occurs mainly in populations that suffer unhygienic extreme overcrowding. Typhus is most rare in industrialized countries. It occurs primarily in the colder, mountainous regions of central and east Africa, as well as Central and South America. The causative organism is "Rickettsia prowazekii", transmitted by the human body louse ("Pediculus humanus corporis"). Untreated typhus cases have a fatality rate of approximately 40%.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Epidemic typhus should not be confused with Murine typhus, which is more endemic to the United States, particularly Southern California and Texas. This form of typhus has similar symptoms, but is caused by "Rickettsia typhi". It is carried primarily in rat feces and fleas, as well as other rodents. It is not as deadly as louse-born typhus. It occurs only during the summer and fall, when rodents are active among humans.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Symptoms of this disease typically begin within 2 weeks of contact with the causative organism. Signs/Symptoms may include:


title: Epidemic typhus

text: After 5–6 days, a macular skin eruption develops: first on the upper trunk and spreading to the rest of the body (rarely to the face, palms, or soles of the feet, however).


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Brill–Zinsser disease, first described by Nathan Brill in 1913 at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, is a mild form of epidemic typhus that recurs in someone after a long period of latency (similar to the relationship between chickenpox and shingles). This recurrence often arises in times of relative immunosuppression, which is often in the context of a person suffering malnutrition or other illnesses. In combination with poor sanitation and hygiene in times of social chaos and upheaval, which enable a greater density of lice, this reactivation is why typhus generates epidemics in such conditions.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Feeding on a human who carries the bacterium infects the louse. "R. prowazekii" grows in the louse's gut and is excreted in its feces. The louse transmits the disease by biting an uninfected human, who scratches the louse bite (which itches) and rubs the feces into the wound. The incubation period is one to two weeks. "R. prowazekii" can remain viable and virulent in the dried louse feces for many days. Typhus will eventually kill the louse, though the disease will remain viable for many weeks in the dead louse.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Epidemic typhus has historically occurred during times of war and deprivation. For example, typhus killed millions of prisoners in German Nazi concentration camps during World War II. The unhygenic conditions in camps such as Auschwitz, Theresienstadt, and Bergen-Belsen allowed diseases such as typhus to flourish. Situations in the twenty-first century with potential for a typhus epidemic would include refugee camps during a major famine or natural disaster. In the periods between outbreaks, when human to human transmission occurs less often, the flying squirrel serves as a zoonotic reservoir for the "Rickettsia prowazekii" bacterium.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: In 1916, Henrique da Rocha Lima proved that the bacterium "Rickettsia prowazekii" was the agent responsible for typhus; he named it after H. T. Ricketts and Stanislaus von Prowazek, two zoologists who had died from typhus while investigating epidemics. Once these crucial facts were recognized, Rudolf Weigl in 1930 was able to fashion a practical and effective vaccine production method. He ground up the insides of infected lice that had been drinking blood. It was, however, very dangerous to produce, and carried a high likelihood of infection to those who were working on it.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: A safer mass-production-ready method using egg yolks was developed by Herald R. Cox in 1938. This vaccine was widely available and used extensively by 1943.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: The infection is treated with antibiotics. Intravenous fluids and oxygen may be needed to stabilize the patient. There is a significant disparity between the untreated mortality and treated mortality rates: 10-60% untreated versus close to 0% treated with antibiotics within 8 days of initial infection. Tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and doxycycline are commonly used. Infection can also be prevented by vaccination.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Some of the simplest methods of prevention and treatment focus on preventing infestation of body lice. Completely changing the clothing, washing the infested clothing in hot water, and in some cases also treating recently used bedsheets all help to prevent typhus by removing potentially infected lice. Clothes left unworn and unwashed for 7 days also result in the death of both lice and their eggs, as they have no access to a human host. Another form of lice prevention requires dusting infested clothing with a powder consisting of 10% DDT, 1% malathion, or 1% permethrin, which kill lice and their eggs.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Other preventive measures for individuals are to avoid unhygienic, extremely overcrowded areas where the causative organisms can jump from person to person. In addition, they are warned to keep a distance from larger rodents that carry lice, such as rats, squirrels, or opossums.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: During the second year of the Peloponnesian War (430 BC), the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece had an epidemic, known as the Plague of Athens, which killed, among others, Pericles and his two elder sons. The plague returned twice more, in 429 BC and in the winter of 427/6 BC. Epidemic typhus is proposed as a strong candidate for the cause of this disease outbreak, supported by both medical and scholarly opinions.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: The first description of typhus was probably given in 1083 at La Cava abbey near Salerno, Italy. In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro, a Florentine physician, described typhus in his famous treatise on viruses and contagion, "De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis".


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Typhus was carried to mainland Europe by soldiers who had been fighting on Cyprus. The first reliable description of the disease appears during the siege of the Emirate of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs in 1489 during the Granada War. These accounts include descriptions of fever and red spots over arms, back and chest, progressing to delirium, gangrenous sores, and the stench of rotting flesh. During the siege, the Catholics lost 3,000 men to enemy action, but an additional 17,000 died of typhus.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Typhus was also common in prisons (and in crowded conditions where lice spread easily), where it was known as "Gaol fever" or "Jail fever". Gaol fever often occurs when prisoners are frequently huddled together in dark, filthy rooms. Imprisonment until the next term of court was often equivalent to a death sentence. Typhus was so infectious that prisoners brought before the court sometimes infected the court itself. Following the Black Assize of Oxford 1577, over 300 died from epidemic typhus, including Speaker Robert Bell, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer. The outbreak that followed, between 1577 and 1579, killed about 10% of the English population.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: During the Lent assize held at Taunton (1730), typhus caused the death of the Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer, the High Sheriff of Somerset, the sergeant, and hundreds of other persons. During a time when there were 241 capital offences, more prisoners died from 'gaol fever' than were put to death by all the public executioners in the realm. In 1759 an English authority estimated that each year a quarter of the prisoners had died from gaol fever. In London, typhus frequently broke out among the ill-kept prisoners of Newgate Gaol and moved into the general city population.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Epidemics occurred in the British Isles and throughout Europe, for instance, during the English Civil War, the Thirty Years' War, and the Napoleonic Wars. Many historians believe that the typhus outbreak among Napoleon's troops is the real reason why he stalled his military campaign into Russia, rather than starvation or the cold. A major epidemic occurred in Ireland between 1816 and 1819, and again in the late 1830s. Another major typhus epidemic occurred during the Great Irish Famine between 1846 and 1849. The Irish typhus spread to England, where it was sometimes called "Irish fever" and was noted for its virulence. It killed people of all social classes since lice were endemic and inescapable, but it hit particularly hard in the lower or "unwashed" social strata. It was carried to North America by the many Irish refugees who fled the famine. In Canada, the 1847 North American typhus epidemic killed more than 20,000 people, mainly Irish immigrants in fever sheds and other forms of quarantine, who had contracted the disease aboard coffin ships. As many as 900,000 deaths have been attributed to the typhus fever during the Crimean War in 1853–1856, and 270,000 to the 1868 Finnish typhus epidemic.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: In the United States, a typhus epidemic struck Philadelphia in 1837. The son of Franklin Pierce died in 1843 of a typhus epidemic in Concord, New Hampshire. Several epidemics occurred in Baltimore, Memphis, and Washington, D.C. between 1865 and 1873. Typhus fever was also a significant killer during the American Civil War, although typhoid fever was the more prevalent cause of US Civil War "camp fever." Typhoid is a completely different disease from typhus. Typically more men died on both sides of disease than wounds.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Rudolph Carl Virchow, a physician, anthropologist, and historian attempted to control an outbreak of typhus in Upper Silesia and wrote a 190-page report about it. He concluded that the solution to the outbreak did not lie in individual treatment or by providing small changes in housing, food or clothing, but rather in widespread structural changes to directly address the issue of poverty. Virchow's experience in Upper Silesia led to his observation that "Medicine is a social science". His report led to changes in German public health policy.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Typhus was endemic in Poland and several neighboring countries prior to World War I (1914–1918). During and shortly after the war, epidemic typhus caused up to three million deaths in Russia, and several million citizens also died in Poland and Romania. Since 1914, many troops, prisoners and even doctors were infected, and at least 150,000 died from typhus in Serbia, 50,000 of whom were prisoners. Delousing stations were established for troops on the Western Front, but the disease ravaged the armies of the Eastern Front. Fatalities were generally between 10 and 40 percent of those infected, and the disease was a major cause of death for those nursing the sick. During World War I and the Russian Civil War between the White and Red, the typhus epidemic caused 2–3 million deaths out of 20–30 million cases in Russia between 1918 and 1922.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Typhus caused hundreds of thousands of deaths during World War II. It struck the German Army during Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of Russia, in 1941. In 1942 and 1943 typhus hit French North Africa, Egypt and Iran particularly hard. Typhus epidemics killed inmates in the Nazi concentration camps and death camps such as Auschwitz, Dachau, Theresienstadt, and Bergen-Belsen. Footage shot at Bergen-Belsen concentration camp shows the mass graves for typhus victims. Anne Frank, at age 15, and her sister Margot both died of typhus in the camps. Even larger epidemics in the post-war chaos of Europe were averted only by the widespread use of the newly discovered DDT to kill lice on the millions of refugees and displaced persons.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Following the development of a vaccine during World War II, Western Europe and North America have been able to prevent epidemics. These have usually occurred in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and parts of Africa, particularly Ethiopia. Naval Medical Research Unit Five worked there with the government on research to attempt to eradicate the disease.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: In one of its first major outbreaks since World War II, epidemic typhus reemerged in 1995 in a jail in N'Gozi, Burundi. This outbreak followed the start of the Burundian Civil War in 1993, which caused the displacement of 760,000 people. Refugee camps were crowded and unsanitary, and often far from towns and medical services.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: A 2005 study found seroprevalence of "R. prowazekii" antibodies in homeless populations in two shelters in Marseille, France. The study noted the "hallmarks of epidemic typhus and relapsing fever".


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Major developments for typhus vaccines started during World War I, as typhus caused high mortality, and threatened the health and readiness for soldiers on the battlefield. Vaccines for typhus, like other vaccines of the time, were classified as either living or killed vaccines. Live vaccines were typically an injection of live agent, and killed vaccines are live cultures of an agent that are chemically inactivated prior to use.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Attempts to create a living vaccine of classical, louse-borne, typhus were attempted by French researchers but these proved unsuccessful. Researchers turned to murine typhus to develop a live vaccine. At the time, murine vaccine was viewed as a less severe alternative to classical typhus. Four versions of a live vaccine cultivated from murine typhus were tested, on a large scale, in 1934.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: While the French were making advancements with live vaccines, other European countries were working to develop killed vaccines. During World War II, there were three kinds of potentially useful killed vaccines. All three killed vaccines relied on the cultivation of "Rickettsia prowazekii", the organism responsible for typhus. The first attempt at a killed vaccine was developed by Germany, using the "Rickettsia prowazekii" found in louse feces. The vaccine was tested extensively in Poland between the two world wars and used by the Germans for their troops during their attacks on the Soviet Union.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: A second method of growing "Rickettsia prowazekii" was discovered using the yolk sac of chick embryos. Germans tried several times to use this technique of growing "Rickettsia prowazekii" but no effort was pushed very far.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: The last technique was an extended development of the previously known method of growing murine typhus in rodents. It was discovered that rabbits could be infected, by a similar process, and contract classical typhus instead of murine typhus. Again, while proven to produce suitable "Rickettsia prowazekii" for vaccine development, this method was not used to produce wartime vaccines.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: During WWII, the two major vaccines available were the killed vaccine grown in lice and the live vaccine from France. Neither was used much during the war. The killed, louse-grown vaccine was difficult to manufacture in large enough quantities, and the French vaccine was not believed to be safe enough for use.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: The Germans worked to develop their own live vaccine from the urine of typhus victims. While developing a live vaccine, Germany used live "Rickettsia prowazekii" to test multiple possible vaccines' capabilities. They gave live "Rickettsia prowazekii" to concentration camp prisoners, using them as a control group for the vaccine tests.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: The use of DDT as an effective means of killing lice, the main carrier of typhus, was discovered in Naples.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Typhus was one of more than a dozen agents that the United States researched as potential biological weapons before President Richard Nixon suspended all non-defensive aspects of the U.S. biological weapons program in 1969.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: The CDC lists the following areas as active foci of human epidemic typhus: Andean regions of South America, some parts of Africa; on the other hand, the CDC only recognizes an active enzootic cycle in the United States involving flying squirrels (CDC). Though epidemic typhus is commonly thought to be restricted to areas of the developing world, serological examination of homeless persons in Houston found evidence for exposure to the bacterial pathogens that cause epidemic typhus and murine typhus. A study involving 930 homeless people in Marseille, France, found high rates of seroprevalence to "R. prowazekii" and a high prevalence of louse-borne infections in the homeless.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Typhus has been increasingly discovered in homeless populations in developed nations. Typhus among homeless populations is especially prevalent as these populations tend to migrate across states and countries, spreading the risk of infection with their movement. The same risk applies to refugees, who travel across country lines, often living in close proximity and unable to maintain necessary hygienic standards to avoid being at risk for catching lice possibly infected with typhus.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Because the typhus-infected lice live in clothing, the prevalence of typhus is also affected by weather, humidity, poverty and lack of hygiene. Lice, and therefore typhus, are more prevalent during colder months, especially winter and early spring. In these seasons, people tend to wear multiple layers of clothing, giving lice more places to go unnoticed by their hosts. This is particularly a problem for poverty-stricken populations as they often do not have multiple sets of clothing, preventing them from practicing good hygiene habits that could prevent louse infestation.


title: Epidemic typhus

text: Due to fear of an outbreak of epidemic typhus, the US Government put a typhus quarantine in place in 1917 across the entirety of the US-Mexican border. Sanitation plants were constructed that required immigrants to be thoroughly inspected and bathed before crossing the border. Those who routinely crossed back and forth across the border for work were required to go through the sanitation process weekly, updating their quarantine card with the date of the next week's sanitation. These sanitation border stations remained active over the next two decades, regardless of the disappearance of the typhus threat. This fear of typhus and resulting quarantine and sanitation protocols dramatically hardened the border between the US and Mexico, fostering scientific and popular prejudices against Mexicans. This ultimately intensified racial tensions and fueled efforts to ban immigrants to the US from the Southern Hemisphere because the immigrants were associated with the disease.