title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The Spanish started trans-Pacific voyages between New Spain (present-day Mexico and the U.S. state of California) and the Philippines in 1565. The famous Manila galleons carried silver from Mexican mines westward to the entrepôt of Manila in the Spanish possession of the Philippines. There, the silver was used to purchase spices and trade goods gathered from throughout Asia, including (until 1638) goods from Japan. The return route of the Manila galleons, first charted by the Spanish navigator Andrés de Urdaneta, took the ships northeast into the Kuroshio Current (also known as the Japan Current) off the coast of Japan, and then across the Pacific to the west coast of Mexico, landing eventually in Acapulco.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Spanish ships were occasionally shipwrecked on the coasts of Japan due to bad weather, initiating contacts with the country. The Spanish wished to expand the Christian faith in Japan. Efforts to expand influence in Japan were met by stiff resistance from the Jesuits, who had started the evangelizing of the country in 1549, as well as by the opposition of the Portuguese and Dutch who did not wish to see Spain participate in Japanese trade. However, some Japanese, such as Christopher and Cosmas, are known to have crossed the Pacific onboard Spanish galleons as early as 1587. It is known that gifts were exchanged between the governor of the Philippines and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who thanks him in a 1597 letter, writing "The black elephant in particular I found most unusual."


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: On 25 July, 1609, the Manila galleons "San Francisco", "Santa Ana", and the flagship ("almiranta") "San Antonio" set sail from Cavite, then a major Philippine shipyard during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, towards Acapulco. The ships ran into storms on 10 August around the Islas de los Ladrones (present-day Northern Mariana Islands); only the "San Antonio" managed to successfully reach Acapulco, while the "Santa Ana" was almost entirely destroyed and had to land at Bungo Province (present-day Ōita Prefecture). The "San Francisco" was severely damaged, losing its mast and leaking water, and later struck a reef nearby the hamlet Yubanda (likely present-day Iwawada, in Onjuku, Chiba). Fifty-six sailors drowned; the rest survived by clinging to floating wreckage. Upon getting to land, a few sailors found some locals from Yubanda at a nearby rice paddy field, who took the survivors to their hamlet. The captain of the "San Francisco", Rodrigo de Vivero, was recognized as a former governor of the Philippines, and was granted an audience with the retired "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu. de Vivero drafted a treaty, signed on 29 November 1609, whereby the Spaniards could establish a factory in eastern Japan, mining specialists would be imported from New Spain, Spanish ships would be allowed to visit Japan in case of necessity, and a Japanese embassy would be sent to the Spanish court.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: A Franciscan friar named Luis Sotelo, who was proselytizing in the area of what is now modern Tokyo, convinced Tokugawa Ieyasu and his son Tokugawa Hidetada to send him as a representative to New Spain (Mexico) on one of their ships, in order to advance the trade treaty. Rodrigo de Vivero offered to sail on the Japanese ship in order to guarantee the safety of their reception in New Spain, but insisted that another Franciscan, named Alonso Muños, be sent instead as the "shōgun" representative. In 1610, Rodrigo de Vivero, several Spanish sailors, the Franciscan father, and 22 Japanese representatives led by the trader Tanaka Shōsuke sailed to Mexico aboard the "San Buenaventura", a ship built by the English navigator William Adams for the "shōgun". Once in New Spain, Alonso Muños met with the Viceroy Luis de Velasco, who agreed to send an ambassador to Japan in the person of the famous explorer Sebastián Vizcaíno with the added mission of exploring the "Gold and silver islands" ("") that were thought to be east of the Japanese isles.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Vizcaíno arrived in Japan in 1611 and had many meetings with the "shōgun" and feudal lords. These encounters were tainted by his poor respect for Japanese customs, the mounting resistance of the Japanese towards Catholic proselytism, and the intrigues of the Dutch against Spanish ambitions. Vizcaíno finally left to search for the "Silver island", during the search he encountered bad weather which forced him to return to Japan as his ship suffered heavy damage.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Without waiting for Vizcaíno, another ship – built in Izu by the Tokugawa shogunate under the minister of the Navy Mukai Shōgen, and named "San Sebastian" – left for Mexico on 9 September 1612 with Luis Sotelo onboard as well as two representatives of Date Masamune, with the objective of advancing the trade agreement with New Spain. However, the ship foundered a few miles from Uraga, and the expedition had to be abandoned.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The "shōgun" had a new galleon built in Japan to bring Vizcaíno back to New Spain, together with a Japanese embassy accompanied by Luis Sotelo. The galleon, named "San Juan Bautista", took 45 days to build, with the participation of technical experts from the Bakufu (the Minister of the Navy Mukai Shōgen, an acquaintance of William Adams with whom he built several ships, dispatched his chief carpenter), 800 shipwrights, 700 smiths, and 3,000 carpenters. The "daimyō" of Sendai, Date Masamune, was put in charge of the project. He named Hasekura to lead the mission:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The objective of the Japanese embassy was both to discuss trade agreements with the Spanish crown in Madrid, and to meet with the Pope in Rome. Date Masamune displayed a great will to welcome the Catholic religion in his domain: he invited Sotelo and authorized the propagation of Christianity in 1611. In his letter to the Pope, brought by Hasekura, he wrote: "I'll offer my land for a base of your missionary work. Send us as many padres as possible."


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Sotelo, in his own account of the travels, emphasizes the religious dimension of the mission, claiming that the main objective was to spread the Christian faith in northern Japan:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The embassy was probably, at that time, part of a plan to diversify and increase trade with foreign countries, before the participation of Christians in the Osaka rebellion triggered a radical reaction from the shogunate, with the interdiction of Christianity in the territories it directly controlled, in 1614.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Upon completion, the ship left on 28 October 1613 for Acapulco with around 180 people on board, including 10 samurai of the "shōgun" (provided by the Minister of the Navy Mukai Shōgen Tadakatsu), 12 samurai from Sendai, 120 Japanese merchants, sailors, and servants, and around 40 Spaniards and Portuguese, including Sebastián Vizcaíno who, in his own words, only had the quality of a passenger.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The ship sighted Cape Mendocino on 26 December, continuing along the California coast and landing at Zacatula in Colima on 22 January 1614. The delegation arrived at Acapulco on 25 January, after three months at sea. The Japanese were received with great ceremony, but had to wait in Acapulco until orders were received regarding how to organize the rest of their travels.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Fights erupted between the Japanese and the Spaniards, especially Vizcaíno, apparently due to some disputes on the handling of presents from the Japanese ruler. A contemporary journal, written by the Nahuatl annalist Chimalpahin, relates Vizcaíno was seriously wounded in the fight:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Following these fights, orders were promulgated on 4 and 5 March to bring peace back. The orders explained that "the Japanese should not be submitted to attacks in this Land, but they should remit their weapons until their departure, except for Hasekura Tsunenaga and eight of his retinue ... The Japanese will be free to go where they want, and should be treated properly. They should not be abused in words or actions. They will be free to sell their goods. These orders have been promulgated to the Spanish, the Indians, the Mulattos, the Mestizos, and the Blacks, and those who don't respect them will be punished".


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The embassy remained two months in Acapulco and entered Mexico City on 24 March, where it was received with great ceremony. The ultimate mission for the embassy was to go on to Europe. The embassy spent some time in Mexico, and then went to Veracruz to board the fleet of Don Antonio Oquendo.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura was settled in a house next to the Convent of San Francisco, and met with the Viceroy. He explained to him that he was also planning to meet King Philip III to offer him peace and to obtain that the Japanese could come to Mexico for trade. On Wednesday 9 April 20 Japanese were baptized, and 22 more on 20 April by the archbishop in Mexico, don Juan Pérez de la Serna, at the Convent of San Francisco. Altogether 63 of them received confirmation on 25 April. Hasekura waited for his travel to Europe to be baptized there:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The fleet left for Europe on the "San Jose" on 10 June. Hasekura had to leave the largest parts of the Japanese group behind, who were to wait in Acapulco for the return of the embassy.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Some of them, as well as those from the previous travel of Tanaka Shōsuke, returned to Japan the same year, sailing back with the "San Juan Bautista":


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The embassy stopped and changed ships in Havana in Cuba in July 1614. The embassy stayed in Havana for six days. A bronze statue was erected on 26 April 2001 at the head of Havana Bay.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura headed the "Keichō" Embassy (), a diplomatic mission to Pope Paul V and Europe from 1613 through 1620. It was preceded by the "Tenshō embassy" () of 1582. Crossing the Pacific aboard the "San Juan Bautista"—a ship built for the purpose by Masamune—Hasekura traveled to New Spain (now Mexico), arriving in Acapulco and departing from Veracruz. He visited various other ports-of-call in Europe on the way. On the return trip, Hasekura and his companions re-traced their route across New Spain in 1619, sailing from Acapulco for Manila, and then sailing north to Japan in 1620. He is conventionally considered the first Japanese ambassador in the Americas and in Spain.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The Japanese embassy met with King Philip III in Madrid on 30 January 1615. Hasekura remitted to the King a letter from Date Masamune, as well as offer for a treaty. The King responded that he would do what he could to accommodate these requests.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura was baptized on 17 February by the royal chaplain Diego de Guzmán in the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales, and renamed Felipe Francisco Hasekura in honor of the king and Sotelo's order. The baptism ceremony was to have been conducted by the Archbishop of Toledo, Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas, though he was too ill to actually carry this out, and the Duke of Lerma – the main administrator of Phillip III's rule and the de facto ruler of Spain – was designated as Hasekura's godfather.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The embassy traveled across Spain during the summer of 1615 at royal expense. They eventually received permission to travel for Rome in August, and left at the beginning of the same month.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: After traveling across Spain, the embassy sailed on the Mediterranean aboard three Spanish frigates towards Italy. Due to bad weather, they had to stay for a few days in the French harbour of Saint-Tropez, where they were received by the local nobility, and made quite a sensation on the populace.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The visit of the Japanese Embassy is recorded in the city's chronicles as led by "Philip Francis Faxicura, Ambassador to the Pope, from Date Masamune, Lord of the Sendai Domain, Mutsu Province, Japan".


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The visit of Hasekura Tsunenaga to Saint-Tropez in 1615 is the first recorded instance of France–Japan relations.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The Japanese Embassy arrived at Rome on 20 September 1615 and was received by Cardinal Burgecio; the delegation met Pope Paul V on 3 November. Hasekura remitted to the Pope two gilded letters, one in Japanese and one in Latin, containing a request for a trade treaty between Japan and Mexico and the dispatch of Christian missionaries to Japan. These letters are still visible in the Vatican archives. The Latin letter, probably written by Luis Sotelo for Date Masamune, reads, in part:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The Pope agreed to the dispatch of missionaries, but left the decision for trade to the King of Spain.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The Roman Senate also gave to Hasekura the honorary title of Roman Noble and Roman Citizen, in a document he brought back to Japan, and which is preserved today in Sendai.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Besides the official description of Hasekura's visit to Rome, some contemporary communications tend to indicate that political matters were also discussed, and that an alliance with Date Masamune was suggested as a way to establish Christian influence in the whole of Japan:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: For the second time in Spain, in April 1616 Hasekura met again with the King, who declined to sign a trade agreement, on the ground that the Japanese Embassy did not appear to be an official embassy from the ruler of Japan Tokugawa Ieyasu, who, on the contrary, had promulgated an edict in January 1614 ordering the expulsion of all missionaries from Japan, and started the persecution of the Christian faith in Japan.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Two years later, after their trip around Europe, the mission left Seville for New Spain (Mexico) in June 1616. Certain registration documents indicate that some Japanese could have stayed in Spain, which is possible given that they made their last stop in villages near Seville (Espartinas and Coria del Río). In modern Spain, there are families with "Japón" as a surname.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga was the subject of numerous publications throughout Europe. The Italian writer Scipione Amati, who accompanied the embassy in 1615 and 1616, published in 1615 in Rome a book titled "History of the Kingdom of Woxu". This book was also translated into German in 1617. In 1616, the French publisher Abraham Savgrain published an account of Hasekura's visit to Rome: "" ("Account of the solemn and remarkable entrance in Rome of Dom Philippe Francois Faxicura").


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura stayed in Mexico for 5 months on his way back to Japan. The "San Juan Bautista" had been waiting in Acapulco since 1616, after a second trip across the Pacific from Japan to Mexico. Captained by Yokozawa Shōgen, the ship was laden with fine pepper and lacquerware from Kyoto, which were sold on the Mexican market. To avoid too much silver leaving Mexico for Japan, the Spanish king requested that the Viceroy ask for the proceeds to be spent on Mexican goods, except for an amount of 12,000 pesos and 8,000 pesos in silver, which Hasekura and Yokozawa respectively were allowed to bring back with them.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: In April 1618, the "San Juan Bautista" arrived in the Philippines from Mexico, with Hasekura and Luis Sotelo on board. The ship was acquired by the Spanish government there, with the objective of building up defenses against incursions from Protestant powers. In Manila, the archbishop described the deal to the king of Spain in a missive dated 28 July 1619:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: During his stay in the Philippines, Hasekura purchased numerous goods for Date Masamune, and built a ship, as he explained in a letter he wrote to his son. He finally returned to Japan in August 1620, reaching the harbour of Nagasaki.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: By the time Hasekura came back, Japan had changed quite drastically: an effort to eradicate Christianity had been under way since 1614, Tokugawa Ieyasu had died in 1616 and been replaced by his more xenophobic son Tokugawa Hidetada, and Japan was moving towards the "Sakoku" policy of isolation. Because news of these persecutions arrived in Europe during Hasekura's embassy, European rulers – especially the King of Spain – became very reluctant to respond favorably to Hasekura's trade and missionary proposals.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura reported his travels to Date Masamune upon his arrival in Sendai. It is recorded that he remitted a portrait of Pope Paul V, a portrait of himself in prayer (shown above), and a set of Ceylonese and Malay/Indonesian daggers acquired in the Philippines, all preserved today in the Sendai City Museum. The "Records of the House of Masamune" describe his report in a rather succinct manner, ending with a rather cryptic expression of surprise bordering on the outrage ("") at Hasekura's discourse:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The direct effect of Hasekura's return to Sendai was the interdiction of Christianity in the Sendai fief two days later:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: What Hasekura said or did to bring about such a result is unknown. As later events tend to indicate that he and his descendants remained faithful Christians, Hasekura may have made an enthusiastic – and to a certain extent, disturbing – account of the greatness and might of Western countries and the Christian religion. He may also have encouraged an alliance between the Church and Date Masamune to take over the country (an idea advertised by the Franciscans while in Rome), which, in 1620 Japan, would have been a totally unrealistic proposition. Lastly, hopes of trade with Spain evaporated when Hasekura communicated that the Spanish King would not enter an agreement as long as persecutions were occurring in the rest of the country.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Date Masamune suddenly chose to distance himself from the Western faith. The first executions of Christians started 40 days later. The anti-Christian measures taken by Date Masumune were, however, comparatively mild, and Japanese and Western Christians repeatedly claimed that he only took them to appease the "shōgun":


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: One month after Hasekura's return, Date Masamune wrote a letter to the "shōgun" Tokugawa Hidetada, in which he makes a very clear effort to evade responsibility for the embassy, explaining in detail how it was organized with the approval, and even the collaboration, of the "shōgun":


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Spain, with a colony and an army in the nearby Philippines, was a source of concern for Japan at that time. Hasekura's eyewitness accounts of Spanish power and colonial methods in New Spain (Mexico) may have precipitated the "shōgun" Tokugawa Hidetada's decision to sever trade relations with Spain in 1623, and diplomatic relations in 1624, although other events such as the smuggling of Spanish priests into Japan and a failed Spanish embassy also contributed to the decision.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: What became of Hasekura is unknown and accounts of his last years are numerous. Contemporary Christian commentators could rely only on hearsay, with some rumours stating that he abandoned Christianity, others that he was martyred for his faith, and others that he practised Christianity in secret. The fate of his descendants and servants, who were later executed for being Christians, suggests that Hasekura remained strongly Christian and transmitted his faith to the members of his family.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Sotelo, who returned to Japan but was caught and finally burnt at the stake in 1624, gave before his execution an account of Hasekura returning to Japan as a hero who propagated the Christian faith:


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura also brought back to Japan several Catholic artifacts, but he did not give them to his ruler, and instead kept them on his own estate.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura Tsunenaga died of illness (according to Japanese as well as Christian sources) in 1622, but the location of his grave is not known for certain. Three graves are claimed as Hasekura's in Miyagi. The most likely is in the outskirts of Ōsato town () in the temple of Saikō-ji (). Another is visible in the Buddhist temple of Enfuku-ji () in Kawasaki town. Another is clearly marked (along with a memorial to Sotelo) in the cemetery of the temple of Kōmyō-ji () in Kitayama Aoba-ku (Sendai).


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Hasekura had a son, named Rokuemon Tsuneyori. Two of his son's servants, Yogoemon (与五右衛門) and his wife, were convicted of being Christian but refused to recant their faith under torture (reverse hanging, called ""tsurushi"") and as a result died in August 1637. In 1637, Rokuemon Tsuneyori himself also came under suspicion of Christianity after being denounced by someone from Edo, but escaped questioning because he was the master of the Zen temple of Komyoji ().


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: In 1640, two other servants of Tsuneyori, Tarōzaemon (太郎左衛門, 71), who had followed Hasekura to Rome, and his wife (59), were convicted of being Christians, and, also refusing to recant their faith under torture, died. Tsuneyori was held responsible this time and decapitated the same day, at the age of 42, for having failed to denounce Christians under his roof, although it remained unconfirmed whether he was himself Christian or not. Two Christian priests, the Dominican Pedro Vazquez and Joan Bautista Paulo, had given his name under torture. Tsuneyori's younger brother, Tsunemichi, was convicted as a Christian, but managed to flee and disappear.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The privileges of the Hasekura family were abolished at this point by the Sendai fief, and their property and belongings seized. It is at this time, in 1640, that Hasekura's Christian artifacts were confiscated, and they were kept in custody in Sendai until they were rediscovered at the end of the 19th century.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Altogether, around fifty Christian artifacts were found in Hasekura's estate in 1640, such as crosses, rosaries, religious gowns, and religious paintings. The artifacts were seized and stored by the Date fief. An inventory was made again in 1840 describing the items as belonging to Hasekura Tsunenaga. Nineteen books were also mentioned in the inventory, but they have been lost since. The artifacts are today preserved in the Sendai City Museum and other museums in Sendai.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Tsuneyori's son, Tsunenobu (常信), grandson of Tsunenaga Hasekura, survived. He founded a Hasekura family line that continues to the present day. The first to 10th heads of the Hasekura Family lived in Osato-city, Miyagi Prefecture. The 11th head moved to Wakabayashi Ward, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture where the present 13th head, Tsunetaka Hasekura, resides. The 13th head actively works in both Miyagi and Akita Prefectures.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The very existence of the travels of Hasekura was forgotten in Japan until the reopening of the country after the Sakoku policy of isolation. In 1873, a Japanese embassy to Europe (the Iwakura mission) headed by Iwakura Tomomi heard for the first time of the travels of Hasekura when shown documents during their visit to Venice in Italy.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: There are statues of Hasekura Tsunenaga in the outskirts of Acapulco in Mexico, at the entrance of Havana Bay in Cuba, in Coria del Río in Spain, in the Church of Civitavecchia in Italy, in Tsukinoura, near Ishinomaki, and two in Osato town in Miyagi. Approximately 700 inhabitants of Coria del Río bear the surname "Japón" (originally "Hasekura de Japón"), identifying them as descendants of the members of Hasekura Tsunenaga's delegation. A theme park describing the embassy and displaying a replica of the "San Juan Bautista" was established in the harbour of Ishinomaki, from which Hasekura initially departed on his voyage.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: Shūsaku Endō wrote a 1980 novel, titled "The Samurai", a fictitious account relating the travels of Hasekura. A 2005 animation film, produced in Spain and titled "Gisaku", relates the adventures of a young Japanese samurai named Yohei who visited Spain in the 17th century, in a story loosely taking its inspiration from the travels of Hasekura. Yohei survived in hiding to the present day due to magical powers ("After centuries of lethargy, he awakes in a World he does not know"), and accomplishes many adventures in modern Europe as a superhero.


title: Hasekura Tsunenaga

text: The 2017 fictional historical novel "The Samurai of Seville" by John J. Healey recounts the travels of Hasekura and his delegation of 21 samurai. A 2019 sequel entitled "The Samurai's Daughter" tells the story of a young woman born to one of the samurai and a Spanish lady, and her journey to Japan with her father following her mother's death.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Nathaniel Martin Stroman (born May 29, 1963), known professionally as Earthquake, is an American stand-up comedian, actor, voice artist and radio personality. He presently hosts a radio show entitled, "Quakeshouse" for SiriusXM and Kevin Hart's Laugh Out Loud Network. His first Netflix special entitled Chappelle's Home Team- Legendary: Earthquake was produced by Dave Chappelle and his Magic Lemonade production entity in February of 2022. The special received rave reviews.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Earthquake performed a half-hour HBO special as part of the series "One Night Stand", which first aired on August 26, 2005. His collection of comedy specials are lauded fan collectibles and are the stuff of legends. His film credits include a small role in Kevin Smith's film "Clerks II" (2006), and a supporting role in the film, "The Longshots" (2008). He has made numerous television appearances including a recurring role on CBS sitcom "The Neighborhood" (2018-2021) starring Cedric the Entertainer"," cameos on "South Side" (2019), "In the Cut" (2017), and more. Earthquake's additional television credits include a recurring role as Chris' Uncle Mike, on "Everybody Hates Chris". He voiced Root the Rooster in the 2006 CGI film, "Barnyard" and in the video game of the same title, and continues to do so on the TV series spinoff, "Back at the Barnyard".


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Nathaniel “Earthquake” Stroman was born on May 29, 1963, in Washington, D.C. His mother gave him the nickname “Earthquake”. She said: “Any time you take all the precautions not to have a kid, from the diaphragm to ... a condom, and you still have a child, there's nothing else you can name that child but a natural disaster."


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Earthquake grew up poor with his mother's sister and her husband in a tough southeast neighborhood, and they often didn't have anything to eat. Earthquake was a class clown, but had no real idea that he could make comedy a career. He later bemoaned the fact that no teacher or advisor had ever pointed him in the direction of performing.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: He enlisted in the United States Air Force after he graduated from high school. Later he explained that he joined the military to get out of his mother's house.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Nathaniel Stroman joined the Air Force in an attempt to remove himself from the negative impacts of the community around him and to further his education. Dodging the many traps of crime and drugs, Nathaniel Stroman enlisted in the Air Force the very next day after his high school graduation. As stated by Nathaniel Stroman to Matt Ehlers of the Raleigh News and Observer “My mother argued with me, hollered at me, and I wasn't getting a check, so how hard could basic training be?”. Stroman would go on to have an eleven-year career with the Air Force spending time on bases located in places like Florida, California, and the Japanese Island of Okinawa. Stroman rose through the ranks all the way to Sergeant in the Air Force. He was honorably discharged and subsequently attended to his thriving comedy career. It was never an actual plan for him to be a stand-up, ‘It was the best decision he made that day’, a quote from Earthquake when asked who inspired his career. Ultimately, Stroman was disheartened by the possibility of the Gulf War of 1991, and he considered it unnecessary. “I didn’t want to go over there and fight for oil” he told Richmond Times-Dispatch. Nathaniel originally joined the military in an attempt to serve his country, while furthering his education and bettering himself, but once the Persian Gulf War broke out Stroman was not in support of the violence that would soon follow in consequence.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: In the early 1990s, Earthquake started off doing gigs in small clubs. By 1993 he co-owned Uptown Comedy Corner in Atlanta's vibrant Buckhead entertainment district. While there he continued to hone his skills as the much sought after house host and featured some of the greatest minds in stand-up. Later he opened a club of his own, Earthquake's Comedy Corner II in Dallas, Tx. and Atlanta, Ga., resepectively. In 1997, Earthquake got his national break when he was asked to join the Russell Simmons Def Comedy Jam Tour.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Earthquake started his career in the Airforce in the talent show “Tops and Blues”. In 2002, Earthquake joined Latham Entertainment Presents Comedy Tour. In 2004, he signed a deal with ABC to create his own sitcom called “Earthquake,” which later fell through, although in 2005 he performed one of his most popular best shows “About Goddamn Time”. In 2007, he appeared in All Star Def Comedy Jam, and in 2008 appeared in with TBS Comedy Festival Lollapalooza. In 2009, Earthquake starred in Shaquille O Neal’s All star Comedy Jam Special (comedy zone). In 2011, he made a guest appearance in TV One: Way Black When show.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: Earthquake started off in radio contributing every Tuesday and Thursday on "The Steve Harvey Morning Show" and has been known to fill-in as a personality while Steve Harvey was on vacation. In 2013, Quake joined 107.5 WBLS as a full-time radio personality weekdays from 3pm to 7pm with Déjà Vu. He left the station in February 2016.


title: Earthquake (comedian)

text: In April 2013, he appeared on ABC’s "The View" in a special segment of stand-up comedians showcased by the cast of "The View" as their personal favorites; Quake appeared on the show as the favorite of comedic great, Whoopi Goldberg. Comedian John Mulaney included "About Got Damn Time" on his list of his favorite comedy albums, saying, "just trying to mix Spalding Gray and Earthquake and Bernie Mac into some kind of amalgam has been the goal of my career."


title: Ateez discography

text: South Korea boy group Ateez have released three studio albums, eleven extended plays and twenty-four singles. They debuted in October 2018 with "", marking the opening of the five-part Korean-language "Treasure" album series. They caught international attention early in their career, which their second EP, "", landed at number seven on the "Billboard"'s Heatseekers Albums Chart and number five on the World Albums Chart. Studio album "" became their first to top the South Korea Gaon Album Chart. The group released the first Japanese-language album "Treasure EP.Extra: Shift the Map" in December 2019.


title: Ateez discography

text: Ateez later released the "Fever" album series in four instalments. Their July 2020 release "" was the first to be certified platinum by the Korea Music Content Association. The next EPs, "" and "", were both certified double platinum in 2021. "Zero: Fever Part.3" and "" charted at number 42 and 73 respectively on the "Billboard" 200 main chart in the United States. Ateez have sold over four million physical albums worldwide. They were the 10th best album selling male artist in South Korea in 2020, and the 8th overall best album seller in the country in 2021.


title: Sound effect

text: A sound effect (or audio effect) is an artificially created or enhanced sound, or sound process used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media. Traditionally, in the twentieth century, they were created with foley. In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point "without" the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, without necessarily referring to the recording itself. In professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, often are called "sound effects".


title: Sound effect

text: The term "sound effect" ranges back to the early days of radio. In its Year Book 1931 the BBC published a major article about "The Use of Sound Effects". It considers sounds effect deeply linked with broadcasting and states: "It would be a great mistake to think of them as anologous to punctuation marks and accents in print. They should never be "inserted" into a programme already existing. The author of a broadcast play or broadcast construction ought to have used Sound Effects as bricks with which to build, treating them as of equal value with speech and music." It lists six "totally different primary genres of Sound Effect":


title: Sound effect

text: According to the author, "It is axiomatic that every Sound Effect, to whatever category it belongs, "must" register in the listener's mind instantaneously. If it fails to do so its presence could not be justified."


title: Sound effect

text: In the context of motion pictures and television, "sound effects" refers to an entire hierarchy of sound elements, whose production encompasses many different disciplines, including:


title: Sound effect

text: Each of these sound effect categories is specialized, with sound editors known as specialists in an area of sound effects (e.g. a "Car cutter" or "Guns cutter").


title: Sound effect

text: Foley is another method of adding sound effects. Foley is more of a technique for creating sound effects than a type of sound effect, but it is often used for creating the incidental real world sounds that are very specific to what is going on onscreen, such as footsteps. With this technique the action onscreen is essentially recreated to try to match it as closely as possible. If done correctly it is very hard for audiences to tell what sounds were added and what sounds were originally recorded (location sound).


title: Sound effect

text: In the early days of film and radio, foley artists would add sounds in realtime or pre-recorded sound effects would be played back from analogue discs in realtime (while watching the picture). Today, with effects held in digital format, it is easy to create any required sequence to be played in any desired timeline.


title: Sound effect

text: In the days of silent film, sound effects were added by the operator of a theater organ or photoplayer, both of which also supplied the soundtrack of the film. Theater organ sound effects are usually electric or electro-pneumatic, and activated by a button pressed with the hand or foot.


title: Sound effect

text: Photoplayer operators activate sound effects either by flipping switches on the machine or pulling "cow-tail" pull-strings, which hang above. Sounds like bells and drums are made mechanically, sirens and horns electronically. Due to its smaller size, a photoplayer usually has fewer special effects than a theater organ, or less complex ones.


title: Sound effect

text: The principles involved with modern video game sound effects (since the introduction of sample playback) are essentially the same as those of motion pictures. Typically a game project requires two jobs to be completed: sounds must be recorded or selected from a library and a sound engine must be programmed so that those sounds can be incorporated into the game's interactive environment.


title: Sound effect

text: In earlier computers and video game systems, sound effects were typically produced using sound synthesis. In modern systems, the increases in storage capacity and playback quality has allowed sampled sound to be used. The modern systems also frequently utilize positional audio, often with hardware acceleration, and real-time audio post-processing, which can also be tied to the 3D graphics development. Based on the internal state of the game, multiple different calculations can be made. This will allow for, for example, realistic sound dampening, echoes and doppler effect.


title: Sound effect

text: Historically the simplicity of game environments reduced the required number of sounds needed, and thus only one or two people were directly responsible for the sound recording and design. As the video game business has grown and computer sound reproduction quality has increased, however, the team of sound designers dedicated to game projects has likewise grown and the demands placed on them may now approach those of mid-budget motion pictures.


title: Sound effect

text: Some pieces of music use sound effects that are made by a musical instrument or by other means. An early example is the 18th century Toy Symphony. Richard Wagner in the opera "Das Rheingold" (1869) lets a choir of anvils introduce the scene of the dwarfs who have to work in the mines, similar to the introduction of the dwarfs in the 1937 Disney movie "Snow White". Klaus Doldingers soundtrack for the 1981 movie "Das Boot" includes a title score with a sonar sound to reflect the U-boat setting. John Barry integrated into the title song of "Moonraker" (1979) a sound representing the beep of a Sputnik like satellite.


title: Sound effect

text: The most realistic sound effects may originate from original sources; the closest sound to machine-gun fire could be an original recording of actual machine guns.


title: Sound effect

text: Despite this, real life and actual practice do not always coincide with theory. When recordings of real life do not sound realistic on playback, Foley and f/x are used to create more convincing sounds. For example, the realistic sound of bacon frying can be the crumpling of cellophane, while rain may be recorded as salt falling on a piece of tinfoil.


title: Sound effect

text: Less realistic sound effects are digitally synthesized or sampled and sequenced (the same recording played repeatedly using a sequencer). When the producer or content creator demands high-fidelity sound effects, the sound editor usually must augment his available library with new sound effects recorded in the field.


title: Sound effect

text: When the required sound effect is of a small subject, such as scissors cutting, cloth ripping, or footsteps, the sound effect is best recorded in a studio, under controlled conditions in a process known as foley. Many sound effects cannot be recorded in a studio, such as explosions, gunfire, and automobile or aircraft maneuvers. These effects must be recorded by a professional audio engineer.


title: Sound effect

text: When such "big" sounds are required, the recordist will begin contacting professionals or technicians in the same way a producer may arrange a crew; if the recordist needs an explosion, he may contact a demolition company to see if any buildings are scheduled to be destroyed with explosives in the near future. If the recordist requires a volley of cannon fire, he may contact historical re-enactors or gun enthusiasts.


title: Sound effect

text: Depending on the effect, recordists may use several DAT, hard disk, or Nagra recorders and a large number of microphones. During a cannon- and musket-fire recording session for the 2003 film "The Alamo", conducted by Jon Johnson and Charles Maynes, two to three DAT machines were used. One machine was stationed near the cannon itself, so it could record the actual firing. Another was stationed several hundred yards away, below the trajectory of the ball, to record the sound of the cannonball passing by. When the crew recorded musket-fire, a set of microphones were arrayed close to the target (in this case a swine carcass) to record the musket-ball impacts.


title: Sound effect

text: A counter-example is the common technique for recording an automobile. For recording "Onboard" car sounds (which include the car interiors), a three-microphone technique is common. Two microphones record the engine directly: one is taped to the underside of the hood, near the engine block. The second microphone is covered in a wind screen and tightly attached to the rear bumper, within an inch or so of the tail pipe. The third microphone, which is often a stereo microphone, is stationed inside the car to get the car interior.


title: Sound effect

text: Having all of these tracks at once gives a sound designer or audio engineer a great deal of control over how he wants the car to sound. In order to make the car more ominous or low, he can mix in more of the tailpipe recording; if he wants the car to sound like it is running full throttle, he can mix in more of the engine recording and reduce the interior perspective. In cartoons, a pencil being dragged down a washboard may be used to simulate the sound of a sputtering engine.


title: Sound effect

text: What is considered today to be the first recorded sound effect was of Big Ben striking 10:30, 10:45, and 11:00. It was recorded on a brown wax cylinder by technicians at Edison House in London on July 16, 1890. This recording is currently in the public domain.


title: Sound effect

text: As the car example demonstrates, the ability to make multiple simultaneous recordings of the same subject—through the use of several DAT or multitrack recorders—has made sound recording into a sophisticated craft. The sound effect can be shaped by the sound editor or sound designer, not just for realism, but for emotional effect.


title: Sound effect

text: Once the sound effects are recorded or captured, they are usually loaded into a computer integrated with an audio non-linear editing system. This allows a sound editor or sound designer to heavily manipulate a sound to meet his or her needs.


title: Sound effect

text: The most common sound design tool is the use of layering to create a new, interesting sound out of two or three old, average sounds. For example, the sound of a bullet impact into a pig carcass may be mixed with the sound of a melon being gouged to add to the "stickiness" or "gore" of the effect. If the effect is featured in a close-up, the designer may also add an "impact sweetener" from his or her library. The sweetener may simply be the sound of a hammer pounding hardwood, equalized so that only the low-end can be heard. The low end gives the three sounds together added weight, so that the audience actually "feels" the weight of the bullet hit the victim.


title: Sound effect

text: If the victim is the villain, and his death is climactic, the sound designer may add reverb to the impact, in order to enhance the dramatic beat. And then, as the victim falls over in slow motion, the sound editor may add the sound of a broom whooshing by a microphone, pitch-shifted down and time-expanded to further emphasize the death. If the film is science-fiction, the designer may phaser the "whoosh" to give it a more sci-fi feel. (For a list of many sound effects processes available to a sound designer, see the bottom of this article.)


title: Sound effect

text: When creating sound effects for films, sound recordists and editors do not generally concern themselves with the verisimilitude or accuracy of the sounds they present. The sound of a bullet entering a person from a close distance may sound nothing like the sound designed in the above example, but since very few people are aware of how such a thing actually sounds, the job of designing the effect is mainly an issue of creating a conjectural sound which feeds the audience's expectations while still suspending disbelief.


title: Sound effect

text: Sci-fi and fantasy genres can be more forgiving in terms of audience expectations; the listener won’t be caught off guard as much by unusual sound effects. In contrast, when creating sound effects for historical accuracy and realism, the listener likely had a lifetime of exposure to some of these sounds and so there are expectations of what they should sound like.


title: Sound effect

text: In the previous example, the phased 'whoosh' of the victim's fall has no analogue in real life experience, but it is emotionally immediate. If a sound editor uses such sounds in the context of emotional climax or a character's subjective experience, they can add to the drama of a situation in a way visuals simply cannot. If a visual effects artist were to do something similar to the 'whooshing fall' example, it would probably look ridiculous or at least excessively melodramatic.


title: Sound effect

text: The "Conjectural Sound" principle applies even to happenstance sounds, such as tires squealing, doorknobs turning or people walking. If the sound editor wants to communicate that a driver is in a hurry to leave, he will cut the sound of tires squealing when the car accelerates from a stop; even if the car is on a dirt road, the effect will work if the audience is dramatically engaged. If a character is afraid of someone on the other side of a door, the turning of the doorknob can take a second or more, and the mechanism of the knob can possess dozens of clicking parts. A skillful Foley artist can make someone walking calmly across the screen seem terrified simply by giving the actor a different gait.


title: Sound effect

text: In music and film/television production, typical effects used in recording and amplified performances are:


title: Austin Riley

text: Michael Austin Riley (born April 2, 1997) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Braves selected him in the first round, 41st overall, of the 2015 MLB Draft.


title: Austin Riley

text: Born in Memphis and raised in Mississippi, Riley played football and baseball at DeSoto Central High School. A star pitcher and third baseman in high school, Riley originally committed to play college baseball at Mississippi State University, before being drafted by the Braves and opting to forgo a college baseball career. Riley made his minor league debut in 2015 with the Gulf Coast Braves and would spend the next several seasons in the Braves farm system.


title: Austin Riley

text: Riley made his MLB debut with the Braves in 2019. After a slow start to his major league career in 2019, Riley would soon emerge as a star, winning a Silver Slugger Award in 2021, as well as that year's World Series. Following a strong start to the 2022 season, Riley signed a franchise-record ten-year contract extension worth $212 million.


title: Austin Riley

text: Austin Riley is the eldest son of Mike and Elisa Riley. Riley attended DeSoto Central High School in Southaven, Mississippi, where he played baseball as a shortstop and pitcher. Riley played American football as a quarterback during his freshman and sophomore years in high school. Though he expressed a desire to quit football and focus on baseball, the football coach chose to retain Riley as a punter, a position his father had played at Mississippi State University. Riley was committed to play for the Mississippi State Bulldogs baseball team until he was drafted by the Atlanta Braves in 2015. MSU had also offered Riley the chance to play football for the Bulldogs as a punter.


title: Austin Riley

text: The Atlanta Braves selected Riley in the first round, with the 41st overall selection, in the 2015 MLB draft. Though he was committed to Mississippi State Bulldogs baseball team, Riley chose to sign with the Braves for $1.6 million. Riley made his professional debut with the Gulf Coast Braves that season. After 30 games, he was promoted to the Danville Braves in the Appalachian League. Overall in 60 games he batted .304/.389/.544 with 12 home runs over 217 at-bats, while on defense he committed 16 errors for a .908 fielding percentage.


title: Austin Riley

text: In 2016, Riley played for the Rome Braves of the Class A South Atlantic League. he batted .271/.324/.479. On defense, he committed 30 errors at third base.


title: Austin Riley

text: The Braves invited Riley to spring training as a non-roster player in 2017. He began the 2017 season with the Florida Fire Frogs of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League. He was promoted to the Mississippi Braves of the Class AA Southern League in July. In 129 games between Florida and Mississippi, Riley hit .275/.339/.446 with 20 home runs and 74 RBIs, while on defense he committed 20 errors at third base. He was assigned to the Peoria Javelinas of the Arizona Fall League at the end of the minor league regular season. Prior to the start of the 2018 season, Riley received an invitation to spring training. He was ranked among the top prospects in the minor leagues prior to the season.


title: Austin Riley

text: He began 2018 with Mississippi, and after batting .333 with six home runs and 20 RBIs in 27 games, and was promoted to the Gwinnett Stripers in May. In 75 games with Gwinnett, he hit .282/.346/.464/.810 with 12 home runs and 47 RBI. He opened the 2019 season with Gwinnett.


title: Austin Riley

text: On May 15, 2019, Riley was called up to the Atlanta Braves prior to their game against the St. Louis Cardinals. Riley was promoted after Ender Inciarte was placed on the injured list. He made his major league debut that night and, in his second at bat, hit a home run off Michael Wacha. On May 29, 2019, Riley, despite a 14-4 blowout loss to the Nationals, hit his first career grand slam, marking his seventh home run in fourteen career games and bringing his RBI total to twenty. At the time, his seven home runs in fourteen games were the second most to begin a career, trailing only Trevor Story (Aristides Aquino has since passed them both with nine). On June 1, he hit his eighth home run in 16 games, becoming the fourth player in major league baseball history to achieve this feat. He was also the fastest player in Braves franchise history to do so. Riley earned the NL Rookie of the Month Award for May 2019, despite only playing in 15 games.


title: Austin Riley

text: On August 8, 2019, Riley was placed on the 10-day injured list due to a right knee sprain, retroactive to August 5. It was later revealed that Riley had a partial tear in his lateral collateral ligament that he sustained while working out. Riley began a rehab assignment on August 22 with the Rome Braves, and as of September 1 was continuing to rehab with the Gwinnett Stripers.


title: Austin Riley

text: In 2019 with the Braves he batted .226/.279/.471 with 18 home runs and 49 RBIs in 274 at bats, as on defense he played 58 games in left field, six at first base, five at third base, and two in right field.


title: Austin Riley

text: In 2020 he batted .239/.301/.415 with 8 home runs and 27 RBIs in 188 at bats. On defense, he played primarily third base (46 games), with four games each at first base and in left field. His six errors were the third-most among NL third basemen.


title: Austin Riley

text: After beginning the 2021 season in a hitting slump that saw him go 8-for-44 with no extra-base hits, Riley made a significant change to the mental aspect of his at bats, working with minor league hitting coach Mike Brumley to recognize where an off-speed pitch would land, and avoid swinging at the sliders that pitchers had used against him in prior years. After batting in the back half of the lineup through late May, Riley was promoted to cleanup hitter, where he helped push the Braves back to the top of the NL East.


title: Austin Riley

text: He finished the 2021 season hitting .303 with 33 home runs (10th in the NL), 107 RBIs (2nd), 168 strikeouts (4th), and a .898 OPS, joining Eddie Mathews and Chipper Jones as the only Atlanta third basemen to hit .300 with at least 30 home runs and 100 RBIs in a season at the age of 24 or younger. Ozzie Albies put up similar numbers, and the pair became the fifth set of teammates to individually construct 30-home run, 100-RBI seasons at the age of 24 or younger. On defense, his 14 errors were second-most among NL third basemen, while his 300 assists ranked first.


title: Austin Riley

text: On October 16, 2021, Riley recorded his first career walk-off hit in Game 1 of the NLCS against the Los Angeles Dodgers, allowing Ozzie Albies to score and the Braves to win 3–2. In Game 6, Riley had 2 hits and 1 RBI to help the Braves close out the series. The Braves would eventually go onto win the 2021 World Series, earning Riley his first World Series ring. After the season ended, Riley and three teammates (Freddie Freeman, Max Fried, and Ozzie Albies) won the Silver Slugger Awards for their respective positions.


title: Austin Riley

text: Riley was eligible for salary arbitration for the first time during the 2022 season. He sought to earn $4.25 million, and was instead awarded $3.95 million. On July 11, 2022, it was announced that Riley had earned Player of the Week honors for the first time in his career. On July 16, Riley was added to the MLB All Star Team as an injury replacement for Nolan Arenado. Riley set a franchise record by recording 26 extra base hits in July. He later won the NL Player of the Month award for July 2022, the first such award in his career. On August 1, the Braves announced that Riley had been signed to a ten-year contract extension, worth $212 million. The contract is the largest in team history, exceeding the length and total value of an extension signed by teammate Matt Olson before the 2022 season began. On August 9, Riley hit his thirtieth home run and, in 111 games, tied Hank Aaron as the quickest players in franchise history to hit thirty doubles and thirty home runs in the same season.


title: Austin Riley

text: Riley and his wife, Anna, were married in November 2018. They reside in Coldwater, Mississippi. They announced in October 2021 they were expecting their first child, and their son was born in April 2022.


title: Austin Riley

text: Riley's cousin Keegan James did attend Mississippi State and played baseball there. James was selected by the Colorado Rockies in the 25th round of the 2019 Major League Baseball draft.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin (; ; , ) is a town (former cathedral city) and formerly a Royal Burgh in Moray, Scotland. It is the administrative and commercial centre for Moray. The town originated to the south of the River Lossie on the higher ground above the floodplain where the town of Birnie is. There, the church of Birnie Kirk was built in 1140 and serves the community to this day.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin is first documented in the Cartulary of Moray in 1190 AD. It was created a royal burgh in the 12th century by King David I of Scotland, and by that time had a castle on top of the present-day Lady Hill to the west of the town. The origin of the name Elgin is likely to be Celtic. It may derive from 'Aille' literally signifying beauty, but in topography a beautiful place or valley. Another possibility is 'ealg', meaning both 'Ireland' and 'worthy'. The termination 'gin' or 'in' are Celtic endings signifying little or diminutive forms, hence Elgin could mean beautiful place, worthy place or little Ireland.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The discovery of the Elgin Pillar, a 9th-century class II Pictish stone, under the High Street in 1823 suggests there may have been an Early Christian presence in the area of the later market, but there is no further evidence of activity before Elgin was created a Royal Burgh in the 12th century. In August 1040, MacBeth's army defeated and killed Duncan I at Bothganowan (Pitgaveny), near Elgin. Elgin is first recorded in a charter of David I in 1151 in which he granted an annuity to the Priory of Urquhart. David had made Elgin a royal burgh around 1130, after his defeat of Óengus of Moray. During David's reign, the castle was established at the top of what is now Lady Hill. The town received a royal charter from Alexander II in 1224 when he granted the land for a new cathedral to Andrew, Bishop of Moray. This finally settled the episcopal see which had been at various times at Kinneddar, Birnie and Spynie. The ancient Forest of Darnaway was designated a Royal Forest and was used by the Scottish kings for hunting.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Alexander II was Elgin's greatest benefactor and returned many times to his royal castle. He established the two religious houses of the town, the Dominicans or Blackfriars on the west side and the Franciscans or Greyfriars in the east. Further to the east stood the Hospital of Maison Dieu, or House of God also founded during the reign of Alexander II for the reception of poor men and women.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: On 19 July 1224, the foundation stone of the new Elgin Cathedral was ceremoniously laid. The cathedral was completed sometime after 1242 but was completely destroyed by fire in 1270. The reasons for this are unrecorded. The buildings now remain as ruins date from the reconstruction following that fire. The Chartulary of Moray described the completed cathedral as "Mirror of the country and the glory of the kingdom".


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Edward I of England travelled twice to Elgin. During his first visit in 1296, he was impressed by what he saw. Preserved in the Cotton library now held in the British Library is the journal of his stay, describing the castle and the town of Elgin as "bon chastell et bonne ville"—good castle and good town. By his second visit in September 1303, the castle's wooden interior had been burned while held by the English governor, Henry de Rye. As a result, he only stayed in Elgin for two days and then camped at Kinloss Abbey from 13 September until 4 October. King Edward was furious when David de Moravia, Bishop of Moray, joined Scotland's cause with Bruce, and Edward appealed to the Pope who excommunicated the bishop, thus removing papal protection, causing him to flee to Orkney, then to Norway, only to return after Robert Bruce's victories against the English. After Edward's death in July 1307, Robert the Bruce attacked Elgin and then retook Scotland in 1308.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: In August 1370 Alexander Bur, Bishop of Moray began payments to Alexander Stewart, Wolf of Badenoch, King Robert III's brother, for the protection of his lands and men. In February 1390, the bishop then turned to Thomas Dunbar, son of the Earl of Moray, to provide the protection. This action infuriated Stewart and in May he descended from his castle on an island in Lochindorb and burned the town of Forres in revenge. In June he burned much of Elgin, including two monasteries, St Giles Church, the Hospital of Maison Dieu and the cathedral. Andrew of Wyntoun's "Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland" (a 15th-century history of Scotland) described this action by "wyld, wykked Heland-men". The rebuilding of the cathedral took many years; but much of it has since crumbled away due to the inferior quality of the stone made available to the 15th- and 16th-century masons, while the 13th-century construction still remains. In 1506, the great central tower collapsed and although rebuilding work began the next year it was not completed till 1538.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The citizens of Elgin and surrounding areas did not seem to object to the new religion following the Reformation. In 1568 the lead was stripped from the roof of the cathedral, by order of the Privy Council of Scotland. The lead was sold to William Birnie and Alexander Clark. The proceeds went to the maintenance of Regent Moray's soldiers, but the ship taking the lead cargo to Holland sank almost immediately on leaving Aberdeen harbour. Without this protection, the building began to deteriorate.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The Kirk Session records of Elgin name women who danced at New Year 1623 to the sound of a trumpet. Six men, described as guisers or "gwysseris" performed a sword dance wearing masks and visors covering their faces in the churchyard and in the courtyard of a house. They were fined 40 shillings each. The fabric of the Cathedral continued to deteriorate. In 1637, the rafters over the choir were blown down and in 1640 the minister of St Giles along with the Laird of Innes and Alexander Brodie of Brodie, all ardent Covenanters, removed and destroyed the ornately carved screen and woodwork that had remained intact. The tracery of the West window was destroyed sometime between 1650 and 1660 by Cromwell's soldiers. On Easter Sunday 1711 the central tower collapsed for the second time in its history but caused much more damage. The rubble was quarried for various projects in the vicinity until 1807 when, through the efforts of Joseph King of Newmill, a wall was built around the cathedral and a keeper's house erected. Mountains of this rubble were cleared by one John Shanks, enabling visitors to view the ornate stonemasonry. Shanks was presented with an ornate snuffbox by the authorities; it is now in Elgin Museum.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: When Daniel Defoe toured Scotland in 1717, he visited Elgin and said:In this rich country is the city, or town rather, of Elgin; I say city, because in antient time the monks claim'd it for a city; and the cathedral shews, by its ruins, that it was a place of great magnificence. Nor must it be wonder'd at, if in so pleasant, so rich, and so agreeable a part of the country, all the rest being so differing from it, the clergy should seat themselves in a proportion'd number, seeing we must do them the justice to say, that if there is any place richer and more fruitful, and pleasant than another, they seldom fail to find it out. As the country is rich and pleasant, so here are a great many rich inhabitants, and in the town of Elgin in particular; for the gentlemen, as if this was the Edinburgh, or the court, for this part of the island, leave their Highland habitations in the winter and come and live here for the diversion of the place and plenty of provisions; and there is, on this account, a great variety of gentlemen for society, and that of all parties and of all opinions. This makes Elgin a very agreeable place to live in, notwithstanding its distance, being above 450 measur'd miles [725 km] from London, and more, if we must go by Edinburgh.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The cathedral is known as the "Lantern of the North." When Bishop Bur wrote to King Robert III, complaining of the wanton destruction done to the building by the King's brother, the Wolf of Badenoch, he describes the cathedral as "the ornament of this district, the glory of the kingdom and the admiration of foreigners." Chambers, in his "Picture of Scotland", says: It is an allowed fact, which the ruins seem still to attest, that this was by far the most splendid specimen of ecclesiastical architecture in Scotland, the abbey church of Melrose not excepted. It must be acknowledged that the edifice last mentioned is a wonderful instance of symmetry and elaborate decoration; yet in extent, in loftiness, in impressive magnificence, and even in minute decoration, Elgin has been manifestly superior. Enough still remains to impress the solitary traveller with a sense of admiration mixed with astonishment.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Lachlan Shaw in his "History of the Province of Moray" was equally impressed when he wrotethe church when entire was a building of Gothic architecture inferior to few in Europe.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Prince Charles Edward Stuart travelled to Elgin from Inverness in March 1746 and, falling ill with a feverish cold, stayed for 11 days before returning to await the arrival of the king's army. He stayed in Elgin with Mrs Anderson, a passionate Jacobite, at Thunderton House. She kept the sheets that the Prince slept on and was buried in them a quarter of a century later. The Duke of Cumberland passed through the town on 13 April, camping at Alves on the way to meet the Prince in battle on Drummossie Muir. After the battle, William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock, one of the Prince's generals, was captured and taken to London and eventual execution, but he wrote to his friend from prison about his indebtedness to the shoemakers of Elgin: Beside my personal debts mentioned in general and particular in the State, there is one for which I am liable in justice, if it is not paid, owing to poor people who gave their work for it by my orders. It was at Elgin in Murray, the Regiment I commanded wanted shoes. I commissioned something about seventy pair of shoes and brogues, which might come to 3 shillngs or three shillings and sixpence each, one with the other. The magistrates divided them among the shoemakers of the town and country, and each shoemaker furnished his proportion. I drew on the town, for the price, out of the composition laid on them, but I was afterwards told at Inverness that, it was believed, the composition was otherwise applied, and the poor shoemakers not paid. As these poor people wrought by my orders, it will be a great ease to my heart to think they are not to lose by me, as too many have done in the course of that year, but had I lived I might have made some inquiry after but now it is impossible, as their hardships in loss of horses and such things, which happeened through my soldiers, are so interwoven with what was done by other people, that it would be very hard, if not impossible, to separate them. If you'll write to Mr Innes of Dalkinty at Elgin (with whom I was quartered when I lay there), he will send you an account of the shoes, and if they were paid to the shoemakers or no; and if they are not, I beg you'll get my wife, or my successors to pay them when they can...


title: Elgin, Moray

text: In the 19th century, the old medieval town of Elgin was swept away. The first major addition to the town centre was the Assembly Rooms, built in 1821 by the Trinity Lodge of Freemasons, at the corner of High Street and North Street. In 1819, Dr Gray's Hospital was built on unused ground. The building has imposing columns and distinctive dome. Dr Alexander Gray, a doctor who worked for and made his fortune with the East India Company, endowed £26,000 for the hospital. In 1828 the new parish church of St Giles was built at a cost of £10,000. L. General Andrew Anderson, born in Elgin, also of the East India Company, died in 1824 and bequeathed £70,000 to the town to found an institution for the welfare of the elderly poor and for the education of orphans. The Anderson Institution was built in the east end of the town in 1832 with accommodation for 50 children and ten elderly people. The Burgh Court House was built in 1841, the museum was completed in 1842 and Elgin Sheriff Court was built in 1866.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The Morayshire Railway was officially opened in ceremonies at Elgin and Lossiemouth on 10 August 1852, the steam engines having been delivered to Lossiemouth by sea. It was the first railway north of Aberdeen and initially ran only between Elgin and Lossiemouth. It was later extended south to Craigellachie. The Great North of Scotland Railway took over the working of the line in 1863 and bought the company in 1881 following the Morayshire Railway's return to solvency from crippling debt.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The town was becoming prosperous, and by 1882 it had a Head Post Office with a savings bank, insurance and telegraph departments, and branches of the Bank of Scotland and the British Linen Company, Caledonian, Commercial, North of Scotland, Royal and Union Banks, and the National Securities Savings Bank, offices or agencies of 48 insurance companies, five hotels, and a newspaper.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The war memorial in Elgin dates from 1921 and represents "Peace and Victory". It was designed by Percy Portsmouth.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The modern town straddles the River Lossie, with the suburbs of Bishopmill to the north and New Elgin to the south. Permo–Triassic rocks, rare in Scotland, are commonly found around Elgin. These are composed of aeolian sandstone formed when this area was subjected to desert conditions. Quarry Wood, on the town's edge, has a formation nicknamed Cuttie's Hillock which produced the internationally known fossils called the Elgin Reptiles. In the Elgin district, boulders belonging to the lowest group of Jurassic strata, Oxford clay and chalk are found both in glacial deposits and on the surface of the ground. The largest of these deposits is at Linksfield, where limestone and shale lie on boulder clay. There is a large hill in Elgin's town centre, often viewed as the highlight of the Elgin tourist trail.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin's climate is temperate maritime, with cool summers and relatively mild winters due to its proximity to the sea. Rainfall is quite low as it is in the rain shadow of mountains to the west and south-west.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The Elgin–Forres–Lossiemouth triangle is heavily dependent on Royal Air Force stations for the employment of civilians. In 2005, RAF Lossiemouth along with its neighbour RAF Kinloss contributed £156.5 million (including civilian expenditure) to the Moray economy, of which £76.6 million was retained and spent locally. The bases provide, directly or indirectly, 21% of all employment in the area, although in 2010 the closure of RAF Kinloss had a significant effect on these numbers. Aware of the impact that the Air Force has on the area's economy, the local population instigated a long campaign to save RAF Lossiemouth, the future of which was also in doubt. How much of an influence this had upon the government's and Ministry of Defence's final decision is uncertain, but the base was ultimately saved and RAF Leuchars instead faced the axe as part of the same Strategic Defence and Security Review. RAF Leuchars will now become, like RAF Kinloss, an army base. Other areas offering significant employment are local authority, construction and real estate, food and drink, tourism, transport, business services and wholesale/retail.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Whisky is an important component of the wider local economy, with Glen Moray distillery, Miltonduff Distillery and the BenRiach distillery all within six miles of Elgin.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: In a recent study, Elgin was shown to be one of the most expensive towns in which to buy property in Scotland.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin is in the Moray (Westminster) constituency of the United Kingdom Parliament which returns a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons, currently Douglas Ross of the Scottish Conservatives.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin is in the Moray constituency of the Scottish Parliament which has slightly different boundaries to the UK Parliament constituency of the same name. The constituency returns a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) to Holyrood—currently Richard Lochhead of the SNP—and is part of the Highlands and Islands electoral region.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Following the reorganisation of local government in Scotland, Elgin now has two multi-member wards, each with three councillors. These wards are Elgin North and Elgin South.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin has bid to become a city as part of The Queen’s Platinum Jubilee celebrations in 2022. The last Scottish town to become a city was Perth in 2012.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin is situated on the A96 trunk route which connects the cities of Aberdeen and Inverness. Heavy traffic through the town causes serious congestion. Scottish transport minister Tavish Scott visited the town in August 2006 to look at the traffic management problems and to meet campaigners for a bypass. It is estimated that a bypass would remove about one-third of traffic from Elgin's streets. The A941 runs from Lossiemouth through Elgin to Rothes, Craigellachie, Dufftown and Rhynie.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin railway station is operated by ScotRail. The railway also connects to Aberdeen and Inverness which have trains to other UK destinations.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin's bus station is operated mainly by Stagecoach, and provides services within Elgin and to other local towns as well as to Aberdeen and Inverness.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: The nearest airports are Inverness Airport, which has flights to mainly UK destinations, and Aberdeen Airport which has UK and international flights.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: During the 1960s, the Beatles, the Who, Pink Floyd, Cream and Dusty Springfield all performed at the Two Red Shoes dancehall, and The Kinks played Elgin Town Hall. Oi Polloi performed at the Ocean Club on Batchen Street in April 2007, under a gazebo erected by local punks.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: In August 2021, a new community sports facility consisting of a full-size football pitch and two enclosed five-a-side pitches was opened.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Formed in 1893, the town's only senior football club is Elgin City, who play at Borough Briggs stadium. They entered the Highland Football League in 1895 and won the league championship fourteen times. The club entered the Scottish Football League in season 2000–01 and currently competes in Division Two. Their home colours are black and white vertical stripes, black shorts and white socks. Past famous players for Elgin City include Andy Goram, Nicky Walker, Jimmy Johnstone and John McGinlay. Recently ex-Scotland players Brian Irvine and David Robertson have managed the club.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Two junior football sides, Bishopmill United and New Elgin, both currently compete in the Scottish Junior Football North Division Two while Moray Social, Golden Pheasant F.C. and Bishopmill Villa participate in the Moray District Welfare Football Association.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin Cricket Club plays home games on the Cooper Park cricket pitch under the auspices of North of Scotland Cricket Association.


title: Elgin, Moray

text: Elgin is home to the Moray Typhoons, an SNL team. They play their home games at the Moray Leisure Centre.


title: WZ-551

text: The WZ-551 is a Chinese wheeled infantry fighting vehicle family. The name WZ-551 actually covers two families of vehicles with the official designations in the People's Liberation Army (PLA) of Type 90 and Type 92. Over 3,000 WZ-551s are in service with the PLA, where they are used by medium mechanized infantry units.


title: WZ-551

text: The WZ-551 project began in 1979 and was the first wheeled infantry fighting vehicle developed by China. WZ-551 was developed with the experience gained from the development of the WZ-521 wheeled armored personal carrier based on Jiefang CA-30 truck. In 1981, WZ-551 finished prototyping proof of concept designs, and the vehicle was an indigenous chassis based on the imported Mercedes-Benz 2026 truck. Production licenses for key technologies were acquired from Mercedes-Benz and Deutz AG. In 1982, multiple weapon configurations were proposed, including 35 mm autocannon, 30 mm autocannon, 25 mm autocannon, 12.7 mm heavy machine gun, or reverse-engineered 2A28 Grom from Type 86 infantry fighting vehicle. The final choice was to develop 25 mm autocannon for the IFV variant and 12.7 mm heavy machine gun for the APC variant.


title: WZ-551

text: Another project, WZ-523 based on the domestic Dongfeng EQ245 truck platform, was developed in parallel with WZ-551. Due to utilizing old technologies, WZ-523 was developed much faster with initial production, starting in 1983. It first appeared on the 35th National Day parade in 1984. However, it was discovered that WZ-523 chassis cannot meet the required performance standard. WZ-523 project was then refocused for export effort and did not enter large scale service with the People's Liberation Army (PLA).


title: WZ-551

text: WZ-551 project pressed on and produced several prototype vehicles with different armaments. To save development time, technologies from other Chinese vehicles were ported into the WZ-551, such as the sighting system, ventilation system, overpressure NBC system from the Type 86 IFV, 25 mm autocannon from the ZSD-89-II infantry fighting vehicle, and electrical water discharge system from the Type 63 amphibious tank. In 1984, the cooling system and transmission system finished testing. In 1986, two more prototypes were sent to northern provinces and southern Hainan island for cold and hot-weather trials. Plans were also made for an extended 4×4 and 8×8 vehicle family. In 1986, WZ-551 was confirmed by Central Military Commission as the future PLA wheeled platform, beating the internal competitor WZ-523.


title: WZ-551

text: In 1988, a deal was made with French firm GIAT to incorporate a GIAT 25-mm autocannon as the primary weapon for WZ-551 and the work on the redesign of WZ-551 began in China even before the French gun was delivered. Due to the urgent need to meet the schedule, the GIAT 25-mm autocannon was airlifted to China, as opposed to delivery via cargo ships, the usual practice at the time. The French system has a night-vision system, stabilized gun, and advanced fire control system. The new vehicle was named NGV-1, with N for "Norinco", G for "GIAT" and V for "vehicle". However, further NGV-1 development was cancelled due to the imposed arms embargo in 1989.


title: WZ-551

text: The finalized WZ-551 was certified with military designation ZSL-90 or Type 90 infantry fighting vehicle, which was fitted with ZPT-90 25 mm autocannon (similar to the turret of ZSD-89-II infantry fighting vehicle). Development continued, and the vehicle was planned as universal chassis for a variety of weaponry platforms, such as command vehicle, anti-tank missile carrier, self-propelled anti-air system, and armored ambulance. Despite being used as a common chassis for many different platforms, the total number of vehicles of all types entering Chinese service is small due to its engine problem, and with the exception of the basic APC version, no other versions of ZSL-90 is known to be successfully exported due to the same reason.<ref name="te_90/92"></ref> It's estimated that less than 100 units of WZ-551 (Type 90) were produced.


title: WZ-551

text: The WZ-551 (Type 90) was developed into WZ-551A. WZ-551A replaced the water-cooling engine with the air-cooled version, thus having better reliability, cross-country capability and engine performance at high-altitude regions. One distinct visual difference between WZ-551A and its predecessors is that for WZ-551 (Type 90) and WZ-523, there's a significant gap between the front axle and the rear pair of wheels. On the WZ-551A, the distance is the same for all axles and wheels.


title: WZ-551

text: The redesigned WZ-551A was certified with military designation ZSL-92 or Type 92 in 1994. Type 92 solved the problems of its predecessors and was quickly accepted into the Chinese military service. It also saw much greater export success. Type 92 was showcased to the public in the 50th National Day parade in 1999. Like its predecessor, Type 92 was also developed as a universal chassis for various weaponry platforms. Additionally, the planned 4×4 and 8×8 versions were realized in the Type 92 program as WZ-550 (4×4 chassis) and WZ-552 (8×8 chassis).


title: WZ-551

text: The 4×4 armored personal carrier was developed for the Chinese police forces. Chinese military also developed the HJ-9 missile carrier and mobile air defense missile system based on the WZ-550 chassis. Other variants, such as PTL-02 assaults vehicle, PLL-05 self-propelled gun-mortar, were developed based on the WZ-551 chassis. The ZSL-92 was also developed into the ZSL-92B, which replaced the 25 mm ZPT-90 with stabilized 30 mm ZPT-99 and new fire control systems.


title: WZ-551

text: In 2005, another mobile land based air defense variant of the TY-90 missile was revealed to the Chinese public, named as Yi-Tian () Air Defense System, or YT ADS. The weaponry includes eight TY-90 missiles, QJC-88 12.7 mm heavy machine gun and 2 sets of 4 smoke grenade dischargers. WZ-551 is the chassis of the Yi-Tian air defense system, giving the system amphibious capability and added protection. Additionally, a light solid state 3-D passive phased array radar is added to the fire control system, just above the original electro-optical fire control system, providing the ADS with greater surveillance range. The radar can be fold down for traveling and transportation.


title: WZ-551

text: Produced by Norinco, the WZ-551 (Type 90) first developed in 1980s and certified in 1990, but the Chinese military were not satisfied with its performance, and the design had to be modified into WZ-551A (ZSL-92) in 1994. The modification was mostly concentrated on improving the chassis and subsystems. The improved WZ-551A entered service in 1995 as the ZSL-92 IFV and ZSL-92A APC. WZ-551 chassis looks externally similar to French VAB, however they have different internal layout, and the WZ-551 chassis is much larger.


title: WZ-551

text: The vehicle is constructed of fully-welded steel plates, the interior is divided into three compartments with steel plates. The driver and commander sit in the front, and the engine is in the middle, with the turret basket and the passengers compartment located in the rear. The vehicle is crewed by 3 and capable of transporting 9 passengers. The automotive platform is a modified Chinese-made Tiema XC2030 6×6 truck, which is a license-built version of the all-wheel drive Mercedes-Benz 2026 truck.


title: WZ-551

text: The ZSL-92 (WZ-551A) infantry fighting vehicle (IFV) is equipped with a ZPT-90 25 mm cannon and a 7.62 mm Type 86 coaxial machine gun in a closed turret. The 25x183mmB ZPT-90 is based on the Type 87 anti-aircraft cannon, which is a bored-out version of the Type 85 anti-aircraft cannon, itself is a direct copy of the Soviet 23x152mmB ZU-23-2. The turret has a full 360° traverse with an elevation of -8° ~ 55°. Ammunition load for the cannon is 400 rounds, with 200 rounds carried inside the ammunition cartridges, and an additional 200 (120 high-explosive rounds and 80 armour-piercing rounds) carried in the turret. The gun can fire single, 3-round burst, 5-round burst, or fully automatic. The maximum cyclic rate of fire is 200 rounds/min. The secondary coaxial machine gun is fitted with 1,000 rounds. The autocannon is not stabilized on the ZSL-92, thus the vehicle is incapable of firing on the move. The sighting systems are composed of three periscopes for driver, commander, and the gunner. The center periscope for driver can be replaced by an image intensifying periscope. The periscope for the gunner can be fitted with passive night-vision device, providing limited night combat capability.


title: WZ-551

text: The ZSL-92A (WZ-551B) armored personal carrier (APC) is fitted only with a QJC-88 12.7 mm machine gun. The troop compartment is larger and can carry 11 passengers.


title: WZ-551

text: The ZSL-92B IFV (WZ-551B1) is an upgrade variant of the original ZSL-92. The new turret is equipped with a fully-stabilized ZPT-99 30 mm autocannon, a Type 86 coaxial machine gun and a missile launch rail for the SACLOS HJ-73C ATGMs positioned on the right hand side of the roof of the turret. The vehicle is fitted with modernized electronics system, including gunner thermal imaging sight, laser rangefinder, angle measurement sensor, and digital ballistic computer. The turret of ZSL-92B is very similar to that of ZBD-03 and ZBD-86A.


title: WZ-551

text: The ZSL-92 is fitted with two banks of four smoke grenade launchers on each side of the turret. On ZSL-92B, The turret was equipped with two clusters of three smoke grenade launchers (one on each side of the turret). The WZ-551 chassis is made of fully-welded steel plates, providing all around protection against small arms fire and shell splinters. The frontal plate can stop 12.7 mm machine gun fire at . The vehicle is also fitted with ventilation system, NBC protection system. The steel-reinforced radial tire allows the vehicle to travel at reduced speeds for 100 km when punctured.


title: WZ-551

text: WZ-551 family is powered by the Deutz BF8L413F 8-cylinder, turbo-charged, air-cooled diesel engine, developing 320 hp. The vehicle is equipped with mechanical ZF 5S-lllGPA manual transmission. The maximum speed is 90 km/h with 800 km of range on highway. The vehicle has off-road capability and is fully amphibious with steerable propellers behind the rear wheels.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The Williamsburg Bridge is a suspension bridge in New York City across the East River connecting the Lower East Side of Manhattan at Delancey Street with the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn at Broadway near the Brooklyn-Queens Expressway (Interstate 278). Completed in 1903, it was the longest suspension bridge span in the world until 1924.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge is one of four toll-free vehicular bridges connecting Manhattan Island and Long Island. The others are the Queensboro Bridge to the north, and the Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridges to the south. The Williamsburg Bridge once carried New York State Route 27A and was planned to carry Interstate 78, though the planned I-78 designation was aborted by the cancellation of the Lower Manhattan Expressway and Bushwick Expressway.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: Construction on what was then known as the "East River Bridge", the second to span it, began in 1896 after approval by the Governor of New York on May 27, 1895. The new bridge was to be built north of the Grand Street Ferry, terminating at Delancey and Clinton Streets on the Manhattan side and at South Fifth Street and Driggs Avenue on the Brooklyn side. Leffert L. Buck was the chief engineer, Henry Hornbostel was the architect, and Holton D. Robinson was the assistant engineer.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: Engineers first constructed caissons on either side to support the future bridge. The caisson on the Manhattan side was completed in May 1897, upon which time the caisson on the Brooklyn side was launched. The caissons were manufactured in a shipyard in Williamsburg. In January 1898, Mayor Robert Anderson Van Wyck removed the members of the East River Bridge Commission due to "charges of extravagance". A commission of six people appointed by the state was proposed, but the bill was rejected.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: As part of the Williamsburg Bridge's construction, the section of Delancey Street between the bridge's western end and the Bowery was widened. The portion of Spring Street between the Bowery and Lafayette Street was also expanded. This was the third plan for the bridge's western approaches that was publicly announced. Public opposition had caused the cancellation of previous proposals, which included a wide street extending from the end of the bridge to either Cooper Square or the intersection of Houston Street and Second Avenue. To accommodate the bridge's approaches, 600 houses were demolished in total, including 330 on the Manhattan side and 270 on the Brooklyn side. More than 10,000 people were evicted from these houses during construction.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge's supporting wires were manufactured by the Roebling Company in Trenton, New Jersey and ready to be installed by February 1901. The first temporary wires between the East River Bridge's two towers were strung on April 9, 1901. They were to be replaced later with permanent main cables made up of 7,696 smaller cables twisted together. The pair were fully strung by April 16, and work on the bridge's pedestrian deck begun soon afterward. The pedestrian path on the East River Bridge was completed in June 1901. Afterward, construction progressed at a fast pace, owing to the ease of manufacturing the steel. Ornamental lights were also placed on the bridge. The East River Bridge was renamed the "Williamsburg Bridge", after its Brooklyn terminus, in 1902.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: There were several deaths during construction, including a worker who fell from the Manhattan approach in May 1900; the main steelwork engineer, who fell from the Brooklyn approach in September 1900; and a foreman who drowned in March 1902. Additionally, a fire occurred on the Brooklyn side's tower in November 1902, which nearly severed the bridge's cables.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge opened on December 20, 1903, at a cost of $24.2 million ($624 million in 2016). At the time it was the longest suspension bridge span in the world, and remained so until the opening of the Bear Mountain Bridge in 1924.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: Originally, the Williamsburg Bridge was used mainly by trolley lines and railways (see ). In January 1932, it was agreed to convert a pair of abandoned trolley tracks on the south side of the bridge that had been deemed unsafe to an roadway. Three more concrete roadways were added in 1941 as part of a Works Progress Administration project.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: Decades of deferred maintenance caused the Williamsburg Bridge to deteriorate significantly. This was worsened by a design flaw during construction: instead of galvanizing the main cables to prevent their corrosion, workers placed a mixture of "slushing oil" as a cost-saving measure. By 1912, some of the smaller cables in the bridge's anchorages had already snapped. In 1922, a galvanized sheath was placed around each of the main cables. However, damage still occurred, and in 1934, water in the main cables caused the wires to rust. In 1944 and again in 1963, workers poured oil treatments onto the cables in attempts to prevent the corrosion. Workers later added several support towers on either side of the main span to supplement the suspension towers. In 1969, inspectors found varying degrees of corrosion under the bridge's outer roadways. A 1978 study of the Williamsburg Bridge, as well as of five other bridges in New York City, found that there were varying degrees of corrosion on the main cables' individual strands. Cracks were also found in the bridge structure itself. Out of the six bridges examined in 1978, the Williamsburg Bridge was the only crossing that was found to have corroded suspension cables.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: A subsequent study concluded that the bridge needed either new cables or a replacement. It was decided to replace the cables because that cost less than a wholesale replacement. However, engineers also considered the option of replacing the bridge if the cable replacement project became too expensive. The cable replacement was also complex, since the process had to occur while the bridge was still in operation.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge continued to decay: in May 1987, two support bars fell from the outer roadway. By January 1988, it was determined that the four main suspension cables were only two-thirds as strong as they were supposed to be. Without any maintenance, the main cables would only be able to hold up the span until 1995. The New York State Department of Transportation applied for funding to rebuild the bridge, which was projected to cost $250 million and take ten years. Every third rope in the suspension had already been replaced in 1985. However, more than 200 cables in the suspension had snapped, and pieces of concrete were falling from the bridge. The bridge's structural integrity was rated as 1.6 out of a scale of 1 to 7.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: Inspectors were appointed to monitor the bridge's status and make temporary bridge closures based on the amount of stress placed on the bridge. The bridge was closed to motor vehicle traffic and subway trains on April 11, 1988, after a painter noticed a large hole in a girder; upon further review, inspectors also discovered severe corrosion in a floor beam. An inspection in May 1988 found 290 "flag conditions" where the steelwork of the bridge could malfunction, potentially causing the bridge to collapse. Most of these "flags" were limited to the approaches, but one flag condition was found in the elevated subway structure within the suspension span. The Williamsburg Bridge was partially reopened at the end of May, in time for the Memorial Day holiday. Mayor Ed Koch decided that it would cost less to rebuild the bridge than to replace it. To alleviate the loads on the bridge, it was reopened in three phases: first to cars, then to subways, and finally to trucks.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge was rebuilt through much of the 1990s and 2000s. The cast iron stairway on the Manhattan side, and the steep ramp from Driggs Avenue on the Williamsburg side, were replaced to allow handicapped access per the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. A decrepit walkway on the Williamsburg Bridge was closed in June 1991, and it reopened as a bike path in March 1992. Since the new bike path opened, the bridge has become the most heavily bicycled span in North America. Cable replacement started in April 1992. The subway tracks along the bridge were closed in April 1999 to allow the reconstruction of the subway structure. The tracks reopened in September of that year. Also in 1999, Gandhi Engineering designed and rebuilt the other pedestrian pathway along the Williamsburg Bridge. The rebuilt walkways carried both pedestrian and bike traffic because the pathways were only wide, and were too narrow to carry segregated traffic. The final two vehicular lanes on the renovated span were reopened in 2002.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: A celebration was held on June 22, 2003, to mark the bridge's 100th anniversary. The area surrounding Continental Army Plaza was filled with musical performers, history exhibits, and street vendors. Dignitaries marched across the bridge carrying the 45-star American flag used in a game of capture the flag played by workers after the placement of the final cable in June 1902. A truck-sized birthday cake was specially made for the event by Domino Sugar, which had a factory on the East River waterfront near the bridge. The ornamental lights on the bridge were re-lighted in November of that year after being turned off for eight months due to a lack of funds.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge was designated as a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2009.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: In 2016, a local resident launched a campaign to rename the bridge for jazz musician Sonny Rollins, who practiced on the bridge almost every day from 1959 to 1961, while he was living on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. His 1962 album "The Bridge", produced on his return from his 3-year sabbatical, was named in its honor.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: In 2017, it was announced that between April 2019 and June 2020, during the 14th Street Tunnel shutdown, traffic restrictions would be implemented on the Williamsburg Bridge during the daytime. The restrictions would take place seven days a week between 5 a.m. and 10 pm. The bridge would be restricted to buses, trucks, and vehicles with more than 3 passengers during these times. The peak-hour high-occupancy vehicle restriction would allow the Williamsburg Bridge to accommodate three Select Bus Service bus rapid transit routes between Brooklyn and Manhattan. It was projected that during the shutdown, 70 buses in each direction would travel across the Williamsburg Bridge every hour. This was later revised upward to 80 buses per hour. However, in January 2019, it was announced that the 14th Street Tunnel would not completely shut down. As a result, New York City Transit Authority head Andy Byford stated that the Williamsburg Bridge's HOV lanes were no longer needed.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) contracted Skanska to renovate the bridge in November 2022. The project, budgeted at $167 million, was partially funded by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. Work began in late 2022 and is expected to be complete in 2025.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge, including approaches, is long, its main span is , and its deck is wide. Measured from high water, the height at the center of the bridge is above the river and each tower is tall. The structure is unconventional among suspension bridges in having its main span hanging from cables in the usual manner but its side spans being supported entirely by their trusswork.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The Brooklyn landing is between Grand Street and Broadway, which both had ferries prior to the bridge's construction. The five ferry routes operated from the landings went out of business by 1908.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The bridge once carried New York State Route 27A. Had the Lower Manhattan Expressway been built, the Williamsburg Bridge would have been designated Interstate 78.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: In reference to the area's large Yiddish-speaking population, a sign on the westbound approach to the bridge reads, "Leaving Brooklyn: Oy Vey!" Another sign says "Leaving Brooklyn, Fuhgeddaboudit!" The two signs were proposed by former Brooklyn borough president Marty Markowitz in the early 2000s.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The Williamsburg and Manhattan bridges are the only suspension bridges in New York City that still carry both automobile and rail traffic. The Williamsburg once held four trolley tracks in addition to the two subway tracks currently on the bridge that connect the New York City Subway's BMT Nassau Street Line and BMT Jamaica Line.


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: The rapid transit tracks in the center of the bridge were initially used by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT) elevated railroad. Today, the New York City Subway's , successors to the BRT/BMT lines, use these tracks at the following times:


title: Williamsburg Bridge

text: In 1995, a collision between a J train and an M train occurred on the bridge tracks, killing the J train's motorman. The crash led to widespread changes in the subway's signaling system.