title: Terra Mariana

text: Medieval Livonia was intermittently ruled first by the Brothers of the Sword, since 1237 by the semi-autonomous branch of Teutonic knights called Livonian Order and the Roman Catholic Church. By the mid 14th century, after buying the Duchy of Estonia from Christopher II, the Livonian Order controlled about 67,000 square kilometers of the Old Livonia and the Church about . The lands of the Order were divided into about 40 districts governed by a Vogt. The largest ecclesiastical state was the Archbishopric of Riga () followed by the Bishopric of Courland (), Bishopric of Dorpat, and Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek. The nominal head of Terra Mariana as well as the city of Riga was the Archbishop of Riga as the apex of the ecclesiastical hierarchy.


title: Terra Mariana

text: In 1240 Valdemar II created the Bishopric of Reval in the Duchy of Estonia by reserving (contrary to canon law) the right to appoint the bishops of Reval to himself and his successor kings of Denmark. The decision to simply nominate to the See of Reval was unique in the whole Catholic Church at the time and was disputed by bishops and the Pope. During this era, the election of bishops was never established in Reval, and the royal rights to the bishopric and to nominate the bishops were even included in the treaty when the territories were sold to the Teutonic Order in 1346.


title: Terra Mariana

text: Throughout the existence of medieval Livonia there was a constant struggle for superiority in the rule over the lands by the Church, the order, the secular nobles of German descent who ruled the fiefs and the citizens of the Hanseatic town of Riga. Two major civil wars were fought in 1296–1330, 1313–1330, and in 1343–1345 the Estonian revolt resulted in the annexation of the Danish Duchy of Estonia within the Teutonic Ordensstaat.


title: Terra Mariana

text: The most important ally of the Livonian Order was the German nobility in the Danish Duchy of Estonia. In the beginning of the 14th century Denmark was no longer a powerful state and the local German nobility had effectively become the rulers of the territory. After the Estonians of Harju started a rebellion in 1343 (St. George's Night Uprising) the Teutonic order occupied the territories. The overthrow of Danish rule came two days after the Order had defeated the Estonian revolt. The Danish viceroy was imprisoned in cooperation with the pro-German vassals. The castles in Reval and Wesenberg were handed over to the Order by the German nobility party on 16 May 1343 and the castle at Narva in 1345. In 1346, the Estonian territories (Harria and Vironia) were sold by the king of Denmark for 19,000 Köln marks to the Teutonic Order. The shift of sovereignty from Denmark to the Teutonic Order took place on 1 November 1346.


title: Terra Mariana

text: The Teutonic Order fell into decline after Poland and Lithuania defeated it in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. The Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence, as it did not participate in the battle and suffered no casualties, having obtained a truce with Grand Duke Vytautas.


title: Terra Mariana

text: In 1418 Pope Martin V nominated Johannes Ambundii to the position of Archbishop of Riga. He became known as the organizer of the Livonian confederation.


title: Terra Mariana

text: Conflict commonly occurred between the Order, the bishops, and the powerful Hanseatic cities throughout the existence of medieval Livonia. To solve internal disputes, the Livonian Diet or "Landtag" gathered in 1419 at the initiative of Archbishop Ambundii. The city of Walk was chosen as the site of the Diet. The Diet comprised members of the Livonian Order, Livonian Bishops, vassals and city representatives.


title: Terra Mariana

text: On 1 September 1435 the Livonian Order's defeat in the Battle of Wiłkomierz, claiming the lives of the Master and several high-ranking knights, brought the order closer to its Livonian neighbours. The Livonian confederation agreement ("eiine fruntliche eyntracht") was signed in Walk on 4 December 1435, by the archbishop of Riga, the bishops of Courland, Dorpat, Ösel-Wiek and Reval; the representatives of the Livonan Order and vassals, and the deputies of Riga, Reval and Dorpat city municipal councils.


title: Terra Mariana

text: The states of the Livonian Confederation ceased to exist during the Livonian War of 1558–1582. In 1559 the Bishop of Ösel-Wiek and Courland Johannes V von Münchhausen (1542–1560) sold his lands to King Frederick II of Denmark for 30,000 thalers. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Duke Magnus of Holstein who in 1560 landed with an army on Ösel.


title: Terra Mariana

text: In 1561 a Swedish army landed in Reval and gained control over the northern part of Old Livonia. The Livonian Order was dissolved by the Treaty of Vilnius in 1561. The following year, the Livonian Diet decided to ask protection from Sigismund II Augustus (King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania). With the end of government by the last Archbishop of Riga, William of Brandenburg, Riga became a free imperial city and the rest of the territory was split between two Polish-Lithuanian vassal states: the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (Polish vassal) and the Duchy of Livonia (Lithuanian vassal).


title: Terra Mariana

text: According to Henry of Livonia, Bishop Albert of Riga emphasized to Pope Innocent III the importance of his see as a crusading venue and its association with Mary, the Mother of Jesus when reporting to the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215:


title: Terra Mariana

text: "Sicut", inquit, "pater sancte, terram sanctam Ierosolimitanum, que est terra filii, sanctitatis tue studio fovere non desinis, sic Lyvoniam, que est terra matris, [...] derelinquere non debes." "Holy Father", he said, "as you have not ceased to cherish the Holy Land of Jerusalem, the country of the Son, [...] so also you ought not to abandon Livonia, the land of the Mother [...]


title: Murry Wilson

text: Murry Gage Wilson (July 2, 1917 – June 4, 1973) was an American songwriter, talent manager, record producer, and music publisher, best known as the father of the Beach Boys' Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson. After the band's formation in 1961, Murry became their first manager, and in 1962, he founded their publishing company, Sea of Tunes, with Brian. Later in his life, Wilson was accused of physically and verbally abusing his children, charges which he denied.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Raised in Los Angeles, Wilson grew up in a hostile family environment due to his own father's violent nature. After his children were born, he founded a machining business, A.B.L.E. (Always Better Lasting Equipment) but maintained an active interest in music, which he passed along to his sons. Wilson authored or co-authored at least 50 compositions in his lifetime, albeit with little commercial success. His most popular songs were "Two-Step, Side-Step", recorded by Johnnie Lee Wills and Bonnie Lou in the 1950s, and "Break Away", released as a Beach Boys single in 1969. Wilson was also credited as producer for some of the band's early records, including the 1962 singles "409" and "Surfin' Safari".


title: Murry Wilson

text: The Beach Boys dismissed Wilson as their manager in early 1964 due to his overbearing and disruptive presence at the group's concerts and recording sessions. Following this, he produced the sound-alike group the Sunrays, and recorded an easy listening album, "The Many Moods of Murry Wilson" (1967). Wilson controlled the Beach Boys' publishing until 1969, when he sold Sea of Tunes to Irving Almo Music in exchange for $700,000 (equivalent to $ in ). In 1973, he died, aged 55, of a heart attack. His handling of the group's publishing became the subject of numerous lawsuits decades later.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Murry Gage Wilson was born on July 2, 1917 in Hutchinson, Kansas, as the third child and second son of Edith Sophia (née Sthole) and William Coral "Buddy" Wilson, a plumber. His father was of English, Irish, and Scottish descent, while his mother was of Swedish heritage. The middle name Gage was taken from the doctor who delivered him as a baby. One of Murry's eight siblings died in infancy. In 1921, the family moved west to Los Angeles, and were initially so impoverished that they camped for two months in a tent on the beach when they arrived. In 1929, the family settled at a home on 605 West 99th Street near Inglewood, and one year later, rented a nearby farmhouse at 9722 South Figueroa.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Buddy, who struggled with alcoholism, was often physically and verbally abusive to his family. In one incident, after Buddy's glasses were broken by Murry's younger brother Charlie, Buddy beat the boy so savagely that the rest of the family temporarily forced him out of the home. According to biographer Peter Ames Carlin, Murry increasingly "found himself thrust into the role of his mother's protector, raising his own fists against the father he loved but who seemed unable to love him or anyone else in the family."


title: Murry Wilson

text: Murry was interested in music from a young age and aspired to be a pop songwriter since he was a teenager. Of his musicianship, Carlin states that Murry was self-taught on guitar and received piano lessons from his sister, but biographer Timothy White writes that Murry could not play an instrument. In 1931, Wilson enrolled at Washington High School. There, he met Audree Neva Korthof, who, in addition to playing piano, sang at school functions and community events with her classmates. They graduated in June 1935 and were married on March 26, 1938.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Following graduation, Murry worked as a clerk at Southern California Gas Company, until the birth of their first child, Brian, in 1942. After Brian's birth Murry took a job as a junior administrator at the Los Angeles Goodyear Tire & Rubber factory, located at 6701 South Central Avenue, where he lost his left eye in an industrial accident. Wilson reflected, "When I was twenty-five I thought the world owed me a living. When I lost my eye, I tried harder, drove harder, and did the work of two men and got more raises." He had two more children with Audree, Dennis (born 1944) and Carl (born 1946). After Dennis's birth, the family purchased a two-bedroom house at West 119th Street in Hawthorne, California.


title: Murry Wilson

text: After his injury, Wilson returned to Goodyear, but soon left the factory for a job at Garrett AiResearch, where he worked from 1945 to 1950. He then did a four-year stint at Admiral Machinery Company, a heavy machinery leasing business, where he was employed by his younger brother Douglas. In March 1955, Murry obtained a loan of $20,000 (equivalent to $ in ) to finance the start of his own machining business, A.B.L.E. Machinery Company (Always Better Lasting Equipment).


title: Murry Wilson

text: Wilson maintained an active interest in music, which he passed along to his sons, encouraging them to learn to sing and play instruments. Murry reflected, "I've been writing songs for as long as I can remember. My family has always had a great appreciation for the value of music. Many an evening my wife and I used to gather our sons and sing around our organ. Those were pretty lean days for us. We couldn't afford to go to a show, so we entertained ourselves with music." According to White, Murry was often forceful in this field.


title: Murry Wilson

text: The Wilson brothers did not publicly discuss their problematic relationship with their father until they were adults. Many stories of physical and verbal abuse surfaced, including a supposed incident where Murry hit Brian in the head with a 2×4, resulting in the permanent loss of hearing in his right ear, and another occasion in which he disciplined Brian by forcing him to defecate on a plate. Murry denied such reports when approached by "Rolling Stone" in 1971. According to biographer David Leaf, Murry later "telephoned Brian and angrily demanded that he retract the stories. Reportedly, Brian laughingly told his dad, 'I'll tell you what. Let's tell them that I shit in your ear, and you hit me in the head with a plate."


title: Murry Wilson

text: Out of the three Wilson brothers, Dennis was the most likely to get spanked by their father. Audree recalled, "Dennis had it the hardest; he got some very hard spankings. [Murry] was tough; I used to think he was too tough." Dennis later described his father as "a tyrant ... I don't know kids who got it like we did." Carl declined to comment on the accusations against his father. Brian's 2016 memoir states, "Lots of things have been written about my dad and the way he treated me and my brothers. Lots of them are true. Some of them are dirty lies. But even the things that are true aren't always what they seem." Leaf wrote, "Some people loved Murry, others insist he was a 'sick man,' but few will deny that he physically and verbally abused his children. ... In private, many people confirm that the Wilson brothers had it very hard."


title: Murry Wilson

text: Although he was a strict parent, Murry frequently surprised his children with gifts, such as a BB gun and a go-kart for Dennis. For Dennis's tenth birthday, Murry hosted a children's party that converted the family home into a jungle gym for Dennis and his friends to play in. One of Dennis's classmates, Don Allen, remembered Murry as "being outgoing, friendly, jovial, enthusiastic, and quite in the spirit of being a ten-year-old boy." Wilson's nephew Mike Love said that his uncle often applied a "Vulcan nerve pinch" to boys in the neighborhood. "He never truly hurt anyone, but he inspired plenty of fear."


title: Murry Wilson

text: By 1950, Murry had written several songs. In 1952, he befriended songwriters Hite and Dorinda Morgan, a married couple who jointly operated Guild Music Company, their music publishing firm. Late in the year, Hite offered to publish two of Wilson's songs, the dance number "Two Step, Side Step" and the ballad "I'll Hide My Tears", and have them recorded with help from Hite's connections in the Los Angeles music industry. In exchange for signing with the Morgans, Murry received $50 as an advance on future royalties the songs may yield.


title: Murry Wilson

text: In early 1953, the couple arranged to have "Two Side, Side Step" recorded by Palace Records act the Bachelors. To promote the forthcoming record, member Jimmie Haskell arranged to have the song performed by the Lawrence Welk Orchestra on Welk's nationally-broadcast "On the Air from the Aragon" radio show in May 1953. Also arranged by Hite, renditions of Wilson's "Painting with Teardrops (of Blue)" and "Two Step, Side Step" were recorded by country singer Johnny Hall and released as a single on the Recorded in Hollywood label. In 1954, "I'll Hide My Tears" was recorded by the Jets (a reconfiguration of the Hollywood Flames), and "Two Step, Side Step" was recorded by early rock 'n' roll singer Bonnie Lou. "Billboard" reviewed Lou's rendition as a "cute bouncy tune" that would likely become a popular jukebox pick.


title: Murry Wilson

text: After the Beach Boys' formation, Murry became the group's business manager, co-producer, and publisher in the early part of their career. Murry was a tough negotiator on the band's behalf, organizing a contract signing with Capitol Records. Around June 1962, Murry and Brian established the music publishing company Sea of Tunes to safeguard Brian's compositions. The Beach Boys' first few records credited Capitol A&R director Nick Venet as producer. After April 1963, Capitol allowed Brian to produce their records himself, following Murry's insistence. Murry also introduced Brian to Roger Christian, who became Brian's writing partner for the band's car songs.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Murry accompanied the group on their first Australasian tour in January 1964, and required that the band not fraternize with women, use profanity, or drink alcoholic beverages. During his early years, Wilson charged the group $100 for breaking these requirements, but for this tour, he raised the fine to $1,000, which he would subtract from the touring proceeds. At the time, Wilson's influence on the Beach Boys ignited tensions within the group.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Upon the tour's completion, the band members held a vote in which they unanimously agreed to relieve Murry from his managerial duties. According to Love, "Brian and I drove to his parents' house, and Brian told him straight out: 'Look, we can't deal with you anymore. We've got to get a new manager.'" In Carl's recollection, "I remember having a conversation with my dad in his bedroom at home. I said, 'They really don't want you to manage the group anymore.' When I think about it, that must have really crushed him. After all, he gave up his home and business for us. He was kind of crackers over us." Audree said that the dismissal "destroyed" her husband and that he refused to leave his bed for weeks.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Another report suggests that Wilson was fired in early April 1964, following incidents involving the recording sessions of the singles "Fun, Fun, Fun" and "I Get Around". According to Mike Love, by then, Murry had already stopped managing the band for a "couple months", although he did disrupt a studio session in April. "Brian had a hard time standing up to his father, but this time he did. ... Then he shoved his dad, who went sprawling backward. That was the only time I ever saw Brian defy him physically, and Murry, defeated, left the studio." In 1966, Brian reflected, "We love the family thing – y'know: three brothers, a cousin and a friend is a really beautiful way to have a group – but the extra generation can become a hang-up."


title: Murry Wilson

text: Even after Murry's formal business relationship with the Beach Boys ended, he remained in close contact with the group, letting Brian know his thoughts about the band's decisions. Brian also periodically sought advice from his father. In 1964, Murry sold off his machinery business and separated from Audree. According to music historian Mark Dillon, it has been alleged that Wilson had one or more extramarital affairs, "but whether this was in the aftermath of his separation from Audree or was ultimately the cause is not known." Biographer Peter Ames Carlin suggested that Brian's song "Let Him Run Wild" (1965) was inspired by Murry's affairs.


title: Murry Wilson

text: In June 1964, Murry produced three tracks for David Marks' group the Marksmen: "Car Party", "Casanova", and "Leaves". During the mid-1960s, Murry produced and managed the Sunrays, a group comprising five students who attended Hollywood Professional High School. The Sunrays earned some media attention and a bit of airplay for their initial singles, but never broke into the national Top 40. Their two best-known singles, "I Live for the Sun" and "Andrea", were regional hits in California. Session drummer Hal Blaine remembered of the Sunrays sessions, "You could smell the liquor something terrible when he [Wilson] came near you. Everybody got a two-dollar bill as a tip before we started, and then he'd get down on one knee and say a prayer. It was very weird."


title: Murry Wilson

text: In February 1965, Wilson visited a Beach Boys recording session for "Help Me, Rhonda" and, to the group's annoyance, attempted to resume his role as the band's producer. A tape of the session later circulated widely among bootleggers. On May 8, Murry drafted an eight-page letter to Brian in which he correlated the Beach Boys' rise to fame with the disintegration of his family. He wrote that he felt he was "almost [in] a living hell" and "wanted to give up completely on two separate occasions." Dillon wrote that the letter "provides a wealth of insight into his conflicted personality, and it made headlines in 2009 after being posted online."


title: Murry Wilson

text: For their next album, "Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!)" (released July 1965), Brian wrote a novelty song inspired by his father: "I'm Bugged at My Ol' Man". Murry later commented on the song, "He meant it as a put-on, but he meant it." In July, he sent a letter to Brian requesting that he be officially granted sole ownership of Sea of Tunes, per a verbal agreement they had reached in 1962. According to historian Keith Badman, "Brian allowed Murry to take total control to stop his father's continual hassling on the matter."


title: Murry Wilson

text: In 1966, the Beach Boys released the album "Pet Sounds". On the advice of his father, Brian sped up the track "Caroline, No" to make the vocal sound younger. Murry later told "Rolling Stone" that he enjoyed the album and praised it as a "masterpiece of accomplishment for Brian", noting that it had become a ubiquitous influence on the music heard in product commercials. Dennis echoed that his father "used to go to pieces when he heard stuff like 'Caroline, No.'" Venet, who was not as enthusiastic with the album, told biographer Steven Gaines that he believed the record was Brian's attempt to "torment his father with songs his father couldn't relate to, and melody structures his father couldn't understand." Tony Asher, the album's lyricist, remembered negotiating his cut of the royalties with Murry, describing his 25% share as "a "screw"".


title: Murry Wilson

text: Although their marriage ended in divorce in 1966, Murry and Audree remained closely involved with each other until his death. However, Audree lived in a separate home that was purchased for her by Murry. After Carl and Brian revealed that they were marijuana smokers to their parents, Murry forbade Audree from allowing her sons to visit her home until Christmas 1967.


title: Murry Wilson

text: In October 1967, Capitol released Murry's "The Many Moods of Murry Wilson", an easy listening LP that included a rendition of "The Warmth of the Sun". While promoting the album in Britain, he told "Disc & Music Echo" that "after 'Good Vibrations' Brian lost a lot of confidence. He didn't think he could ever write anything as good as that again ... With [my] LP I'm going to nudge my boys' competitive spirit."


title: Murry Wilson

text: In 1968, Wilson appeared on the Beach Boys' "Friends" album, singing the brief bass vocal harmony in the chorus of "Be Here in the Mornin". In early 1969, he co-wrote the Beach Boys' song "Break Away" with Brian, and was credited under the pseudonym "Reggie Dunbar" on the record, which was released without much commercial success. In October, he returned to the studio to work on various productions, including a song titled "Gonna Be Alright".


title: Murry Wilson

text: In late 1969, Wilson sold Sea of Tunes, over the band's objections, for the undervalued amount of $700,000 (equivalent to $ in ). Brian later suggested that his signature was forged by his father on several related business documents, making the sale illegal.


title: Murry Wilson

text: In April 1970, Wilson assembled a tape comprising songs that he had recorded at Sunset Sound Recorders called "So Much in Love" and "Love to Be Your Lover". The tape begins with a spoken interlude in which Wilson suggests the Beach Boys should record these songs, as he "doesn't have long to live". In August 1971, Wilson cut a song he wrote called "Won't You Tell Me". The Sunrays released their version of the song on the 1996 compilation "For Collectors Only: Vintage Rays". Other versions of the song – one a piano demo by Brian, and another featuring Brian and Carl on lead vocals – remained unreleased until the 2021 box set "Feel Flows". On September 11, "Disc & Music Echo" reported that when Dennis had permanently left the Beach Boys was in the process of "setting up a production and publication company with his father".


title: Murry Wilson

text: In 1972, Murry became ill with diverticulitis that contributed to his worsening heart disease. Also that year, he worked on various songs, including one called "Take Back the Time". In October, he recorded a commercial jingle that he intended to offer to the Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant chain. In the spring of 1973, he had a heart attack and was hospitalized for one or two weeks. During his final years, Murry had regularly socialized with Dennis. Audree recalled, "They were buddies. It's the most amazing thing ... Dennis called his father on Mother's Day and Murry told him, 'I'm just going to live about a month.' Dennis didn't tell me this, thank God! I didn't need to know that, but he could tell Dennis that."


title: Murry Wilson

text: On June 4, 1973, Murry died at his home in Whittier, California, after having a heart attack at the age of 55. His official cause of death was attributed to "acute myocardial infarcation" as a result of "coronary atherosclerosis". Brian and Dennis did not attend the funeral, but Dennis visited Murry's body in the morgue. Brian later said, "I didn’t go to his funeral. I went to New York with Diane, my sister-in-law. I wasn’t staying away out of anger or anything. It was just too many things all at once, and I was not in the mood to go to my dad’s funeral." Carl said, "I really loved my dad a lot. It just about killed Brian when our dad died."


title: Murry Wilson

text: Murry was buried in Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood, California. Shortly after Murry's death, Brian told an interviewer that he was planning to record Murry's song "Lazaloo". It was also reported that Brian wrote a song, "Just an Imitation", as a tribute to his father. As of 2014, a tape of the song had yet to surface. Wilson later described it as "a beautiful ballad and kind of a tribute to my dad." On December 1, 1997, Audree died of kidney failure and cardiovascular issues at the age of 79.


title: Murry Wilson

text: In a 2004 interview, Brian recalled of his father, "He was the one who got us going. He didn't make us better artists or musicians, but he gave us ambition. I'm pleased he pushed us, because it was such a relief to know there was someone as strong as my dad to keep things going. He used to spank us, and it hurt too, but I loved him because he was a great musician." Furthermore, in 2005, he said that although people often mislabel Murry as an untalented songwriter, "[he] had talent, he sure did. He was a talented man. He had some music in him ... My favorite song of his was one called 'His Little Darling and You'. It was a ballad." In 2008, Brian included his own reworked version of the song, retitled "Just Like Me And You", as a bonus track on his album "That Lucky Old Sun".


title: Murry Wilson

text: Engineer Chuck Britz, studio owner Stan Ross, record executive Russ Regan, and band promoter Fred Vail all spoke positively of Murry and credited him with much of the band's initial success. Members of the Sunrays described Murry as "the [nicest] man ever" and denied seeing any abuse from him toward the Beach Boys. Britz said: "I was one of the few people who liked Murry. I always did. I admired him for the way he got the kids mad at him; that made them also conscious of what they were trying to achieve. I realize that maybe he did it the wrong way, but at the same time, he did make them work as a team which was the way it should be." Vail likened their father to "an Army drill sergeant" and said that he was "key" to the band's success, before adding,


title: Murry Wilson

text: James Murphy, author of "Becoming the Beach Boys", commented that "material possessions do not make a childhood happy, but Murry did his best [on a modest salary] to provide his boys with things they enjoyed. And no one fought harder for the fledgling Beach Boys than Murry." Conversely, in his 2016 memoir, Mike Love wrote that Murry was "a driving force in the Beach Boys’ early success, but his greed and vindictiveness deny him any tribute. The most forgiving thing I can say about him is that he was simply an inheritor of his own father’s cruelty." He added, "what is often missed in the Wilson family history is that my aunt Audree was the true musical talent in that marriage." Brian himself stated in a 2005 interview that Murry "was a bad musician. I learned nothing from him."


title: Murry Wilson

text: In 2020, musician George Faulkner released a tribute album, "George Faulkner Sings Murry Wilson", containing 11 Wilson songs. It was the first vinyl LP collection of vocal songs composed by Wilson ever released. David Marks contributed liner notes to the album.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Wilson was portrayed in two television movies: in 1990's "", by Arlen Dean Snyder, and in 2000's "", by Kevin Dunn. The latter program inspired illustrator Peter Bagge and comedian Dana Gould to create a 2000 web cartoon based on Wilson, titled "Rock and Roll Dad", with Wilson voiced by Paul F. Tompkins. In the 2014 biopic "Love & Mercy", Wilson is portrayed by Bill Camp.


title: Murry Wilson

text: Wilson wrote at least 50 compositions in his lifetime, with over 25 recorded by other artists. Listed below are released compositions, authored or co-authored by Wilson, that were recorded by himself or other artists.


title: Browser wars

text: A browser war is competition for dominance in the usage share of web browsers. The "first browser war," (1995-2001) pitted Microsoft's Internet Explorer against Netscape's Navigator. Browser wars continued with the decline of Internet Explorer's market share and the popularity of other browsers including Firefox, Google Chrome (and other Chromium-based browsers), Safari, Microsoft Edge and Opera.


title: Browser wars

text: With the introduction of HTML5 and CSS 3, a new generation of browser war began, this time adding extensive client-side scripting to the World Wide Web, as well as the more widespread use of smartphones and other mobile devices for browsing the web. These newcomers have ensured that browser battles continue among enthusiasts, while the average web user is less affected.


title: Browser wars

text: Tim Berners-Lee along with his colleagues at CERN started the development of World Wide Web, an Internet-based hypertext system, in the year 1989. This further led to creation of HyperText Transfer Protocol, which would set the protocols for the client-server communication. In 1990, he created the only way to see the web back then, i.e. the original web browser, WorldWideWeb, subsequently known as Nexus, and made it available for the NeXTstep Operating System, by NeXT.


title: Browser wars

text: Other browsers had started to surface by the year's end of 1992, many of which were based on the libwww library. These included MacWWW/Samba for the Mac and Unix browsers including Line Mode Browser, ViolaWWW, Erwise, and MidasWWW. Even while these browsers tended to be basic HTML viewers that needed third-party helpers to display multimedia content, they gave consumers a selection of browsers and operating systems.


title: Browser wars

text: Further browsers were released in 1993, including Cello, Arena, Lynx, tkWWW, and Mosaic. The most influential of these was Mosaic, a multi-platform browser developed at National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). By October 1994, Mosaic was "well on its way to becoming the world's standard interface", according to Gary Wolfe of "Wired".


title: Browser wars

text: Several companies licensed Mosaic to create their commercial browsers, such as AirMosaic, Quarterdeck Mosaic, and Spyglass Mosaic. One of the Mosaic developers, Marc Andreessen, co-founded the Mosaic Communications Corporation and created a new web browser named Mosaic Netscape.


title: Browser wars

text: To resolve legal issues with NCSA, the company was renamed Netscape Communications Corporation, and the browser Netscape Navigator. The Netscape browser improved Mosaic's usability and reliability and was able to display pages as they loaded. By 1995, helped by the fact that it was free for non-commercial use, the browser dominated the emerging World Wide Web.


title: Browser wars

text: Other browsers launched during 1994 included IBM Web Explorer, Navipress, SlipKnot, MacWeb, and Browse.


title: Browser wars

text: In 1995, Netscape faced new competition from OmniWeb, Eolas WebRouser, UdiWWW, and Microsoft's Internet Explorer 1.0, but continued to dominate the market.


title: Browser wars

text: By mid-1995, the World Wide Web had received a great deal of attention in popular culture and the mass media. Netscape Navigator was the most widely used web browser and Microsoft had licensed Mosaic to create Internet Explorer 1.0, which it had released as part of the Microsoft Windows 95 Plus! pack in August.


title: Browser wars

text: Internet Explorer 2.0 was released as a free download three months later. Unlike Netscape Navigator, it was available to all Windows users free of charge, this also applying to commercial companies. Other companies later followed suit and released their browsers free of charge. Both Netscape Navigator and competitor products like InternetWorks, Quarterdeck Browser, InterAp, and WinTapestry were bundled with other applications to full Internet suites. New versions of Internet Explorer and Netscape, (branded as Netscape Communicator), were released at a rapid pace over the following few years.


title: Browser wars

text: Development was rapid and new features were routinely added, including Netscape's JavaScript (subsequently replicated by Microsoft as JScript) and proprietary HTML tags such as codice_1 (Navigator) and codice_2 (Internet Explorer).


title: Browser wars

text: Internet Explorer began to approach feature parity with Netscape with version 3.0 (1996), which offered scripting support and the market's first commercial Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) implementation.


title: Browser wars

text: In October 1997, Internet Explorer 4.0 was released. The release party in San Francisco featured a ten-foot-tall letter "e" logo. Netscape employees showing up to work the following morning found the logo on their front lawn, with a sign attached that read "From the IE team ...We Love You." The Netscape employees promptly knocked it over and set a giant figure of their Mozilla dinosaur mascot atop it, holding a sign reading "Netscape 72, Microsoft 18" representing the market distribution.


title: Browser wars

text: Internet Explorer 4 changed the tides of the browser wars. It was integrated into Microsoft Windows, which gave it a large installation base.


title: Browser wars

text: During these releases, it was common for web designers to display 'best viewed in Netscape' or 'best viewed in Internet Explorer' logos. These images often identified a specific browser version and were commonly linked to a source from which the stated browser could be downloaded. These logos generally recognized the divergence between the standards supported by the browsers and signified which browser was used for testing the pages. In response, supporters of the principle that websites should be compliant with World Wide Web Consortium standards and hence viewable with any browser started the "Viewable With Any Browser" campaign, which employed its logo similar to the partisan ones. Most mainstream websites, however, specified one of Netscape or IE as their preferred browser while making some attempt to support minimal functionality on the other.


title: Browser wars

text: While Netscape began with about 80% market share and a good deal of public goodwill, as a relatively small company deriving the great bulk of its income from what was essentially a single product (Navigator and its derivatives), it was financially vulnerable. Microsoft's resources allowed them to make Internet Explorer available without charge, as the revenues from Windows were used to fund its development and marketing. As a result, Internet Explorer was provided free for all Windows and Macintosh users, unlike Netscape which was free for home and educational use but would require a paid license for business use; as it was told by Jim Barksdale, President and CEO of Netscape Communications: "Very few times in warfare have smaller forces overtaken bigger forces...".


title: Browser wars

text: Microsoft bundled Internet Explorer with every copy of Windows, which had an over 90% share of the desktop operating system market, allowing the company to obtain market share more easily than Netscape, as customers already had Internet Explorer installed as the default browser. At this time, many new computer purchasers had never extensively used a web browser before. Consequently, the buyer did not have anything else to compare with and little motivation to consider alternatives; the set of abilities they had gained with access to the Internet and the World Wide Web made any difference in browser features or ergonomics pale in comparison.


title: Browser wars

text: During the United States Microsoft antitrust case in 1998, government witness and Intel vice president Steven McGeady testified that a senior executive at Microsoft told him in 1995 of his company's intention to "cut off Netscape's air supply", although a Microsoft attorney rejected McGeady's testimony as not credible. That same year, Netscape, the company, was acquired by America Online for US$4.2 billion. Internet Explorer became the new dominant browser, attaining a peak of about 96% of the web browser usage share during 2001.


title: Browser wars

text: The first browser war ended with Internet Explorer having no remaining serious competition for its market share. This also brought an end to the rapid innovation in web browsers; until 2006 there was only one new version of Internet Explorer since version 6.0 had been released in 2001. Internet Explorer 6.0 Service Pack 1 was developed as part of Windows XP Service Pack 1 and was also integrated into Windows Server 2003. Further enhancements were made to Internet Explorer in Windows XP Service Pack 2 (released in 2004), including a pop-up blocker and stronger default security settings regarding the installation of ActiveX controls.


title: Browser wars

text: At the start of Netscape Navigator's decline, Netscape open-sourced its browser code and later entrusted it to the newly formed non-profit Mozilla Foundation— a primarily community-driven project to create a successor to Netscape. Development continued for several years with little widespread adoption until a stripped-down browser-only version of the full suite, which included new features such as a separate search bar (which had previously only appeared in the Opera browser), was created. The browser-only version was initially named "Phoenix", but because of trademark issues that name was changed, first to "Firebird", then to "Firefox". This browser became the focus of the Mozilla Foundation's development efforts and Mozilla Firefox 1.0 was released on November 9, 2004. It then continued to gain an increasing share of the browser market until a peak in 2010.


title: Browser wars

text: In 2003, Microsoft announced that Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 1 would be the last standalone version of its browser. Future enhancements would be dependent on Windows Vista, which would include new tools such as the WPF and XAML to enable developers to build web applications.


title: Browser wars

text: In response, in April 2004, the Mozilla Foundation and Opera Software joined efforts to develop new open-technology standards which add more capability while remaining backward-compatible with existing technologies. The result of this collaboration was the WHATWG, a working group devoted to the fast creation of new standard definitions that would be submitted to the W3C for approval.


title: Browser wars

text: The growing number of device/browser combinations in use, legally-mandated web accessibility, as well as the expansion of expected web functionality to essentially require DOM and scripting abilities, including AJAX, made web standards of increasing importance during this era. Instead of touting their proprietary extensions, browser developers began to market their software based on how closely it adhered to the behavior as specified by the standard.


title: Browser wars

text: On February 15, 2005, Microsoft announced that Internet Explorer 7 would be available for Windows XP SP2 and later versions of Windows by mid-2005. The announcement introduced the new version of the browser as a major upgrade over Internet Explorer 6 SP1.


title: Browser wars

text: Opera had been a long-time small player in the browser wars, known for introducing innovative features such as tabbed browsing and mouse gestures, as well as being lightweight but feature-rich. The software, however, was commercial, which hampered its adoption compared to its free rivals until 2005, when the browser became freeware. On June 20, 2006, Opera Software released Opera 9 including an integrated source viewer, a BitTorrent client implementation, and widgets. It was the first Windows browser to pass the Acid2 test. Opera Mini, a mobile browser, has a significant mobile market share. Editions of Opera are also available for the Nintendo DS and the Wii.


title: Browser wars

text: Microsoft released Internet Explorer 7 on October 18, 2006. It included tabbed browsing, a search bar, a phishing filter, and improved support for web standards (including full support for PNG)—all features already long familiar to Opera and Firefox users. Microsoft distributed Internet Explorer 7 to genuine Windows users (WGA) as a high-priority update through Windows Update. Typical market share analysis showed only a slow uptake of Internet Explorer 7 and Microsoft decided to drop the requirement for WGA and made Internet Explorer 7 available to all Windows users in October 2007. Throughout the two following years, Microsoft worked on Internet Explorer 8. On December 19, 2007, the company announced that an internal build of that version had passed the Acid2 CSS test in "IE8 standards mode"—the last of the major browsers to do so. Internet Explorer 8 was released on March 19, 2009. New features included accelerators, improved privacy protection, a compatibility mode for pages designed for older browsers, and improved support for various web standards. It was the last version of Internet Explorer to be released for Windows XP. Internet Explorer 8 scored 20/100 in the Acid3 test, which was much worse than all major competitors at the time.


title: Browser wars

text: On October 24, 2006, Mozilla released Mozilla Firefox 2.0. It included the ability to reopen recently closed tabs, a session restore feature to resume work where it had been left after a crash, a phishing filter, and a spell-checker for text fields. Mozilla released Firefox 3.0 on June 17, 2008, with performance improvements and other new features. Firefox 3.5 followed on June 30, 2009, with further performance improvements, native integration of audio and video, and more privacy features.


title: Browser wars

text: Apple created forks of the open-source KHTML and KJS layout and JavaScript engines from the KDE Konqueror browser in 2002. They explained that those provided a basis for easier development than other technologies by being small (fewer than 140,000 lines of code), cleanly designed, and standards-compliant. The resulting layout engine became known as WebKit and it was incorporated into the Safari browser that first shipped with Mac OS X v10.3. On June 13, 2003, Microsoft said it was discontinuing Internet Explorer on the Mac platform, and on June 6, 2007, Apple released a beta version of Safari for Microsoft Windows. On April 29, 2010, Steve Jobs wrote an open letter regarding his Thoughts on Flash, and the place it would hold on Apple's iOS devices and web browsers. Web developers were tasked with updating their web sites to be mobile-friendly, and while many disagreed with Steve Jobs's assessment on Adobe Flash, history would soon prove his point with notable mentions of poor performance of Flash on Android devices. HTML4 and CSS2 were the standard in most browsers in 2006. However, new features being added to browsers from HTML5 and CSS3 specifications were quickly making their mark by 2010, especially in the emerging mobile browser market where new ways of animating and rendering for various screen sizes were to become the norm. Accessibility would also become a key player for the mobile web.


title: Browser wars

text: On December 28, 2007, Netscape announced that support for its Mozilla-derived Netscape Navigator would be discontinued on February 1, 2008, suggesting its users migrate to Mozilla Firefox.


title: Browser wars

text: However, on January 28, 2008, Netscape announced that support would be extended to March 1, 2008, and mentioned Flock alongside Firefox as alternatives to its users.


title: Browser wars

text: Google released the Chrome browser for Microsoft Windows on December 11, 2008, using the same WebKit rendering engine as Safari and a faster JavaScript engine called V8. Shortly after, an open-sourced version for the Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux platforms was released under the name Chromium. According to Net Applications, Chrome had gained a 3.6% usage share by October 2009. After the release of the beta for Mac OS X and Linux, the market share had increased rapidly.


title: Browser wars

text: During December 2009 and January 2010, "StatCounter" reported that its statistics indicated that Firefox 3.5 was the most popular browser when counting individual browser versions, passing Internet Explorer 7 and 8 by a small margin. This was the first time a global statistic has reported that a non-Internet Explorer browser version had exceeded the top Internet Explorer version in usage share since the fall of Netscape Navigator. However, this feat, which GeekSmack called the "dethroning of Microsoft and its Internet Explorer 7 browser," could largely be attributed to the fact that it came at a time when version 8 was replacing version 7 as the dominant Internet Explorer version; no more than two months later Internet Explorer 8 had established itself as the most popular browser and version. Other major statistics, such as Net Applications, never reported any non-Internet Explorer browser having a higher usage share than Internet Explorer if each version of each browser was looked at individually: for example, Firefox 3.5 was reported as the third most popular browser version from December 2009 to February 2010, succeeded by Firefox 3.6 since April 2010, each ahead of Internet Explorer 7 but behind Internet Explorer 6 and 8.


title: Browser wars

text: On January 21, 2010, Mozilla released Mozilla Firefox 3.6, which allows support for a new type of theme display, 'Personas', which allows users to change Firefox's appearance with a single click. Version 3.6 also improved JavaScript performance, overall browser responsiveness, and startup times.


title: Browser wars

text: In October 2010, StatCounter reported that Internet Explorer had for the first time dropped below 50% market share to 49.87% in their figures. Also, StatCounter reported Internet Explorer 8's first drop in usage share in the same month.


title: Browser wars

text: Google released Google Chrome 9 on February 3, 2011. New features introduced included support for WebGL, Chrome Instant, and the Chrome Web Store. The company created another seven versions of Chrome that year, finishing with Chrome 16 on December 15, 2011. Google Chrome 17 was released on February 15, 2012. In April 2012, Google browsers (Chrome and Android) became the most used browsers on Wikimedia Foundation sites. By May 21, 2012, StatCounter reported Chrome narrowly overtaking Internet Explorer as the most used browser in the world.


title: Browser wars

text: However, troughs and peaks in the market share between Internet Explorer and Chrome meant that Internet Explorer was slightly ahead of Chrome on weekdays up until July 4. At the same time, Net Applications reported Internet Explorer firmly in first place, with Google Chrome almost overtaking Firefox as the second. In 2012, responding to Chrome's popularity, Apple discontinued Safari for Windows.


title: Browser wars

text: Microsoft released Internet Explorer 9 on March 14, 2011. It featured a revamped interface, support for the basic SVG feature set, and partial HTML5 video support, among other new features. It only runs on Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows Phone 7. The company later released Internet Explorer 10 along with Windows 8 and Windows Phone 8 in 2012, and an update compatible with Windows 7 followed in 2013. This version drops Vista and Phone 7 support. The release preview of Internet Explorer 11 was released on September 17, 2013. It supports the same desktops as its predecessor.


title: Browser wars

text: The concept of rapid releases established by Google Chrome prompted Mozilla to do the same for its Firefox browser. On June 21, 2011, Firefox 5.0 was the first rapid release for this browser, finished a mere six weeks after the previous edition. Mozilla created four more whole-number versions throughout the year, finishing with Firefox 9 on December 20, 2011. For those desiring long-term support, Mozilla made an Extended Support Release (ESR) version of Firefox 10 on January 31, 2012. Contrary to the regular version, a Firefox ESR receives regular security updates plus occasional new features and performance updates for approximately one year, after which a 12-week grace period is given before discontinuing that version number. Those who continued to use the rapid releases with an active Internet connection were automatically updated to Firefox 11 on March 15, 2012. By the end of 2011, however, Chrome overtook Firefox to become world's most used browser, and the competition between Chrome and Firefox intensified.


title: Browser wars

text: During this era, all major web browsers implemented support for HTML5 video. Supported codecs, however, varied from browser to browser. Current versions of Android, Chrome, and Firefox support Theora, H.264, and the VP8 version of WebM. Older versions of Firefox omitted H.264 due to it being a proprietary codec, but it was made available beginning in version 17 for Android and version 20 for Windows. Internet Explorer and Safari support H.264 exclusively, but the Theora and VP8 codecs can be manually installed on the desktop versions. Given the popularity of WebKit for mobile browsers, Opera Software discontinued its Presto engine in February 2013. The Opera 12 series of browsers were the last to use Presto with its successors using WebKit instead. In 2015, Microsoft discontinued the production of newer versions of Internet Explorer. By this point, Chrome overtook all other browsers as the browser with the highest usage share.


title: Browser wars

text: Starting in 2015 with the release of Windows 10, Microsoft shifted from Internet Explorer to Microsoft Edge. However, the new browser has failed to capture much popularity as of 2018. Microsoft Edge switched from its own browser engine, EdgeHTML, to Chromium's Blink engine in 2020 for all platforms except for iOS, where it uses WebKit due to platform restrictions.


title: Browser wars

text: By 2017 usage shares of Opera, Firefox and Internet Explorer fell well below 5% each, while Google Chrome had expanded to over 60% worldwide. In May 2017, Andreas Gal, former Mozilla CTO, publicly stated that Google Chrome won the Second Browser War.


title: Browser wars

text: Though Internet Explorer is no longer the default browser as of Windows 10, it continues to operate due to organizations needing it for legacy applications, and – despite its overall decline – has a higher usage share than its successor, Microsoft Edge. Due to Google Chrome's success, in December 2018 Microsoft announced that they would be building a new version of Edge based on Chromium and powered by Google's rendering engine, Blink, rather than their own rendering engine, EdgeHTML. The new Microsoft Edge browser was released on January 15, 2020. Though Firefox showed a slight increase in usage share as of February 2019, it continues to struggle with less than 10% usage share worldwide. By April 2019, worldwide Google Chrome usage share crossed 70% across personal computers and remained over 60% combining all devices. In June 2022, Microsoft permanently retired Internet Explorer in favor of Microsoft Edge as their sole browser.


title: Valentinian II

text: Valentinian II (; 37115 May 392) was a Roman emperor in the western part of the Roman empire between AD 375 and 392. He was at first junior co-ruler of his brother, was then sidelined by a usurper, and only after 388 sole ruler, albeit with limited "de facto" powers.


title: Valentinian II

text: A son of emperor Valentinian I and empress Justina, he was raised to the imperial office at the age of 4 by military commanders upon his father's death. Until 383, Valentinian II remained a junior partner to his older half-brother Gratian in ruling the Western empire, while the East was governed by his uncle Valens until 378 and Theodosius I from 379. When Gratian was killed by the usurper emperor Magnus Maximus in 383, the court of Valentinian in Milan became the center of Italy where several religious debates took place. In 383, Maximus invaded Italy, spurring Valentinian and his family to escape to Thessalonica where they successfully sought Theodosius' aid. Theodosius defeated Maximus in battle and re-installed Valentinian in the West. However, Valentinian soon found himself struggling to break free from the control of general Arbogast. In 392, Valentinian was discovered hanged in his room under unknown circumstances.


title: Valentinian II

text: Valentinianus was born to Emperor Valentinian I and his second wife, Justina. He was the half-brother of Valentinian's other son, Gratian, who had shared the imperial title with his father since 367. He had three sisters: Galla, Grata and Justa. The elder Valentinian died on campaign in Pannonia in 375. Neither Gratian (then in Trier) nor his uncle Valens (emperor for the East) were consulted by the army commanders on the scene. Instead of merely acknowledging Gratian as his father's successor, Valentinian I's leading generals and officials, including Merobaudes, Petronius Probus, and Cerealis, Valentinian II's maternal uncle and Justina's brother, acclaimed the four-year-old Valentinian "augustus" on 22 November 375 at Aquincum. The army, and its Frankish general Merobaudes, may have been uneasy about Gratian's lack of military ability, and to prevent a split of the army, so raised a boy who would not immediately aspire to military command. Also, he may have wanted to prevent more successful military commanders and officials, such as Sebastianus and Count Theodosius, from becoming emperors or gaining independent power, as Sebastianus was removed to a distant posting and Theodosius was executed within a year of Valentinian's elevation.


title: Valentinian II

text: Gratian was forced to accommodate the generals who supported his half-brother into his realm, though he purportedly took a liking to educating his brother. According to Zosimus, Gratian governed the trans-alpine provinces (including Gaul, Hispania, and Britain), while Italy, part of Illyricum, and North Africa were under the rule of Valentinian. However, Gratian and his court was essentially in charge of the whole Western empire, including Illyricum, and Valentinian did not issue any laws and was marginalized in textual sources. In 378, their uncle, the Emperor Valens, was killed in battle with the Goths at Adrianople, and Gratian invited the general Theodosius to be emperor in the East. As a child, Valentinian II was under the pro-Arian influence of his mother, empress Justina, and the courtiers at Milan, an influence contested by the Nicene bishop of Milan, Ambrose.


title: Valentinian II

text: In 383, Magnus Maximus, commander of the armies in Britain, declared himself Emperor and established himself in Gaul and Hispania. Gratian was killed while fleeing him. As a lesser partner to Gratian in the West, Valentinian and his court in Milan had remained ineffectual and obscure until his brother's tragedy finally brought them to the forefront. For a time the court of Valentinian, through the mediation of Ambrose, came to an accommodation with the usurper, and Theodosius recognized Maximus as co-emperor of the West.


title: Valentinian II

text: Valentinian tried to restrain the despoiling of pagan temples in Rome. Buoyed by this instruction, the pagan senators, led by Aurelius Symmachus, the Prefect of Rome, petitioned in 384 for the restoration of the Altar of Victory in the Senate House, which had been removed by Gratian in 382. Valentinian refused the request and, in so doing, rejected the traditions and rituals of pagan Rome to which Symmachus had appealed. While Ambrose participated in the campaign against the reinstatement of Altar of Victory, he admitted he was not the cause of the decision to remove the altar in the first place.


title: Valentinian II

text: In 385 Ambrose refused an imperial request to hand over the Portian basilica for the celebration of Easter by the Imperial court, angering Justina, Valentinian, high-ranking officials, and other Arians at the court, including Goths. Ambrose argued in his letter that Justina used her influence over her young son to oppose the Nicean party which was championed by Ambrose, framing her motivation as selfish. However, not only Justina, but the wider imperial court also opposed Ambrose's claim, since the praetorian prefect and the emperor's counsellors met him and demanded that he turn over the basilica. When Ambrose was summoned to be punished to the Imperial palace, the orthodox populace rioted, and Gothic troops were prevented by the arch-bishop himself, standing in the doorway, from entering the Basilica. Rufinus, influenced by Ambrose's writing, claimed that when Ambrose was found to have determinedly infracted the new laws, Justina persuaded Valentinian to have him banished, and Ambrose was forced to barricade himself, with the enthusiastic backing of the people, within the walls of the Basilica. Rufinus continues that the imperial troops besieged him, but Ambrose held on, reinforcing the resolution of his followers by allegedly unearthing, beneath the foundations of the church, the bodies of two ancient martyrs. Later, Magnus Maximus was purported to have used the emperor's heterodoxy against him. Maximus indeed wrote a scathing letter attacking Valentinian for plotting against God.


title: Valentinian II

text: In 386 to 387, Maximus crossed the Alps into the Po valley and threatened Milan. Valentinian II and Justina fled to Theodosius in Thessalonica. The latter came to an agreement, cemented by his marriage to Valentinian's sister Galla, to restore the young emperor in the West. In 388, Theodosius marched west and defeated Maximus. Although he was to appoint both of his sons emperor (Arcadius in 383, Honorius in 393), Theodosius tolerated Valentinian, and made him a subordinate ruler to him.


title: Valentinian II

text: After the defeat of Maximus, Theodosius remained in Milan until 391. Valentinian took no part in Theodosius's triumphal celebrations over Maximus. Valentinian and his court were installed at Vienne in Gaul, while Theodosius appointed key administrators in the West and had coins minted, which implied his guardianship over the 17-year-old. Justina had already died, and Vienne was far away from the influence of Ambrose. Theodosius's trusted general, the Frank Arbogast, was appointed magister militum for the Western provinces (bar Africa) and guardian of Valentinian. Acting in the name of Valentinian, Arbogast was actually subordinate only to Theodosius. While the general campaigned successfully on the Rhine, the young emperor remained at Vienne, in contrast to his warrior father and his older brother, who had campaigned at his age. Arbogast's domination over the emperor was considerable, and the general even murdered Harmonius, a friend of Valentinian suspected of taking bribes, in the emperor's presence.


title: Valentinian II

text: The crisis reached a peak when Arbogast prohibited the emperor from leading the Gallic armies into Italy to oppose a barbarian threat. Valentinian, in response, formally dismissed Arbogast. The latter ignored the order, publicly tearing it up and arguing that Valentinian had not appointed him in the first place. The reality of where the power lay was openly displayed. Valentinian wrote to Theodosius and Ambrose complaining of his subordination to his general. In explicit rejection of his earlier Arianism, he invited Ambrose to come to Vienne to baptize him.


title: Valentinian II

text: On 15 May 392, Valentinian was found hanged in his residence in Vienne. Arbogast maintained that the emperor's death was suicide. Many sources believe, however, that Arbogast murdered him with his own hands, or paid the Praetorians. Zosimus writing in the early sixth century from Constantinople, states that Arbogast had Valentinian murdered; ancient authorities are divided in their opinion. Some modern scholars lean toward suicide. Ambrose's eulogy is the only contemporary Western source for Valentinian's death. It is ambiguous on the question of the emperor's death, which is not surprising, as Ambrose represents him as a model of Christian virtue. Suicide, not murder, would make the bishop dissemble on this key question.


title: Valentinian II

text: The young man's body was conveyed in ceremony to Milan for burial by Ambrose, mourned by his sisters Justa and Grata. He was laid in a porphyry sarcophagus next to his brother Gratian, most probably in the Chapel of Sant'Aquilino attached to San Lorenzo. He was deified with the .


title: Valentinian II

text: At first Arbogast recognized Theodosius's son Arcadius as emperor in the West, seemingly surprised by his charge's death. After three months, during which he had no communication from Theodosius, Arbogast selected an imperial official, Eugenius, as emperor. Theodosius initially tolerated this regime but, in January 393, elevated the eight-year-old Honorius as "augustus" to succeed Valentinian II. Civil war ensued and, in 394, Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogast at the Battle of the Frigidus.


title: Valentinian II

text: Valentinian himself seems to have exercised no real authority, and was a figurehead for various powerful interests: his mother, his co-emperors, and powerful generals. Since the Crisis of the Third Century the empire had been ruled by powerful generals, a situation formalised by Diocletian and his collegiate system which collapsed a year after his abdication in 305. Constantine I and his sons, strong military figures, re-established the practice of hereditary succession, a system that Valentinian I continued to maintain. The obvious flaw in these two competing requirements came in the reign of Valentinian II, a child. His reign was a harbinger of the fifth century, when children or nonentities, reigning as emperors, were controlled by powerful generals and officials in the West and in the East until mid-century.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: "Nevertheless, she persisted" is an expression adopted by the feminist movement, especially in the United States. It became popular in 2017 after the United States Senate voted to require Senator Elizabeth Warren to stop speaking during the confirmation of Senator Jeff Sessions as U.S. Attorney General. Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell made this remark during his comments following the vote.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: The expression went viral as feminists posted it on social media with hashtag references to other women. Its meaning has expanded to refer more broadly to women's persistence in breaking barriers, despite being silenced or ignored.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: On February 7, 2017, the U.S. Senate debated confirmation of Senator Jeff Sessions of Alabama to become Attorney General. Senator Elizabeth Warren of Massachusetts spoke against confirmation, criticizing his record on civil rights.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Senator Warren quoted a statement from 1986 by former Senator Ted Kennedy regarding Senator Sessions' nomination to federal court judge, "'He is, I believe, a disgrace to the Justice Department, and he should withdraw his nomination and resign his position.'" Senator Warren said she "will stand with Senator Kennedy, and, like he did, I will cast my vote against the nomination of Senator Sessions."


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Senator Warren continued by reading a letter that Coretta Scott King had written to the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1986:


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: While Senator Warren was reading the letter from Mrs. King, Presiding Senate Chair Steve Daines of Montana interrupted her, reminding her of Senate Rule XIX, which prohibits ascribing "to another senator or to other senators any conduct or motive unworthy or unbecoming a senator".


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Senator Warren stated that she had said that only former Senator Kennedy had called Senator Sessions a disgrace, and she asked whether reading King's letter, which had been admitted into the Senate Record in 1986, was a violation of Senate Rules. Senator Daines again quoted Rule XIX. Senator Warren asked to continue reading Mrs. King's letter, and Senator Daines allowed her to do so.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: While Senator Warren continued reading the letter, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky interrupted, saying, "The senator has impugned the motives and conduct of our colleague from Alabama, as warned by the chair." Senator McConnell objected to a line from Ms. King's letter, "Mr. Sessions has used the awesome power of his office to chill the free exercise of the vote by black citizens", which Senator Warren had quoted prior to the warning.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Senator Warren said she was "surprised that the words of Coretta Scott King are not suitable for debate in the United States Senate" and requested to continue. Senator Daines asked whether there was objection. Senator McConnell objected, and Senator Daines called for a vote, saying, "The senator will take her seat", preventing Senator Warren from continuing. The Senate voted to sustain McConnell's objection along party lines, 49–43, silencing Warren for the duration of the Sessions confirmation hearings.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Thirty hours remained in the hearings, and Democrats objected to Senator Warren's silencing. Senator Jeff Merkley of Oregon subsequently read the letter from Coretta Scott King without objection. Senator Cory Booker of New Jersey pointed out that the letter was already in the 1986 "Congressional Record".


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Feminists and supporters of Senator Warren immediately adopted as a rallying cry the three-word sentence, "Nevertheless, she persisted." It has been referenced with hashtags such as "#Shepersisted", and "#LetLizspeak", and it has been called a "hashtag-ready motto for women at the ready to break barriers". According to BuzzFeed, the quotation was shared on social media along with pictures of strong women "who refused to be silenced". Amy Wang of "The Washington Post" observed,


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: CNN reported, "For Warren's supporters, it was a textbook case of mansplaining followed by males silencing a woman".


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: On National Public Radio's "All Things Considered", Scott Detrow said that "Nevertheless, she persisted" had become the new "nasty woman", which had become a rallying cry derived from Donald Trump's description of Hillary Clinton in 2016.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Megan Garber of "The Atlantic" wrote that "Nevertheless, she persisted" appeared on the internet next to "images not just of Warren and King, but also of Harriet Tubman, Malala Yousafzai, Beyoncé, Emmeline Pankhurst, Gabby Giffords, Michelle Obama, Hillary Clinton, and Princess Leia. It accompanied tags that celebrated #TheResistance". Hillary Clinton tweeted, "She was warned. She was given an explanation. Nevertheless, she persisted. So must we all." It also appeared on merchandise: Reebok produced tee shirts with the expression and gave the proceeds to the Women's March. Hoodies and mugs with the meme were also produced. Salon reported women getting tattoos of the three words, more than 100 women in Minneapolis alone.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: On June 7, 2017, Senator Warren tweeted support for Senator Kamala Harris using the "Nevertheless She Persisted" hashtag, after Harris was admonished for interrupting Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein during a hearing.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: In 2018, the Women's History Month theme in the United States was "Nevertheless, She Persisted: Honoring Women Who Fight All Forms of Discrimination against Women", intentionally referring to the "Nevertheless, she persisted" remark by Mitch McConnell.


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Others were less favorably inclined toward the expression and its application to Warren. Charlotte Allen of "The Weekly Standard" suggested that #Shepersisted was yet another tactic in the marketing of Warren as a possible presidential candidate, describing it as "Red meat for Warren's supporters, who promptly cried sexism and compared her to Rosa Parks in her refusal to move to the back of the bus, and also to Marie Curie, who never gave up on her quest to discover radium. Within hours entrepreneurs were grinding out 'Nevertheless, she persisted' T-shirts in every size and color".


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: The incident was also discussed in the context of Senator Warren's possible presidential candidacy by the "National Review"s David Harsanyi, who referred to Rule XIX as "an arbitrary, speech-inhibiting rule that should not be used". Stating that "it was unlikely any persuadable voter would have even heard about Warren's grandstanding if it weren't for the kerfuffle," he suggested that the "fuss" (including popularity of the hashtags "#Shepersisted" and "#LetLizspeak") was indicative of a Democratic tendency to "rely heavily on the identity politics that have failed them for six years, if not longer".


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Also in the "National Review", Alexandra Desanctis wrote that McConnell's remark was "inviting endless inappropriate comparisons between Warren and female political activists from around the world". Desanctis continued:


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Gretel Kaufman of "The Christian Science Monitor" noted that some Democrats used the hashtag #LetLizSpeak to call Senator McConnell's remarks sexist and that the video of Senator Warren reading the full letter was widely viewed on social media. Raising concerns that the incident was "an example of partisanship getting in the way of productive debate", Kaufman quoted Republican Senator Orrin Hatch of Utah, as saying, "All of us need to take stock and need to start thinking about the people on the other side of the aisle and need to start thinking about how we might bring each other together."


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Some observers posited non-political reasons for the meme's proliferation. According to Daniel Victor of "The New York Times", "A broader theme—that women are too commonly shushed or ignored—emerged on social media." Victor also noted that "a man silencing a woman struck some as all too common", and "rang familiar with many women who had their own stories of being silenced." "The Atlantic"s Megan Garber wrote, "American culture tells women to be quiet—many ways they are reminded that they would really be so much more pleasing if they would just smile a little more, or talk a little less, or work a little harder to be pliant and agreeable." Further, she wrote, when Senator Warren was silenced, "many women, regardless of their politics or place ... felt that silencing, viscerally ... Because, regardless of their politics or place, those women have heard the same thing, or a version of it, many times before."


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Heidi Stevens of the "Chicago Tribune" commented, "Three little words that women can draw on for decades to come, when something needs to be said and, darn it, we plan to say it. When we're being talked over in meetings. When we're fighting to be heard in male-dominated fields. When we're standing up for our values. When we're doing valuable work and people reduce us to our appearance."


title: Nevertheless, she persisted

text: Valerie Schultz wrote in "America: the Jesuit Review of Faith & Culture", "It is a phrase we women embrace because persistence is what we do." After describing stories of persistent women from the Gospels, she concluded:


title: Natural fiber

text: Natural fibers or natural fibres (see spelling differences) are fibers that are produced by geological processes, or from the bodies of plants or animals.


title: Natural fiber

text: The earliest evidence of humans using fibers is the discovery of wool and dyed flax fibers found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 36,000 BP. Natural fibers can be used for high-tech applications, such as composite parts for automobiles and medical supplies. Compared to composites reinforced with glass fibers, composites with natural fibers have advantages such as lower density, better thermal insulation, and reduced skin irritation. Further, unlike glass fibers, natural fibers can be broken down by bacteria once they are no longer used.


title: Natural fiber

text: Natural fibers are good water absorbents and can be found in various textures. Cotton fibers made from the cotton plant, for example, produce fabrics that are light in weight, soft in texture, and which can be made in various sizes and colors. Clothes made of natural fibers such as cotton are often preferred over clothing made of synthetic fibers by people living in hot and humid climates.


title: Natural fiber

text: Animal fibers generally comprise proteins such as collagen, keratin and fibroin; examples include silk, sinew, wool, catgut, angora, mohair and alpaca.


title: Natural fiber

text: Chitin is the world's second most abundant natural polymer, with collagen being the first. It is a “linear polysaccharide of β-(1-4)-2-acetamido-2-deoxy-D-glucose”. Chitin is highly crystalline and is usually composed of chains organized in a β sheet. Due to its high crystallinity and chemical structure, it is insoluble in many solvents. It also has low toxicity in the body and is inert in the intestines. Chitin also has antibacterial properties.


title: Natural fiber

text: Chitin forms crystals that make fibrils that become surrounded by proteins. These fibrils can bundle to make larger fibers that contribute to the hierarchical structure of many biological materials. These fibrils can form randomly oriented networks that provide the mechanical strength of the organic layer in different biological materials.


title: Natural fiber

text: Chitin provides protection and structural support to many living organisms. It makes up the cell walls of fungi and yeast, the shells of mollusks, the exoskeletons of insects and arthropods. In shells and exoskeletons, the chitin fibers contribute to their hierarchical structure.


title: Natural fiber

text: In nature, pure chitin (100% acetylation) does not exist. It instead exists as a copolymer with chitin's deacetylated derivative, chitosan. When the acetylized composition of the copolymer is over 50% acetylated it is chitin. This copolymer of chitin and chitosan is a random or block copolymer.


title: Natural fiber

text: Chitosan is a deacetylated derivative of chitin. When the acetylated composition of the copolymer is below 50% it is chitosan. Chitosan is a semicrystalline “polymer of β-(1-4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose”. One difference between chitin and chitosan is that chitosan is soluble in acidic aqueous solutions. Chitosan is easier to process that chitin, but it is less stable because it is more hydrophilic and has pH sensitivity. Due to its ease of processing, chitosan is used in biomedical applications.


title: Natural fiber

text: Collagen is a structural protein, often referred to as “the steel of biological materials”. There are multiple types of collagen: Type I (comprising skin, tendons and ligaments, vasculature and organs, as well as teeth and bone and artery walls); Type II (a component in cartilage); Type III (often found in reticular fibers); and others. Collagen has a hierarchical structure, forming triple helices, fibrils, and fibers. Collagen are a family of protein that support and strengthen many tissues in the body.


title: Natural fiber

text: Keratin is a structural protein located at the hard surfaces in many vertebrates. Keratin has two forms, α-keratin and β-keratin, that are found in different classes of chordates. The naming convention for these keratins follows that for protein structures: alpha keratin is helical and beta keratin is sheet-like. Alpha keratin is found in mammalian hair, skin, nails, horn and quills, while beta keratin can be found in avian and reptilian species in scales, feathers, and beaks. The two different structures of keratin have dissimilar mechanical properties, as seen in their dissimilar applications. The relative alignment of the keratin fibrils significantly impacts the mechanical properties. In human hair the filaments of alpha keratin are highly aligned, giving a tensile strength of approximately 200MPa. This tensile strength is an order of magnitude higher than human nails (20MPa), because human hair’s keratin filaments are more aligned.


title: Natural fiber

text: Properties also decrease with the age of the fiber. Younger fibers tend to be stronger and more elastic than older ones. Many natural fibers exhibit strain rate sensitivity due to their viscoelastic nature. Bone contains collagen and exhibits strain rate sensitivity in that the stiffness increases with strain rate, also known as strain hardening. Spider silk has hard and elastic regions that together contribute to its strain rate sensitivity, these cause the silk to exhibit strain hardening as well. Properties of natural fibers are also dependent on the moisture content in the fiber.


title: Natural fiber

text: The presence of water plays a crucial role in the mechanical behavior of natural fibers. Hydrated, biopolymers generally have enhanced ductility and toughness. Water plays the role of a plasticizer, a small molecule easing passage of polymer chains and in doing so increasing ductility and toughness. When using natural fibers in applications outside of their native use, the original level of hydration must be taken into account. For example when hydrated, the Young’s Modulus of collagen decreases from 3.26 to 0.6 GPa and becomes both more ductile and tougher. Additionally the density of collagen decreases from 1.34 to 1.18 g/cm.


title: Natural fiber

text: Of industrial value are four animal fibers: wool, silk, camel hair, and angora as well as four plant fibers: cotton, flax, hemp, and jute. Dominant in terms of scale of production and use is cotton for textiles.


title: Natural fiber

text: Natural fibers are also used in composite materials, much like synthetic or glass fibers. These composites, called biocomposites, are a natural fiber in a matrix of synthetic polymers. One of the first biofiber-reinforced plastics in use was a cellulose fiber in phenolics in 1908. Usage includes applications where energy absorption is important, such as insulation, noise absorbing panels, or collapsable areas in automobiles.


title: Natural fiber

text: Natural fibers can have different advantages over synthetic reinforcing fibers. Most notably they are biodegradable and renewable. Additionally, they often have low densities and lower processing costs than synthetic materials. Design issues with natural fiber-reinforced composites include poor strength (natural fibers are not as strong as glass fibers) and difficulty with actually bonding the fibers and the matrix. Hydrophobic polymer matrices offer insufficient adhesion for hydrophilic fibers.


title: Natural fiber

text: Nanocomposites are desirable for their mechanical properties. When fillers in a composite are at the nanometer length scale, the surface to volume ratio of the filler material is high, which influences the bulk properties of the composite more compared to traditional composites. The properties of these nanosized elements is markedly different than that of its bulk constituent.


title: Natural fiber

text: In regards to natural fibers, some of the best example of nanocomposites appear in biology. Bone, abalone shell, nacre, and tooth enamel are all nanocomposites. As of 2010, most synthetic polymer nanocomposites exhibit inferior toughness and mechanical properties compared to biological nanocomposites. Completely synthetic nanocomposites do exist, however nanosized biopolymers are also being tested in synthetic matrices. Several types of protein based, nanosized fibers are being used in nanocomposites. These include collagen, cellulose, chitin and tunican. These structural proteins must be processed before use in composites.


title: Natural fiber

text: To use cellulose as an example, semicrystalline microfibrils are sheared in the amorphous region, resulting in microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). These small, crystalline cellulose fibrils are at this points reclassified as a whisker and can be 2 to 20 nm in diameter with shapes ranging from spherical to cylindrical. Whiskers of collagen, chitin, and cellulose have all be used to make biological nanocomposites. The matrix of these composites are commonly hydrophobic synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride and copolymers of polystyrene and polyacrylate.


title: Natural fiber

text: Traditionally in composite science a strong interface between the matrix and filler is required to achieve favorable mechanical properties. If this is not the case, the phases tend to separate along the weak interface and makes for very poor mechanical properties. In a MCC composite however this is not the case, if the interaction between the filler and matrix is stronger than the filler-filler interaction the mechanical strength of the composite is noticeably decreased.


title: Natural fiber

text: Difficulties in natural fiber nanocomposites arise from dispersity and the tendency small fibers to aggregate in the matrix. Because of the high surface area to volume ratio the fibers have a tendency to aggregate, more so than in micro-scale composites. Additionally secondary processing of collagen sources to obtain sufficient purity collagen micro fibrils adds a degree of cost and challenge to creating a load bearing cellulose or other filler based nanocomposite.


title: Natural fiber

text: Natural fibers often show promise as biomaterials in medical applications. Chitin is notable in particular and has been incorporated into a variety of uses. Chitin based materials have also been used to remove industrial pollutants from water, processed into fibers and films, and used as biosensors in the food industry. Chitin has also been used several of medical applications. It has been incorporated as a bone filling material for tissue regeneration, a drug carrier and excipient, and as an antitumor agent. Insertion of foreign materials into the body often triggers an immune response, which can have a variety of positive or negative outcomes depending on the bodies response to the material. Implanting something made from naturally synthesized proteins, such as a keratin based implant, has the potential to be recognized as natural tissue by the body. This can lead either to integration in rare cases where the structure of the implant promotes regrowth of tissue with the implant forming a superstructure or degradation of the implant in which the backbones of the proteins are recognized for cleavage by the body.


title: Natural fiber

text: 23. Kuivaniemi, Helena, and Gerard Tromp. “Type III collagen (COL3A1): Gene and protein structure, tissue distribution, and associated diseases.” Gene vol. 707 (2019): 151-171. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2019.05.003


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Alsatian ( or "Alsatian German"; Lorraine Franconian: "Elsässerdeitsch"; ; or ) is the group of Alemannic German dialects spoken in most of Alsace, a formerly disputed region in eastern France that has passed between French and German control five times since 1681.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Alsatian is closely related to other nearby Alemannic dialects, such as Swiss German, Swabian, and Markgräflerisch as well as Kaiserstühlerisch. It is often confused with Lorraine Franconian, a more distantly related Franconian dialect spoken in the northwest corner of Alsace and in neighbouring Lorraine. Like other dialects and languages, Alsatian has also been influenced by outside sources. Words of Yiddish origin can be found in Alsatian, and modern conversational Alsatian includes adaptations of French words and English words, especially concerning new technologies.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Many speakers of Alsatian could, if necessary, write in reasonable standard German. For most this would be rare and confined to those who have learned German at school or through work. As with other dialects, various factors determine when, where, and with whom one might converse in Alsatian. Some dialect speakers are unwilling to speak standard German, at times, to certain outsiders and prefer to use French. In contrast, many people living near the border with Basel, Switzerland, will speak their dialect with a Swiss person from that area, as they are mutually intelligible for the most part; similar habits may apply to conversations with people of the nearby German Markgräflerland. Some street names in Alsace may use Alsatian spellings (they were formerly displayed only in French but are now bilingual in some places, especially Strasbourg and Mulhouse).


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Since 1992, the constitution of the Fifth Republic states that French is the official language of the Republic. However, Alsatian, along with other regional languages, is recognized by the French government in the official list of languages of France. France is a signatory to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages but has never ratified the law and has not given regional languages the support that would be required by the charter. The policies of the Paris government have had the deliberate effect of greatly weakening the prevalence of native languages in France that are not "French". As a result, Alsatian has gone from being the prevalent language of the region to one in decline. A 1999 INSEE survey counted 548,000 adult speakers of Alsatian in France, making it the second most-spoken regional language in the country (after Occitan). Like all regional languages in France, however, the transmission of Alsatian is declining. While 43% of the adult population of Alsace speaks Alsatian, its use has been largely declining amongst the youngest generations.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: A dialect of Alsatian German is spoken in the United States by a group known as the Swiss Amish, whose ancestors emigrated there in the middle of the 19th century. The approximately 7,000 speakers are located mainly in Allen County, Indiana, with "daughter settlements" elsewhere.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: "C", "Q", and "X" are only used in loanwords. Y is also used in native words, but is more common in loanwords.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Orthal (Orthographe alsacienne) is a revised orthography meant for use by all dialects of Alsatian promoted by the Office pour la Langue et les Cultures d'Alsace et de Moselle (OLCA).


title: Alsatian dialect

text: The latest version (2016) of Orthal is described below. Not all dialects are expected to use all letters & diacritics. For example, Owerlandisch from Southern Alsace primarily uses the additional vowel letters, Ä À Ì Ü.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Dialects from the north (Strasbourg region) make use of more letters including Ë, Ö, Ù and the diphthong ÈI.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: The vowels are pronounced short or long based on their position in the syllable besides the letter type.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: A vowel at the end of a syllable, without a subsequent consonant, is a long vowel "V" = Long Vowel (LV). e.g., hà, sì


title: Alsatian dialect

text: A vowel followed by a single consonant in a syllable is pronounced as a long vowel "V + C" = Long Vowel (LV). e.g., Ros


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Note – A vowel followed by several consonants ("V + C + C") in a syllable is pronounced as a Short Vowel. e.g., Ross


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Three consonants are restricted in their distribution: and only occur at the beginning of a word or morpheme, and then only if followed immediately by a vowel; never occurs at the beginning of a word or morpheme.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: Alsatian, like some German dialects, has lenited all obstruents but . Its lenes are, however, voiceless as in all Southern German varieties. Therefore, they are here transcribed , , . Speakers of French tend to hear them as their , which also are voiceless and unaspirated.


title: Alsatian dialect

text: The phoneme has a velar allophone after back vowels (, , , and in those speakers who do not pronounce this as ), and palatal elsewhere. In southern dialects, there is a tendency to pronounce it in all positions, and in Strasbourg the palatal allophone tends to conflate with the phoneme . A labiodental voiced fricative sound is also present as well as an approximant sound. // may have phonetic realizations as , , and .


title: Drew Henson

text: Drew Daniel Henson (born February 13, 1980) is a former Major League Baseball third baseman and National Football League quarterback. He was drafted by the Houston Texans in the sixth round of the 2003 NFL Draft. He played college football at Michigan.


title: Drew Henson

text: During his football career, Henson was a member of the Dallas Cowboys, Minnesota Vikings and Detroit Lions. At the start of his baseball career, he was drafted by the New York Yankees in the third round of the 1998 amateur draft and played for the organization during the 2002 and 2003 seasons until he retired from the sport in 2004. As of , Henson is active in organized baseball as a member of the Yankees' professional scouting staff.


title: Drew Henson

text: Drew Henson is the son of Carol (Flynn) Henson and Dan Henson, a former college football coach at San Jose State, Utah, Arizona State, and Eastern Michigan.


title: Drew Henson

text: Henson attended Brighton High School in Brighton, Michigan, where he starred and received All-state honors in football, basketball, and baseball.


title: Drew Henson

text: In football, he completed 400 passes for 5,662 yards and 52 touchdowns in three seasons. As a sophomore defensive back, he added 47 tackles and five interceptions, and was also an excellent punter. As a senior, he was named Parade All-American at quarterback and USA Today All-American at punter.


title: Drew Henson

text: He finished second All-time in Michigan high school annals in passing yards (5,662) and touchdown passes (52). He also had the state's record in touchdowns passes for a single-season (26 in 1997) and a single-game (6). He averaged 45.7 yards-per-punt in his career.


title: Drew Henson

text: In baseball, he was a four-time All-state selection. He finished as the national high school record holder in career home runs (70), RBIs (290) and runs scored (259). As a pitcher, he struck out 163 hitters in his junior season. He had a 14–1 record with a 0.86 ERA and 174 strikeouts in his senior season. He also was named the "USA Today" High School Player of the Year, Baseball America 1998 High School Player of the Year and the Gatorade High School Player of the Year.


title: Drew Henson

text: Henson, during the recruiting process, was originally planning to commit to Florida State University, but decided against it when Chris Weinke decided to enroll at FSU after a brief stint in Minor League Baseball.


title: Drew Henson

text: Henson instead accepted a football scholarship from the University of Michigan. As a freshman under head coach Lloyd Carr, Henson battled for the starting quarterback job against Tom Brady and ultimately was named the backup for the 1998 season. He saw action in 8 games, accumulating 21 completions on 47 pass attempts, good for 254 yards, three touchdowns and one interception. He saw action in seven of Michigan's 13 games, including a win over #11 Arkansas in the Citrus Bowl.


title: Drew Henson

text: In 1999, Brady had to once again hold off Henson for the starting job. The two players platooned during the season's first seven games, with Brady playing the first quarter, Henson the second and Carr then deciding upon a quarterback for the second half. The team started off with a 5–0 record. Against Michigan State, Henson in the second quarter connected with Marcus Knight for the third longest passing play in school history (an 81-yard touchdown completion); so he was chosen to play in the second half; however, Brady was reinserted into the game in the fourth quarter with Michigan down by 17 points, and nearly led the team all the way back before losing 34–31. After a 300-yard passing game the following week, Carr went exclusively with Brady for the remainder of the season. Henson still saw his number of pass attempts nearly double, throwing 90 times and completing 47 passes. He recorded 546 passing yards, along with three touchdowns and two interceptions in nine appearances. Henson again saw limited action when Michigan took on another bowl opponent with a higher ranking, #5 Alabama, in the Orange Bowl, and came out victorious with a 35–34 OT victory.


title: Drew Henson

text: In 2000, Brady graduated and Henson, now a junior, served as the Wolverines' starting quarterback for most of the season. He missed the first 3 contests after having surgery on his right foot just prior to the start of the season on August 24, with redshirt freshman John Navarre replacing him. Henson threw for a career-high 312 yards in a road loss to #21 Northwestern, 54–51, and also tied a school record with four passing touchdowns. In the regular season finale, Henson led the #19 Wolverines to Columbus to take on #12 Ohio State and threw again for over 300 yards en route to a 38–26 win.


title: Drew Henson

text: For the third time in his career, Michigan and Henson faced a Southeastern Conference team when Michigan went on to play Auburn in the Citrus Bowl and for the third time, Michigan again emerged victorious, winning 31–28. Henson recorded 294 yards passing on just 15 completions to go with two touchdowns and zero interceptions. Henson played in 9 out of 12 games, posting 146 completions in 237 attempts for 2,146 yards, along with 18 touchdowns and four interceptions. His 159.4 passer rating was the fifth best in Michigan history and his 18 touchdown passes were the fourth most in a single-season in school history. He guided the team to a 9–3 record, a share of the Big Ten Conference title and a No. 11 ranking in the final Associated Press Poll.


title: Drew Henson

text: Henson left prior to his senior season after signing a six-year, $17 million baseball-only deal with the New York Yankees on March 25, 2001. Navarre would replace him as the starting quarterback.


title: Drew Henson

text: Henson was selected in the third round with the 97th overall selection in the 1998 Major League Baseball Draft. He signed a six-year, $17 million contract to forgo the NFL and play exclusively for the Yankees. He began his minor league playing career with the Gulf Coast Yankees in , where he hit .316 (12-for-38) in 10 games.


title: Drew Henson

text: In , he was promoted to the Tampa Yankees, the Single-A affiliate of the New York Yankees. In his first year of playing, he batted .280 with 13 home runs and 37 RBIs in 69 games.


title: Drew Henson

text: He began with Tampa, and after hitting .333, he was promoted to the AA Norwich Navigators and hit seven home runs before he was traded to the Cincinnati Reds with fellow prospects Jackson Melián and Ed Yarnall for Denny Neagle. He finished the summer with the Reds' AA affiliate in Chattanooga, hitting .172 (11-for-64) with one home run and 9 RBIs in 16 games, before returning to football practice at Michigan.


title: Drew Henson

text: In , he was traded back to the Yankees with Michael Coleman for Wily Mo Pena. However, he struggled at the AAA level Columbus Clippers. He hit .234 over three seasons as the Clippers starting third baseman. Frustrated by his lack of progress and in need of a third baseman at the major league level, the Yankees acquired Aaron Boone at the 2003 trading deadline.


title: Drew Henson

text: Boone eventually hit a pennant-clinching home run against the Boston Red Sox in the 2003 postseason, but then injured his knee in a pickup basketball game during the offseason. The injury would keep him out for the entire 2004 season.


title: Drew Henson

text: Henson played a total of eight games in the majors. He received a token call up with the Yankees in and played in three games. He struck out in his only at-bat. In , he played in five games, going one for eight and scoring two runs. He ended his brief major league career with only one hit in nine at-bats (a .111 average) before announcing his retirement the same year.


title: Drew Henson

text: After not being considered by the Yankees to replace Boone at third base and with an opportunity looming in the NFL, Henson announced that he was leaving the Yankees in February . He was released from his contracts after being unable to negotiate on the buyout of the $12 million still left on his original contract, forcing him to forgo all of it.


title: Drew Henson

text: The Houston Texans selected Henson in the sixth round (192nd overall) of the 2003 NFL Draft, to own his rights in case he decided to return to the NFL. He would never play for the team.


title: Drew Henson

text: After retiring from baseball, he returned to football for the 2004 NFL season. On March 19, he was acquired by the Dallas Cowboys after they traded their third round pick (#73-Vernand Morency) in the 2005 NFL Draft to the Texans. It was later reported that owner/general manager Jerry Jones influenced the organization into making the transaction, becoming part of a string of young quarterback acquisitions that were also former baseball players (Quincy Carter and Chad Hutchinson).