title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The tripartite Allied commission made up of Vyacheslav Molotov and the British and American ambassadors in Moscow worked on the composition of the Polish government of national unity from 23 February, but the negotiations soon stalled because of different interpretations of the Yalta Conference agreements. The former prime minister in exile Stanisław Mikołajczyk, approached by representatives of the communist-controlled Provisional Government, refused to make a separate deal with that body, but on 15 April made a statement of acceptance of the Yalta decisions.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Because of the continuing disagreement on the composition of the government of national unity, Churchill convinced Mikołajczyk to take part in a conference in Moscow in June 1945, where he and other Polish democrats agreed with Stalin to a temporary deal (until the elections promised to take place soon, but with no specific time frame provided or even discussed) excluding the government in exile. Mikołajczyk was perceived in the West as the only reasonable Polish politician.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Based on the understanding reached in Moscow by the three powers with Mikołajczyk's help, the Government of National Unity was constituted on 28 June 1945, with Osóbka-Morawski as prime minister, and Władysław Gomułka and Mikołajczyk as deputy prime ministers. Mikołajczyk returned to Poland with Stanisław Grabski in July and was enthusiastically greeted by large crowds in several Polish cities. The new government was quickly recognized by the United Kingdom, the United States, and most other countries. The government, formally a coalition, was in reality controlled entirely by Gomułka's Polish Workers' Party and other Polish politicians convinced of the inevitability of Soviet domination. The government was charged with conducting elections and normalizing the situation in Poland. The exile government in London, no longer recognized by the great powers, remained in existence until 1991.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Persecution of the opposition intensified in October 1944, when the PKWN authorities encountered widespread loyalty problems among the now conscripted military personnel and other sections of Polish society. The enforcement of the communist rule was undertaken by the NKVD and the Polish security services, all backed by the massive presence of the Red Army in Poland. Potential political opponents of the communists were subjected to Soviet terror campaigns, with many of them arrested, executed or tortured. According to one estimate, 25,000 people lost their lives in labour camps created by the Soviets as early as 1944.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: A conspiratorial AK-related organization known as NIE (for "Niepodległość" or Independence) was set up in 1944 by Emil Fieldorf. General Okulicki became its commander and NIE remained in existence after the AK was dissolved in January 1945. Its activities were directed against the communist Provisional Government. However, as a result of Okulicki's arrest by the NKVD in March and the persecution, NIE ceased to exist. The Armed Forces Delegation for Poland was established instead in May, to be finally replaced by the Freedom and Independence (WiN) formation, whose goal was to organize political rather than military resistance to the communist domination.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Government Delegate Jan Stanisław Jankowski, chairman of the Council of National Unity Kazimierz Pużak and thirteen other Polish Underground State leaders were invited to and on 27 March 1945 attended talks with General Ivan Serov of the NKVD. They were all arrested and taken to Moscow to await a trial. The Polish communist Provisional Government and the Western leaders were not informed by the Soviets of the arrests. The British and the Americans were notified by the Polish Government-in-Exile. After the belated Soviet admission, they unsuccessfully pressured the Soviet government for the release of the captives. In June 1945, the Trial of the Sixteen was staged in Moscow. They were accused of anti-Soviet subversion and received lenient by Soviet standards sentences, presumably because of the ongoing negotiations on the formation of Polish government and Western interventions. Okulicki was condemned to ten years in prison.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Post-German industrial and other property was looted by the Soviets as war reparations, even though the former lands of eastern Germany were coming under permanent Polish administration. As the Soviets and the pro-Soviet Poles solidified their control of the country, a political struggle with the suppressed and harassed opposition ensued, accompanied by a residual but brutally fought armed rebellion waged by unreconciled elements of the former, now officially disbanded underground and the nationalistic right wing. Thousands of militiamen, PPR members and others were murdered before the communist authorities brought the situation under control. According to one estimate, in the post-war violence about 10,000 members of the anti-communist underground were killed, along with 4,500 regime functionaries and several hundred Soviet soldiers.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: A "Democratic Bloc" comprising the communists and their socialist, rural and urban allies was established. Mikołajczyk's Polish People's Party (PSL), which refused to join the bloc, was the only legal opposition; they counted on winning the promised legislative elections. Other contemporary Polish movements, including the National Democracy, Sanation, and Christian Democracy were not allowed to function legally and were dealt with by the Polish and Soviet internal security organs.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The Western Allies and their leaders, Roosevelt and Churchill in particular, have been criticised by Polish writers and some Western historians for what most Poles see as the abandonment of Poland to Soviet rule. Decisions were made at the Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam conferences and on other occasions that amounted, according to such opinions, to Western complicity in Stalin's takeover of Eastern Europe. According to Czubiński, blaming the Western powers, especially Winston Churchill, for a "betrayal" of the Polish ally, "seems a complete misunderstanding".


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Postwar Poland was a state of reduced sovereignty, strongly dependent on the Soviet Union, but the only one possible under the existing circumstances and internationally recognized. The Polish Left's cooperation with the Stalin's regime made the preservation of a Polish state within favorable borders possible. The dominant Polish Workers' Party had a strictly pro-Soviet branch, led by Bierut and a number of internationalist in outlook Jewish communist activists, and a national branch, willing to take a "Polish route to socialism", led by Gomułka.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: As agreed by the Allies in Yalta, the Soviet Union incorporated the lands in eastern Poland (Kresy, east of the Curzon Line), previously occupied and annexed in 1939 (see Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union). Deferring to Stalin's territorial schemes, the Allies compensated Poland with the German territories east of the Oder–Neisse line, parts of Pomerania, Silesia and East Prussia (in Polish communist government's propaganda referred to as the Recovered Territories). The deal was practically, but in principle not permanently, finalized at the Potsdam Conference (17 July to 2 August 1945). The entire country was shifted to the west and resembled the territory of Medieval early Piast Poland. Per the Potsdam agreement, millions of Germans were expelled and forced to relocate their families to the new Germany. About 4.4 million had already fled not waiting for the Potsdam decrees (most during the final months of the war), and 3.5 million were removed from what was now territory of Poland in 1945–1949. Davies wrote that the resettlement of Germans was not merely an act of wartime revenge, but a result of decades old Allied policy. The Russians as well as the British saw the German East Prussia as a product of German militarism, the "root of Europe's miseries", and the Allies therefore intended to eradicate it.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The new western and northern territories of Poland were repopulated with Poles "repatriated" from the eastern regions now in the Soviet Union (2–3 million people) and from other places. The precise Soviet-Polish border was delineated in the Polish–Soviet border agreement of 16 August 1945. The new Poland emerged 20% smaller (by 77,700 km or 29,900 mi) in comparison to the 1939 borders. Eastern poorly developed regions were lost and western industrialized regions were gained, but the emotional impact for many Poles was clearly negative. The population transfers included also the moving of the Ukrainians and the Belarusians from Poland into their respective Soviet republics. In particular, the Soviet and Polish communist authorities expelled between 1944 and 1947 nearly 700,000 Ukrainians and Lemkos, transferring most of them into Soviet Ukraine, and then spreading the remaining groups in the Polish Recovered Territories during the Operation Vistula, thus ensuring that postwar Poland would not have significant minorities or any minority concentrations to contend with. Thousands were killed in the attendant strife and violence. After the war, many displaced Poles and some of those living in Kresy, now in the Soviet Union, did not end up in Poland as reestablished in 1945. The population within the respective official Polish borders decreased from 35.1 million in 1939 to 23.7 million in 1946.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Poland's western borders were soon questioned by the Germans and many in the West, while the planned peace conference had not materialized because the Cold War replaced the wartime cooperation. The borders, essential to Poland's existence, were in practice guaranteed by the Soviet Union, which only increased the dependence of Polish government leaders on their Soviet counterparts.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "a."According to Davies, the Grand Alliance (Britain, USA and the Soviet Union) decided in the meetings of its three leaders that the unconditional defeat of the Reich was the Alliance's overriding priority (principal war aim). Once this definition was accepted, the two Western powers, having obliged themselves not to withdraw from the conflict for any reason (including pressuring the Soviets), had lost their ability to meaningfully influence Soviet actions.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "b."The PKWN's land reform decree was issued on 6 September 1944. The Polish communists were reluctant to execute the land reform, which represented a radical departure from old Polish legal systems (they claimed adherence to the 1921 March Constitution of Poland). Polish peasants were reluctant to take over the landowners' possessions. Stalin summoned to Moscow in late September the KRN and PKWN leaders, led by Bierut, and inquired about the progress of the land reform. The Soviet leader asked how many estates had already been parceled and was very unhappy to find out that the answer was zero. He repeatedly lectured the Polish leaders, appealing to their communist convictions and patriotism. Stalin urged them to start implementing the land reform without any further delay, not to worry excessively about legal proprieties, because it was a revolutionary action, and to take advantage of the fact that the Red Army was still in Poland to help.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "c."Marshal Rydz-Śmigły made a final radio broadcast to Polish troops from Romania on September 20. He stressed the Polish army's involvement in fighting the Germans and told the commanders to avoid pointless bloodshed of fighting the Bolsheviks.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "d."All Polish institutions of secondary and higher education were dismantled and remained closed throughout the war. Some managed to continue functioning as an underground activity.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "e."According to Kochanski, 694,000 Polish soldiers, including 60,000 Jews, were captured by the Germans, and 240,000 by the Soviets.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "f."Kochanski contradicts Czubiński, stating that the exile government did consider itself at war with the Soviet Union. Sikorski's position was that Germany was the principal enemy and that cooperation with the Soviet Union was conditionally possible. There were rival factions in the government and probably no official proclamations on that issue.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "g."The British wanted the Polish forces moved to the Middle East because they expected a German offensive in that direction, through the Caucasus. Churchill asked Stalin to permit the Poles to leave the Soviet Union and thanked him when the agreement was secured. Sikorski was opposed to the removal of Polish soldiers from the Soviet Union, but eventually relented. Sikorski wanted Polish armies engaged against Germany in Western Europe, in the Middle East and in the Soviet Union, because of the uncertain outcomes of military campaigns and because of the need for a Polish (Government-in-Exile affiliated) military force fighting along whichever power would eventually liberate Poland. General Anders, earlier characterized in Soviet internal documents as a loyal pro-Soviet Polish officer (he was a strong supporter of the Sikorski–Mayski agreement of July 1941), by the spring of 1942 became convinced of the inevitability of Soviet defeat. Anders then insisted on taking the Polish formations out of the Soviet Union and opposed Sikorski. Eventually Anders became known for his anti-Soviet views; he demanded a dismissal of the government led by Sikorski, his commander-in-chief. At the time of the decision to remove the Polish army from the Soviet Union, it was not yet apparent that the war with Germany would be resolved mainly by a victorious Soviet westbound offensive on the Eastern Front and that the other war theaters would be relegated to a more peripheral role. In particular, it was not known that Poland would be liberated by the Soviets.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "i."According to Kochanski, a million and a quarter labor prisoners were forcibly taken by the Nazis from the General Government alone. According to Sowa, over 2.5 million Polish citizens were used as forced laborers in Germany and occupied France.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "j."After the abortive Dieppe Raid in Normandy in 1942, the Allies exercised extra caution and would not risk any more failed operations. In general, the Americans demanded accelerated offensive action in Europe, while the British wanted to delay the landing in France, which they judged impractical for the time being, and focus instead on the much easier to execute Italian Campaign.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "k."Expecting the arrival of the Red Army, in December 1944 the Nazis at the last moment closed down the Auschwitz slave labor operation, demolished the main compound and force-marched some 60,000 prisoners toward camps in Germany. A smaller number of sick people remained on the premises until the Soviets arrived.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "l."The Western powers were soon informed of the secret provisions to the treaty, but failed to notify the Polish government.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "m."The lands expected to be taken from Germany were also considered a restored Polish territory by the Polish Underground State leaders.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "n."The Polish communists attempted to obtain modifications of the Curzon Line that would result in Poland retaining Vilnius, Lviv and the oil fields of Eastern Galicia. Similar territorial conditions were postulated by the Polish government in London in August 1944, after Prime Minister Mikołajczyk's visit to Moscow. Joseph Stalin decided to satisfy the Lithuanian demands for Vilnius, Ukrainian for Lviv, and to annex for the Soviet Union Eastern Galicia, a region that had never been a part of the Russian Empire.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "o."The Polish Government-in-Exile had to cope with a number of instances of negative media and other publicity. In one particularly damaging case, about one third of the Jewish soldiers in the Polish Army in Britain deserted, claiming antisemitism in the institution. Some of them joined a British corps and some were court-martialed, but eventually granted amnesty by President Raczkiewicz.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "p."During the 1930s, the relations between the ruling Sanation camp and the various opposition groups and parties were tense, often hostile. From 1938, the growing external threat was clearly perceived by many and there were voices (mainly from the opposition) calling for the formation of a unified Government of National Defense and for taking other steps to promote a defense-minded consolidation of society. The Sanation ruling circle was not inclined to broaden the government's base and in June 1939 ultimately rejected any power-sharing ideas, apparently because they did not believe in the seriousness of German hostile intentions. The delegations that paid visits to President Mościcki and presented petitions on the issue of coalition government and general war preparedness, representing the agrarian and socialist parties and Polish intellectuals, were not well received. The regime did appeal to citizens' patriotism and generosity and several major fund raising efforts, often led by opposition groups and politicians (some of whom returned at that time of danger from political exile), resulted in donations of considerable magnitude, which by and large ended up not utilized.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "q."In late February 1945, referring to the post-Yalta Conference protests of the Polish Government-in-Exile, Winston Churchill said the following in the House of Commons: "Let me remind them that there would have been no Lublin Committee or Lublin Provisional Government in Poland if the Polish Government in London had accepted our faithful counsel given to them a year ago. They would have entered into Poland as its active Government, with the liberating Armies of Russia."


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "r."The right-wing anti-communist National Armed Forces (NSZ) stopped cooperating with the AK in November 1944. Being highly antisemitic, they attacked Jewish partisans in German-occupied Poland. They fought the incoming Soviet troops and Polish security forces. The Holy Cross Mountains Brigade of the NSZ avoided the Soviet advance and collaborated with the German military authorities, which made possible its entry into Czechoslovakia in February 1945. As the war ended, the brigade came in contact with the US 3rd Army. The British refused to agree to the brigade's incorporation into the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the brigade was disarmed by the US Army in August.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "s."According to Andrzej Leon Sowa, between 10,000 and 25,000 civilians and 5,000 Polish soldiers perished during the siege and defense of Warsaw.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "t."The size of post-war Poland was determined by Joseph Stalin alone, because the Western Allies, as shown by the record of British diplomacy, would not have objected to a much smaller Polish state being established.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "u." The communist Provisional Government of Poland demanded the establishment of the post-war Polish-German border at the Oder–Neisse line, that is along the Lusatian Neisse (Western Neisse), and, further north, the Oder river. Joseph Stalin indicated his support for the Polish position and the Provisional Government administered the region as soon as it was cleared of the German forces. The American and especially the British governments had a long-standing preference for the border to run further east in its southern portion, along the Nysa Kłodzka (Eastern Neisse) and the upper Oder rivers, which would keep a large portion of Lower Silesia and of the city of Breslau in post-war Germany. At the Potsdam Conference, the delegation of what was now the Polish Provisional Government of National Unity continued lobbying aimed at keeping all of Lower Silesia under Polish jurisdiction, rather than letting some of it be a part of the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. Taking advantage of the British delegation's disruption by the results of the British election, the Americans engaged in dealing with the Soviets on their own. Its outcome, stated in the conference protocols, was that until the final peace settlement, the area all the way west to the Lusatian Neisse would by administered by Poland and not be a part of the Soviet zone of occupation. The planned peace conference never took place and the border has remained where it was provisionally placed in 1945. It was confirmed in the treaties that Poland signed with West Germany in 1970 and with unified Germany in 1990.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "v."The confiscations stopped after repeated appeals to Vyacheslav Molotov by Jakub Berman and Hilary Minc.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "w."There was a total of 1,517,983 'repatriates' from the east, according to Halik Kochanski. Others give different figures. Of the several million ethnic Poles living in Kresy, a few million were repatriated to Poland as reestablished within new borders, while perhaps a million stayed in what had become the Soviet territory.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "x."Most of the soldiers who opted to stay in the West hailed from the eastern Kresy areas annexed to the Soviet Union. The bulk of Anders' Army fell in that category.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "y."Several thousand Poles fought in the Soviet partisans units. A smaller number of Jews also served there and in the Polish communist Gwardia Ludowa. Jews were rarely admitted into the Polish mainstream and nationalist underground armed organizations.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: "z."The liberation of the Praga right-bank part of Warsaw took over a month of fighting at the cost of eight thousand soldiers killed on each side. After the area was cleared of the Germans in mid-September, General Zygmunt Berling's forces crossed the Vistula and the failed Czerniaków operation (a limited Warsaw Uprising rescue attempt) began.


title: Ferrari F136 engine

text: The F136, commonly known as Ferrari-Maserati engine, is a family of 90° V8 petrol engines jointly developed by Ferrari and Maserati and produced by Ferrari; these engines displace between 4.2 L and 4.7 L, and produce between and . All engines are naturally aspirated, incorporate dual overhead camshafts, variable valve timing, and four valves per cylinder.


title: Ferrari F136 engine

text: The architecture was produced in various configurations for Ferrari and Maserati automobiles, and the Alfa Romeo 8C. Production started in 2001. Ferrari was spun-off from their common parent company in January 2016 and has stated they will not renew the contract to supply engines to Maserati by 2022.


title: Ferrari F136 engine

text: Starting with the 2013 Maserati Quattroporte GTS, and following with the 2014 Ferrari California T, the F136 was replaced by the twin turbocharged Ferrari F154 V8 engine.


title: Ferrari F136 engine

text: The F136 engine family has won a total of 8 awards in the International Engine of the Year competition.


title: Ferrari F136 engine

text: The F136 FB engine variant was awarded "Best Performance Engine" and "Above 4.0 litre" recognitions in 2011 and 2012, while the F136 FL variant won the same categories in 2014 and 2015.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC Breda (), often simply known as NAC, is a Dutch professional football club, based in Breda, Netherlands. NAC Breda play in the Rat Verlegh Stadium, named after their most important player, Antoon 'Rat' Verlegh. They play in the Eerste Divisie. In their history, NAC won one national title in 1921 and won one Cup in 1973.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC was founded on 19 September 1912, when the two clubs ADVENDO and NOAD merged to one club, both being abbreviations of their respective full names.


title: NAC Breda

text: In 2012 Stefaan Eskes succeeded Ed Busselaar and in August 2012 NAC Breda reinstated their first logo as the new club logo for the 2012–13 season.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC is a fusion of the two abbreviations of the two clubs that merged to create it in 1912, NOAD and ADVENDO.


title: NAC Breda

text: NOAD is a Dutch abbreviation for Nooit Opgeven, Altijd Doorzetten" (English translation: "Never give up, always persevere"), while ADVENDO is a Dutch abbreviation for Aangenaam Door Vermaak En Nuttig Door Ontspanning" (English: "Pleasant for its entertainment and useful for its relaxation"). The C stands for "Combinatie" (combination).


title: NAC Breda

text: The full name of NAC Breda expands to "Nooit opgeven altijd doorzetten, Aangenaam door vermaak en nuttig door ontspanning, Combinatie Breda" ().


title: NAC Breda

text: Early in 2003 NAC added Breda to their club name as a symbol of gratitude after the City of Breda bought NAC's Rat Verleghstadium to help the club cope with financial problems.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC Breda was founded on 20 September 1912 when the clubs ADVENDO and NOAD merged. During the new club's foundation meeting the atmosphere became tense, since NOAD wanted to name the new club NOAD (NOad and ADvendo). This name was not acceptable to ADVENDO and eventually Frans Konert proposed to call the club NAC (NOAD ADVENDO Combinatie), which was accepted by the meeting's attendants. At first, the NVB refused to let NAC play association football, but on 28 October 1912 allowed NAC to play in the 2nd Southern Division.


title: NAC Breda

text: The first years were not very successful for NAC, but after moving to a new stadium ‘t Ploegske, results improved. NAC became one of the top teams in the top Southern Division, becoming champions of the 1919 season, earning NAC the right to play the Dutch Champions’ Competition (a small competition in which the champions from the regional divisions would play for the Dutch title). In this competition, NAC finished in last place. In 1920, NAC were one of the first clubs to play international matches. NAC played a couple of friendly matches, including a match against Real Madrid CF, winning 4-0 and the Spanish newspapers called NAC ‘Los muchacos del Breda, maestros del futbol’ (English: The boys from Breda, masters in football). In 1921, NAC celebrated one of its greatest achievements, becoming Dutch football champions. In the Dutch Championship competition, NAC defeated Ajax, Be Quick 1887 and Go Ahead. NAC continued to excel, being considered to be one of the best clubs in Dutch football during the 20’s and 30’s. During this period they won 6 Southern Division titles and their play style was deemed technically perfect by press and the public.


title: NAC Breda

text: Because of this view, the NAC board decided to hire a professional trainer. Englishman Ben Affleck was hired as a coach and was a couple of months later was succeeded by James Moore. After Moore resigned, the NAC board issued a committee, who would select the best 11 NAC players to play in a match. In 1931 Antoon Verlegh retired from football. Verlegh, nowadays a club icon for NAC, played for them since their foundation. In this year, NAC also had a dispute with the city of Breda. The stadium's terrain ‘t Ploegske was classed as a residential area, meaning NAC had to leave the ground. As no other option was available in Breda, NAC were forced to move to the town Princenhage. Within two months, a complete new stadium, with a capacity of 5,500 people, was built and NAC left Breda. In 1935, NAC became the first club in the Netherlands to travel via airplane to an away match against GVAV.


title: NAC Breda

text: In 1939, NAC and Breda reopened discussions on whether they could return to the city. Breda’s council zoned a large piece of land at the Beatrixstraat as stadium area and NAC returned to Breda in 1940. Because of the breakout of the Second World War, NAC decided to play an important social function in Breda's community. In order to divert the people's attention from war, NAC organized sport events, theatre, fairs and horsing games. Although NAC continued to play football, several players were employed by the Germans in Germany. During the Second World War, youngster Kees Rijvers made his debut for NAC.


title: NAC Breda

text: After the Second World War, NAC played in the highest level. In 1949 Chairman of Honour C.J. Asselbergs died. Asselbergs was one of the people who were present at NAC since NAC got founded. In 1954 professional football was introduced in the Netherlands. The running competitions were postponed and new competitions were created. NAC entered the 1A League and became champions of this league in 1955. In the championship competition NAC finished second place, behind their rivals Willem II Tilburg.


title: NAC Breda

text: On 14 March 1960 Breda was shocked to hear the death of Antoon ‘De Rat’ Verlegh. Verlegh, considered to be one of the important persons in Dutch football, died in a car accident on 12 March. From NAC's foundation in 1912, Verlegh was involved in the club at numerous positions and played an important role with the Royal Dutch Football Association. In November 1961 NAC lost another important person; Chairman Jacques Piederiet died. A year later, in August 1962, chairman Le Fevre died. The beginning of the sixties were not bright for NAC. In 1964–1965 NAC even relegated for the first time in its existence.


title: NAC Breda

text: The relegation meant a total reconstruction of the club's management. The board resigned and NAC's intention was to return to the highest level within one year. NAC was successful in this and a season later NAC played in the highest level and a year later qualified for the KNVB Cup’s final, where it lost to AFC Ajax. Although NAC lost, the club was allowed to play UEFA Cup. In the UEFA Cup NAC reached the second round, after defeating Floriana FC. In the second round NAC was knocked out by Cardiff City. Although NAC remained in the highest football level in the Netherlands, NAC were in a heavy struggle not to relegate. 31 May 1973 is another highlight in NAC's history. In the KNVB Cup final, NAC played NEC Nijmegen. NAC won the Final 2-0. Because of their success, NAC was allowed to play in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. In the first round, NAC was knocked out by eventual winners 1. FC Magdeburg.


title: NAC Breda

text: In 1975 the NAC board decided to play the home matches on a Saturday evening. In this period a group of fanatic NAC fans merged and located themselves on a stand. Their fierce support lead to an attraction of youngsters, who also fanatically support NAC. This fierce support lasts till now and is known in the Netherlands as an Avondje NAC (English; An Evening NAC). An Avondje NAC is a flamboyant mix of Burgundian fun, beer, fanaticism and love for the club and ensures that during home matches the atmosphere in the stadium is intimidating. On 6 October 1979, a strange situation occurred. During the home match against NAC's rivals Feyenoord the linesman was hit by an ashtray. The referee postponed the match, riots broke out and the incident in the Netherlands is known as the ‘Ashtray Incident’.


title: NAC Breda

text: In the eighties NAC relegated two times. After the second relegation, it appeared the financial situation of NAC was terrible. NAC was almost bankrupt and had to sell its belongings to survive. For years NAC struggled to survive, but at the end of the eighties NAC's situation improved and the club began to play in the top of the Eerste Divisie. On 7 June 1989, NAC player Andro Knel died in a plane accident. It was a shock to the club, especially since Knel was one of the popular players. Hundreds of fans of both NAC Breda and Sparta Rotterdam, Knel's former club, came together in memorial of Knel. A temporary Knel monument was revealed and the numbers of supporters visiting the monument proved his popularity. Due to the sad moments of Knel's death a special relationship between fans of NAC and Sparta was created.


title: NAC Breda

text: After Knel's death, NAC had to continue to play in de Eerste Divisie and three times NAC was close to promote back to the Eredivisie. In 1992, NAC finally promoted to the Eredivisie. With a team managed by Ronald Spelbos and players like John Lammers, Pierre van Hooijdonk, Ton Lokhoff, Fabian Wilnis and John Karelse, NAC played their promotion match in Den Bosch against FC Den Bosch in front of 9,000 NAC fans. The promotion meant a revival of NAC's popularity, the stadium was sold out and NAC was supported by thousands of people in away matches. In the away match against their rivals Feyenoord in Rotterdam, NAC was supported by 8,000 people. Due to the popularity, the NAC board announced it would leave the stadium at the Beatrixstraat and it would build a new stadium. Until the movement, NAC continued to play in the highest level, missed qualification for the UEFA Cup several times and reached the semi-finals of the KNVB Cup.


title: NAC Breda

text: In 1996 NAC moved to their new stadium, the FUJIFILM Stadium. With the move NAC indicated it wanted to play in Europe on a regular basis. In 1998, club youngster Dominique Diroux died from a heart attack during a match between the reserve teams of NAC and AZ. NAC’s new players couldn't meet the club’s raised expectations for a couple of seasons; NAC were even relegated in 1999. After this, it appeared that NAC's financial situation was again in peril. In 4 seasons, NAC bought 60 players and the costs of the new stadium exceeded their budget. In order to save the club, the stadium was bought from NAC by investors and Roelant Oltmans was appointed as the team’s first professional manager. Also, a fans’ council, the first in Holland , was established, where fans have an advisory role that protects NAC's culture and defend fan interests. NAC also has a position available to a fan in the board of chairmen.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC professionalized and were promoted in 2000 to the Eredivisie. In 2003, NAC qualified for the UEFA Cup, playing two matches against Newcastle United. An estimated 4,300 NAC fans travelled to Newcastle to support their team. In 2003 it appeared NAC again neared bankruptcy, but the City of Breda purchased the stadium again from NAC on 30 January 2003. As gratitude, NAC modified their name to become NAC Breda, honouring the city’s consistent contributions towards helping the club during difficult times After another financial rescue, the management and the Board of Chairmen resigned, being succeeded by Theo Mommers as managing director and a new Board of Chairmen, led by Willem van der Hoeven. In 2006 NAC decided to rename the stadium to Rat Verlegh Stadion.


title: NAC Breda

text: For a long time, NAC's financial position appeared stable as the club finished third in the 2007–2008 Eredivisie. In 2009, NAC qualified for the UEFA Europa League. In the 4th round, NAC was defeated by Villarreal CF with scores of 1–3 (home) and 6–1 (away). Despite earlier denials towards fans and stakeholders by management and the Board of Chairmen, it appeared at the end of season 2009–2010 that NAC's financial position was once again unstable. The club lost €3.2 million that season, due to rebuilding the stadium and buying expensive players. Board members Willem van der Hoeven, Jacques Visschers and Bas Koomans resigned and Bas van Bavel became new chairman. Managing director Theo Mommers reported ill in April 2010. Bernard Ouwerkerk was appointed in June 2010 as the club’s interim managing director, while Technical Manager Earnest Stewart signed a contract at AZ and was replaced by Jeffrey van As.


title: NAC Breda

text: During this period, NAC manager Maaskant raised his concerns several times to the press. Because of the financial problems, NAC had to cut its budget, meaning Maaskant was not able to buy new players. On 21 August 2010, NAC and Maaskant made public that the trainer would leave the club for Polish football club Wisła Kraków, where he signed a two-year deal. His assistant managers John Karelse, Gert Aandewiel and Arno van Zwam became the interim managers for NAC Breda. In January 2011, Bernard Ouwerkerk resigned and was succeeded by Ed Busselaar. In March 2011 it appeared that NAC had a debt of €7.1 million.


title: NAC Breda

text: After a few seasons of struggle to stay clear of relegation, NAC couldn't avoid relegation after the 2014/15 season, when they were beaten by Roda JC in a promotion/relegation playoff final. They had enjoyed 15 successive seasons in the top tier.


title: NAC Breda

text: On 28 May 2017, NAC returned to the Eredivisie after winning the promotion/relegation play-off final against NEC Nijmegen (1–0 and 1–4). Cyriel Dessers scored four goals in those two matches. The other goal was made by Giovanni Korte. After the match there were festivities in Breda. First there was a party next to the stadium. A day later the party continued at the "Grote Markt". On 12 May 2019, in a defeat to SC Heerenveen they relegated to the Keuken Kampioen Divisie.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC's official colours are yellow, white and black. During their existence these colours have always been in NAC's home and/or away kit.


title: NAC Breda

text: Initially, NAC's home kit was a black shirt -with a diagonal yellow line-, a white short and yellow black socks. In 1916 NAC changed this kit towards a white shirt. This white shirt would remain till the sixties when NAC decided to replace the white shirt with a yellow shirt and black shorts Conversely, NAC's away colours have been very inconsistent. There is no setting in the colour standards.


title: NAC Breda

text: In NAC cultural manifest it has been stated that the home and away kits should have the official NAC colours. Afterwards, NAC announced to play their home matches in a yellow shirt, with a black diagonal line running over it, black shorts and white socks, with some yellow accents in it. The away kit is a white shirt, with a yellow diagonal line marked by a black border running over it. White short and white socks complete the away kit.


title: NAC Breda

text: During their existence, NAC had 4 different crests. After their foundation in 1912, their crest was a black shield, with a yellow diagonal line running over it and in it the letters N.A.C.. This crest was replaced in 1968 by another crest. The reason for this crest change is unknown. In 1974 the crest was replaced by a crest which contained the letters NAC in a black and yellow combination. The crest was most probably changed due to the dismissal of the NAC board in 1974. In order to state a new beginning, a new board member's daughter designed NAC's third crest.


title: NAC Breda

text: The fourth crest was developed in 1996, when NAC moved to the Rat Verlegh Stadion. It consisted of two lions, three crosses, the letters NAC and it contains NAC's official club colours. The two lions and the three crosses are derived from Breda's crest. In 2012, the first crest was re-adopted since, as NAC celebrated its 100th anniversary. Eventually upon initiative (and paid for) by the fans it was decided to reinstate the first crest permanently.


title: NAC Breda

text: Directly after the merger of NOAD and ADVENDO, and thus the foundation of NAC, the board rented the fields of the Bond voor Lichaamlijke Opvoeding to play their homematches. The terrain, located east of the Wilhelmina Park in Breda, was NAC's homeground for one season. Because of the terrain's poor conditions, NAC moved to another terrain.


title: NAC Breda

text: For three seasons NAC played at the grounds known as Achter de Watertoren (English: Behind the watertower), located north of the Wilhelmina Park in Breda. During the seasons NAC played at Achter de Watertoren, NAC's popularity increased and the club decided to move for the third time in her existence.


title: NAC Breda

text: Without no doubt, NAC's biggest successes were at the stadium ‘t Ploegske. In 1921 NAC celebrated the Dutch championship at the stadium. ‘t Ploegske was the first NAC stadium with stands, and a capacity over 3,000, was located at the Molengracht in Breda. Due to the fact Breda's City Council zoned the area as a residential area, NAC were forced to move.


title: NAC Breda

text: Due to the City Council's decision to zone the grounds of ‘t Ploegske as a residential area and the city of Breda had no new grounds available, NAC were forced to move out Breda. The town of Princenhage offered NAC a terrain, where NAC built a state-of-the-art stadium with a capacity of 5,500. The main disadvantage was that the stadium was located far from Breda's city centre. Nevertheless, NAC's golden decennium in the thirties, when NAC was considered to be one of the top clubs in the Netherlands, took place in the stadium at the Heuvelstraat. In 1939 the city of Breda offered NAC a new terrain at the Beatrixstraat.


title: NAC Breda

text: Moving to the Beatrixstraat meant a return to NAC's roots. NAC was back in the city where it belonged. NAC's popularity increased and in the fifties and sixties NAC was considered to be one of the biggest clubs in the Netherlands. In the seventies NAC became notorious for their evening matches at this stadium. An intimidating and fierce atmosphere lead to the birth of the ‘Avondje NAC’ (English: Evening NAC), in which NAC's fans fanatically supported their team. The stadium's top capacity was 18,500. Due to strict regulations, it was limited to 12,560 in the nineties. Due to the stadium's age and overdue maintenance, NAC left the stadium in 1996.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC's current ground is the Rat Verlegh stadium, located 2 kilometres north west of Breda's city centre. Founded as the FUJIFILM Stadium, the name was changed in 2003 to the MyCom stadium. From the stadium's opening the NAC fans used the name Rat Verlegh stadium, which was officially assigned by NAC to the stadium in 2006. At present, the stadium's capacity is 17,750. Due to the increasing popularity of NAC Breda, the stadium was expanded in summer 2010 to a capacity of 19,000.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC fans often refer to themselves as "‘The Rats’" or "‘The Yellow Army’". NAC Breda have a loyal fanbase, with virtually all their home matches selling out. National and international NAC is known by the fierce and fanatic support of their fans, combined in the term "‘Avondje NAC’" (English: ‘An evening NAC’). A flamboyant mix of Burgundian fun, beer, fanaticism and love for the club ensures that during home matches the atmosphere in the stadium is intimidating. The term has its roots in the seventies, when the board decided to play their home matches at a Saturday evening. Nowadays, NAC is supported by two fanatic sides: The B-Side and Vak G. The club's fans also publish NAC Fanzine De Rat, named after Antoon ‘Rat’ Verlegh. NAC was the first club in Dutch professional soccer to found a fans' council. This council is an advisory organisation, that protects NAC's culture and defend the fans' interests. NAC also has one position available for a fan in the board of chairmans.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC Breda's longest-running and deepest rivalry is with their nearest neighbour, Willem II from Tilburg. This rivalry originated in the 1920s. Matches between the two are referred to as the derby of Brabant. The two cities of Breda and Tilburg are just 20 kilometres apart, leading to an intense feeling of a cross-town rivalry, heightened by a feeling that it is city against city with local pride at stake. The cities differ culturally where Breda is considered a working class city and Tilburg is considered more elitist. This is also apparent from the fact that Willem II is named after a Dutch king.


title: NAC Breda

text: NAC Breda's other deep running rivalry is with Rotterdam based club Feyenoord. The rivalry has its roots after several incidents between fans of both clubs in the seventies of the 20th century. Although Feyenoord fans don't have the same rival feelings like NAC fans have, matches against Feyenoord are considered to be of the most important and most violent matches of a season.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey II (; , ; 23 September 1158 – 19 August 1186) was Duke of Brittany and 3rd Earl of Richmond between 1181 and 1186, through his marriage to Constance, Duchess of Brittany. Geoffrey was the fourth of five sons of Henry II of England and Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: In the 1160s, Henry II began to alter his policy of indirect rule in Brittany and to exert more direct control. Henry had been at war with Conan IV, Duke of Brittany. Local Breton nobles rebelled against Conan, so Conan sought Henry II's help. In 1164, Henry intervened to seize lands along the border of Brittany and Normandy and, in 1166, he invaded Brittany to punish the local barons. Henry then forced Conan to abdicate as duke and to give Brittany to his five-year-old daughter, Constance, who was handed over and betrothed to Henry's son Geoffrey. This arrangement was quite unusual in terms of medieval law, as Conan might have had sons who could have legitimately inherited the duchy. Geoffrey and Constance eventually married, in July 1181.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Growing tensions between Henry and Louis VII of France finally spilled over into open war in 1167, triggered by a trivial argument over how money destined for the Crusader states of the Levant should be collected. Louis allied himself with the Welsh, Scots and Bretons and attacked Normandy. Henry responded by attacking Chaumont-sur-Epte, where Louis kept his main military arsenal, burning the town to the ground and forcing Louis to abandon his allies and make a private truce. Henry was then free to move against the rebel barons in Brittany, where feelings about his seizure of the duchy were still running high.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey was fifteen years old when he joined the first revolt against his father. He later reconciled to Henry in 1174 when he participated in the truce at Gisors. Geoffrey prominently figured in the second revolt of 1183, fighting against Richard, on behalf of Henry the Young King.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey was a good friend of Louis VII's son Philip, and the two men were frequently in alliance against King Henry. Geoffrey spent much time at Philip's court in Paris, and Philip made him his seneschal. There is evidence to suggest that Geoffrey was planning another rebellion with Philip's help during his final period in Paris in the summer of 1186. As a participant in so many rebellions against his father, Geoffrey acquired a reputation for treachery. Gerald of Wales wrote the following of him: "He has more aloes than honey in him; his tongue is smoother than oil; his sweet and persuasive eloquence has enabled him to dissolve the firmest alliances and by his powers of language able to corrupt two kingdoms; of tireless endeavour, a hypocrite in everything, a deceiver and a dissembler."


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey also was known to attack monasteries and churches in order to raise funds for his campaigns. This lack of reverence for religion earned him the displeasure of the Church and, as a consequence, of the majority of chroniclers who wrote about his life.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey died on 19 August 1186, at the age of 27, in Paris. There is also evidence that supports a death date of 21 August 1186. There are two alternative accounts of his death. The more common first version holds that he was trampled to death in a jousting tournament. At his funeral, a grief-stricken Philip is said to have tried to jump into the coffin. Roger of Hoveden's chronicle is the source of this version; the detail of Philip's hysterical grief is from Gerald of Wales.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: In the second version, in the chronicle of the French royal clerk Rigord, Geoffrey died of sudden acute chest pain, which reportedly struck immediately after his speech to Philip, boasting his intention to lay Normandy to waste. Possibly, this version was an invention of its chronicler, sudden illness being God's judgment of an ungrateful son plotting rebellion against his father, and for his irreligiosity. Alternatively, the tournament story may be an invention of Philip's to prevent Henry II's discovery of a plot; by inventing a social reason, a tournament, for Geoffrey's being in Paris, Philip obscured their meeting's true purpose.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Marie of Champagne, with whom Geoffrey was on good terms, was present at the requiem for her half-brother and established a mass chantry for the repose of his soul.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey was buried in the choir of Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral, but his tombstone was destroyed in the 18th century before the French revolution. His body was exhumed in 1797 and measured at 5 ft 6.5 in (1.69 m).


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: After Geoffrey's death, Henry II arranged for Constance, Geoffrey's widow, to marry Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester. Ranulf would become Duke of Brittany, jure uxoris, for a short time before this marriage was annulled.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey II of Brittany is a major character in the play "The Lion in Winter" (1966) by James Goldman where his portrayal is reminiscent of that made by Gerald of Wales, and in the novel "Devil's Brood" (2008) by Sharon Kay Penman. He is also mentioned in the tragedies "The Troublesome Reign of King John" (anonymous, c.1589), "King John" (1593–1596) by William Shakespeare and "King John" by Richard Valpy, the poem "Le petit Arthur de Bretagne à la tour de Rouen" (1822) by Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, the drama "Arthur de Bretagne" (1885) by Louis Tiercelin and the novels "Lionheart" (2011) and "A King's Ransom" (2014) by Sharon Kay Penman, as well as in the second volume of the trilogy "Le Château des Poulfenc" (2009) by Brigitte Coppin.


title: Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

text: Geoffrey has been portrayed by John Castle in the movie "The Lion in Winter" (1968) and by John Light in the 2003 made-for-TV remake. He has also been portrayed by Austin Somervell (as a boy) and Martin Neil (as an adult) in the BBC TV drama series "The Devil's Crown" (1978).


title: I Walk the Line

text: "I Walk the Line" is a song written and recorded in 1956 by Johnny Cash. After three attempts with moderate chart ratings, it became Cash's first #1 hit on the "Billboard" charts, eventually reaching #17 on the US pop charts.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The song remained on the record charts for over 43 weeks, and sold over two million copies. It has also been used on many LPs released from Sun Records, such as "With His Hot and Blue Guitar", "Sings the Songs That Made Him Famous", and "Sings Hank Williams". It was the title song for a 1970 film starring Gregory Peck and a 2005 biopic of Cash starring Joaquin Phoenix. The song captures Johnny Cash's "boom-chicka-boom" sound by Johnny putting a dollar bill in the neck of his guitar.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The unique chord progression for "I Walk the Line" was inspired by the backwards playback of guitar runs on Cash's tape recorder while he was stationed in Germany as a member of the United States Air Force. Later in a telephone interview, Cash stated, "I wrote the song backstage one night in 1956 in Gladewater, Texas. I was newly married at the time, and I suppose I was laying out my pledge of devotion." After writing the song, Cash had a discussion with fellow performer Carl Perkins, who encouraged him to adopt "I Walk the Line" as the song title. Cash originally intended the song to be a slow ballad, but producer Sam Phillips preferred a faster arrangement; in the end, Cash agreed to the change, and the uptempo recording met with success.


title: I Walk the Line

text: On one occasion, while performing "I Walk the Line" on his TV show, Cash explained to the audience the reason for his humming during the song: "People ask me why I always hum whenever I sing this song. It's to get my pitch." The humming was necessary since the song required Cash to change keys several times while singing it.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The song's lyrics refer to marital fidelity, personal responsibility, and avoiding temptation in his first marriage to Vivian Liberto. However, Johnny Cash would eventually divorce Vivian Liberto and then marry June Carter. Vivian Liberto would write a book called "I Walked the Line" about her time with Johnny.


title: I Walk the Line

text: "I Walk the Line" was originally recorded at Sun Studio on April 2, 1956, and was released on May 1. It spent six weeks at the top spot on the U.S. country Juke Box charts that summer, one week on the C&W Jockey charts and number two on the C&W Best Seller charts. "I Walk the Line" crossed over and reached #19 on the pop music charts.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The song was performed with the help of Marshall Grant and Luther Perkins, two mechanics who were introduced to Cash by his older brother Roy after Cash was discharged from the Air Force. Cash and his wife, Vivian, were living in Memphis, Tennessee, at the time. Cash became the front man for the group and precipitated their introduction to Sam Phillips of Sun Records. In 1955, they began recording under the Sun label.


title: I Walk the Line

text: It was re-recorded four times during Cash's career: in 1964 for the "I Walk the Line" album, again in 1969 for the "At San Quentin" album (a live performance), in 1970 for the "I Walk the Line" soundtrack, and finally in 1988 for the "" album. Additional live performances have been released since Cash's death, along with a demo version recorded prior to the formal 1956 recording session that was released on "Bootleg Vol. II: From Memphis to Hollywood" (Columbia/Legacy) in 2011.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The song is very simple and like most Cash songs, the lyrics tell more of a story than the music conveys. ("You've got a way to keep me on your side/You give me cause for love that I can't hide/For you I know I'd even try to turn the tide").


title: I Walk the Line

text: It is based upon the "boom-chicka-boom" or "freight train" rhythm common in many of Cash's songs. In the original recording of the song, there is a key change between each of the five verses, and Cash hums the new root note before singing each verse. The final verse, a reprise of the first, is sung a full octave lower than the first verse, the root note lowered from F3 down to F2.


title: I Walk the Line

text: When performing this song in recording, and in later live and television appearances, Cash would place a piece of paper under the strings of his guitar towards the tuning end. As he explained during a 1990s appearance on The Nashville Network, he did this in order to simulate the sound of a snare drum, an instrument to which he did not have access during the original Sun session.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The song is included in "The 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll", a permanent exhibit at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2004, "Rolling Stone magazine" ranked the song at  30 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. and also ranked it #1 on its list of the 100 greatest country songs of all time in June 2014.


title: I Walk the Line

text: The song was covered by French house music DJ and producer Laurent Wolf and released in August 2009 as Walk the Line Remix.


title: Huldufólk

text: In Faroese folk tales, hidden people are said to be "large in build, their clothes are all grey, and their hair black. Their dwellings are in mounds, and they are also called Elves."


title: Huldufólk

text: The term was taken as a synonym of (elves) in 19th-century Icelandic folklore. Jón Árnason found that the terms are synonymous, except is a pejorative term. contends that originates as a euphemism to avoid calling the by their real name.


title: Huldufólk

text: There is, however, some evidence that the two terms have come to be taken as referring to two distinct sets of supernatural beings in contemporary Iceland. Katrin Sontag found that some people do not differentiate elves from hidden people, while others do. A 2006 survey found that "54% of respondents did not distinguish between elves and hidden people, 20% did and 26% said they were not sure."


title: Huldufólk

text: Terry Gunnell writes: "different beliefs could have lived side by side in multicultural settlement Iceland before they gradually blended into the latter-day Icelandic and ." He also writes: " and undoubtedly arose from the same need. The Norse settlers had the , the Irish slaves had the hill fairies or the Good People. Over time, they became two different beings, but really they are two different sets of folklore that mean the same thing."


title: Huldufólk

text: Precursors to elves/hidden people can be found in the writings of and in skaldic verse. Elves were also mentioned in "Poetic Edda", and appear to be connected to fertility.


title: Huldufólk

text: The Christianization of Iceland in the 11th century brought with it new religious concepts. According to one Christian folk tale, the origins of the hidden people can be traced to Adam and Eve. Eve hid her dirty, unwashed children from God, and lied about their existence. God then declared: "What man hides from God, God will hide from man." Other Christian folktales claim that hidden people originate from Lilith, or are fallen angels condemned to live between heaven and hell.


title: Huldufólk

text: In succession of Christianization, official opposition to dancing may have begun in Iceland as early as the 12th century, and the association of dancing with elves can be seen as early as the 15th century. One folktale shows the elves siding with the common people and taking revenge on a sheriff who banned dance parties. concludes that these legends "show that Icelanders missed dancing".


title: Huldufólk

text: In the 13th and 14th centuries, books from mainland Europe reached Iceland, and may have influenced folktales about elves.


title: Huldufólk

text: There are four Icelandic holidays considered to have a special connection with hidden people: New Year's Eve, Thirteenth Night (January 6), Midsummer Night and Christmas night. Elf bonfires () are a common part of the holiday festivities on Twelfth Night (January 6). There are many Icelandic folktales about elves and hidden people invading Icelandic farmhouses during Christmas and holding wild parties. It is customary in Iceland to clean the house before Christmas, and to leave food for the on Christmas. On New Year's Eve, it is believed that the elves move to new locations, and Icelanders leave candles to help them find their way. On Midsummer Night, folklore states that if you sit at a crossroads, elves will attempt to seduce you with food and gifts; there are grave consequences for being seduced by their offers, but great rewards for resisting.


title: Huldufólk

text: Several scholars have commented on the connections between hidden people and the Icelandic natural environment. B.S. Benedikz, in his discussion of Jón Árnason's grouping of folktales about elves, water-dwellers, and trolls together, writes: "The reason is of course perfectly clear. When one's life is conditioned by a landscape dominated by rocks twisted by volcanic action, wind and water into ferocious and alarming shapes... the imagination fastens on these natural phenomena."


title: Huldufólk

text: Ólina Thorvarðardóttir writes: "Oral tales concerning Icelandic elves and trolls no doubt served as warning fables. They prevented many children from wandering away from human habitations, taught Iceland's topographical history, and instilled fear and respect for the harsh powers of nature."


title: Huldufólk

text: Michael Strmiska writes: "The are... not so much "super"natural as "ultra"natural, representing not an overcoming of nature in the hope of a better deal beyond but a deep reverence for the land and the mysterious powers able to cause fertility or famine." claims that in a landscape filled with earthquakes, avalanches, and volcanoes, "it is no wonder that the native people have assigned some secret life to the landscape. There had to be some unseen powers behind such unpredictability, such cruelty." Alan Boucher writes: "Thus the Icelander's ambivalent attitude towards nature, the enemy and the provider, is clearly expressed in these stories, which preserve a good deal of popular—and in some cases probably pre-christian—belief."


title: Huldufólk

text: Robert Anderson writes that syncretism "is active in Iceland where Christianity, spiritism, and Icelandic elf lore have syncretized in at least a couple instances."


title: Huldufólk

text: Terry Gunnell notes that hidden people legends recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries showed them to be "near mirror-images of those humans who told stories about them—except they were beautiful, powerful, alluring, and free from care, while the Icelanders were often starving and struggling for existence. The seem in many ways to represent the Icelander's dreams of a more perfect and happy existence." Anthropologist claimed that hidden people tales told by 19th-century Icelandic women were a reflection of how only 47% of women were married, and "sisters often found themselves relegated to very different functions and levels of status in society... the vast majority of Icelandic girls were shunted into supporting roles in the household." He goes on to say that these stories justified the differences in role and status between sisters, and "inculcated in young girls the... stoic adage never to despair, which was a psychological preparedness many would need as they found themselves reduced in status and denied the proper outlet for their sexuality in marriage, thereby sometimes having to rely on infanticide to take care of the unsolicited and insupportable effects of their occasional amours, an element... related in stories."


title: Huldufólk

text: Hidden people often appear in the dreams of Icelanders. They are usually described as wearing 19th-century Icelandic clothing, and are often described as wearing green.


title: Huldufólk

text: In one version of modern Faroese folklore, the hidden people vanished in the 1950s when electricity was brought to the island.


title: Huldufólk

text: A survey of Icelanders born between 1870 and 1920 found that people did not generally believe in hidden people and that when they had learned about supernatural beings in their youth, those lessons had mostly been made for amusement. About 10% seemed to actually believe in hidden people. A survey from 1974 showed that among those born between 1904 and 1944, 7% were certain of the existence of hidden people.


title: Huldufólk

text: Several modern surveys have been made showing a surprising number of believers. Around 7–8% claim to be certain that elves exist, and around 45% claim it is likely or possible.


title: Huldufólk

text: These surveys have been criticized as being misrepresentative, as journalists have claimed that they show that a majority of Icelanders believe in elves, despite belief not being that serious. Folklore professor Terry Gunnell has said: "Very few will say immediately that they 'believe' in such, but they won't deny it either." Different ways of asking could elicit very different responses.


title: Huldufólk

text: Árni Björnsson claims the beliefs are simplified and exaggerated for the entertainment of children and tourists, and that it is a somewhat misrepresentative yet harmless trick used by the tourism industry to entice visitors. The stories of elves may have been fun tales rather than beliefs.


title: Huldufólk

text: During road construction in Kópavogur in 1971, a bulldozer broke down. The driver placed the blame on elves living in a large rock. Despite locals not having been aware of any elves living in the rock, newspapers ran with the story, thus starting the myth that Icelandic road construction was often impeded by elves.


title: Huldufólk

text: In 1982, 150 Icelanders went to the NATO base in to look for "elves who might be endangered by American Phantom jets and AWACS reconnaissance planes." In 2004, Alcoa had to have a government expert certify that their chosen building site was free of archaeological sites, including ones related to folklore, before they could build an aluminium smelter in Iceland. In 2011, elves/ were believed by some to be responsible for an incident in where rocks rained down on residential streets. In 2013, proposed road construction from the peninsula to the suburb of , was stopped because elf supporters and environmental groups protested, stating that the road would destroy the habitat of elves and local cultural beliefs.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The A1 is the longest numbered road in the UK, at . It connects London, the capital of England, with Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland. It passes through or near North London, Hatfield, Welwyn Garden City, Stevenage, Baldock, Letchworth Garden City, Biggleswade, St Neots, Huntingdon, Peterborough, Stamford, Grantham, Newark-on-Trent, Retford, Doncaster, York, Pontefract, Wetherby, Ripon, Darlington, Durham, Sunderland, Gateshead, Newcastle upon Tyne, Morpeth, Alnwick and Berwick-upon-Tweed.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: It was designated by the Ministry of Transport in 1921, and for much of its route it followed various branches of the historic Great North Road, the main deviation being between Boroughbridge and Darlington. The course of the A1 has changed where towns or villages have been bypassed, and where new alignments have taken a slightly different route. Several sections of the route have been upgraded to motorway standard and designated A1(M). Between the M25 (near London) and the A720 (near Edinburgh) the road is part of the unsigned Euroroute E15 from Inverness to Algeciras.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The A1 is the latest in a series of routes north from London to York and beyond. It was designated in 1921 by the Ministry of Transport under the Great Britain road numbering scheme. The earliest documented northern routes are the roads created by the Romans during the period from AD 43 to AD 410, which consisted of several "itinera" (plural of "iter") recorded in the Antonine Itinerary. A combination of these were used by the Anglo-Saxons as the route from London to York, and together became known as Ermine Street. Ermine Street later became known as the Old North Road. Part of this route in London is followed by the current A10. By the 12th century, because of flooding and damage by traffic, an alternative route out of London was found through Muswell Hill, and became part of the Great North Road. A turnpike road, New North Road and Canonbury Road (A1200 road), was constructed in 1812 linking the start of the Old North Road around Shoreditch with the Great North Road at Highbury Corner. While the route of the A1 outside London mainly follows the Great North Road route used by mail coaches between London and Edinburgh, within London the coaching route is only followed through Islington.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Bypasses were built around Barnet and Hatfield in 1927, but it was not until c.1954 that they were renumbered A1. In the 1930s bypasses were added around Chester-le-Street and Durham and the Ferryhill Cut was dug. In 1960 Stamford, Biggleswade and Doncaster were bypassed, as were Retford in 1961 and St Neots in 1971. Baldock was bypassed in July 1967. During the early 1970s plans to widen the A1 along Archway Road in London were abandoned after considerable opposition and four public inquiries during which road protesters disrupted proceedings. The scheme was finally dropped in 1990. The Hatfield cut-and-cover was opened in 1986.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A proposal to upgrade the whole of the A1 to motorway status was investigated by the government in 1989 but was dropped in 1995, along with many other schemes, in response to road protests against other road schemes (including the Newbury Bypass and the M3 extension through Twyford Down).


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A major crash occurred on the A1(M) on 15 July 2021 near Bowburn in County Durham; a lorry driver was distracted by browsing dating websites and crashed into stationary traffic, killing three people.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The inns on the road, many of which still survive, were staging posts on the coach routes, providing accommodation, stabling for the horses and replacement mounts. Few of the surviving coaching inns can be seen while driving on the A1, because the modern route now bypasses the towns with the inns.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The A1 runs from New Change in the City of London at St. Paul's Cathedral to the centre of Edinburgh. It shares its London terminus with the A40, in the City area of Central London. It runs out of London via St. Martin's Le Grand and Aldersgate Street, through Islington (where Goswell Road and Upper Street form part of its route), up Holloway Road, through Highgate, and Barnet.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The road enters Hertfordshire just before Potters Bar, near the junction with the M25 at the South Mimms Services. The route here becomes the A1(M) and subsequently passes through Hatfield, Welwyn, Stevenage, Baldock, Biggleswade, Sandy and St Neots.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Continuing north, the A1 runs on modern bypasses around Stamford, Grantham, Newark-on-Trent, Retford, Bawtry, Doncaster, Knottingley, Garforth, Wetherby, Knaresborough, Boroughbridge, Scotch Corner, Darlington, Newton Aycliffe, Durham and Chester-le-Street, past the Angel of the North sculpture and the Metrocentre in Gateshead, through the western suburbs of Newcastle upon Tyne, Morpeth, Alnwick, Berwick-upon-Tweed, into Scotland at Marshall Meadows, past Haddington and Musselburgh before arriving in Edinburgh at the East End of Princes Street near Waverley Station, at the junction of the A7, A8 and A900 roads.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Scotch Corner, in North Yorkshire, marks the point where before the M6 was built, the traffic for Glasgow and the west of Scotland diverged from that for Edinburgh. As well as a hotel there have been a variety of sites for the transport café, now subsumed as a motorway services.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A section of the road in North Yorkshire, from Walshford to Dishforth, was upgraded to motorway standard in 1995. Neolithic remains and a Roman fort were discovered.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A section of the road from Alconbury to Peterborough was upgraded to motorway standard at a cost of £128 million (£ as of 2022), which opened in 1998 requiring moving the memorial to Napoleonic prisoners buried at Norman Cross.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A number of sections between Newcastle and Edinburgh were dualled between 1999 and 2004, including a section from Spott Wood to Oswald Dean in 1999, sections from Bowerhouse to Spott Road and from Howburn to Houndwood in 2002–2003 and the "A1 Expressway", from Haddington and Dunbar in 2004. The total cost of these works was £50 million.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Plans to dual the single carriageway section of road north of Newcastle upon Tyne were shelved in 2006 as they were not considered a regional priority by central government. The intention was to dual the road between Morpeth and Felton and between Adderstone and Belford.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: In 1999 a section of A1(M) between Bramham and Hook Moor opened to traffic along with the extension of the M1 from Leeds. Under a DBFO contract, sections from Wetherby to Walshford and Darrington to Hook Moor were opened in 2005 and 2006.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Between September 2006 and October 2009 six roundabouts on the A1 and the A1(M) to Alconbury were replaced with grade-separated junctions. These provide a fully grade-separated route between the Buckden roundabout (just north of St Neots and approximately north of the Black Cat Roundabout) and just north of Morpeth. This project cost £96 million.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Upgrading the of road to dual three-lane motorway standard between the Bramham/A64 junction to north of Wetherby to meet the section of motorway at a cost of £70 million began in 2006, including a road alongside for non-motorway traffic. The scheme's public inquiry began on 18 October 2006 and the project was designed by James Poyner. Work began in May 2007, the motorway section opened in July 2009 and remaining work on side roads was still ongoing in late August and was expected to be completed by the end of 2009.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Upgrading of the existing dual carriageway to dual three-lane motorway standard, with a local road alongside for non-motorway traffic, between Dishforth (A1(M)/A168 junction) and Leeming Bar, began in March 2009 and opened to traffic on or about the scheduled date of 31 March 2012.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: It had originally been proposed that the road would be upgraded to motorway from Dishforth to Barton (between Scotch Corner and Darlington), which was the start of current northernmost section of A1(M). In 2010 the section between Leeming and Barton was cancelled as part of government spending cuts but it was reinstated in December 2012. Work began on 3 April 2014 and was expected to be completed by Spring 2017, but only reached completion in March 2018 due in part to significant Roman-era archaeological finds along the route of the motorway. Completion has provided a continuous motorway-standard road between Darrington (south of M62 junction) and Washington, and given the North East and North Yorkshire full motorway access to London (via the M1 at Darrington and Hook Moor).


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Councils in the north east have called for the section from Hook Moor in Yorkshire (where the M1 link road joins the A1(M)) to Washington to be renumbered as the M1. They maintain that this would raise the profile of the north-east and be good for business.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: In his Autumn Statement on 5 December 2012, the Chancellor of the Exchequer announced that the Government would upgrade a section of road from two to three lanes in each direction within the highway boundary at Lobley Hill (between Coal House and the Metro Centre), Gateshead at a cost of £64 m and create parallel link roads between the Lobley Hill and Gateshead Quay junctions. The same Road investment strategy announcement said that the remaining section of road between Birtley and Coal House will also be widened to three lanes each way, alongside the replacement of the Allerdene Bridge. A modified scheme commenced in August 2014 and was open to traffic in June 2016. The road is now three lanes each way with lane 3 narrower than lanes 1 and 2 so that all existing bridges remained as originally built.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The A1 around Durham, Gateshead and Newcastle has seen a number of incarnations, following routes through, to the east and to the west of both Gateshead and Newcastle. See A1 (Newcastle upon Tyne) for more information.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A new junction is currently under construction on the A1 south of Grantham. Highways England will construct 4 new slip roads to connect the A1 Trunk Road to the new Grantham Southern Relief Road being constructed by Lincolnshire County Council. This will create a southern entry to Grantham and also to the site known as the ‘King 31 Development’. The King 31 (Phase 1) is the section from the Grade Separated Junction to the B1174 (now completed). Phase three is the Southern Quadrant Link Road (SQLR). The Grantham Transport Strategy 2007-2021 identified the need for an east west relief road to bypass the centre of Grantham for traffic and open up the town and surrounding area to a significant amount of growth.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: In the "Road investment strategy" announced to Parliament by the Department for Transport and Secretary of State for Transport on 1 December 2014, planning will begin to upgrade the road in South Yorkshire to raise the last non-motorway section from Red House to Darrington to motorway standard. Once completed, it will provide a continuous motorway-standard road between Blyth, Nottinghamshire and Washington, Tyne and Wear and will provide the North East and Yorkshire with full motorway access to London via the M1, M62 and M18. It will also improve safety along this route, as well as creating a new corridor to the North East, and reducing congestion on the M1 around Sheffield and Leeds. This is the only missing link of motorway on the strategic M1/M18/A1(M) route London to Washington.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The same announcement said that the road from Scotswood to North Brunton would be widened to three lanes each way, with four lanes each way between some junctions.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The announcement then said that the road from Morpeth to Ellingham would be upgraded to dual carriageway. The selection of the preferred route was scheduled for the year 2017, with construction due to begin in 2019. In response to questions regarding transport in the north, Highways England stated that a new dual carriageway section between Morpeth and Fenton and also that of Alnwick to Ellingham would start in 2021 with full opening in 2023. However in June 2022 UK government minister Grant Shapps delayed a decision about a Development Consent Order signing off on National Highways' plans until December 2022.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Measures were also announced to enhance the performance and safety of the A1 north of Ellingham to include three sections of climbing lanes, five junctions with improved right turn refuges, and better crossing facilities for pedestrians and cyclists. Start of construction is scheduled for 2018.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The planned A14 Ellington to Fen Ditton scheme would require a new junction at Brampton, north of which the A1 will be widened to a three-lane dual carriageway from Brampton to the Brampton Hut interchange. The new two-lane dual carriageway section of the A14 would run parallel with the A1 on this section.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The same announcement in December 2014 said that the A1/A421 Black Cat Roundabout would be replaced with a grade-separated junction, just a few years after this roundabout was expensively upgraded.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: It was then also announced that planning would begin to upgrade the Newark northern bypass to dual carriageway, and the A46 junction with the A1 will be replaced to support nearby housing growth and improve links from the A1 to Newark and Lincoln.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: It was also announced that the Doncaster By-pass, which is the oldest stretch of two-lane motorway still in service, would be upgraded to dual three lanes. This will relieve local congestion and provide the capacity needed to make the A1 an alternative (and better) strategic route to the north east.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: In 2003 a proposal for a bypass of Sandy and Beeston, Bedfordshire, was put forward as a green-lighted scheme as part of a government multi-modal study, with a cost of £67 million. However, the Highways Agency was unwilling to confirm the information as the study was preliminary and intended for future publication. In 2008 the proposal was submitted for consideration in the pre-2013/14 Regional Funding Advice 2 Programme of the East of England Development Agency.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: It was also announced in 2014 that new technology would be implemented to bring the road to motorway standards, including detection loops, CCTV cameras and variable message signs to provide better information for drivers and active traffic management across Tyne and Wear, while Junction 6 (Welwyn North) to Junction 8 (Hitchin) would be upgraded to smart motorway, including widening of a two-lane section to dual three lanes and hard shoulder running.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: A strategic study will examine how to improve the safety and performance of the A1 between Peterborough and the M25, including whether to upgrade the old dual carriageway section to motorway standard.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The Highways Agency has been investigating an upgrade of the A1 Newcastle/Gateshead Western Bypass to dual three-lane motorway standard to alleviate heavy congestion which in recent years has become a recurrent problem.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Improvements to junctions near the village of Elkesley, Nottinghamshire are planned: the village's only access to the rest of the road network is via the A1.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Consideration is being given to widening the Brampton Hut interchange to Alconbury sections to a three-lane dual carriageway.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: Some sections of the A1 have been upgraded to motorway standard. These are known as the A1(M) and include:


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The M25 to Stotfold section is , and was constructed between 1962 and 1986. The main destinations are Hatfield, Welwyn Garden City, Stevenage, and Letchworth. It opened in five stages: junctions 1 to 2 in 1979; 2 to 4 in 1986; 4 to 6 in 1973; 6 to 8 in 1962; and 8 to 10 in 1967.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The Doncaster By-pass opened in 1961 and is one of the oldest sections of motorway in Britain. It is long, and runs from Blyth to Carcroft.


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The Darrington to Gateshead section was constructed between 1965 and 2018. It is , and opened in sections:


title: A1 road (Great Britain)

text: The A1 is celebrated in song. It is mentioned by Jethro Tull on the title track of the album "" "Up on the A1 by Scotch Corner". "Scotch Corner," by the Welsh band Man, on the album "Rhinos, Winos and Lunatics" is about an encounter there. Near the southern end, signs saying "Hatfield and the North" inspired the eponymous 1970s rock band Hatfield and the North. The A1 is mentioned in The Long Blondes' song, "Separated By Motorways", along with the A14. The A1(M) is mentioned in the song "Gabadon" by Sheffield band, Haze. Andrew Blackman's 2009 novel "On the Holloway Road", inspired by Jack Kerouac's On the Road, centres on a road trip along the A1.


title: Eoin Colfer

text: Eoin Colfer (; born 14 May 1965) is an Irish author of children's books. He worked as a primary school teacher before he became a full-time writer. He is best known for being the author of the "Artemis Fowl" series. In September 2008, Colfer was commissioned to write the sixth instalment of the "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" series, titled "And Another Thing ...", which was published in October 2009. In October 2016, in a contract with Marvel Comics, he released "Iron Man: The Gauntlet". He served as Laureate na nÓg (Ireland's Children's Laureate) between 2014 and 2016.


title: Eoin Colfer

text: Eoin Colfer was born in Wexford, Ireland. He attained worldwide recognition in 2001, when the first "Artemis Fowl" book was published and became a "New York Times" Best Seller, as did some sequels. Among his other popular works are "Half Moon Investigations", "The Wish List", "The Supernaturalist", and a series of Eoin Colfer's Legends. In January 2008, Colfer published a book titled "Airman", another best-seller. To date, more than half of his books have reached the "New York Times" list at least once.


title: Eoin Colfer

text: The first five novels in the "Hitchhiker's" "trilogy" were written by Douglas Adams. Adams' widow, Jane Belson, and the literary agency that manages Adams' estate asked Colfer to write another book, as Adams had intended to add to the series, agreeing that the end to the fifth book was "very bleak". Already a fan of the series, Colfer called the opportunity "like suddenly being offered the superpower of your choice ... For years I have been finishing this incredible story in my head and now I have the opportunity to do it in the real world ... It is a gift from the gods. So, thank you Thor and Odin."


title: Eoin Colfer

text: In 2015, it was announced that Colfer was working on an adult graphic novel called "Illegal" with Andrew Donkin and Giovanni Rigano, the team behind the "Artemis Fowl" graphic novels.


title: Eoin Colfer

text: In April 2014, principal photography began on a new Irish feature film "Poison Pen", the first screenplay from Colfer. The film, a romantic comedy, was filmed on location in Ireland over the next three weeks by the participants on the Filmbase/Staffordshire University MSc in Digital Feature Film Production. The film premiered at the 26th Galway Film Fleadh on 11 July 2014. The film is an eco-friendly production. John Gormley, the former Green Party Minister, was appointed as a Green Production Manager for the production, with a view to minimising the carbon footprint and environmental impact of the film.


title: Eoin Colfer

text: On 1 September 2015, "Variety" reported that Kenneth Branagh had been hired to direct "Artemis Fowl" for Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, with Irish playwright Conor McPherson as screenwriter and Judy Hofflund and Branagh as producers. Colfer confirmed this in a video to Artemis Fowl Confidential, and spoke with RTE Radio 1 about meeting Branagh several times to discuss the film prior to the announcement. The film was originally scheduled for release on 9 August 2019 but on 7 May 2019 it was delayed to 29 May 2020. The film was pulled on 3 April 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and debuted on Disney+ on 12 June 2020 instead of a theatrical release, to overwhelmingly negative reviews.


title: Eoin Colfer

text: Colfer wrote an extended monologue for the Wexford Arts Centre in 2015, before expanding the piece into a full play. "My Real Life" was originally performed across Ireland and the UK throughout 2016 and 2017, before coming to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 2017. It starred Don Wycherley as Noel O'Brien, dictating his final thoughts and regrets to a friend on an old cassette tape. The play received 4- and 5-star reviews from a variety of publications.


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: Tricia Devereaux (born January 12, 1975) is an American former pornographic actress, XRCO Hall of Fame inductee, and co-owner of Evil Angel studios.


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: Devereaux was introduced to the adult industry when her then husband, Patrick, got a job working as a bouncer in a strip club and Devereaux would occasionally visit him there. The other dancers encouraged her to enter the club's amateur contest which she won; this led to her working there to make extra money. A number of established porn stars visited the club as feature dancers—names such as Victoria Paris, Jeanna Fine, and Samantha Strong.


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: Seeing the extra money that the features made, Devereaux sent pictures of herself to "Hustler" magazine for their "Beaver Hunt" feature, which was published. At the same time Devereaux came in fifth in Déjà Vu's national Stripper of the Year. She then flew out to Los Angeles at Joey Silvera's request (he had seen pictures Devereaux had sent of herself to Jim South), where she made her first on-camera scene with Silvera in "Fashion Sluts 7".


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: Now known as Karen Stagliano, she is also the co-owner of Evil Angel, a production company, with her husband John Stagliano.


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: Devereaux grew up "in a small town a couple hours outside of Chicago," where she had a strict upbringing and attended a private Catholic high school.


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: She attended college in the Midwest, got her bachelor's degree in Biology from a college in Missouri, then attended one year of medical school. Before starting medical school, she had married her boyfriend Patrick. After she had appeared in a number of films, Devereaux was dismissed from medical school after the school accused her of cheating on a test; Devereaux claims the charge was rigged and that the real reason she was dismissed was due to her involvement in pornography. Soon afterwards, Devereaux divorced her husband; she later said that "Patrick was too much of a pushover personality-wise, and we'd been having problems financially."


title: Tricia Devereaux

text: She married former porn star and current director John Stagliano on November 26, 2008. She now is known as Karen Stagliano.


With no witnesses to the murders of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman, DNA evidence in the O. J. Simpson murder case was the key physical proof used by the prosecution to link O. J. Simpson to the crime.


title: DNA evidence in the O. J. Simpson murder case

text: Over nine weeks of testimony, 108 exhibits of DNA evidence, including 61 drops of blood, were presented at trial. Testing was cross-referenced and validated at three separate labs using different tests with no discrepancies found. The prosecution offered the defense access to the evidence samples to conduct their own testing, but they declined.


text: The defense summarized their reasonable doubt theory as "compromised, contaminated, corrupted". They argued that, during the collection phase of evidence-gathering, the evidence was compromised by mishandling and 100% of the DNA of the real killer was lost; and then contaminated during the processing phase, with Simpson's preserved DNA being transferred to all but three exhibits. They alleged that the remaining three were corrupted as the police planted that blood evidence.


text: Due to its abundance and exhaustive validation, the prosecution considered the DNA evidence infallible. However, at this time the public was unfamiliar with the precision and significance of DNA matching, and the prosecution struggled to get the jury to appreciate this. The defense, on the other hand, had to change strategies after neither of their forensic DNA experts would support their theory. The new strategy, according to defense attorney Alan Dershowitz, intended to elicit a cherry-picking response from the jury whereby they would discard all of the "mountain" of DNA evidence against Simpson if they could show "a few of the hills" were corrupted by police fraud resulting in a jury nullification for the murders via an error of impunity. Although three exhibits were allegedly planted, by his closing arguments, lead defense attorney Johnnie Cochran had focused on a single exhibit: the bloody glove found by detective Mark Fuhrman at Simpson's Rockingham home.


text: Judge Lance Ito made several important decisions concerning the DNA section of the trial. First, he allowed the defense to argue that some of the evidence was planted despite producing no evidence that it was. Next, he ruled that the prosecution must reserve at least 10% of the DNA samples for the defense to test themselves. The prosecution actually preserved nearly all the samples for the defense but they ultimately declined to test the samples themselves. Next, Ito allowed Dr. John Gerdes to testify about contamination in prior LAPD cases. His testifying about prior mistakes is prejudicial to the prosecution and misleading to the jury as it allowed Gerdes to conflate evidence of contamination in previous cases with the Simpson case. In the subsequent civil trial, all of the decisions were reversed by Judge Hiroshi Fujisaki, who banned all allegations of police conspiracy and only allowed Dr. Gerdes to testify to confirmed cases of contamination, in this case only.


text: Prison nurse Thano Peratis testified he drew an undocumented amount of blood from Simpson. When the defense asked him to estimate how much he drew, he stated approximately 8 mL. Records from the testing labs show that only 6.5 mL of blood could be accounted for, and the defense claimed that 1.5 mL was missing. During the rebuttal phase, Peratis testified again and clarified he believes he only took 6.5 mL as the records show.


text: Detective Philip Vannatter testified that Simpson volunteered to give some blood for comparison to the evidence samples. Peratis drew an undocumented amount from Simpson on June 13 at approximately 3:30 pm, sealing it in an envelope, and gave it to Vannatter. The detective documented what happened and hand-delivered the sample to criminalist Dennis Fung, who was at Rockingham collecting evidence at approximately 5:30 pm. At trial, Peratis' documentation confirmed that the blood draw took place at 3:30 pm; the jail's security camera show that Vannatter left the jail at approximately 4:00 pm and the laserdisc recorder on his police car confirmed that he did drive for over an hour to get to Rockingham. The log book at the crime scene showed that the detective arrived at 5:20 pm; Fung's written notes confirm that Vannatter transferred custody of Simpson's blood at 5:30 pm and the envelope was still sealed. The blood of both Ron Goldman and Nicole Brown, taken at autopsy by Deputy Medical Examiner Irwin Golden, was booked immediately into evidence by Detective Vannatter.


text: Detective Vannatter's decision to take the blood directly to Simpson's home rather than booking it into evidence was criticized after the trial for even making evidence-planting possible. He defended his decision by noting Fung testified that the envelope was still sealed when he received it. The defense would allege the police stole and planted one drop of Simpsons blood on the back gate at Nicole Brown's home, not his home.


text: The only physical evidence linking Simpson to the crime was DNA evidence. The volume of DNA evidence was unique and criminalists felt they could reconstruct the crime with enough accuracy to resemble an eyewitness account. With over 100 exhibits, the defense would have to discredit all of them to establish reasonable doubt. The prosecution also produced corroborating evidence—hair follicles, clothing fibers from the victims, and fibers from Simpson's Ford Bronco—found with the exhibits to corroborate their theory of how the crime was committed.


text: Mistakes made during the evidence collection were highlighted and repeated during cross-examination by DNA experts, but the prosecution began offering evidence refuting the claim that the mistakes rendered the results unreliable. With three different labs cross-referencing the evidence with no discrepancies found during testing—as well as the defense declining to challenge the results by testing the evidence themselves—the prosecution expected a conviction. However, three assumptions about the jury turned out to be inaccurate: they would listen during the testimony, they would understand the testimony, and they would consider the testimony in rendering their verdict. Ultimately, none of these would be true.


text: Geraldo Rivera asked several jurors what their reasonable doubt was concerning the blood drops found next to the bloody footprints near the victims that were photographed hours prior to Simpson's blood being drawn. Those samples were sent to Cellmarks for testing, not the LAPD, and were shown to be Simpson's blood with chances of error being 1-in-9.7 billion. In response, juror Carrie Bess said that she thinks the blood belonged to Simpson's children; juror Marsha Rubin-Jackson said that she thinks Simpson's blood was left there next to the bloody footprints prior to the murders happening; and jury foreman Amanda Cooley said that she had no explanation for that incriminating evidence and stated that it did not factor into her decision of reasonable doubt.


text: Criminalist Dennis Fung testified from April 3–5, April 11–14, and April 17–18, 1995. He testified to how the blood evidence was collected from the crime scene, from the white Ford Bronco, and at Simpson's home. He also testified that Detective Philip Vannatter gave him Simpson's reference vial of blood when he was at Rockingham.


text: The cross-examination of Fung by Barry Scheck lasted nine days. Scheck's aggressive questioning, along with Fung's unusual willingness to volunteer confusing information while answering, made the prosecution scramble to explain his answers. He said he did not see a blood drop on the back gate in a photo from June 13 despite collecting blood from that spot on July 3.


text: Later, the prosecution found a photo that showed the blood was there on June 13. Fung also said he could not see blood on the socks that he collected from Simpson's bedroom. The prosecution later demonstrated that blood is only visible under a microscope. Fung also admitted that blood evidence was collected in plastic bags, not paper bags as recommended, and stored in a police van without being refrigerated for up to seven hours. Scheck aggressively tried to shake Fung's timeline about when he received Simpsons donated blood, hoping to show that police actually delivered it the following day, June 14, instead of June 13, giving them a whole day with Simpson's blood they could allegedly use to frame him. The 10-minute window was documented; though Scheck tried to discredit Fung's documentation by the fact that a page of Fung's notes had been replaced with a copy, the original page was found and shown to be exactly the same.


text: Criminalist Andrea Mazzola testified on April 20, 1995, and from April 25–27, 1995. Her testimony was also interrupted by jury problems. She testified to much the same as Dennis Fung—the collection, storage, and transportation of evidence at the crime.


text: During cross-examination, the defense tried to portray Mazzola as inexperienced. She defended herself stating she had just moved to LA recently and had worked at the Kern County Police district as a criminalist for eighteen months. She admitted to a few mistakes at the crime scene while collecting evidence including using one swatch to collect blood from three separate spots in the Ford Bronco and occasionally not changing gloves when picking up different pieces of evidence. She also verified the blood evidence was kept unrefrigerated for up to seven hours after collection.