title: Channel Awesome

text: "That Guy with the Glasses" previously hosted fellow channels by "Bar Fiesta", beginning in November 2009, and "Blistered Thumbs", beginning in November 2010. Channel Awesome currently hosts a YouTube channel of the same name with an emphasis on content produced by Doug Walker and his brother Rob. All of Channel Awesome's content was hosted by Blip or YouTube prior to the former's shutdown in August 2015. After a series of scandals, nearly all affiliated creators severed ties with Channel Awesome and departed in April 2018.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Mike Michaud, Mike Ellis and Bhargav Dronamraju created Channel Awesome after they were laid off from Circuit City in 2007. The three discussed the idea of such a company while still employed, but their dismissal was the impetus to put their plans into action. Michaud has stated that "if [they] didn't lose our jobs, [the business] wouldn't have happened anytime soon".


title: Channel Awesome

text: At around the same time, Doug Walker, an actor, comedian, writer, and film critic, began posting several satirical video reviews of films and other media on YouTube under the web name "Nostalgia Critic". Initially, Walker viewed making the videos as a side hobby, rarely interacting with his fans and not revealing his real name until a video responding to the Northern Illinois University shooting. Walker's channel had its content withdrawn from YouTube following complaints from 20th Century Fox and Lionsgate over alleged copyright infringement. Walker attempted to re-upload his content by assigning each video a new, separate channel. However, due to continuing issues, Walker decided to leave YouTube altogether and create the website "That Guy with the Glasses", with Michaud acting as webmaster.


title: Channel Awesome

text: "That Guy with the Glasses" was launched in April 2008. It showcased satirical reviews of movies, television shows, music, comic books and video games. The website was built around the work of Walker, including "Nostalgia Critic" (comedic recaps of bad movies), "5 Second Movies" (hyper-edited feature films), "Ask That Guy with the Glasses" (a comedy question and answer show) and "Bum Reviews" (humorous plot summaries of theatrical releases). Other videos and written articles were hosted on the site, including some minor series and sketches starring Walker. Videos were primarily hosted by Blip after problems with earlier provider Revver. The website featured videos from a number of other content creators who were steadily added as contributors over the course of several years.


title: Channel Awesome

text: In December 2008, Walker appeared in a commercial for the PBS documentary "Make 'Em Laugh: The Funny Business of America", performing a series of brief imitations of famous comedians, from Charlie Chaplin to Stephen Colbert. In 2009, Doug and Rob Walker, along with Brian Heinz, produced an iRiff of "The Lion King" for RiffTrax. In March 2009, the iRiff was chosen as the winner of the website's RiffTrax Presents contest. The performers received $1,000 and, with instruction from Michael J. Nelson, Kevin Murphy and Bill Corbett, recorded a commentary for the film "Batman Forever".


title: Channel Awesome

text: "Nostalgia Critic" averaged 100,000 to 300,000 viewers per week while on the site, and one million page views per month. This was expected to increase following Blip's deal with YouTube in July 2009. As of July 2009, the site earned more than $10,000 per month in advertising revenue and received more than $11,000 in online donations. In the third quarter of the 2009 fiscal year, Walker's shows earned $53,000, including $32,000 from "Nostalgia Critic" alone. This revenue was generated by run of network from Puma and Starburst. The success of his shows has allowed Walker to make a living performing and to quit his previous job as an illustrator, as well as pay the salary of Ellis, the site's co-founder and COO. The site was featured in "Entrepreneur" magazine in December 2009 where the history of the site was discussed as well as the plans for the future.


title: Channel Awesome

text: During 2011, Michaud was looking for warehouse space in suburban Chicago. He told "The New York Times", "My company has a lot of growing up to do, but I believe that sometime in the next one to two years someone will create that one series that gets everyone talking... [and attract audiences] to the endless options of online video." As of June 2011, the company employed seven full-time staff. According to Walker, "these people are cheap to get because we are happy to see any amount of money". Channel Awesome's ability to attract a significant audience with a low expenditure was proclaimed to have an effect on video entertainment production.


title: Channel Awesome

text: The site gained a wealth of personalities and shows, quickly reaching twenty plus. The first time the producers made an initiative to put each other in the same fictional universe (or "Reviewaverse", as was coined by one of its former producers) was with their first anniversary video, which was a twenty-minute fight between each other, with set up and dialogue only stating it was video game reviewers vs. movie reviewers, egged on by the Nostalgia Critic and Angry Video Game Nerd rivalry that had been going at the time. A full-length site crossover movie was decided for the next year's anniversary. It ended up being a trilogy: "Kickassia", which had the plot of the Critic getting a number of the personalities together to take over a micronation in Nevada call Republic of Molossia; "Suburban Knights", where the Critic got together much of the same personalities to find a mystical gauntlet via forced LARPing; and "To Boldly Flee", where the Critic and "TGWTG"s cast travel to space to stop a cosmic anomaly and fight corporate villains.


title: Channel Awesome

text: On June 28, 2012, Channel Awesome content producers Walker, Lindsay Ellis (The Nostalgia Chick; no relation to Mike Ellis), Brad Jones (The Cinema Snob) and Todd Nathanson (Todd in the Shadows) signed exclusivity deals with Blip, which directly hosted most "TGWTG" and Channel Awesome programming until it was shut down in August 2015. The deal did not affect the appearance of the producers' videos on "TGWTG", and would assist the increase of budget of the four series, as well as provide technical improvements. An extension of this deal was a Blip-run YouTube channel called "League of Super Critics", which also uploaded the unedited videos of all four producers, with the exception of Jones, whose videos were edited down from the original version so that the only way one could see the full video was to go to Blip.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Channel Awesome expressed plans to build on the success of "That Guy with the Glasses" with a network of subdivisions of the Channel Awesome website, including "Bar Fiesta" for covering Chicago entertainment and nightlife, and "Inked Reality" for anime and comic books. "Blistered Thumbs" began in 2009 as a subdivision of "That Guy with the Glasses" for housing its video game content. It gained popularity and "Blistered Thumbs" launched as its own website on November 4, 2010.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Joe Vargas (Angry Joe), already an established video game reviewer on "That Guy with the Glasses", was the initial editor-in-chief. Staff writers were drawn from various websites including "That Guy with the Glasses", "TechRaptor" and "Normal Boots". Austin Yorski eventually replaced Vargas as editor-in-chief.


title: Channel Awesome

text: The new "Channel Awesome" website debuted in late 2014. All content from "TGWTG" was relocated to the newly established ChannelAwesome.com. Each week there is a Spotlight Section to promote a website producer, as well as a Featured Blogger.


title: Channel Awesome

text: In January 2015, four of the site's long-time associates departed, including Andrew Dickman, Kyle Kallgren (Oancitizen), Allison Pregler (Obscurus Lupa) and Phelan Porteus (Phelous). Dickman, Porteus and Pregler went to being exclusively on Phelan's site, Phelous.com, while Kyle went to producing videos exclusively for Chez Apocalypse. Later that same month, Lindsay Ellis ended her long-running show "The Nostalgia Chick", which had premiered as a companion show to "Nostalgia Critic" in September 2008. She intended to continue producing videos for League of Super Critics on YouTube and her own website, Chez Apocalypse.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Noah Antwiler, and his reviewer persona "The Spoony One", went to being exclusively on his site, "The Spoony Experiment", a little before the fourth anniversary film, but still had a prominent role in it with his consent.


title: Channel Awesome

text: "Nostalgia Critic" is the most popular video series created by Doug Walker, in which he plays the titular reviewer. The show is written by him and his brother Rob Walker. The series was initially launched on YouTube before moving to Blip TV in 2008. It is the flagship show for Channel Awesome, which has since built on it with additional content, additional websites and the spin-off show "Nostalgia Chick".


title: Channel Awesome

text: Jose "Angry Joe" Antonio Vargas hosted the leading video game review show on the site. It generally consisted of reviews by Vargas stating his honest opinions of current releases of video games, mixed with sketch comedy. In April 2018, Vargas announced his departure from the Channel Awesome website.


title: Channel Awesome

text: "Todd in the Shadows" is a music review show created and presented by Todd Nathanson. The show's primary focus is on its three main series: "Todd's Pop Song Reviews", in which Nathanson reviews songs that, at the time of review, were or had recently been high-charting; "One Hit Wonderland", in which he examines and chronicles the careers of one-hit wonders; and "Trainwreckords", in which he analyzes albums considered to have "ended [the] thriving careers" of their respective artists. "Cinemadonna", in which Nathanson reviews Madonna's feature filmography, was one of the show's main series until its conclusion in 2016. In the show, Nathanson keeps his appearance anonymous, filming himself in silhouette while sitting at an electronic keyboard in a dark room. When his face is not in silhouette, he covers its upper half with a black cloth.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Nathanson debuted the series in 2009 and joined "That Guy with the Glasses" the following year. In March 2018, he announced his departure from Channel Awesome on his Twitter account.


title: Channel Awesome

text: "The Cinema Snob" stars Brad Jones as a pretentious art critic who watches and comments on obscure exploitation films and pornography, the majority of which were released between the late 1960s through the early 1990s. His association with Channel Awesome began with "E.T. The Porno" (January 7, 2010). Like many other shows on Channel Awesome, Jones started his show on YouTube until he was confronted with a copyright claim from the filmmakers of "Nail Gun Massacre". Jones has also created additional shows for Channel Awesome, including "Brad Tries" and "Midnight Screenings".


title: Channel Awesome

text: On January 6, 2011, Doug Walker was awarded Entrepreneur of the Year in Las Vegas at the 4th Annual Mashable Awards.


title: Channel Awesome

text: On December 5, 2009, the company held a donation drive for the Ronald McDonald House Charities. The donation drive lasted upwards of seven hours and raised $26,400. During the event, calls were taken, prizes were awarded to people who donated large sums of money and videos featuring the talent on the site were aired. The donation drive was extended a few more days making the grand total $32,200.


title: Channel Awesome

text: On December 15, 2011, Lindsay Ellis posted a video about Channel Awesome staff traveling to Washington, D.C. to lobby members of Congress about the Stop Online Piracy Act and the PROTECT IP Act. Ellis, Michaud, Rob Walker, and content producers Noah Antwiler (The Spoony One), Kyle Kallgren (Oancitizen and Brows Held High), Lewis Lovhaug (Linkara), Todd Nathanson (Todd in the Shadows), Paul Schuler (Paw Dugan) and Joe Vargas (Angry Joe) all traveled to Washington, D.C. to represent Channel Awesome and support freedom of speech on the internet.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Between October 2014 and January 2015, several long-time content producers departed from Channel Awesome. In March 2018, several former producers alleged, via a series of Twitter posts, mismanagement and mistreatment by members of Channel Awesome's upper management, including the Walker brothers and Michaud. The allegations included a history of sexist behavior toward female producers as well as a history of unprofessional, aggressive and immature behavior towards other content creators by Michaud, incompetence by the Walker brothers during production of the company's anniversary films, and failure to communicate with producers about significant decisions affecting them. One such allegation from Lindsay Ellis stated that during production on the film "To Boldly Flee", she was repeatedly pressured into looping a scene in which her character was implied to be raped off-screen by Lewis Lovhaug's character. She further alleged that due to her and Lovhaug's protests over the scene's content, Doug Walker rewrote it so the implication of assault was less implicit. Ellis said that she was forced to perform the scene under intimidation.


title: Channel Awesome

text: In March and April 2018, several more producers—including Lovhaug (Linkara), Todd Nathanson (Todd in the Shadows), Daren Jackson (Rap Critic) and Mike Jeavons (MikeJ)—departed from Channel Awesome.


title: Channel Awesome

text: On April 2, 2018, a group of former Channel Awesome contributors and employees publicly released a document, entitled "Not So Awesome", via Google Drive. The document compiled grievances against the company, both those that had been previously made and ones that had not yet been publicly known. Over twenty former producers and employees, along with two individuals whose identities were kept anonymous, provided various allegations in the document, including poor communication and management, verbal abuse and bullying, and sexual harassment and misconduct. The subsequent response from Channel Awesome was criticized by fans and the company's former producers, as they felt the company was not apologizing or taking responsibility for their wrongdoings.


title: Channel Awesome

text: On that and the following days, more producers, including Omar Ahmed (Yomarz), Nash Bozard, Mathew Buck (Film Brain), Tony Goldmark (Some Jerk with a Camera), Elisa Hansen (Maven), Brian Heinz (The Last Angry Geek), Leeman Kessler (Ask Lovecraft), Heather McDonald (Calluna), Dominic Smith (The Dom), Luke Spencer (Rocked) and Chris Stuckmann left Channel Awesome, with some citing their dissatisfaction with the company's response to the controversy as their reason for doing so, lowering the number of producers for the website from forty to about ten by April 5. Channel Awesome's planned tenth anniversary was cancelled as a result of the controversy.


title: Channel Awesome

text: On April 11, 2018, Channel Awesome released a second response to the allegations as a blog post on its website. Titled "Our Response", the post was intended to refute the "most egregious" of the allegations made by former producers, Holly Brown and Jane Doe, who are described within it as "disgruntled individuals with vindictive intentions".


title: Channel Awesome

text: Within 48 hours of the response's posting, nearly all of Channel Awesome's remaining producers, including long-time veterans Joe Vargas (Angry Joe), Bennett White (Bennett the Sage) and Lawrence Simpson (MasakoX), as well as Gaming Wildlife, Bargain Boy, Ryan Molina (Battle Geek Plus), Timid Jester, DToons Productions (maker of the series Toons These Days) and Eric Rodriguez (Blockbuster Buster) also left the website.


title: Channel Awesome

text: Since April 14, 2018, the website listed two remaining producers apart from the Walkers: Brad Jones (Cinema Snob) and Larry Bundy Jr. (Guru Larry); the latter stated that among his reasons for remaining were that "no one ever actually believed [he] was ever on TGWTG".


title: Channel Awesome

text: On August 2, 2021, Doug Walker acknowledged the controversy in an interview with Korey Coleman on "Double Toasted". He admitted that Channel Awesome had gotten "too big" and thus resulted in poor communication among the staff and producers. Since then, they had been consciously trying to keep everything closer and more personal.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Chao Phraya ( or ; , , or ) is the major river in Thailand, with its low alluvial plain forming the centre of the country. It flows through Bangkok and then into the Gulf of Thailand.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: On many old European maps, the river is named the "Mae Nam" (Thai: แม่น้ำ), the Thai word for "river" (literally, "motherly water"). James McCarthy, F.R.G.S., who served as Director-General of the Siamese Government Surveys prior to establishment of the Royal Survey Department, wrote in his account, ""Mae Nam" is a generic term, "mae" signifying "mother" and "Nam" "water," and the epithet Chao P'ia signifies that it is the chief river in the kingdom of Siam."


title: Chao Phraya River

text: H. Warington Smyth, who served as Director of the Department of Mines in Siam from 1891 to 1896, refers to it in his book first published in 1898 as "the Mae Nam Chao Phraya".


title: Chao Phraya River

text: In the English-language media in Thailand, the name Chao Phraya River is often translated as "river of kings".


title: Chao Phraya River

text: On the basins of Chao Phraya River rose the earliest civilizations in the south east Asia, most notably the ancient Mon kingdom and the civilization of Dvaravati from the 7th century to the 11th century, the river played a crucial role in the Lavo kingdom that existed on its left bank in the Upper Chao Phraya valley, Chao Phraya maintained its role in the kingdoms that succeeded the Lavo kingdom, forming the bases of the Ayodhaya kingdom, that was later incorporated into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century, which itself was precursor of modern Thailand (known formerly as Siam), the river became very significant after the establishment of Rattanakosin (Bangkok) in 1782 on its east bank, the location of Bangkok on the east bank of Chao Phraya River ensured protection to Siamese kingdom from the Burmese invasions coming from the West.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Chao Phraya begins at the confluence of the Ping and Nan rivers at Nakhon Sawan (also called Pak Nam Pho) in Nakhon Sawan province. After this, it flows south for from the central plains to Bangkok and the Gulf of Thailand. In Chai Nat, the river then splits into the main course and the Tha Chin River, which then flows parallel to the main river and exits in the Gulf of Thailand about west of Bangkok in Samut Sakhon.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: In the low alluvial plain which begins below the Chao Phraya Dam, there are many small canals ("khlong") which split off from the main river. The "khlongs" are used for the irrigation of the region's rice paddies.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The rough coordinates of the river are 13 N, 100 E. This area has a wet monsoon climate, with over of rainfall per year. Temperatures range from in Bangkok.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The lower Chao Phraya underwent several man-made modifications during the Ayutthaya period. Several shortcut canals were constructed to bypass large loops in the river, shortening the trip from the capital city to the sea. The course of the river has since changed to follow many of these canals.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: Cities along the Chao Phraya include, from north to south, Nakhon Sawan Province, Uthai Thani Province, Chai Nat Province, Sing Buri Province, Ang Thong Province, Ayutthaya Province, Pathum Thani Province, Nonthaburi Province, Bangkok, and Samut Prakan Province. These cities are among the most historically significant and densely populated settlements of Thailand due to their access to the waterway.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: Major bridges cross the Chao Phraya in Bangkok: the Rama VI railroad bridge; Phra Pin-klao near the Grand Palace; Rama VIII, a single tower asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge; Rama IX, a semi-symmetric cable-stayed bridge; and Mega Bridge, on the Industrial Ring Road.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: In Bangkok, the Chao Phraya is a major transportation artery for a network of river buses, cross-river ferries, and water taxis ("longtails"). More than 15 boat lines operate on the rivers and canals of the city, including commuter lines.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The principal tributaries of the Chao Phraya River are the Pa Sak River, the Sakae Krang River, the Nan River (along with its principal confluent the Yom River), the Ping River (with its principal confluent, the Wang River), and the Tha Chin River. Each of these tributaries (and the Chao Phraya itself) is augmented by minor tributaries referred to as "khwae". All of the tributaries, including the lesser khwae, form an extensive tree-like pattern, with branches flowing through nearly every province in central and northern Thailand. None of the tributaries of the Chao Phraya extend beyond the nation's borders. The Nan and the Yom River flow nearly parallel from Phitsanulok to Chumsaeng in the north of Nakhon Sawan Province. The Wang River enters the Ping River near Sam Ngao district in Tak Province.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: When measured from the most commonly accepted source, which is the confluence of the Ping and Nan River in Nakhon Sawan, the river measures . However, when measured from the longest source, which is the origin point of the Nan River in the Luang Prabang Range, the river measures .


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The expanse of the Chao Phraya River and its tributaries, i.e., the Chao Phraya river system, together with the land upon which falling rain drains into these bodies of water, form the Chao Phraya watershed.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Chao Phraya watershed is the largest watershed in Thailand, covering approximately 35 percent of the nation's land, and draining an area of .


title: Chao Phraya River

text: To the west, the central plain of Thailand is drained by the Mae Klong and the east by the Bang Pakong River. They are not part of the Chao Praya system.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The landscape of the river basins is a very wide, flat, well-watered plain continuously refreshed with soil and sediment brought down by the rivers. The lower central plain from the delta north to Ang Thong Province is a flat, low area with an average of two metres above sea level. Further north and into the plains of the Ping and the Nan the elevation is over 20 m. Then the mountains that are the natural boundary of the Chao Praya watershed form a divide, which has, to some degree, historically isolated Thailand from other Southeast Asian civilisations. In northern Thailand the divide roughly corresponds to a long section of the political border of the country today. Southern portions of the divide's boundary correspond less to the nation's political border, because isolation in this area was prevented by the ease of transportation along the lowlands surrounding the Gulf of Thailand, allowing a unified Thai civilisation to extend beyond the watershed without issue. The slightly higher northern plains have been farmed for centuries and saw a major change from the 13th century during the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th and 14th centuries and the Ayutthaya Kingdom that succeeded it when rice growing intensified with the introduction of floating rice, a much faster-growing strain of rice from Bengal. The southern swamps meanwhile changed radically from the 18th century when King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke moved the capital of Siam to Bangkok, and a process of canalisation and cultivation began, especially as Thailand began to export rice from 1855.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Tha Chin River is the major distributary of the Chao Phraya River. The expanse of the Chao Phraya and Tha Chin Rivers and their distributaries, starting at the point at which the distributaries diverge, together with the land amid the triangle formed by the outermost and innermost distributary, form the Chao Phraya delta. The many distributaries of the Chao Phraya delta are interconnected by canals that serve both for irrigation and for transportation.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The lowland areas of the Chao Phraya watershed in central Thailand have been designated as the Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forests, a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion, an area about north to south and wide.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The original swamp forests have almost entirely been removed as the plain has been converted to rice paddies, other agriculture, and urban areas like Bangkok. Much of the wildlife that once inhabited these plains has disappeared, including a large number of fish in the river systems, birds such as vultures, the Oriental darter ("Anhinga melanogaster"), white-eyed river martin ("Pseudochelidon sirintarae"), the sarus crane ("Grus antigone") and animals such as tigers, Asian elephants, Javan rhinoceroses, and the much-hunted Schomburgk's deer. Today we can only guess at the original habitat and wildlife by comparing it with neighbouring countries. It is believed that the area would have consisted of freshwater swamps inland and salty mangroves on the coast and the river estuaries. The swamp would have been covered in "Phragmites" marsh grasses. Today there is a small area of this remaining in Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park, a relic of the original landscape.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: As so much has been cleared or altered the potential for creating large protected areas to preserve original habitat no longer exists. However much wildlife does remain in the rice fields and steps may be taken to preserve these as urban and industrial development on the plains is ongoing and the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand has very little control or planning over this. Particular threats come from the conversion of rice paddies to large-scale production of prawns by pumping in seawater, and the use of pesticides to eliminate the introduced snail,"Pomacea canaliculata", which damages rice plants.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: There are populations of threatened birds, including colonies of breeding water birds such as the world's largest populations of the near-threatened Asian openbill ("Anastomus oscitans"), and other birds such as the wintering black kite ("Milvus migrans"). Endemic mammals that remain are the limestone rat ("Niviventer hinpoon"), Neill's long-tailed giant rat ("Leopoldamys neilli"), and the near-endemic Thailand roundleaf bat ("Hipposideros halophyllus").


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Chao Phraya basin is home to about half a dozen endemic dragonflies and damselflies. The conservation status of most of these in unclear (they are rated as data deficient by the IUCN), but "Cryptophaea saukra" is critically endangered and "Caliphaea angka" is endangered.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Chao Phraya basin is home to around 280 species of fish, including about 30 endemics. By far the most diverse family is Cyprinidae with 108 species. The mainstream of the Chao Phraya River has about 190 native fish species. In general, the aquatic fauna of Chao Phraya and Mae Klong show clear similarities, and they are sometimes combined in a single ecoregion with 328 fish species. Despite their similarities, there are also differences between the aquatic fauna of Chao Phraya and Mae Klong; the latter (but not the former) is home to a few taxa otherwise only known in major Burmese rivers: the Irrawaddy, Salween, and Tenasserim. The aquatic fauna in Chao Phraya–Mae Klong also show clear similarities with that of the middle Mekong (the lower Mekong fauna more closely resembles that of the eastern Malay Peninsula). It is believed that the upper Mekong was connected to Chao Phraya (rather than present-day lower Mekong) until the Quaternary, which explains the similarities in their river faunas. This included the Nan River basin, a tributary of the Chao Phraya, which is home to a number of taxa (for example, "Ambastaia nigrolineata" and "Sectoria") otherwise only known from Mekong. Of the fish species known from the Chao Phraya–Mae Klong, only about 50 are absent from the Mekong.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: There has been extensive habitat destruction (pollution, dams, and drainage for irrigation) in the Chao Phraya basin and overfishing also presents a problem. Within mainland Southeast Asia, the only freshwater region with similar high levels of threat is the lower Mekong. It has been estimated that only around 30 native fish species still are able to reproduce in the mainstream of the Chao Phraya River.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The catfish "Platytropius siamensis" is endemic to Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong, but has not been recorded since the 1970s and is considered extinct. Recent records of the near-endemic cyprinid "Balantiocheilos ambusticauda" are also lacking and it is possibly extinct. Three of the largest freshwater fish in the world are native to the river, but these are all seriously threatened: the critically endangered giant barb (wild populations have been extirpated from Chao Phraya, but remain elsewhere), critically endangered giant pangasius, and endangered giant freshwater stingray. The critically endangered red-tailed black shark, a small colourful cyprinid that is endemic to Chao Phraya, is commonly seen in the aquarium trade where it is bred in large numbers, but the only remaining wild population is at a single location that covers less than . The endangered dwarf loach, another species bred in large numbers for the aquarium trade, has been extirpated from most of its range in Chao Phraya. The critically endangered Siamese tigerfish has been entirely exirpated from Chao Phraya and Mae Klong, but small populations remain in the Mekong basin.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: Many other species that either are prominent in the aquarium trade or important food fish are native to the Chao Phraya basin, such as the climbing perch, blue panchax, Asian bumblebee catfish, giant snakehead, striped snakehead, walking catfish, banded loach, several "Yasuhikotakia" loaches, tinfoil barb, Siamese algae eater, silver barb, pearl danio, rainbow shark, Hampala barb, black sharkminnow, "Leptobarbus rubripinna", long pectoral-fin minnow, bonylip barb, Jullien's golden carp, blackline rasbora, scissortail rasbora, "Tor tambroides", finescale tigerfish, marble goby, Chinese algae eater, giant featherback, clown featherback, giant gourami, several "Trichopodus" gouramis, iridescent shark, several "Pangasius", "Belodontichthys truncatus", several "Phalacronotus" sheatfish, several "Wallago" catfish, largescale archerfish, smallscale archerfish, and wrestling halfbeak.


title: Chao Phraya River

text: The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) reports that the water quality of major rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the lower Chao Phraya contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality at the mouth of Chao Phraya at Bangkok's Bang Khun Thian District as "very poor", worse than in 2014, and their findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.In addition, 4,000 metric tons of plastic flows down the river into the Gulf of Thailand every year. To counter this, Thailand's Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) signed an agreement with The Ocean Cleanup organization to deploy an Interceptor Original, one of the organization's solar-powered, automated systems, in the river. The system has yet to be deployed as of 2022.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: The Objectives Resolution () was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on March 12, 1949. Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, had presented it in the assembly on March 7, 1949. Out of 75 members of the assembly, 21 voted for opposing it. All the amendments proposed by minority members were rejected. Consequently, all ten of them voted against it.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: The resolution proclaimed that the future constitution of Pakistan would not be modeled entirely on a European pattern, but on the ideology and democratic faith of Islam. The resolution, in its entirety, has been made part of the Constitution of Pakistan under Article 2(A).


title: Objectives Resolution

text: Sovereignty over the entire Universe belongs to Allah Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the state of Pakistan, through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: Purportedly combining the features of both Western and Islamic democracy, it is considered one of the most important documents in the constitutional history of Pakistan. It was strongly supported by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, Dr. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Dr. Omar Hayat Malik, Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar, Noor Ahmad, Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Muhammad Hussain and others. At the time it was passed, Liaquat Ali Khan called it "the most important occasion in the life of this country, next in importance only to the achievement of independence". However, not everyone in Pakistan had such as high praise and unbounded admiration for it.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: The non-Muslim members of the constituent assembly vigorously opposed it, and all of them voted against it. Birat Chandra Mandal said that Jinnah had unequivocally said that Pakistan would be a secular state. Sris Chandra Chattopadhyaya, the Dhaka-born leader of the opposition, said in the constituent assembly on March 12, 1949:


title: Objectives Resolution

text: In my conception of (the) state where people of different religions live there is no place for religion in the state. Its position must be neutral: no bias for any religion. If necessary, it should help all the religions equally. No question of concession or tolerance to any religion. It smacks of inferiority complex. The state must respect all religions: no smiling face for one and askance look to the other. The state religion is a dangerous principle. Previous instances are sufficient to warn us not to repeat the blunder. We know people were burnt alive in the name of religion. Therefore, my conception is that sovereignty must rest with the people and not with anybody else...[T]he words "equal rights as enunciated by Islam" are—I do not use any other word—a camouflage. It is only a hoax to us, non-Muslims. There cannot be equal rights as enunciated by Islam. It goes without saying that by introducing the religious question, the differences between the majority and the minority are being perpetuated, for how long, nobody knows. And, as apprehended by us, the difficulty of interpretation has already arisen. The accepted principle is that the majority, by their fair treatment, must create confidence in the minority. Whereas the Honorable mover of the resolution promises respect, in place of charity or sufferance for the minority community the deputy minister, Dr. Qureshi, advises the minority to win the goodwill of the majority by their behavior. In the House of the Legislature also we find that, while the prime minister keeps perfectly to his dictum, others cannot brook that the opposition should function in the spirit of opposition. The demand is that the opposition should remain submissive. That is Dr. Qureshi's way of thinking. The minorities must be grateful for all the benevolence they get and must never complain about the malevolence that may also be dealt out to them. That is his solution to the minority problem.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: Ayaz Amir, a prominent media commentator and a former member of Pakistan's parliament, has criticized the constituent assembly for lavishing attention on this "piece of rhetoric" which was "of no practical benefit to anyone." Even Maulana Maududi, a big supporter of the resolution, was disappointed with the fact that it did not produce any positive results. According to him, it was such a rain which was neither preceded by a gathering of clouds nor was it followed by vegetation.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: According to Ms. Rubina Saigal, an eminent Pakistani intellectual, Maulana Maududi's theory of divine sovereignty was incorporated into the resolution. According to her:


title: Objectives Resolution

text: Subsequent to the passage of the Objectives Resolution, all of Pakistan’s constitutions contained religious provisions and the name of the country was changed from (the) Republic of Pakistan to (the) Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The national debates over the kind of nation, state and society envisaged led to compromises being made with the liberal, secular as well as the religious lobby. As a result, the Constitution of 1973, a consensus document, became riddled with internal contradictions regarding citizenship. For example, Article 25 says that all citizens are equal before law while Article 2 says that Islam shall be the state religion. When one religion, to the exclusion of all others, is established as the state religion, how can the followers of other religions be equal citizens? And if they cannot be equal citizens, is democracy possible without citizenship equality? The denial of the right of non-Muslim citizens to become the head of state or government also violates Article 25, which requires equality before the law.


title: Objectives Resolution

text: As mentioned above, the resolution is included in the Annex of the current Constitution of Pakistan by virtue of Article 2A of the Constitution.


title: Timmy Time

text: Timmy Time is a British preschool stop-motion clay animated television programme created and produced by Jackie Cockle for the BBC's CBeebies and produced by Aardman Animations. It started broadcasting in the United Kingdom on 6 April 2009. It is a spin-off of "Shaun the Sheep", itself a spin-off of the "Wallace and Gromit" film "A Close Shave" (1995).


title: Timmy Time

text: The first two series ran for 26 episodes. In the United Kingdom, its most recent run began in September 2011 on CBeebies. In Australia, season one started in May 2009 on ABC1 and season three in May 2011 on ABC 4 Kids. The series also on Playhouse Disney, later called Disney Junior, beginning on 13 September 2010, but later ended its run in May 2014.


title: Timmy Time

text: In this series, Timmy and his friends have to learn to share, make friends and accept their mistakes. They are supervised by two teachers, Harriet the Heron and Osbourne the Owl. The show is aimed at pre-school-aged children, which the company described as "a natural next step for Aardman".


title: Timmy Time

text: The show is made up of ten-minute episodes, which do not feature much dialogue, much like "Shaun the Sheep", "Wallace and Gromit" and "A Close Shave". Shaun, his friends, Bitzer and the Farmer did not appear. A filming of one episode was featured on the Discovery Channel's "How It's Made".


title: Timmy Time

text: During the show's development, the series was simply called "Timmy". CBeebies acquired UK-broadcast rights to the series in October 2007.


title: Timmy Time

text: In 2018, Aardman collaborated with the British Council to create "Learning Time with Timmy", a show to encourage children aged 2–6 around the world to learn the English language, along with a YouTube-exclusive series and three apps.


title: Timmy Time

text: In October 2019, Aardman announced a new "rebooted" version of the existing 78 episodes for CBeebies titled "It's Timmy Time" that began broadcast later on in the month. These versions feature narration from a selection of pre-school children, and are 5-minutes in length when compared to the original 10-minute episodes.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Air Chief Marshal Hugh Caswall Tremenheere Dowding, 1st Baron Dowding, (24 April 1882 – 15 February 1970) was an officer in the Royal Air Force. He was Air Officer Commanding RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain and is generally credited with playing a crucial role in Britain's defence, and hence, the defeat of Adolf Hitler's plan to invade Britain.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Born in Moffat, Scotland, Dowding was an officer in the British Army in the 1900s and early 1910s. He joined the Royal Flying Corps at the start of the First World War and went on to serve as a fighter pilot and then as commanding officer of No. 16 Squadron. During the inter-war years he became Air Officer Commanding Fighting Area, Air Defence of Great Britain and then joined the Air Council as Air Member for Supply and Research. In July 1936, Dowding was appointed chief of the newly created RAF Fighter Command.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: During the Battle of Britain in the Second World War, Dowding's Fighter Command successfully defended the UK against the attacks of the "Luftwaffe", thanks to his prudent management of RAF resources and detailed preparation of Britain's air defences (the Dowding system). He subsequently came into conflict with proponents of the Big Wing tactic, most notably Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Douglas Bader, which along with the inadaquecies of RAF's nighttime defence during the Blitz led to his eventual downfall. In November 1940, Dowding was replaced in command against his wishes by Sholto Douglas, another Big Wing advocate.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding retired from the Royal Air Force in July 1942 and was made a peer in June 1943. Upon retirement, Dowding subsequently became an influential member of the British spiritualist, theosophical, and animal rights movements. He died on 15 February 1970, aged 87.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding was born at St. Ninian's Boys' Preparatory School in Moffat, Dumfriesshire, the son of Arthur John Caswall Dowding and Maud Caroline Dowding (née Tremenheere). His father had taught at Fettes College in Edinburgh before moving to Moffat. Dowding was educated at St Ninian's School and Winchester College. He trained at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich before being commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Garrison Artillery on 18 August 1900.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Promoted to lieutenant on 8 May 1902, Dowding served with the Royal Garrison Artillery at Gibraltar, in Ceylon and in Hong Kong before being posted to No. 7 Mountain Artillery Battery in India in 1904. After returning to the United Kingdom, he attended the Army Staff College 1912 before being promoted to captain on 18 August 1913 and being posted with the Royal Garrison Artillery on the Isle of Wight later that year. After becoming interested in aviation, Dowding gained Aviator's Certificate no. 711 on 19 December 1913 in a Vickers biplane at the Vickers School of Flying, Brooklands. He then attended the Central Flying School, where he was awarded his wings. Although added to the Reserve List of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), Dowding returned to the Isle of Wight to resume his Royal Garrison Artillery duties. However, this arrangement was short lived and in August 1914, he joined the RFC as a pilot on No. 7 Squadron.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding transferred to No. 6 Squadron in October 1914 and then, after two weeks as a staff officer in France, became a Flight Commander, first with No. 9 Squadron and then with No. 6 Squadron. He became commanding officer of the Wireless Experimental Establishment at Brooklands in March 1915 and went on to be commanding officer of No. 16 Squadron in July 1915, which was based at La Gorgue in northern France. After the Battle of the Somme, Dowding clashed with General Hugh Trenchard, the commander of the RFC, over the need to give pilots some rest and recuperation. In September 1915 Duncan Grinnell-Milne joined No 16 squadron as a junior pilot. Years later he published an account of his time in the squadron, in which he criticises Dowding as being "too reserved and aloof from his juniors", although efficient. Promoted to major on 30 December 1915, Dowding was recalled to England in January 1916, and, having been promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on 1 February 1916 was given command of 7 Wing at Farnborough later that month. He transferred to the command of 9 Wing at Fienvillers in June 1916. Returning to England, he was promoted to temporary colonel on 1 January 1917 on appointment as commander of the Southern Group Command and promoted to temporary brigadier-general on 23 June 1917 before being given command of the southern training brigade in August 1917. He was sent to York as chief staff officer to the RAF's senior administrative officer in the area in April 1918. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George on 1 January 1919.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding was given a permanent commission in the RAF on 1 August 1919 with the rank of group captain. He commanded No. 16 Group from October 1919 and then No. 1 Group from February 1920 where he was responsible for organising two of the annual air displays at Hendon. He was promoted to air commodore on 1 January 1922, and served as chief staff officer at Inland Area headquarters at Uxbridge from February 1922 before being appointed Chief Staff Officer for RAF Iraq Command in August 1924.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding was an accomplished skier, winner of the first ever National Slalom Championship, and president of the Ski Club of Great Britain from 1924 to 1925.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: In May 1926 Dowding was appointed director of training at the Air Ministry. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1928 and promoted to air vice-marshal on 1 January 1929. Trenchard sent him to Palestine and Transjordan to study security problems caused by Arab–Jewish unrest: his reports, which gained Trenchard's approval, were a cause of further career advancement. Dowding became Air Officer Commanding Fighting Area, Air Defence of Great Britain in December 1929 and then joined the Air Council as Air Member for Supply and Research in September 1930. One of his first responsibilities in this post was the approval of the granting of a certificate of airworthiness to the R101 airship shortly before it set off on its ill-fated voyage to India; he later said "I think I was wrong not to insist on much more extensive trials and tests" and that his decision had been based on optimistic technical advice. Dowding's time in this office coincided with a period of rapid development in aircraft design and a growing fear that another major war was on the horizon. Although without scientific or technical training, he displayed a great capacity for understanding technical matters. He was promoted to air marshal on 1 January 1933 and advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 3 June 1933.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: In July 1936 Dowding was appointed commanding officer of the newly created RAF Fighter Command, and was perhaps the one important person in Britain, and perhaps the world, who did not agree with British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's 1932 declaration that "The bomber will always get through". He conceived and oversaw the development of the "Dowding system". This consisted of an integrated air defence system which included (i) radar (whose potential Dowding was among the first to appreciate), (ii) human observers (including the Royal Observer Corps), who filled crucial gaps in what radar was capable of detecting at the time (the early radar systems, for example, did not provide accurate information on the altitude of incoming German aircraft), (iii) raid plotting, and (iv) radio control of aircraft. The whole network was linked in many cases by dedicated telephone cables buried sufficiently deeply to provide protection against bombing. The network had its centre at RAF Bentley Priory, a converted country house on the outskirts of London. The system as a whole later became known as Ground-controlled interception (GCI).


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding also brought modern aircraft into service during the pre-war period, including the eight gun Spitfire and Hurricane. He is also credited with having fought the Air Ministry so that fighters were equipped with bullet-proof wind shields. He was promoted to air chief marshal on 1 January 1937 and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order on 23 January 1937.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: At the time of his retirement in June 1939, Dowding was asked to stay on until March 1940 because of the tense international situation. He was again permitted to continue serving through the Battle of Britain, first until July and finally until November 1940. In 1940, Dowding, nicknamed "Stuffy" by his men for his alleged lack of humour, proved unwilling to sacrifice aircraft and pilots in the attempt to aid Allied troops during the Battle of France. He, along with his immediate superior Sir Cyril Newall, then Chief of the Air Staff, resisted repeated requests from Winston Churchill to weaken the home defence by sending precious squadrons to France. When the Allied resistance in France collapsed, he worked closely with Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park, the commander of 11 Fighter Group, in organising cover for the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force at Dunkirk.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Through the summer and autumn of 1940 in the Battle of Britain, Dowding's Fighter Command resisted the attacks of the "Luftwaffe". Beyond the critical importance of the overall system of integrated air defence which he had developed for Fighter Command, his major contribution was to marshal resources behind the scenes (including replacement aircraft and air crew) and to maintain a significant fighter reserve, while leaving his subordinate commanders' hands largely free to run the battle in detail.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding was known for his humility and great sincerity. Fighter Command pilots came to characterise Dowding as one who cared for his men and had their best interests at heart. Dowding often referred to his "dear fighter boys" as his "chicks": indeed his son Derek was one of them. Because of his brilliant detailed preparation of Britain's air defences for the German assault, and his prudent management of his resources during the battle, Dowding is today generally given the credit for Britain's victory in the Battle of Britain.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding's subsequent downfall has been attributed by some to his singlemindedness and perceived lack of diplomacy and political savoir faire in dealing with intra-RAF challenges and intrigues, most obviously the still, even now, hotly debated Big Wing controversy in which a number of senior and active service officers had argued in favour of large set-piece air battles with the "Luftwaffe" as an alternative to Dowding's successful Fabian strategy. Another reason often cited for his removal, but characterised by some contemporary commentators more as a pretext, was the difficulty of countering German nighttime bombing raids on British cities. The account of radar pioneer, E. G. Bowen in "Radar Days" (1987) rebuts the claim that Dowding's grasp of the problems of British night fighters was inadequate. He suggests that if Dowding had been left to follow his own path, the ultimately effective British response to night bombing (which depended completely on developments in air-borne radar) would have come somewhat sooner. Dowding himself showed that he had a good grasp of night fighter defence and was planning a defence system against night bombing in a letter he wrote some time after the Battle of Britain. However, there was great political and public pressure during the Blitz for something to be done, and Fighter Command's existing resources without, as yet, airborne radar, proved woefully inadequate. A committee of enquiry chaired by Sir John Salmond produced a long list of recommendations to improve night air defence; when Dowding approved only some of them, his erstwhile supporters, Lord Beaverbrook and Churchill, decided that it was time for him to step down.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 8 October 1940. He unwillingly relinquished command on 24 November 1940 and was replaced by Big Wing advocate Sholto Douglas. Churchill tried to soften the blow by putting him in charge of the British Air Mission to the US, responsible for the procurement of new aircraft types.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Publication of his book "Twelve Legions of Angels" was suppressed in November 1941. The British Government considered that it contained information which might be of use to the Germans. The book was finally published in 1946, soon after the war ended.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: After leaving Fighter Command, Dowding was sent on special duty to the United States for the Ministry of Aircraft Production, but there he made himself unpopular with his outspokenness. On his return he headed a study into economies of RAF manpower before retiring from the Royal Air Force in July 1942. He was elevated to the peerage, as Baron Dowding of Bentley Priory on 2 June 1943.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Later in life, because of his belief that he was unjustly treated by the RAF, Dowding became increasingly bitter. The RAF passed him over for promotion to Marshal of the Royal Air Force.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: He approved Robert Wright's book "Dowding and the Battle of Britain" which argued that a conspiracy of Big Wing proponents, including Trafford Leigh-Mallory and Douglas Bader, had engineered his sacking from Fighter Command.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: In 1951, Dowding laid the foundation stone of the Chapel of St George at RAF Biggin Hill, now London Biggin Hill Airport, in memory of fallen airmen.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding and his second wife Baroness Dowding were both anti-vivisectionists and in 1973 Britain's National Anti-Vivisection Society founded the Lord Dowding Fund for Humane Research in his honour.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: In his retirement, Dowding became actively interested in Spiritualism, both as a writer and speaker. His first book on the subject, "Many Mansions", was written in 1943, followed by "Lychgate" (1945), "The Dark Star" and "God's Magic". Rejecting conventional Christianity, he joined the Theosophical Society which advocated belief in reincarnation. He wrote of meeting dead "RAF boys" in his sleep – spirits who flew fighters from mountain-top runways made of light. Dowding became a vegetarian, based on his beliefs as a theosophist and spiritualist. Although he was a vegetarian, he believed that "animals will be killed to satisfy human needs for many a long day to come", and he made several appeals in the House of Lords for the humane killing of animals intended for food. He was also a member of the Fairy Investigation Society. Although he knew that people considered him a crank for his belief in fairies, Dowding believed that fairies "are essential to the growth of plants and the welfare of the vegetable kingdom".


title: Hugh Dowding

text: The American poet Hilda Doolittle attended Dowding's lectures in London and struck up a correspondence with him. H.D. became convinced that she could hear the voices of Dowding's fallen crewmen during her Spiritualist work, believing them to be warning her of the impending dangers of atomic warfare. Dowding rebuked H.D. for performing seances unaccompanied (which he believed to be dangerous), and for her perceived lack of caution, as Dowding felt that these spirits were "of a lower order": i.e. deceptive, malevolent entities. H.D. continued these activities until Dowding finally cut off all contact with her. This rejection precipitated H.D.'s brief mental breakdown in 1946. In the decade after this breakdown, H.D. wrote two dense, esoteric book-length poems - "Helen in Egypt" and "Vale Ave" - which detail the psychological impact this rejection had on her, and the process of recovering from it. H.D. also wrote a sequence of novels about her experiences with Dowding, almost all of which went unpublished in her lifetime, including "Majic Ring" and "The Sword Went Out To Sea".


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding died at his home in Royal Tunbridge Wells, Kent, on 15 February 1970. His body was cremated and his ashes were placed below the "Battle of Britain Memorial Window" in the Royal Air Force chapel in Westminster Abbey. Dowding's son Derek (1919–1992) inherited the title of Baron Dowding.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Dowding married Clarice Maud Vancourt, the daughter of an officer in the Indian Army, on 16 February 1918. She had one child from a previous marriage, Marjorie Brenda Williams (1911–2003) and they had one child together, Derek Hugh Tremenheere (1919–1992). Clarice died in 1920, and Dowding's sister Hilda helped Dowding look after the two children.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: In the 1969 film "Battle of Britain", Dowding was played by Laurence Olivier. Olivier had himself served as a pilot in the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm during World War II. During filming in summer 1968, 86 years old and wheel-chair-bound by severe arthritis, Dowding visited the set at Hawkinge airfield in Kent. Olivier told Dowding he had sat behind the latter's desk all day "pretending to be you" and was "making an awful mess of it too", to which Dowding replied, "Oh, I'm sure you are." The crew and Olivier broke into laughter. Footage of this can be seen in the special features section of the film's Special Edition DVD.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: A statue of Dowding stands outside St Clement Danes church on the Strand, London. The inscription reads:


title: Hugh Dowding

text: Other monuments to Dowding can be found in Station Park in Moffat, the town of his birth, and in Calverley Gardens in Tunbridge Wells where he died. The RAF Association in conjunction with the RAF Benevolent Fund, purchased his birthplace, the former St Ninian's School, Moffat; the building was renamed Dowding House and restored to provide sheltered housing for former members of the Royal Air Force or their dependents.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: The Dowding Centre at the School of Aerospace Battle Management (formerly the School of Fighter Control) at RAF Boulmer is named after Dowding.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: A green ceramic commemorative plaque was unveiled at his former residence (1951–1967) in Darnley Drive, Southborough on 6 May 2012.


title: Hugh Dowding

text: The 1946-built Southern Railway Battle of Britain pacific (4-6-2) locomotive 21C152 was named "Lord Dowding" in his honour.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: Jacquelyn Suzanne Gayda (born November 3, 1981) is an American retired professional wrestler and valet, best known for her work in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). She was awarded a contract with WWE after co-winning the second series of the reality television show "Tough Enough" with Linda Miles.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: As soon as Gayda was awarded the "Tough Enough" II contract, she worked several matches on the Raw and SmackDown! brands. Gayda turned villainous on an episode of "WWE Velocity" by pushing her co-winner Linda Miles off the top rope, causing her to lose her match against Ivory. Five days later on "SmackDown!", Gayda teamed up with Ivory in a losing effort against Miles and Trish Stratus in a tag team match. In another one of her first television matches (a tag team match with Christopher Nowinski against Trish Stratus and Bradshaw on the July 8, 2002 episode of "Raw" from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that became known by wrestling fans as "that Jackie Gayda match"), Gayda botched multiple moves, the most infamous of which was a second-rope-bulldog by Stratus, which she sold too late. Commentator Jim Ross exclaimed that "mercifully, it's over" at the end of the match, expressing relief that the poor wrestling attempts had ceased.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: She was sent to Ohio Valley Wrestling for further training. While in OVW, she joined the stable known as "The Revolution", in addition to managing The Basham Brothers and Chris Kanyon. On June 16, 2003, she returned to WWE as Miss Jackie, managing Rico. She would later turn face after Rico's face turn.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: In early 2004, Gayda teamed up with Stacy Keibler, with the duo proclaiming themselves to be the WWE's hottest divas and thought they deserved to grace the cover of Playboy magazine. This provoked a feud with "SmackDown!" divas and the Playboy co-cover girls Sable and Torrie Wilson. At WrestleMania XX, Gayda and Keibler were defeated by Sable and Wilson in a Playboy evening gown match.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: In the second WWE Draft, Gayda and Rico were traded to "SmackDown!" brand, where they eventually teamed up with Charlie Haas. In September 2004, Haas and Gayda were engaged, and their relationship was eventually incorporated into their on-screen characters. Dawn Marie announced the engagement of Gayda and Haas on the September 30 episode of "SmackDown!", implying in the process that she and Haas were "more than just friends." This led to a catfight between Gayda and Dawn, which in turn led to an intergender tag match at No Mercy pitting Gayda, Haas, and Rico against Dawn and the Dudley Boyz. Gayda's team won the bout, yet Dawn Marie predicted that the relationship would not last very long. From that moment onwards, Dawn Marie tried her hardest to split the couple up. On the October 7 episode of "SmackDown!", Gayda found herself on the receiving end of Billy Kidman's BK Bomb. She sold her injuries through the October tour of Europe by wearing a neckbrace, only returning to action on the October 28 episode of "SmackDown!" in Omaha, Nebraska, which saw Gayda hit the ring during a Halloween costume contest between Dawn and Torrie Wilson, spearing Dawn and tearing the clothes from her body. A vengeful Dawn then screamed to Gayda that it was not over. Dawn gained her revenge during an arm wrestling contest on the November 4 episode of "SmackDown!", headbutting Gayda and catfighting with her until Haas made the save. Dawn's ally Heidenreich then decimated Haas, dismissing Gayda's attempts to protect Haas by shoving her to the mat. On November 25, Gayda tried to gain revenge in a "Pilgrim versus Indian" match, but both women were disqualified for ignoring the referee's instructions. The two divas fought once again on December 2, this time while wearing Christmas outfits. General Manager Theodore Long finally announced a final encounter at Armageddon, appointing Haas as the referee. Gayda lost the match, and her fiancé, as the relationship was broken when Haas revealed he had an affair with Dawn Marie. He then rejected Marie afterward, saying he did not want either woman.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: Gayda began wrestling as a singles performer. She appeared in numerous vignettes with the other divas until she and Haas were released from WWE on July 5, 2005, along with many other WWE wrestlers.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: Gayda began working for several independent promotions, including Ballpark Brawl, where Gayda was referred to as Just Jackie and defeated Traci Brooks, Nattie Neidhart, Jamie D, and April Hunter on August 13, 2005. She also teamed with Hunter in a loss to Neidhart on August 14, 2005.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: On the November 26, 2005 episode of "Impact!", Gayda made her debut lashing out at Jeff Jarrett. Jarrett was shocked and frightened by Gayda's unexpected appearance and soon ordered her backstage. He was heard saying, ""It's not what you think."" After being pushed by Jarrett, Gayda slapped him and then went after his valet, Gail Kim. The following week, Gayda came out again to confront Jarrett. After pushing and slapping, the two had to be pulled apart by officials. At Turning Point, the same thing happened in the main event match, but officials restrained Gayda. On the December 31 show, Don West tracked down Gayda for an interview. She said her being there had nothing to do with a love affair, but rather that Jarrett had promised her a spot on the TNA Roster, but while she was stuck at home, she turned on the television to see Kim in her place. She said she had a big secret about Jarrett that TNA Management would love to hear but did not reveal what it was.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: Gayda won TNA's Knockout of the Year 2005 on the January 14, 2006 episode of "Impact!". At Final Resolution, she ran into Raven after he lost his match. She told him that they had something in common, they were both being screwed by TNA Management. On the January 28 episode of "Impact!", Gayda came down to ringside during a Jarrett versus Jay Lethal match to hand an audiotape to Kim. She then left, with a confused Kim soon following.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: Jarrett then hired Alex Shelley to videotape Gayda at her home for blackmail. Shelley complied, returning a week later with a videotape. On the February 18, 2006, episode of "Impact!", she told Jarrett that he had won and that she would leave. Jarrett refused to comply and used the tape Shelley compiled of Gayda as blackmail to get her to join his stable. Jackie became the manager of Planet Jarrett. She feuded with Gail Kim in mid-2006. At Sacrifice Jackie announced that she was pregnant, so Kim kayfabe fired her. She was later released from her contract and retired.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: In April 2009, Gayda returned to WWE for one-night-only as a part of the 25 Diva battle royal at WrestleMania XXV.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: On August 30, 2010, Mexican promotion Perros del Mal Producciones announced that Gayda, under the ring name Miss Jackie, would wrestle for the promotion on September 16, on the same card as her husband Charlie Haas. At the event Jackie and Celestial defeated Jennifer Blake and Mini Chessman in a tag team match. She appeared again on February 11, 2011, on the Viva La Lucha PPV, teaming with NY Knockout Nikki to take on Christina Von Eerie and Jennifer Blake (a match that she won for her team, via crossbody into a pin). On August 20, 2011, Haas became her husband's manager where he became the inaugural Family Wrestling Entertainment (FWE) Heavyweight Champion by defeating Jay Lethal and Eric Young. He held the championship for four months before losing it to Young on December 17, the same night Jackie made her in-ring debut for FWE in a loss to Winter.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: Gayda married fellow professional wrestler Charlie Haas in 2005. The couple have four children: Kayla (born 2006), Taylor (born 2008), Thomas (born 2010), and Charles (born 2012). In December 2020, Haas announced that he and Gayda are divorced.


title: Jackie Gayda

text: In 2008, Haas and Gayda opened the "Custom Muscle Nutrition and Smoothie Shop", a nutritional store, in Frisco, Texas.


title: JA21

text: JA21 (, backronym for Juiste Antwoord 2021, or 'Right Answer 2021') is a political party in the Netherlands, currently active in the Senate as the Nanninga Group (). It was founded in December 2020 by Joost Eerdmans and Annabel Nanninga after leaving Forum for Democracy on 26 November 2020. The party participated in the general election on 17 March 2021.


title: JA21

text: JA21 was founded on 18 December 2020 by Eerdmans and Nanninga, after they had left Forum for Democracy following an internal dispute over the party leadership's response to allegations of racism, antisemitism and homophobia against its youth wing (including glorification of Anders Breivik and Brenton Tarrant), and controversial statements made by party leader Thierry Baudet. JA21 describes itself as a "proper" right-wing party and aims to fill the gap between the centre-right People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) and the more radical-right Party for Freedom (PVV). Party leader Joost Eerdmans had previously been a member of parliament for the Pim Fortuyn List and served as deputy mayor of Rotterdam.


title: JA21

text: According to Eerdmans, the name JA21 does not only refer to the first names of himself and Nanninga; it also stands for the 'Right Answer/Correct Answer' (het 'Juiste Antwoord') and 'Your Alternative' ('Jouw Alternatief').


title: JA21

text: On 20 December 2020, ex-Forum for Democracy MEPs Derk Jan Eppink, Rob Roos and Rob Rooken announced that they had become members of JA21. Two days later, the independent Senate group "Fractie-Van Pareren" – consisting of seven ex-Forum for Democracy senators – joined JA21, making it the fourth largest party in the Senate.


title: JA21

text: On 16 January 2021, the provincial group of Forum for Democracy in North Brabant split, with three members leaving Forum for Democracy to form the JA21 parliamentary group in the Provincial Council of North Brabant. As Forum for Democracy was part of the province's coalition government at the time of the split, the new JA21 parliamentary group immediately entered the coalition after talks with the other coalition members. This marked the first time that JA21 entered a coalition with other parties.


title: JA21

text: In its platform, JA21 describes itself as both liberal and conservative with an emphasis on personal freedom, political transparency and reliable government. Initially, JA21 sought to emulate the original political platform of the Forum for Democracy party from which it split. Both political observers and the party's leadership have also referred to JA21 as being more influenced by Fortuynism, the ideology espoused by assassinated Dutch politician Pim Fortuyn and his Pim Fortuyn List (LPF) party. Party leader Joost Eerdmans, himself a former LPF member of parliament, has claimed that he wants JA21 to help "Fortuyn's ideas return to the House of Representatives."


title: JA21

text: JA21 states that it stands for "less regulatory burden, tax relief, a strict immigration policy and support for the entrepreneurs who make our country great". The party is strongly opposed to further integration within the European Union and the EU becoming a Federal Superstate. JA21 wants to strengthen the Netherlands' autonomy by ending influence of the EU on domestic affairs by putting "Dutch interests first" and supporting the right to national self-determination. It also supports a referendum on Dutch membership of the Eurozone, a revision of Dutch membership of EU treaties and the Schengen Agreement, and a renegotiation of Dutch membership of the EU. JA21 is also opposed to the potential accession of Turkey to the European Union. The party also wants to opt out of the EU asylum pact, regain full control over Dutch borders and expel illegal immigrants. JA21 also opposes cuts to the police budget and calls for tougher prison sentences against those who attack emergency workers and repeatedly offend. It also calls for compulsory measures for immigrants to learn Dutch, wants an end to foreign funding of mosques and Islamic schools, and states that people with dual nationality should be stripped of their Dutch citizenship if they join a foreign terrorist group. The party also supports foreign investment and maintaining free trade agreements with other nations in order to stem flows of migration and wants good relations with the United Kingdom following Brexit. JA21 also supports internet freedom and wants to protect the right to online privacy by preventing the government and big tech companies from mining personal data or breaching privacy laws. In terms of culture, the party has expressed opposition to modern architecture and supports restoring historic buildings to their original specifications. In 2022, JA21 campaigned against "de-colonisation" of Dutch history, instead arguing for the protection of national cultural heritage and for free museum admission for Dutch nationals.


title: T-28

text: The T-28 was a Soviet multi-turreted medium tank. The prototype was completed in 1931, and production began in late 1932. It was an infantry support tank intended to break through fortified defences. The T-28 was designed to complement the heavier T-35 (also multi-turreted), with which it shared turret designs. The type did not have great success in combat, but it played an important role as a development project for Soviet tank designers. A series of new ideas and solutions that were tried out on the T-28 were later incorporated in future models.


title: T-28

text: The T-28 was in many ways similar to the British Vickers A1E1 Independent tank, which greatly influenced tank design in the period between the wars, even though only a single prototype was manufactured in 1926. The Kirov Factory in Leningrad began manufacturing a tank that was based on the design of the British Independent in 1932. The T-28 tank was officially approved on 11 August 1933. The T-28 had one large turret with a 76.2 mm gun and two smaller turrets with 7.62 mm machine guns. A total of 503 T-28 tanks were manufactured over the eight-year period from 1933 to 1941.


title: T-28

text: The T-28 was deployed during the 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland, and the Winter War with Finland. During the initial stages of the Winter War, the tank was used in direct fire missions against Finnish pillboxes. In the course of these operations, it was found that the armour was inadequate and an upgrade was initiated. The frontal armour plates were upgraded from 30 mm to 80 mm and side and rear plates to 40 mm thickness. With this up-armoured version, the Red Army broke through the main Finnish defensive fortification, the Mannerheim Line.


title: T-28

text: According to Russian historian Maksim Kolomiets in his book "T-28. Stalin's Three-headed Monster", over 200 T-28s were knocked out during the Winter War, but only 20 of them were irrecoverable losses (including two captured by the Finnish Army). Due to the proximity of the Kirov Plant, all other knocked-out tanks were repaired, some of them more than five times.


title: T-28

text: The Finns nicknamed the T-28 "Postivaunu" ("mail coach" or "postal wagon") after a lone Soviet T-28 tank commander was captured with his knocked out tank that carried the monthly salary of, and mail addressed to, the 91st Tank Battalion (this occurred 19–20 December 1939, during the battle of Summa). Another explanation was that the straight vertical surfaces alluded to the stagecoaches of the Wild West. The T-28 was also nicknamed "Kivitalo" ("stone building") by the Finns due to its large size.


title: T-28

text: The Finns captured two T-28s during the Winter War and five in the Continuation War, for a total of 7 vehicles. The Finnish Army did not have tractors that could tow away vehicles as heavy as the T-28, and so captured T-28s that could not move under their own power were stripped of anything useful (machine guns, radios etc.) and left where they were.


title: T-28

text: The Soviets had 411 T-28 tanks when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. A large majority of these were lost during the first two months of the invasion, many of them abandoned after mechanical breakdown. Some T-28s took part in the 1941 winter defence of Leningrad and Moscow, but after late 1941, they were rare in Red Army service; a few were operated by enemy forces.


title: T-28

text: Today, three T-28s remain, two in Finland and one in Moscow. One restored T-28 is on display in Finnish field camouflage in the Parola Tank Museum, Finland. A further wreck is stored at Parola, now awaiting restoration and a hull previously used as a bunker was discovered near St. Petersburg.


title: T-28

text: The T-28 had a number of advanced features for its time, including radio (in all tanks) and anti-aircraft machine gun mounts. Just before the Second World War, many received armour upgrades, bringing its protection on par with the early Panzer IV, although its suspension and layout were outdated.


title: T-28

text: Several self-propelled guns, the IT-28 bridging tank, and an engineering vehicle with mine rollers were tested on the T-28 tank chassis, but none were accepted for production. The T-29 was a prototype medium tank, a modernized T-28 with Christie suspension - a later version of this vehicle was considered for the competition of prototypes, which led to the T-34, but by then it was outdated (not to be confused with a Grotte tank project also called T-29). The T-28 also served as a testbed for the KV tank suspension.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Lower Rio Grande Valley (), commonly known as the Rio Grande Valley or locally as the Valley or RGV, is a region spanning the border of Texas and Mexico located in a floodplain of the Rio Grande near its mouth. The region includes the southernmost tip of South Texas and a portion of northern Tamaulipas, Mexico. It consists of the Brownsville, Harlingen, Weslaco, Pharr, McAllen, Edinburg, Mission, San Juan, and Rio Grande City metropolitan areas in the United States and the Matamoros, Río Bravo, and Reynosa metropolitan areas in Mexico. The area is generally bilingual in English and Spanish, with a fair amount of Spanglish due to the region's diverse history and transborder agglomerations It is home to some of the poorest cities in the nation, as well as many unincorporated, persistent poverty communities called "colonias". A large seasonal influx occurs of "winter Texans" — people who come down from the north for the winter and then return north before summer arrives.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Native peoples lived in small tribes in the area before the Spanish conquest. The native tribes in South Texas were known to be hunter-gatherer peoples. The area was known for its smaller nomadic tribes collectively called Coahuiltecan. Native archaeological excavations near Brownsville have shown evidence of prehistoric shell trading.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Initially, the Spanish had a hard time conquering the area due to the differences in native languages, so they mainly focused on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico also known as the Seno Mexicano. Also, a major conflict existed on who would conquer the region. Antonio Ladrón de Guevara wanted to colonize the region, but the Viceroy of New Spain José Tienda de Cuervo doubted Ladrón de Guevara's character, eventually leading to a royal Spanish declaration preventing Ladrón de Guevara from participating in colonization efforts.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The first "villas" in the region were settled in Laredo and Reynosa in 1767. In 1805, the Spanish government solidified the autonomy of the region by defining the territory of Nuevo Santander as south of the colony of Tejas from the Nueces River south to Tampico, Charcas, and Valles. The local government of the region had a rough start with various indigenous wars up until 1812. In 1821 after the Mexican War of Independence, the state was renamed Tamaulipas.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Texas Revolution of 1835-1836 put the majority of what is now called the Rio Grande Valley under contested Texan sovereignty. The area also became a thoroughfare for runaway slaves fleeing to Mexico.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: In 1844, the United States under President James K. Polk annexed the Republic of Texas, against British and Mexican sentiments, contributing to the onset of the Mexican–American War. The area along the Rio Grande was the source of several major battles, including the Battle of Resaca de la Palma near Brownsville. The war ended in 1848 with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo which defined the United States' southern border as the Rio Grande. The change in government led to a mass migration from Tamaulipas to the United States side of the river.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: From the end of the Mexican-American War, the population of the Valley began to grow, and farmers began to raise cattle in the area. Despite the end of the formal war in 1848, interracial strife continued between native peoples and the white settlers over land through the 1920s.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: At the turn of the 20th century trade and immigration between Mexico and the United States was a normal part of society. The development of the St. Louis, Brownsville, and Mexico Railway in 1903 and the irrigation of the Rio Grande allowed the Rio Grande Valley to develop into profitable farmland. Droughts in the 1890s and early 1900s caused smaller farmers and cattle ranchers to lose their lands. Rich white settlers brought by the railroad bought the land and displaced the Tejano ranchers.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Meanwhile, across the river, Mexico was dealing with the Mexican Revolution. The revolution spilled over the border through cross-border supply raids, and in response President Taft sent the United States Army into the region beginning in 1911 and continuing until 1916 when the majority of the United States armed forces were stationed in the region. Texas governor Oscar Colquitt also sent the Texas Rangers into the area to keep the peace between Mexicans and Americans.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The region played host to several well known conflicts including the backlash from the Plan of San Diego, and the racially fueled violence of Texas Ranger Harry Ransom. In 1921 the United States Border Patrol came to the region with less than 10 officers. Initially the agency was focused on import and export business, especially alcohol during Prohibition in the United States, but later moved to detaining illegal aliens.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The region had a significant increase of Border Patrol agents during World War I in conjunction with the Zimmermann Telegram. The Texas Rangers also increased their presence as law enforcement in the region with a new class of Ranger that focused on determining Tejano loyalty. They were often violent, carrying out retaliatory murders. They were never held accountable to the law even though charges were brought in the Texas senate.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: There were two major military training facilities in the Valley in Brownsville and Harlingen during World War II.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The North American Free Trade Agreement, also known as NAFTA, was established in 1994 as a trade agreement between the three North American countries, The United States, Mexico, and Canada. NAFTA was supposed to increase trade with Mexico as they lowered or eliminated tariffs on Mexican goods. Exports and imports tripled in the region and accounted for a trade surplus of $75 billion. The Rio Grande Valley benefited from NAFTA in retail, manufacturing, and transportation. Due to the influx of jobs and exportation, many people migrated to the RGV, both documented and undocumented. According to Akinloye Akindayomi in "Drug violence in Mexico and its impact on the fiscal realities of border cities in Texas: evidence from Rio Grande Valley counties", NAFTA also indirectly aids the rise in immigration and drug smuggling practices between cartels in the region, with cartels profiting with over $80 billion. The Trump Administration decided to make new accords with Mexico and Canada and replaced NAFTA with the new trade agreement, United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2018.After the September 11 attacks, the Customs Border Security Act of 2001 established United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints with some situated at the north end of the Rio Grande Valley. This allows for a second line of defense in the ever increasing subtlety of smuggling.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: More recently the organization We Build The Wall has begun construction on a section of the border wall in the Valley. Local residents have express concerns about the project including the site's proximity to the National Butterfly Center and the Rio Grande with its potential for seasonal flooding. The U.S. Section of the International Boundary and Water Commission has ordered We Build The Wall to stop until they can review whether or not the construction violates a Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the Rio Grande and Colorado River as the international boundary between the United States and Mexico signed in 1970.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Rio Grande Valley is not a true valley, but a river delta. "Valley" is often used in the western United States to refer to a large expanse with rivers. Most such valleys, including the Rio Grande, have good agricultural production. Early 20th-century land developers, attempting to capitalize on unclaimed land, utilized the name "Magic Valley" to attract settlers and appeal to investors. The Rio Grande Valley is also called "El Valle", the Spanish translation of "the valley", by those who live there. The main region is within four Texan counties: Starr County, Hidalgo County, Willacy County, and Cameron County.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The largest city on the American side of the region is Brownsville (Cameron County), followed by McAllen (Hidalgo County). Other major cities include Harlingen, Edinburg, Mission, Rio Grande City, Raymondville, Weslaco, Hidalgo and Pharr. On the Mexican side of the border Matamoros, Río Bravo, and Reynosa are major cities in this region.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: As of 2020, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated the population of the Rio Grande Valley at 1,368,723. Hidalgo County has the largest population with an estimate of 861,137. Cameron County has the second-highest population estimated at 422,135. Starr County has the third-largest population estimated at 64,032. Willacy County has the fourth-largest population estimated at 21,419.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2008, 86 percent of Cameron County, 90 percent of Hidalgo County, 97 percent of Starr County, and 86 percent of Willacy County are Hispanic.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The major metropolitan areas in the Rio Grande Valley are surrounded by smaller rural communities called colonias. These communities are primarily poor and Hispanic. The areas often lack basic services like sanitation and sewage, and suffer from flooding. Many of these colonias are mixes of mobile homes and self-constructed houses owned by the residents. The Bracero program enacted in the 1940s allowed Mexicans to cross the border and work in the agricultural fields. Most worked in the Rio Grande Valley, and due to a shortage of affordable houses, developers started selling them land in unincorporated areas; these clusters of homes over time became what are now known as colonias. According to the Housing Assistance Council, a nonprofit organization that tracks rural housing, approximately 1.6 million people live in 1,500 recognized colonias alongside the Mexico–United States border.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The residents of the Lower Rio Grande Valley are generally bilingual in English and Spanish often mixing into Spanglish depending on demographics and context. Government statistics for the region are often underreported due to underlying immigration issues.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Spanish language plays an important role in all aspects of life. In 1982 a statistically significant majority of people in the Rio Grande Valley spoke Spanish. People speak Spanish to communicate in all aspects of life including business, government, and at home.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: People often prefer Spanish to English when interacting with government officials as seen in the response to the region's 2018 flooding.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Catholic Church has been present in the Rio Grande Valley since the Spanish colonization of the region. In San Juan, Texas the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of San Juan del Valle is a major Catholic shrine.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: One of the offshoots of the Catholic Church, worship of Santa Muerte, has a small but significant following in the valley. There has been public outcry against followers erecting shrines at their homes and in public places. In 2015 a Santa Muerte statue was involved with a bomb scare in San Benito, Texas. This followed the desecration of a Santa Muerte statue in the San Benito Municipal Cemetery in January of the same year.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: In addition to the Catholic Church, several other Christian denominations are present in the Rio Grande Valley, including several organized Protestant churches in the Lower Rio Grande Valley and 26 congregations of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with about 17,000 members. The church began with a small branch serving the area in the early 1900s, and by 1952 there were two stakes. The El Paso 3rd Ward became the Church's first Spanish-speaking ward when it was created in 1952. In 2019, the Church announced the construction of a new McAllen Texas Temple.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Lower Rio Grande Valley experiences a warm and fair climate that brings visitors from many surrounding areas. Temperature extremes range from triple digits during the summer months to freezing during the winter. While the Valley has seen severe cold events before, such as the 2004 Christmas snow storm and 2021 cold snap, the region rarely experiences temperatures at or below freezing, especially by the coast, which transitions into a Tropical climate.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The regions's proximity to the Gulf of Mexico makes it a target for hurricanes. Though not impacted as frequently as other areas of the Gulf Coast of the United States, the Valley has experienced major hurricanes in the past. Hurricanes that have made landfall in or near the area include: Hurricane Beulah (1967), Hurricane Allen (1980), Hurricane Gilbert, Hurricane Bret, Hurricane Dolly (2008), Hurricane Alex (2010), and Hurricane Hanna (2020). Having an especially flat terrain, the Valley usually experiences the catastrophic effects of tropical cyclones in the form of flooding.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Lower Rio Grande Valley encompasses landmarks that attract tourists. Popular destinations include Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge, Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge, Bentsen-Rio Grande Valley State Park, South Padre Island, Brazos Island, and the Port Isabel Lighthouse.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Valley is a popular waypoint for tourists visiting northeast Mexico. Popular destinations across the border and Rio Grande include: Matamoros, Nuevo Progreso, Río Bravo, and Reynosa, all located in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The region also attracts tourists from the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo León, Coahuila, and Mexico, D.F. (México City).


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Valley is historically reliant on agribusiness and tourism. Cotton, grapefruit, sorghum, maize, and sugarcane are its leading crops, and the region is the center of citrus production and the most important area of vegetable production in the State of Texas. Over the last several decades, the emergence of maquiladoras (factories or fabrication plants) has caused a surge of industrial development along the border, while international bridges have allowed Mexican nationals to shop, sell, and do business in the border cities along the Rio Grande. The geographic inclusion of South Padre Island also drives tourism, particularly during the Spring Break season, as its subtropical climate keeps temperatures warm year-round. During the winter months, many retirees (commonly referred to as "Winter Texans") arrive to enjoy the warm weather, access to pharmaceuticals and healthcare in Mexican border crossings such as Nuevo Progreso. There is a substantial health-care industry with major hospitals and many clinics and private practices in Brownsville, Harlingen, and McAllen.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Texas is the third largest producer of citrus fruit in the United States, the majority of which is grown in the Rio Grande Valley. Grapefruit make up over 70% of the Valley citrus crop, which also includes orange, tangerine, tangelo and Meyer lemon production each Winter.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: There are two minor professional sports teams that play in the Rio Grande Valley: The Rio Grande Valley Vipers (basketball), and Rio Grande Valley FC Toros (soccer). Defunct teams that previously played in the region include: the Edinburg Roadrunners (baseball), La Fiera FC (indoor soccer), Rio Grande Valley Ocelots FC (soccer), Rio Grande Valley WhiteWings (baseball), Rio Grande Valley Killer Bees (ice hockey), and the Rio Grande Valley Sol (indoor football).


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: One of the Valley's major tourist attractions is the semi-tropical wildlife. Birds and butterflies attract a large number of visitors every year all throughout the entire region. Ecotourism is a major economic force in the Rio Grande Valley.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Valley International Airport serves the Rio Grande Valley community, with service on seven passenger and two cargo airlines, including one international passenger airline, Mexico's VivaAerobus.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: There are several bus lines that run through the United States side of the Lower Rio Grande Valley including Metro Connect (McAllen), McAllen Paratransit, McAllen Metro Services, Brownsville Metro/ADA Paratransit Service Island Metro (South Padre Island), and Greyhound Lines. On the Mexican side of the border there are several bus companies that run including Greyhound, Tornado, Ave Senda Ejecutiva, Enlaces Terrestres Nacionales, Futua, Noreste, Omnibus de Oriente, Transpais, Transportes del Norte, Transportes Frontera, and Turistar Lujo.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The Interstate Highway System in the United States is well developed in the Lower Rio Grande Valley and connects Brownsville, Hidalgo, McAllen, Raymondville, Edinburg, Pharr, and Laredo. On the Mexican side, there are several major highways between Matamoros, Reynosa, and Nuevo Laredo. car travel on the Mexican side was considered dangerous and the Mexican Federal Police offered a police escort between Ciudad Victoria, Matamoros, and Reynosa.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Freight trains run between Harlingen, Mission, Edinburg, and Santa Rosa connecting to the Union Pacific Railroad. In Mexico, Kansas City Southern de México runs freight service and crosses from Matamoros into Brownsville over the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: SpaceX South Texas launch site is located near Brownsville. Elon Musk is also building an ocean spaceport named Deimos intended for transport to and from Mars.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: The region is represented by Ted Cruz and John Cornyn in the United States Senate and by Filemon Vela Jr. and Vicente Gonzalez in the United States House of Representatives.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: In the twenty-first century, the dominance of agribusiness has caused political issues, as jurisdictional disputes regarding water rights have caused tension between farmers on both sides of the U.S.-Mexico border. Scholars, including Mexican political scientist Armand Peschard-Sverdrup, have argued that this tension has created the need for a re-developed strategic transnational water management. Some have declared the disputes tantamount to a "war" over diminishing natural resources. Climatologists believe water scarcity in the Valley will only increase as climate change alters the precipitation patterns of the region.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Democratic candidate Beto O'Rourke received 164,232 votes from the region, compared to incumbent Ted Cruz's 79,049, in his failed bid to replace Cruz in the Senate in 2018.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Unlike most of Texas the Rio Grande Valley is strongly Democratic having last voting for a Republican presidential candidate in 1972 and only 3 times since 1912 along with 1952 and 1956.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: In 2016, Donald Trump's won only 29 percent of the region's vote, an 80-year low for Republicans. However, in 2020, he significantly strengthened the Republican vote in the Rio Grande Valley, reducing, among other things, Hillary Clinton's 2016 60-point margin of victory in 96% Hispanic Starr County to only 5 points.


title: Lower Rio Grande Valley

text: Historically education has posed significant challenges to schools in the region. Schools in the early 1920s through the 1940s were racially segregated in the Rio Grande Valley. In 1940 a study showed the need for improvement in cultural differentiation of instruction. The Texas Supreme Court in Del Rio ISD v. Salvatierra reinforced the racial segregation. In 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act, helping students whose second language was English. The Act gave financial assistance to local schools to create bilingual programs, enabling Mexican students to integrate white schools. The area like many others had a hard time integrating. Texas still has the bilingual program, while states like California, Arizona, and Massachusetts, have removed the bill and passed similar propositions stating that students would only be taught in English. The bilingual program in the Rio Grande Valley is still in effect especially with Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals students in the area.


title: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

text: Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (née Pierrepont; 15 May 168921 August 1762) was an English aristocrat, writer, and poet. Born in 1689, Lady Mary spent her early life in England. In 1712, Lady Mary married Edward Wortley Montagu, who later served as the British ambassador to the Sublime Porte. Lady Mary joined her husband in the Ottoman excursion, where she was to spend the next two years of her life. During her time there, Lady Mary wrote extensively on her experience as a woman in Ottoman Istanbul. After her return to England, Lady Mary devoted her attention to the upbringing of her family before dying of cancer in 1762.