title: Robin in other media

text: Robin (Tim Drake) is a playable character in "", and "". Charlie Schlatter voices Robin in the third title. The Robin from the "Lego Batman" series appears in "Lego Dimensions", voiced by Scott Menville. He is kidnapped early in the game's narrative, forcing Batman to find and rescue him. The game also features the "Lego Batman Movie" version of Robin as a playable character, with bonus story chapters adapting his role in the events of the film; using this Robin in the "Teen Titans Go!" world transforms him into the version of the character from that series, reprised by Scott Menville.


title: Robin in other media

text: In "", the Tim Drake Robin, voiced by Troy Baker, appears briefly during the story and is fully playable during the "Harley Quinn's Revenge" DLC. Both Robin and Dick Grayson as Nightwing are playable in the game's challenge maps. Dick Grayson appears as Robin in "" multiplayer mode, voiced by Josh Keaton, with the ability to unlock Tim Drake's costume from "Arkham City". In "", Tim Drake returns as Robin (voiced by Matthew Mercer) and Dick Grayson returns as Nightwing (voiced by Scott Porter), while Jason Todd (voiced by Troy Baker) makes his debut as a new persona called the Arkham Knight, eventually transitioning into Red Hood.


title: Robin in other media

text: Dick Grayson as Nightwing appears in "", voiced by Troy Baker. Damian Wayne, voiced by Neal McDonough, appears as a villainous version of Nightwing in the same game. Damian in his Robin and Nightwing personas later appeared as a playable character in the game's sequel, "Injustice 2", voiced by Scott Porter. Jason Todd as the Red Hood, voiced by Cameron Bowen, appears as a playable character in the game via downloadable content.


title: Robin in other media

text: The "Teen Titans" animated series version of Robin is a playable character in both the Game Boy Advance game and the console game adaptations; Scott Menville reprises his role from the TV series. Robin also appears as a playable character in video game adaptations of "The Adventures of Batman and Robin" and the films "Batman Forever" and "Batman & Robin". The Tim Drake version of Robin, Dick Grayson as Nightwing, and Jason Todd as Red Hood are three of the four main playable characters in the 2022 video game, "Gotham Knights".


title: Robin in other media

text: Lego produced a Lego Batman line of licensed sets in 2006, and a second Lego Super Heroes line in 2012. The 7783-The Batcave: The Penguin and Mr. Freeze's Invasion set features the Tim Drake version of Robin in his classic costume with a mini speedboat, as well as the 2012 version 6860-The Batcave which features Tim Drake's Robin in his red and black costume. 7785-Arkham Asylum includes Nightwing and his motorcycle as well. Set 6857-The Dynamic Duo Funhouse Escape also features the newer red and black Robin figure. Lego has also released a Robin minifigure (also Tim Drake), based on his appearance from "". In 2014, the Damian Wayne incarnation was released in a new set.


title: Robin in other media

text: Minifigures of Dick Grayson as both Robin and Nightwing have been released in various Super Heroes sets. His variations as Robin include appearances based on "The New 52", "Teen Titans", the 1966 "Batman" TV series and "The Lego Batman Movie". His variations as Nightwing include appearances based on "The New 52", "DC Rebirth" and "The Lego Batman movie".


title: Robin in other media

text: Minifigures of Jason Todd, as both Robin and Red Hood, both in their "New 52" variations, have also been released.


title: Robin in other media

text: During radio broadcasts of "The Adventures of Superman" radio drama Batman and Robin were paired with Superman over the years from September 15, 1945, to 1949. The pairing was pure novelty. The Batman and Robin appearances provided time off for Bud Collyer, the voice of Superman on radio. These episodes called for Superman to be occupied elsewhere and the crime fighting would be handled by Batman and Robin. On that series the voice of Robin was played by Ronald Liss.


title: Robin in other media

text: Eminem portrays Robin in his song Without Me (Eminem song); in the video, Robin and Blade (played by Dr. Dre) have to save a teenager from danger. Eminem portrays a number of other characters in this song.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The Russian nihilist movement was a philosophical, cultural, and revolutionary movement in the Russian Empire during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, from which the broader philosophy of originated. In Russian, the word (; meaning 'nihilism', ) came to represent the movement's unremitting attacks on morality, religion, and traditional society. Even as it was yet unnamed, the movement arose from a generation of young radicals disillusioned with the social reformers of the past, and from a growing divide between the old aristocratic intellectuals and the new radical intelligentsia.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin, as stated in the "Encyclopædia Britannica", "defined nihilism as the symbol of struggle against all forms of tyranny, hypocrisy, and artificiality and for individual freedom." As only an early form of nihilist philosophy, Russian nihilism saw all the morality, philosophy, religion, aesthetics, and social institutions which were in place as worthless and meaningless but did not necessarily see meaninglessness in all ethics, knowledge, and human life. It did however, incorporate theories of hard determinism, atheism, materialism, positivism, and egoism in an aim to assimilate and distinctively recontextualize core elements of the Age of Enlightenment into Russia while dropping the Westernizer approach of the previous generation. Russian nihilism developed an atmosphere of extreme moral scepticism, at times praising outright selfishness and championing those who held themselves exempt from all moral authority. In its most complete forms it also denied the possibility of common ideals, instead favouring a relativist and individualistic outlook. Nihilists predictably fell into conflict with the Russian Orthodox religious authorities, as well as with prevailing family structures and the Tsarist autocracy.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Although most commonly associated with revolutionary activism, most nihilists were in fact not political and instead discarded politics as an outdated stage of humanity. They held that until a destructive programme had overcome the current conditions no constructive programme could be properly formulated, and although some nihilists did begin to develop communal principles their formulations in this regard remained vague. With the widespread revolutionary arson of 1862, a number of assassinations and attempted assassinations of the 1860s and 70s, and the eventual assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, Russian nihilism was fiercely mischaracterized throughout Europe as a doctrine of political terrorism and violent crime. Kropotkin argues that while violence and terrorism were used, this was due to the specific revolutionary context and was not inherent to nihilist philosophy, though historian M. A. Gillespie adds that nihilism was nevertheless at the core of revolutionary thought in Russia throughout the lead-up to the Russian Revolution. Professor T. J. J. Altizer further states that Russian nihilism in fact had its deepest expression in a Bolshevist nihilism of the 20th century.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The term "nihilism" has been widely misused in the West when discussing the Russian movement, especially in relation to revolutionary activity. Criticizing this misterming by Western commentators, Sergey Stepnyak-Kravchinsky stated that revolutionaries themselves simply identified as socialist revolutionaries, or informally as radicals. However, from outside Russia, the term "nihilist" was misapplied to the entirety of the country's revolutionary milieu. The "Encyclopædia Britannica" attributes the probable first use of the term in Russian publication to Nikolai Nadezhdin who, like Vasilij Bervi and Vissarion Belinsky after him, used it synonymously with skepticism. Nadezhdin himself had applied the term to Aleksandr Pushkin. From there, nihilism was interpreted as a revolutionary social menace by the well-known conservative journalist Mikhail Katkov, for its negation of moral principles. The term came into favour when accusations of "materialism" proved no longer sufficiently derogatory.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The intellectual origins of the nihilist movement can be traced back to 1855 and perhaps earlier, where it was principally a philosophy of moral and epistemological skepticism. However, it was not until 1862 that the term was first popularized when Ivan Turgenev's celebrated novel "Fathers and Sons" used "nihilism" to describe the disillusionment of the younger generation, the , towards both the traditionalists and the progressive reformists that came before them, the . This at a time when the terms faced by serfs under the emancipation reform of 1861 were seen as bitterly failing. The nihilist characters of Turgenev's novel take up the name of their own volition, stating that negation is the most necessary thing in the present age and as such they deny . Likewise, the movement very soon adopted the name, despite the novel's initial harsh reception among both the conservatives and younger generation, and wherever the term was not embraced it was at least accepted.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The term "realist" was used by Dmitry Pisarev to describe the nihilist position and was also the name of a literary movement, literary realism, which had flourished in Russia in the wake of Pushkin. Although Pisarev was among those who celebrated the embrace of nihilism, the term "realism" may have done away with the connotations of subjectivism and nothingness that burdened nihilism while retaining the rejection of metaphysics, sophistry, sentimentality, and aestheticism. In a notably later political climate, Alexander Herzen instead presented nihilism as a product of the that the had adopted. Contemporary scholarship has challenged the equating of Russian nihilism with mere skepticism, instead identifying it with the fundamentally character of the nihilist movement. In fact, the nihilists sought to liberate the Promethean might of the Russian people which they saw embodied in a class of prototypal individuals, or "new types" in their own words. These individuals were seen by Nikolay Chernyshevsky as "rational egoists", by Pisarev and Nikolai Shelgunov as the "thinking proletariat", by Pyotr Lavrov as "critically thinking personalities", by Nikolay Mikhaylovsky as the "intelligentsia", and by others as "cultural pioneers". Nihilism has also been attributed to a perennial temperament of the Russian people, long pre-existing the movement itself.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Overlapping with forms of Narodism, the movement has also been defined in political terms. Soviet scholarship, for example, often interchanges the designation "revolutionary democrats". However, the role of politics was seen as outdated and irrelevant by most nihilists. Rather, they discarded politics, and those who did hold political views or socialist sympathies remained vague. Russian nihilism has also been defined in subcultural terms, in philosophical terms, and incorrectly as a form of political terrorism.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Russian nihilism, as stated in the "Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "is perhaps best regarded as the intellectual pool of the period 1855–66 out of which later radical movements emerged". During this foundational period, the countercultural aspects of the movement scandalized the country and even minor indiscretions left nihilists imprisoned for lengthy periods or in exile to Siberia, where grittier revolutionary attitudes fermented.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: At its core, Russian nihilism inhabited an ever-evolving discourse between the and the . While nihilism was not exclusive from them, the were on principle a generation given to idealism. "Their attraction to the airy heights of idealism was partly a result of the stultifying political atmosphere of the autocracy, but was also an unintended consequence of Tsar Nicholas I's attempt to Russian society", writes historian M. A. Gillespie. "Their flight from the harsh reality of everyday life into the ideal was prepared on an intellectual level by the theosophy of Freemasonry, which exercised great intellectual force in Russian at the time, especially among those whose intellectual education had been shaped by Böhemian mysticism of the radical orthodox sects, the so-called Old Believers." Despite this, the provided the fertile soil for the 's ideological advancements, even in their confrontations.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The Westernizers were the progressive wing of the 1840s and 50s intelligentsia who saw adopting Western European ideas as the necessary way forward for Russia's development. In general Westernizers were advocates of liberal reform, the abolition of serfdom, Western science and technology, and Enlightenment ideals imported particularly from France or Germany.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The (meaning "of indeterminite rank"), which began as an 18th-century legal designation for those of the miscellaneous lower-middle classes, by the 19th century had become a distinct yet ambiguously defined social stratum with a growing presence in the Russian intelligentsia. Put simply, the were "educated commoners". Their backgrounds however, did not include peasants, foreigners, tributary natives, nor urban taxpayers such as merchants, guildsmen, and townsfolk, but instead included lower-end families of clergymen, civil servants, retired military servicemen, and minor officials. While many of the most prominent nihilist thinkers were raised free from the extremes of poverty and hardship — some even having been born into aristocratic families — a connection between the and the new radicals has often been emphasized in comparison to the dominance of aristocratic intellectuals in previous generations.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: As early as the 1840s, the gained significant influence over the development of Russian society and culture, the intelligentsia of this class came to be synonymous with the "revolutionary intelligentsia". Vissarion Belinsky and members of the Petrashevsky Circle were among these, being prominent figures of the movement to abolish serfdom. Of the nihilist generation, Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Nikolay Dobrolyubov, and Maxim Antonovich were all sons of unaffluent priests before turning to atheist materialism.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Russian materialism, which quickly became synonymous with Russian nihilism, developed under the influence of Left Hegelian materialism from Germany and the delayed influence of the French Enlightenment. The origins of this followed from Ludwig Feuerbach as a direct reaction to the German idealism which had found such popularity under the —namely the works of Friedrich Schelling, Georg Hegel and Johann Fichte. However, it was in fact those among the older generation who were first characterized as nihilists, and it was Left Hegelianism that the Schellingians began to define as nihilism.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: After severely struggling in the face of censorship — from which much of its core content is left unclear and obscured — the open academic development of Russian materialism would later be suppressed by the state after an attempted assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1866, and would not see a significant intellectual revival until the late nineteenth century. The "Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy" states:


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Left Hegelianism in Russia began with those of the Westernizer generation who sought to radicalize Hegelian thought and build upon Ludwig Feuerbach's materialism. Among these were Alexander Herzen and Mikhail Bakunin, both sons of noblemen though Herzen had been born illegitimate. Bakunin became a Hegelian in 1838 and an extreme Left Hegelian shortly after visiting Berlin in 1840. That same year, Herzen began work on his own analysis of Hegel interpreted through August Cieszkowski and Feuerbach.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Both Bakunin and Herzen held concerns about the extremes of materialism. Whereas Bakunin is more strictly considered a Russian materialist, Herzen sought a reconciliation between empiricist materialism and abstract thought. He saw universalism as one of the great achievements of idealism which a crude materialism could threaten. In one of the first serious attempts to give a radical left-wing interpretation of Hegelian dialectics, Bakunin wrote his 1942 article "The Reaction in Germany" and essentially foreshadowed later generations of nihilists with his infamous declaration:


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Bakunin and Herzen began to meet rejection from others in the Westernizer camp for their open embrace of far-left politics. For Herzen this came with embracing the anarchist socialism of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, whose ideas he began circulating among Moscow's radical circles in the 1840s. The first roots of Bakunin's own interest in anarchism can also be traced to around this time. Bakunin was also the one to introduce Hegelian thought to Vissarion Belinsky.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Often considered the first of the , Nikolay Chernyshevsky became an admirer of Feuerbach, Herzen, and Belinsky towards the end of the 1840s. It was at this time that he drew towards socialist materialism and was in close contact with members of the Petrashevsky Circle.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: It was not until the death of Nicholas I in 1855 and the end of the Crimean War the following year that this Feuerbachian materialist trend developed into a broad philosophical movement. Alexander II's ascent to the throne brought liberal reforms to university entry regulations and loosened control over publication, much to the movement's good fortune. The newly emerging generation continued to draw from the Left Hegelians but thoroughly abandoned Hegel and the German idealists from whom they had drawn their influence. Where those early thinkers such as Bakunin and Herzen had found use of Fitche and Hegel, the younger generation were set on their rejection of idealism and were more ready to abandon politics as well. Historian K. Petrov writes that:


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: German materialists Ludwig Büchner, Jacob Moleschott, and Carl Vogt became new favourites. Further influence came from the utilitarian ideas of John Stuart Mill, though his bourgeois liberalism was detested, and later from evolutionary biologists Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: In 1855, Chernyshevsky completed his first philosophical work and master's dissertation "The Aesthetic Relation of Art to Reality" — applying Feuerbach's methods to a critique of Hegelian aesthetics. The mid-1850s also saw the emergence of Nikolay Dobrolyubov as a budding university activist and poet.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: As a fellow , he further elborated the ideas of Russian materialism and is at times seen as a leading nihilist. Dobrolyubov had in fact occasionally used the term "nihilism" prior to its popularization at the hands of Turgenev, which he had picked up from sociologist and fellow Vasilij Bervi-Flerovskij, who in turn had used it synonymously with skepticism. Together with Chernyshevsky, of whom he was a disciple and comrade, Dobrolyubov wrote for the literary journal "Sovremennik"—Chernyshevsky being its principle editor. With their contributions, the journal became the primary organ of revolutionary thought in its time. The two of them, later followed by Maxim Antonovich and Dmitry Pisarev, had taken up the Russian tradition of socially-charged literary criticism which Belinsky had begun. The discoursing of Russian literature allowed them the vehicle to have their ideas published that censorship would not have otherwise granted. Pisarev himself wrote at first for "Rassvet" and then for "Russkoye Slovo"—the latter of which came to rival "Sovremennik" in its influence over the radical movement.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: By the late 1850s however, Chernyshevsky had become politically radicalized and began to reject Herzen's social discourse, devoting himself instead to the revolutionary socialist cause. Alongside Chernyshevsky came Ivan Sechenov, who would later be credited as the father of Russian physiology and scientific psychology by Ivan Pavlov. Chernyshenvsky and Sechenov shared the argument that the natural sciences were wholly adequate to study human and animal life according to a deterministic model, and Sechenov lent particular influence to Chernyshevsky in this regard. This more subtle argument was favoured since state censorship made no allowance for outwardly challenging its religious doctrines.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: , as popularized by Dmitry Pisarev, was the marked embrace of the style and cynicism of the nihilist character Yevgeny Bazarov from Ivan Turgenev's "Fathers and Sons", in which the term "nihilism" was first popularized. Pisarev graduated university in 1861, the same year as serfdom was abolished and the first major student demonstration was held in St. Petersburg. Turgenev himself notes that as early as 1862, the year of the novel's publishing, violent protestors had begun calling themselves nihilists. The surge of student activism became the backdrop for Alexander II's education reforms, under the supervision of education minister Aleksandr Vasilevich Golovnin. These reforms however, while conceding an expansion of the intelligentsia, refused to grant more rights to students and university admittance remained exclusively male. Historian Kristian Petrov writes:


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Literary works and journals quickly became enrapt with polemical debate over nihilism. Nikolay Chernyshevsky for his part saw Turgenev's novel as a personal attack on Nikolay Dobrolyubov, and Maxim Antonovich attacked the book with such vitriol that others in the movement took issue with him. Pisarev famously published his own review at the time of the novel's release, where he championed Bazarov as the role model for the new generation and celebrated the embrace of nihilism. To him, Bazarovism was the societal struggle that must be toiled through rather than resisted—he attributed it to the exclusive and distinct spiritual strength of the young and their courage to face social disorder. The popularity of Pisarev's review rivaled that of even the novel itself.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The atmosphere of the 1860s had led to a period of great social and economic upheaval across the country and the driving force of revolutionary activism was taken up by university students in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Mass arson broke out in St. Petersburg in the spring and summer of 1862 and, coinciding with insurrections in Poland, in 1863. Fyodor Dostoevsky saw Nikolay Chernyshevsky as responsible for inciting the revolutionaries to action and supposedly pleaded with him to bring a stop to it. Historian James Buel writes that while St. Petersburg faced threat of destruction, arson became rampant all throughout Russia.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Turgenev's own opinion of Bazarov is highly ambiguous, stating: "Did I want to abuse Bazarov or extol him? "I do not know myself", since I don't know whether I love him or hate him!" Nevertheless, Bazarov represented the triumph of the intelligentsia over those like Turgenev from the aristocracy. Comparing to Ivan Goncharov's "The Precipice", which he describes as a caricature of nihilism, Peter Kropotkin states in his memoirs that Bazarov was a more admiral portrayal yet was still found dissatisfying to nihilists for his harsh attitude, his coldness towards his old parents, and his neglect of duties as a citizen.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Chernyshevsky published his landmark 1863 novel "What Is to Be Done?" while being held at Peter and Paul Fortress as a political prisoner. By an extraordinary failure of bureaucracy, government censors allowed the book to be published without any trouble despite it being the most openly revolutionary work of its era and a direct product of the suppression Chernyshevsky had faced. The novel marked a significant departure for Chernyshevsky into utopian socialism.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: In the meantime, extensive castigation of nihilism had found its place in Russian publication, official government documents, and a burgeoning trend of antinihilistic literature. Notable earlier works of this literary current include Aleksey Pisemsky's "Troubled Seas" (1863), Nikolai Leskov's "No Way Out" (1864), and Viktor Klyushnikov's "The Mirage" (1864). Also in 1864, Fyodor Dostoevsky published his novel "Notes from Underground" as a direct satire upon Chernyshevsky's novel. Interestingly, the protagonist both criticizes and is a parody of Chernyshevsky's views on egoism. Dostoevsky posited this dislikable glorifier of self-will as a more realistic portrayal of an egoist than the benign depictions of rational self-interest. virtuous fictional creations were not the genuine, flesh-and-blood egoists whose growing presence in Russia Dostoevsky feared", writes scholar James P. Scanlan. "Yet the doctrine these pseudo-egoists advanced – rational egoism – was a genuine danger, because by glorifying the self it could turn the minds of impressionable young people away from sound values and push them in the direction of a true, immoral, destructive egoism."


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Chernyshevsky continued to write essays and literature while incarcerated. In 1864, he was sentenced and given a mock execution before being exiled to Siberia, where he served seven years in forced labour camps followed by further imprisonment. Chernyshevsky gained a legendary reputation as a martyr of the radical movement and, unlike Mikhail Bakunin, not once did he plead for mercy or pardon during his treatment at the hands of the state.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Leading up to 1864, the movement underwent what Dostoevsky termed the 'schism of the nihilists'. The "Sovremennik" began taking a more moderate or even regressive position while "Russkoye Slovo" continued to push further into radical nihilism. Maxim Antonovich, now head of the "Sovremennik"'s literary criticism department entered into bitter disputes with other publications ever since his disagreements with Pisarev over Bazarovism. Under Pisarev, "Russkoye Slovo" took over as the leading journal of radical thought.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Revolutionary organizations during the 1860s took only the form of conspiratorial groups. From the revolutionary turmoil of the years 1859–1861, which had included peasant uprisings in Bezdna and Kandievka, the secret society "Zemlya i volya" emerged under the strong influence of Nikolay Chernyshevsky's writings. Among its key members were Nikolai Serno-Solovyevich, his brother Aleksandr Serno-Solovyevich, Aleksandr Sleptsov, Nikolai Obruchev and Vasily Kurochkin. The full extent of the organization spanned St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Perm, and several cities in Ukraine.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: The group supported the intellectual development of social and political thought that expressed the critical interests of the Russian peasantry, and also worked to publish and disseminate prohibited revolutionary writings and ideas to commoners, intellectuals, and soldiers. Alexander Herzen, Nikolay Ogarev, and Mikhail Bakunin all kept contact with its leadership. "Zemlya i volya" accrued supporters within the Russian military and allied itself with revolutionary activity in Poland. In league with the organization was the Ishutin Circle, founded in Moscow in 1863, under the leadership of Nikolai Ishutin. Historian Shneer Mendelevich Levin writes:


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: After the disappearance of "Zemlya i volya", the Ishutin Circle began to unite various underground groups in Moscow. The group arranged the escape of Polish revolutionary Jarosław Dąbrowski from prison in 1864. The same year, the group founded a bookbinding workshop, then in 1865, a sewing workshop, a tuition-free school, and a cotton wadding cooperative. They failed, however, in their attempts to arrange Chernyshevsky's escape from penal servitude. Ties were forged with Russian political , Polish revolutionaries, and fellow organizations in Saratov, Nizhny Novgorod, Kaluga Province, and elsewhere. The Circle then formed a steering committee, known as the Organization, and a sub-group within it known as Hell. Dmitry Karakozov, who was the cousin of Nikolai Ishutin, joined the Circle in 1866 and on April 4 of that year carried out an attempted assassination of Alexander II, firing a shot at the Tsar at the gates of the Summer Garden in Saint Petersburg. The attempt failed and Karakozov was sentenced to death. Nikolai Ishutin was also arrested and sentenced to be executed before ultimately being exiled to a life of forced labour in Siberia. In total, thirty-two members of the Circle were sentenced.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Following the attempt on the Tsar's life, the political environment in Russia immediately began returning to the stifling atmosphere of Nicholas I's rule.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Dostoevsky published his following work, "Crime and Punishment", in 1866, particularly in response to Pisarev's writings.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: "Zemlya i volya" was re-established in 1876, originally under the name (Northern Revolutionary-Populist Group), by Mark Natanson and Alexander Dmitriyevich Mikhaylov. As a political party, the organization became the first to separate itself from past conspiratorial groups with its open advocacy of revolution. The party was predominated by Bakuninists, though became the first truly organization to emerge.


title: Russian nihilist movement

text: Sergei Nechayev heightened aggression within the movement and pressed for violent conflict against the tsarist regime. He appeared on the scene in 1868, and soon afterward fled to Switzerland. Bakunin, an admirer of Nechayev's zeal and success, provided contacts and resources to send Nechayev back to Russia to found a new secret cell based organization, called the People's Retribution (Russian: Narodnaya Rasprava), based on the principles of the "Catechism". The uncompromising tone and content of the "Catechism" was influential far beyond the mere character Nechayev personified in the minds of the revolutionaries. The organization had just a few dozen members when student Ivan Ivanovich Ivanov—one of Nechayev's first and most active followers—began to protest the leader's methods. This threat to his authority spurred Nechayev into action. He secretly gathered the group members closest to him, declared that the mysterious imaginary central committee possessed the evidence of Ivanov's betrayal, albeit not producible for security reasons, and obtained his death sentence. Author Ronald Hingley wrote: "On the evening of 21 November 1869 the victim [Ivanov] was accordingly lured to the premises of the Moscow School of Agriculture, a hotbed of revolutionary sentiment, where Nechayev killed him by shooting and strangulation, assisted without great enthusiasm by three dupes. [...] Nechayev's accomplices were arrested and tried", while he managed to flee back to Switzerland again. Upon his return from Russia to Switzerland, Nechayev was rejected by Bakunin for taking militant actions and was later extradited back to Russia where he spent the remainder of his life at the Peter and Paul Fortress. Due to his charisma and force of will, Nechayev continued to influence events, maintaining a relationship to Narodnaya Volya and weaving even his jailers into his plots and escape plans. In December 1881 69 members of the prison guard were arrested and Nechayev's prison regime was rendered exceedingly harsher. He was found dead of scurvy in his cell on 21 November 1882.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State University (PSU) is a public research university in Portland, Oregon. It was founded in 1946 as a post-secondary educational institution for World War II veterans. It evolved into a four-year college over the following two decades and was granted university status in 1969. It is the only public university in the state of Oregon that is located in a large city. It is governed by a board of trustees. PSU is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State is composed of seven constituent colleges, offering undergraduate degrees in one hundred twenty-three fields, and postgraduate degrees in one hundred seventeen fields. Schools at Portland State include the School of Business Administration, College of Education, School of Social Work, College of Urban and Public Affairs, College of the Arts, Maseeh College of Engineering and Computer Science, and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. The athletic teams are known as the Portland State Vikings with school colors of green and white. Teams compete at the NCAA Division I Level, primarily in the Big Sky Conference.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State University was established as the Vanport Extension Center in June 1946, founded by Stephen Edward Epler, a native of Iowa. Epler graduated from Cotner College in Lincoln, Nebraska, and later Columbia University in New York City, before joining the army to fight in World War II. After returning to the United States after serving, Epler became a veterans' counselor in Oregon's General Extension Division in Portland. The Vanport Extension Center was conceived by Epler in order to satisfy the demand for higher education in Portland for returning World War II veterans, taking advantage of the G.I. Bill. The G.I. Bill was passed in 1944 to provide college, high school or vocational education for returning World War II veterans, as well as one year of unemployment compensation.


title: Portland State University

text: The first classes were held in the Vanport Junior High School and given its location in the Columbia River floodplain was promptly given the colloquial title, "The U by the Slough." This first summer session had 221 students, and tuition and fees were $50. Over 1,410 students registered for the 1946 fall term, which was delayed until October 7, 1946, due to a lack of space. Since the population in Vanport was decreasing after World War II, the extension center was able to use buildings created for other purposes: two childcare centers, a recreation building with three classrooms, and a shopping center, which required substantial modification to house a library, offices, and six classrooms. In addition to Vanport Junior High School, Lincoln and Jefferson high schools were used after school hours, as well as the University of Oregon's dental and medical schools, located in Portland.


title: Portland State University

text: Following the May 30 Vanport Flood of 1948, the college became known as "the college that wouldn't die" for refusing to close after the flood. The term was coined by Lois Hennessy, a student who wrote about the college and the flood in the "Christian Science Monitor", though students nicknamed the school "The college without a future." (Hennessy was the mother of poet Gary Snyder.) The school occupied Grant High School in the summer of 1948, then to hastily converted buildings at the Oregon Shipyard, known as the Oregon Ship. In 1953, the school moved to downtown Portland and occupied the vacated buildings of Lincoln High School on SW Broadway Street, including Lincoln Hall, then known as "Old Main."


title: Portland State University

text: The school changed its name to the Portland State Extension Center between December 1951 and February 1952. In 1955, the Center changed its name to Portland State College to mark its maturation into a four-year degree-granting institution, although severe restrictions were placed on the college's curriculum and growth. Epler, who had campaigned for a presidency role at the college, was not elected by the State Board. Without an administrative stake in the college, Epler left and accepted presidency at Reedley College in California. By 1956, the veteran population at the college had subsided, and baby food was no longer stocked in the bookstore.


title: Portland State University

text: A team from Portland State entered and won the 1965 General Electric College Bowl the nationally televised quiz show that pitted teams of college students from across the country against each other. The team knocked off its competitors for five consecutive weeks, retiring as champions, and setting a new record for total points scored. The university's Smith Memorial Student Union building was named after team member Michael J. Smith, who competed in the tournament while suffering from cystic fibrosis and died in 1968.


title: Portland State University

text: Architecture at the university was a topic of controversy in its early stages. In 1968, incoming university president Gregory Wolfe commented that the buildings were distressing evidence of Stalinist cubism on campus, although urban renewal chairman Ira Keller found them to be "perfectly lovely." Portland State University's growth for the next couple of decades was restricted under the Oregon University System's 1929 ruling that no public university or college in Oregon could duplicate the programs offered by another, with grandfathered exclusions for the University of Oregon and Oregon State University.


title: Portland State University

text: Nevertheless, graduate programs were added in 1961 and doctoral programs were added in 1972. The institution was granted university status by the Oregon State Board of Higher Education in 1969, becoming Portland State University.


title: Portland State University

text: In 1993, PSU did away with the traditional undergraduate distribution system and adopted a new interdisciplinary general education program known as University Studies. The University Studies curriculum consists of one year of required freshman inquiry courses followed by a year of sophomore inquiry, junior cluster courses (which serve as upperclassmen electives) and, finally, a senior capstone; the senior capstone course serves as a "culmination of the University Studies program," and requires students to take part in a community-based project of their choosing, often followed by a public presentation on their experience in the project. The program garnered national attention for its learning communities, service-learning, senior capstones, and successful retention of first-year students. "U.S. News & World Report" has on multiple occasions listed University Studies as a "Program to Look For". In 1995, two years before his death, the university honored Stephen Epler for his contributions to the university's origins.


title: Portland State University

text: In 2003 Portland State was approved to award degrees in Black Studies. That same year the university opened a center housed in the Native American Student and Community Center. In 2004 Fariborz Maseeh, an alumnus of the university, donated, through The Massiah Foundation, $8 million to the College of Engineering and Computer Science. The college was renamed the Maseeh College of Engineering and Computer Science. This was the largest single donation to the university at the time and this gift along with others led to, in May 2006, the opening of a new engineering building, the "Northwest Center for Engineering, Science and Technology", which houses much of the college. The LEED gold-certified engineering building reflects the university's increased emphasis on engineering, science and technology. The facility includes classrooms, offices and 41 research and teaching labs.


title: Portland State University

text: In 2006, Portland State was declared to be the nation's first Salmon Safe University by the nonprofit organization Salmon Safe. The award was given to recognize campus-wide efforts toward environmental sustainability by treating storm water runoff before it reaches the local watershed.


title: Portland State University

text: On June 3, 2008, the Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter Partner Foundation announced Portland State as the recipient of The Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter Partnership Award for Campus-Community Collaboration for their Watershed Stewardship Program. The program has led over 27,000 community volunteers donating a quarter of a million hours to install 80,000 plants and restore of watershed along of river. Individual projects have been led and supported by 700 students working as part of class projects, resulting in two master's theses and three research articles. In 2017, the university was once again recognized by "U.S. News" as one of the top 10 most innovative universities in the country, in a list of "schools that the public should be watching because of the cutting-edge changes being made on their campuses. PSU has been on the most innovative list for three consecutive years."


title: Portland State University

text: In August 2020, citing the George Floyd protests as well as the killing of a Black man by PSU (campus police) officers in 2018, university President Stephen Percy announced that the campus police will no longer carry guns on patrol (though firearms will still be stored in the public safety office for use in case of an active shooter situation). In case of dangerous calls, Portland police will respond instead. The policy took effect on September 1, 2021.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State offers undergraduate degrees in one hundred twenty-three fields, and postgraduate degrees in one hundred and seventeen. The university has increasingly added more doctoral programs as it has grown from its original mission as a liberal arts undergraduate college into a more broad-based research university. Recently added fields where doctorates are awarded are mathematics, biology, chemistry, applied physics, computer science, applied psychology, engineering & technology management, mechanical engineering, and sociology. Graduate education is now offered in more than 70 master's degree programs, more than 30 graduate certificate programs, and 20 doctoral programs.


title: Portland State University

text: In 2006, the College of Urban and Public Affairs established Portland State University's first fully online degree. The Division of Criminology and Criminal Justice offers an online bachelor's degree in criminology and criminal justice as well as certificates in Advanced Crime Analysis, Criminal Behavior, Leadership in Criminal Justice, and a post-baccalaureate certificate in Criminology and Criminal Justice. Portland State awarded a total of 6,050 degrees for the 2014–15 academic year, including 4,250 bachelor's degrees, 1,725 master's degrees and 75 doctoral degrees.


title: Portland State University

text: According to the "U.S. News & World Report" and "Forbes", the university's acceptance rate was 66% in 2012, which was considered selective for a state university. According to "Forbes" in their 2015 survey, the university's acceptance rate was 61%. Portland State also has a dual enrollment agreement with Portland Community College and Clackamas Community College that allows students of the two schools to take courses at either school, and also complies with the Associate of Arts Oregon Transfer Degree curriculum (A.A.O.T.), which allows accepted students who have completed two year associate degrees at an Oregon community college to transfer into the university at junior level.


title: Portland State University

text: In addition, Portland State University, through the School of Extended Studies, offers continuing education and special learning activities, including credit courses, degree-completion programs, distance-learning courses, noncredit community programs, re-licensure, certifications, high school courses, summer programs, and online study.


title: Portland State University

text: In 1993, PSU comprehensively reformed its undergraduate curriculum with a new curriculum called University Studies that is unique to the institution. The curriculum was conceived to address issues of credit distribution which required students in upper-level courses to enroll in classes outside of their majors. In a 1993 summary report on the reform, it was stated that the University Studies sought to incorporate "'across-the-curriculum' themes including writing, diversity and multiculturalism, ethics, and global studies," as well as form a foundation that "includes the capacity and the propensity to engage in inquiry and critical thinking, to use various forms of communication for learning and expression, to gain an awareness of the broader human experience and its environment, and appreciate the responsibilities of persons to themselves, to each other, and to community."


title: Portland State University

text: PSU's University Studies curriculum begins with "Freshman Inquiry" courses, which are interactive and theme-based, and "explore topics and issues using an interdisciplinary approach to show how they can be understood from different perspectives." In these courses, professors are paired with junior and senior level students who assist in leading group discussions, as well as a peer mentor who leads smaller inquiry sessions.


title: Portland State University

text: The "Sophomore Inquiry" courses are heavily communication-based, and are focused on group dialogue as well as presentations and research projects. These courses are designed to allow sophomore students to explore topics that are complementary to their chosen majors.


title: Portland State University

text: As students transition into junior level, they are required to enroll in Upper Division "Cluster Courses" which are more in-depth and focused, as they pertain more closely to the students' chosen majors. Unlike the inquiry courses that make up students' freshmen and sophomore years, the upper-division courses do not feature mentor sessions. The "clusters" from which students choose their courses cover a wide range of disciplines and themes.


title: Portland State University

text: During their senior year, while still completing upper-division "Cluster Courses", students are also required to complete a six-credit senior capstone project in order to graduate. The capstone integrates class work with community-based work. These projects are integrated with local community organizations, and cover a wide range of issues, from social justice to grantwriting, environmental conservation, youth education, and more. Capstone courses often conclude with a public presentation from the students on their experiences with the community organization or cause which they explored.


title: Portland State University

text: The university received national recognition for the program from the "U.S. News & World Report", the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, the Corporation for National Service, the Atlantic Foundation, and the Pew Charitable Trust for the innovative pedagogical approach to undergraduate education.


title: Portland State University

text: The Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education ranks Portland State as a university with "higher research activity." The 1.4 million-volume, six-floor Branford Price Millar Library is located in the center of campus, opposite Fariborz Maseeh Hall on Park Avenue, and has several computer labs, technology and faculty reading rooms, and video viewing rooms. Built in 1966 as a rectangular structure, the library's convex wall of glass facing the campus' park blocks was added in 1989 to surround and preserve a large copper beech tree that was planted in 1890.


title: Portland State University

text: The Millar Library houses approximately 1,422,427 volumes, 640 print subscriptions, 97,065 accessible electronic books, 2,592,288 microforms, 69,762 maps, and 133,978 audio-visual materials. It is also a repository for federal documents, housing over 400,000 government documents. The Millar Library is open to the public, and allows non-students access to their catalogues of PDF files and published online journals.


title: Portland State University

text: "U.S. News & World Report" ranked Portland State as a second tier research university in their 2017 report, but listed it as unranked nationally.


title: Portland State University

text: by "The Princeton Review". Portland State's MBA (Master's of Business Administration) was ranked in the top 100 by "The Princeton Review", who also named Portland State as one of the best institutions in the country for undergraduate education. In 2015, the university ranked at number 16 as one of the "Most Innovative" colleges in the nation.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State University's School of Business Administration is also ranked in surveys, such as "The Princeton Review"'s "Best 294 Business Schools". "U.S. News & World Report" currently ranks Portland State University's graduate Urban & Regional Planning Program as the 14th best in the Nation. Planetizen currently ranks the university's graduate Urban & Regional Planning Program, at the Nohad A. Toulan School of Urban Studies and Planning, within the top 25 best urban planning programs in the nation.


title: Portland State University

text: Other top programs/colleges at Portland State University include its graduate College of Urban and Public Affairs which is ranked 46th in the nation, its Rehabilitation Counseling and Social Work graduate degrees ranked 23rd and 33rd respectively, its Speech-Language Pathology program is ranked 62nd, as well as its Graduate School of Education is ranked as being among the "Best" by "U.S. News & World Report". The university is listed by "U.S. News & World Report" as having one of The Best Undergraduate Engineering Programs. The Carnegie Foundation ranked PSU as a Top School in Curricular Engagement, Outreach, and Partnerships, and it is ranked as the ninth Best Neighbor Universities.


title: Portland State University

text: Aside from academics, Portland State University is world-renowned for its sustainability and green initiatives. PSU has a Gold STARS Rating for Sustainability, is ranked among the Nation's Top Green Schools and has a Top Green Business School ranking by "The Princeton Review", it is also home to seven LEED-certified schools.


title: Portland State University

text: The majority of the PSU campus is located across a section of southwest downtown Portland, in an area known as the University District. The campus is situated against the West Hills, and is bound by Clay Street to the north, Fourth Avenue to the east, Interstate 405 to the south, and 12th Avenue to the west. SW Broadway runs through the center of the campus, where the university's central buildings are located: Lincoln Hall, Cramer Hall, Smith Memorial Student Union, Fariborz Maseeh Hall, and Shattuck Hall; Cramer Hall, Smith Memorial, and Fariborz Maseeh Hall are connected by tunnels on the basement levels, as well as by skybridges on the upper levels, which allows students access between buildings without having to use street sidewalks.


title: Portland State University

text: The university's South Park Blocks, situated on the opposite side of the central buildings, run parallel to Park Avenue, and begin at Market Street where Lincoln Hall is located, and end at Shattuck Hall. The northern edge of the PSU campus is eight blocks away from Pioneer Courthouse Square, and four blocks from the Portland Art Museum. The Keller Auditorium is located at the northwestern edge of the campus, on 3rd Ave. and Clay St.


title: Portland State University

text: In 2010, the university opened a $62 million Gold LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Certified Student Rec Center. The six-story building houses an aquatics center, climbing wall, basketball/volleyball/badminton courts, an indoor soccer court, a large fitness area, and an outdoor program; it is located in the university's Urban Center, a quadrangle which is also home to the College of Urban and Public Affairs, the university bookstore, and several restaurants; the Portland Streetcar runs west through the center.


title: Portland State University

text: The student-managed PSU Film Committee operates the 5th Avenue Cinema, one of the only student operated theaters in the United States. The cinema is open to the public and screens films weekly, with students receiving free admission, and many of the university's film studies courses are held in the screening rooms.


title: Portland State University

text: Although largely a commuter school, PSU houses around 3,000 undergraduate and graduate students, and has ten residence halls. Its largest include University Pointe, a sixteen-story apartment building operated by American Campus Communities built in 2011, and Ondine, a fifteen-story high rise. Older residence halls, many of which were originally apartment buildings that were purchased by the university, include Blackstone, built in 1930, and Montgomery Court, built in 1916; other older residence halls include St. Helens Court, built in 1927 and soon to be demolished; the art deco Parkway Manor, built in 1931; and Blumel Hall, built in 1986.


title: Portland State University

text: Other residence buildings were constructed post-millennium, including the Stephen Epler Hall (built in 2003) and the Broadway (built in 2004). Further steps toward increasing housing capacity — and university control over its own housing — are being taken with plans for further construction, and with Portland State taking over management of the residence halls it currently owns.


title: Portland State University

text: In March 2007, Portland State University took over the managing of the on-campus housing at Portland State University. College Housing Northwest, which has managed the on-campus housing buildings (including the Broadway, Stephen Epler Hall, West Hall, King Albert Hall, St. Helens, Montgomery Court, and Ondine) for over 30 years, will still maintain its off-campus housing (including Goose Hollow, The Palidian, The Cambrian, and Clay).


title: Portland State University

text: Optional residential and social opportunities exist with a small but active Greek system, which includes:


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State University has numerous pieces of public art around campus from renowned local, national and international artists, such as Frederic Littman, Thomas Hardy, Ken MacKintosh & Lillian Pitt, Emily Ginsburg, Harrell Fletcher with Avalon Kalin, Linda Stein, John Aiken, and Ed Carpenter.


title: Portland State University

text: There are several art galleries and spaces for exhibiting art at PSU: the MK Gallery, AB Gallery and Sugar Cube Gallery within PSU's School of Art + Design; the Broadway Gallery in Lincoln Performance Hall; and the Littman + White Galleries in Smith Memorial Student Union. Littman + White Galleries are among the United States' only student-run contemporary art galleries. In 2018, the Autzen Gallery at Neuberger Hall was closed amid restorations for the building, and will be replaced with the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art at Portland State University.


title: Portland State University

text: The university has made great efforts to make its buildings environmentally sustainable, both in its new architecture as well as through renovation of its older buildings. In September 2008 the James F. and Marion L. Miller Foundation awarded Portland State University a $25 million challenge grant. The grant and the funds raised to match it must be used exclusively for sustainability programs.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State's sustainability research and education, led by Jennifer Allen, director of the Portland State Institute for Sustainable Solutions, is focused on four primary areas of inquiry: creating sustainable urban communities, the integration of human societies and the natural environment, implementing sustainability and mechanisms of change and measuring sustainability. Since 1998, the Miller Foundation has also contributed more than $5.3 million to Portland State.


title: Portland State University

text: , eight buildings on the PSU campus are LEED-certified, two of which are at Platinum status, and the university announced plans for renovations on Neuberger Hall to bring it to LEED certification as well in 2014. Portland State has been named among the most eco-friendly universities in the United States. In addition to the university's eco-conscious architecture and reconstructive work, it has also been recognized for its utilization of mass transit, including light rail, streetcar, and bus systems all central to the campus. It has also been recognized for its abundance of bicycle transportation; in 2013, PSU was ranked one of America's six most bike-friendly universities, third to Stanford University and University of California, Davis.


title: Portland State University

text: Outside Shattuck Hall, the university's architecture department constructed the Shattuck Hall Ecological Learning Plaza, a garden featuring green walls, solar panels, and permeable pavement. The university also features its own community garden.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State differs from the other universities in Oregon partially because, as an urban institution, it attracts a student body older than other universities; in the 2010–2011 school year, it was reported that the average age of an attending undergraduate student was 26 years. Some programs only offer night classes. PSU also delayed the development of its campus for decades after its founding. The institution sold land in a neighboring block soon after its move to downtown Portland, and delayed the construction of student housing until the early 1970s.


title: Portland State University

text: The student government is the Associated Students of Portland State University (ASPSU). In addition to a student body President and Vice President, there is a Student Fee Committee, a 25-member Student Senate, and a Judicial Board which rules on ASPSU constitutional questions. There are also a number of university committees that have student members appointed by the ASPSU President. Portland State also participates in the Oregon Student Association, the statewide student lobbying non-profit.


title: Portland State University

text: The fully student-run newspaper at Portland State is the "Portland State Vanguard", established in 1946. Student-run broadcasters run radio station KPSU which is ranked in the Top 20 College Radio Stations by several organizations and is one of only a handful of "Free Format" radio stations in the country, and television station PSU TV. "The Portland Review" is a literary magazine of poetry, fiction, and art published by PSU's Student Publications Board since 1956. Additional student newspapers at PSU were "The Rearguard", an alternative-monthly newspaper, and "The Spectrum." Following budget cuts for these publications, they were consolidated into a monthly magazine "The Pacific Sentinel" in January 2016.


title: Portland State University

text: The university houses a Women's Resources center, a Disability Resources center, a Resource Center for Students with Children, a Queer Resource Center for LGBT students, and a Veteran's Resource Center.


title: Portland State University

text: Fraternities and sororities at Portland State University are represented by a student-run group called "Greek Life" or "Greek Council". The council's purpose is to facilitate between the university and the Greek Community on campus, provide a venue for communication between individual Chapters, and to facilitate socials, fundraisers, and other philanthropic events. The council is made up of six executive offices (President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Special Events Chair, and Public Relations) and represents the following Greek Organizations to date: Alpha Kappa Alpha, Alpha Kappa Psi, Alpha Phi Alpha, Alpha Chi Omega, Kappa Sigma, Omega Delta Phi and Phi Delta Theta.


title: Portland State University

text: The university contains four parking structures for automobiles: two located on 6th Avenue; one on 12th Street at the northwestern edge of the campus; and one 5th Avenue between Montgomery and Harrison Streets. A guest parking lot is located on the south end of Shattuck Hall.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State University is serviced with mass transit by TriMet, which includes fifteen bus lines as well as the MAX light rail system. The MAX Green Line, MAX Yellow Line, and Portland Streetcar all service the university, with numerous stops located within the campus. The Green Line runs to the southernmost point of the university, at the PSU South MAX Station, located at SW 6th & College; the north-bound Yellow Line stop is at 5th & Jackson. Both lines have stops at PSU Urban Center stations, which is located at the center of the campus. The Urban Center plaza also has connections to the Portland Streetcar's NS Line as well as TriMet buses.


title: Portland State University

text: There are also shuttles available through Oregon Health & Science University and Portland Community College on SW Harrison Street at SW Broadway. In addition to use of mass transit, the university also has a large population of students who travel by bicycle.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State competes at the NCAA Division I level in football, basketball, women's volleyball, golf, soccer, tennis, softball, indoor and outdoor track and field, and cross country as a member of the Big Sky Conference. The football team competes in Division I FCS (Football Championship Subdivision).


title: Portland State University

text: Prior to joining Division I, the school won NCAA National Division II championships in women's volleyball and wrestling. The school has also placed second twice nationally in football and once in women's basketball at the Division II level.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State's colors are green and white, and its mascot is the Viking personified as "Victor E. Viking". Among the two more notable former Portland State athletes are Freeman Williams and Neil Lomax. Williams was the NCAA Division I national men's basketball individual scoring leader in 1977 and 1978. Lomax was a record-setting quarterback who went on to star for the St. Louis Cardinals in the NFL in the mid-1980s. Football's "Run & Shoot" offense was first implemented at the college level at PSU by coach Darryl "Mouse" Davis. An assistant coach at Portland State, Davis took over as head coach in 1975 following the departure of Ron Stratten. Behind his revolutionary new "Run-and-Shoot" offense (developed in the late 1960s at Hillsboro (OR) HS) and a strong-armed quarterback named June Jones, Davis led the Viking program to new heights— an 8–3 record, including a perfect 5–0 home mark. Davis' quarterback protégés were Lomax and Jones.


title: Portland State University

text: Home games for football are held off-campus at Hillsboro Stadium, and home games for basketball are held on-campus in the Viking Pavilion. In 2008, the men's basketball team earned their first ever bid into the NCAA tournament.


title: Portland State University

text: The university has 30 student-managed club sports on campus including the PSU Rugby Club, the PSU Ice Hockey Club and the PSU Lacrosse Club. In addition, the Student Activities and Leadership Program sponsors 120 student clubs including the Tango, Fencing, Medieval and Brewers' clubs.


title: Portland State University

text: The university has several alumni in law and government, including Barbara Roberts, the 34th Governor of Oregon, U.S. Federal Judge Anna J. Brown, and American diplomats Joseph LeBaron and Marisa Lino. Betty Roberts, the first woman to serve on the Oregon Supreme Court, and Margaret Carter, the first African American woman elected to the Oregon House of Representatives, are also graduates of the university. Casten Nemra, the seventh president of the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and Arnold I. Palacios the 12th Lt. Governor of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands are graduates of Portland State University as well.


title: Portland State University

text: Portland State has produced many academics across the sciences and humanities; alumni include: cultural anthropologist and professor at Duke University Lee D. Baker; Michael Kazin, historian and professor at Georgetown University; Dali Yang, professor of political science at the University of Chicago; Thomas Talbott, professor of philosophy at Willamette University; and Hans G. Furth, professor of psychology at The Catholic University of America.


title: Portland State University

text: Businessman and engineer Norm Winningstad, United Parcel Service CEO D. Scott Davis, and Judi Hofer, executive CEO of The May Department Stores Company are also graduates. Business magnate and co-founder and chairman of Nike, Inc., Phil Knight was an assistant professor of business at the university, and his son, animator and CEO of Laika, Travis Knight, is an alumnus. Carolyn Davidson, an alumnus of the university's visual arts department, invented the Nike swoosh while she was a student there. Tarah Wheeler, cybersecurity executive and author of Women In Tech, received her MS in Political Science from the Hatfield School.


title: Portland State University

text: Writer Francisco Laguna Correa; poets Michael Dickman and John Sibley Williams; and novelists Deborah J. Ross and David James Duncan are among the university's alumni; Mike Richardson, publisher and founder of Dark Horse Comics, is an alumnus as well. In 2007, Dark Horse donated copies of all of its published works to the PSU Library, which maintains both a browsing collection of book titles, in addition to a research collection which also includes every "print, poster, statue, figure, and all other products."


title: Portland State University

text: In the sciences, the university's alumni base include computer scientist and Turing Award winner Ivan Sutherland, theoretical physicist Mohammad Aslam Khan Khalil, autism researcher Paul Shattuck, and Antarctic researcher Jill Mikucki. Several social activists are among alumni as well, including British political scientist and peace-building initiative pioneer Harry Anastasiou; Native American activist Robert Robideau; gay rights activist Paul Popham, who founded the Gay Men's Health Crisis in New York City and social activist and recipient of the Director's Community Leadership Award (DCLA) Musse Olol.


title: Portland State University

text: The university's contribution to performing arts and entertainment include actors Mark Dacascos and Terence Knox; four-time Grammy Award-winning jazz musician Esperanza Spalding; film composer Rob Simonsen; and Jack Ely, guitarist of The Kingsmen. Emmy-winning writer, stand-up comedian, and fantasy draft expert; Ian Karmel. Alternative rock singer and guitarist Courtney Love of Hole also attended the university, but did not graduate.


title: Portland State University

text: Sportsmen who attended Portland State include football players Adam Heyward, Tony Curtis, Super Bowl XLVIII Champion DeShawn Shead, Julius Thomas, two-time Super Bowl Champion (XVII, XXII) Clint Didier, Dave Stief, and Neil Lomax. Freeman Williams, who has the second-highest NCAA score in NBA history, is also an alumnus.


title: Tod Browning

text: Tod Browning (born Charles Albert Browning Jr.; July 12, 1880 – October 6, 1962) was an American film director, film actor, screenwriter, vaudeville performer, and carnival sideshow and circus entertainer. He directed a number of films of various genres between 1915 and 1939, but was primarily known for horror films, and was often cited in the trade press as the Edgar Allan Poe of cinema.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning's career spanned the silent film and sound film eras. He is known as the director of "Dracula" (1931), "Freaks" (1932), and his silent film collaborations with Lon Chaney and Priscilla Dean.


title: Tod Browning

text: Charles Albert Browning, Jr., was born in Louisville, Kentucky, the second son of Charles Albert and Lydia Browning. Charles Albert Sr., "a bricklayer, carpenter and machinist," provided his family with a middle-class and Baptist household. Browning's uncle, the baseball star Pete "Louisville Slugger" Browning saw his sobriquet conferred on the iconic baseball bat.


title: Tod Browning

text: As a child, Browning was fascinated by circus and carnival life. At the age of 16, and before finishing high school, he ran away from his well-to-do family to join a traveling circus.


title: Tod Browning

text: Initially hired as a roustabout, he soon began serving as a "spieler" (a barker at sideshows) and by 1901, at the age of 21, was performing song and dance routines for Ohio and Mississippi riverboat entertainment, as well as acting as a contortionist for the Manhattan Fair and Carnival Company. Browning developed a live burial act in which he was billed as "The Living Hypnotic Corpse", and performed as a clown with the renowned Ringling Brothers circus. He would later draw on these early experiences to inform his cinematic inventions.


title: Tod Browning

text: In 1906, the 26-year-old Browning was briefly married to Amy Louis Stevens in Louisville. Adopting the professional name "Tod" Browning ("tod" is the German word for death), Browning abandoned his wife and became a vaudevillian, touring extensively as both a magician's assistant and a blackface comedian in an act called "The Lizard and the Coon" with comedian Roy C. Jones. He appeared in a Mutt and Jeff sketch in the 1912 burlesque revue "The World of Mirth" with comedian Charles Murray.


title: Tod Browning

text: In 1909, after 13 years performing in carnivals and vaudeville circuits, Browning, age 29, transitioned to film acting.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning's work as a comedic film actor began in 1909 when he performed with director and screenwriter Edward Dillon in film shorts. In all, Browning was cast in over 50 of these one- or two-reeler slapstick productions. Film historian Boris Henry observes that "Browning's experience as a slapstick actor [became] incorporated into his career as a filmmaker." Dillon later provided many of the screenplays for the early films that Browning would direct. A number of actors that Browning performed with in his early acting career would later appear in his own pictures, many of whom served their apprenticeships with Keystone Cops director Max Sennett, among them Wallace Beery, Ford Sterling, Polly Moran, Wheeler Oakman, Raymond Griffith, Kalla Pasha, Mae Busch, Wallace MacDonald and Laura La Varnie.


title: Tod Browning

text: In 1913, the 33-year-old Browning was hired by film director D. W. Griffith at Biograph Studios in New York City, first appearing as an undertaker in "Scenting a Terrible Crime" (1913). Both Griffith and Browning departed Biograph and New York that same year and together joined Reliance-Majestic Studios in Hollywood, California. Browning was featured in several Reliance-Majestic films, including "The Wild Girl" (1917).


title: Tod Browning

text: Film historian Vivian Sobchack reports that "a number of one- or two-reelers are attributed to Browning from 1914 to 1916" and biographer Michael Barson credits Browning's directorial debut to the one-reeler drama "The Lucky Transfer", released in March 1915.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning's career almost ended when, intoxicated, he drove his vehicle into a railroad crossing and collided with a locomotive. Browning suffered grievous injuries, as did passenger George Siegmann. A second passenger, actor Elmer Booth was killed instantly. Film historian Jon Towlson notes that "alcoholism was to contribute to a major trauma in Browning's personal life that would shape his thematic obsessions...After 1915, Browning began to direct his traumatic experience into his work – radically reshaping it in the process." According to biographers David J. Skal and Elias Savada, the tragic event transformed Browning's creative outlook:


title: Tod Browning

text: Indeed, the thirty-one films that Browning wrote and directed between 1920 to 1939 were, with few exceptions, melodramas.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning's injuries likely precluded a further career as an actor. During his protracted convalescence, Browning turned to writing screenplays for Reliance-Majestic. Upon his recovery, Browning joined Griffith's film crew on the set of "Intolerance" (1916) as an assistant director and appeared in a bit part for the production's "modern story" sequence.


title: Tod Browning

text: Film historian Vivian Sobchack identifies four plots or mise-en-scène in which Browning presents his themes:


title: Tod Browning

text: Sobchack points out that the plot synopsis for these films, considered independently of their cinematic treatments, appear "ludicrous" or "bizarre" in conception. Browning's handling of the material, however, produce "powerful and disturbing realizations on the screen."


title: Tod Browning

text: The melodramas that Browning wrote and directed for M-G-M and Universal are formulaic manifestations of his "compulsive" preoccupation with themes of "moral and sexual frustration, interchangeable guilt [and] patterns of human repulsion and attraction." Biographer Stuart Rosenthal offers this analysis of the director's style and themes:


title: Tod Browning

text: Reality vs. Appearance, in which an individual's social exterior (physical beauty, the trappings of authority or professional status) are exposed as facades masking cruel or criminal behavior. (ex. "The Unholy Three" (1925), "Where East Is East" (1929))


title: Tod Browning

text: Sexual Frustration, often involving a "sacred" father-child or other kinship relation in which "a man's offspring represent extensions of his own sexuality" provoking a protective response to sexual insults from outsiders. (ex. "The Road to Mandalay" (1926), "West of Zanzibar" (1928)).


title: Tod Browning

text: Conflict of Opposing Tendencies within an Individual, leading to a loss of identity when irreconcilable character traits in a person produces alter egos. Author Robert Louis Stevenson's "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" explores this "intractable frustration." (ex. "Outside the Law" (1921), "The Blackbird" (1926)).


title: Tod Browning

text: Inability to Assign Guilt, in which a character resorts to violence or criminal acts in order to avenge injustice, and guilt or blame remains ambiguous. (ex. "The Unknown" (1927), "Freaks" (1932))


title: Tod Browning

text: The factor that unifies all these thematic patterns is frustration: "Frustration is Browning's dominant theme."


title: Tod Browning

text: In 1917, Browning wrote and directed his first full-length feature film, "Jim Bludso", for Fine Arts/ Triangle film companies, starring Wilfred Lucas in the title role. The story is based on a poem by John Hay, a former personal secretary to Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning married his second wife Alice Watson in 1917; they would remain together until her death in 1944.


title: Tod Browning

text: Returning to New York in 1917, Browning directed pictures for Metro Pictures. There he made "Peggy, the Will O' the Wisp" and "The Jury of Fate". Both starred Mabel Taliaferro, the latter in a dual role achieved with double exposure techniques that were groundbreaking for the time. Film historian Vivian Sobchack notes that many of these films "involved the disguise and impersonations found in later Browning films." (See Filmography below.) Browning returned to Hollywood in 1918 and produced three more films for Metro, each of which starred Edith Storey: "The Eyes of Mystery", "The Legion of Death" and "Revenge", all filmed and released in 1918. These early and profitable five-, six- and seven-reel features Browning made between 1917-1919 established him as "a successful director and script writer."


title: Tod Browning

text: In the spring of 1918 Browning departed Metro and signed with Bluebird Photoplays studios (a subsidiary of Carl Laemmle's Universal Pictures), then in 1919 with Universal where he would direct a series of "extremely successful" films starring Priscilla Dean.


title: Tod Browning

text: During his tenure at Universal, Browning directed a number of the studio's top female actors, among them Edith Roberts in "The Deciding Kiss" and "Set Free" (both 1918) and Mary MacLaren in "The Unpainted Woman", "A Petal on the Current" and "Bonnie, Bonnie Lassie", all 1919 productions. Browning's most notable films for Universal, however, starred Priscilla Dean, "Universal's leading lady known for playing 'tough girls'" and with whom he would direct nine features.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning's first successful Dean picture—a "spectacular melodrama"—is "The Virgin of Stamboul" (1920). Dean portrays Sari, a "virgin beggar girl" who is desired by the Turkish chieftain Achmet Hamid (Wallace Beery). Browning's handling of the former slapstick comedian Beery as Achmet reveals the actor's comedic legacy and Browning's own roots in burlesque. Film historian Stuart Rosenthal wrote that the Dean vehicles possess "the seemingly authentic atmosphere with which Browning instilled his crime melodramas, adding immeasurably to later efforts like "The Black Bird" (1926), "The Show" (1927) and "The Unholy Three." (1925)."


title: Tod Browning

text: The Dean films exhibit Browning's fascination with 'exotic' foreign settings and with underworld criminal activities, which serve to drive the action of his films. Dean is cast as a thieving demimonde who infiltrates high society to burgle jewelry in "The Exquisite Thief" (1919); in "Under Two Flags" (1922), set in colonial French Algiers, Dean is cast as a French-Arab member of a harem—her sobriquet is "Cigarette—servicing the French Foreign Legion; and in "Drifting" (1923), with its "compelling" Shanghai, China scenes recreated on the Universal backlot, Dean plays an opium dealer. In Browning's final Dean vehicle at Universal, "White Tiger", he indulged his fascination with "quasi-theatrical" productions of illusion—and revealed to movie audiences the mechanisms of these deceptions. In doing so, Browning—a former member of the fraternity of magicians—violated a precept of their professional code.


title: Tod Browning

text: Perhaps the most fortuitous outcome of the Dean films at Universal is that they introduced Browning to future collaborator Lon Chaney, the actor who would star in Browning's most outstanding films of the silent era. Chaney had already earned the sobriquet "The Man of a Thousand Faces" as early as 1919 for his work at Universal. Universal's vice-president Irving Thalberg paired Browning with Chaney for the first time in "The Wicked Darling" (1919), a melodrama in which Chaney played the thief "Stoop" Conners who forces a poor girl (Dean) from the slums into a life of crime and prostitution.


title: Tod Browning

text: In 1921, Browning and Thalberg enlisted Chaney in another Dean vehicle, "Outside the Law", in which he plays the dual roles of the sinister "Black Mike" Sylva and the benevolent Ah Wing. Both of these Universal production exhibit Browning's "natural affinity for the melodramatic and grotesque." In a special effect that drew critical attention, Chaney appears to murder his own dual character counterpart through trick photography and "with Thalberg supporting their imaginative freedom, Chaney's ability and unique presence fanned the flames of Browning's passion for the extraordinary." Biographer Stuart Rosenthal remarks upon the foundations of the Browning-Chaney professional synergy:


title: Tod Browning

text: When Thalberg resigned as vice-president at Universal to serve as production manager with the newly amalgamated Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1925, Browning and Chaney accompanied him.


title: Tod Browning

text: After moving to M-G-M in 1925 under the auspices of production manager Irving Thalberg, Browning and Chaney made eight critically and commercially successful feature films, representing the zenith of both their silent film careers. Browning wrote or co-wrote the stories for six of the eight productions. Screenwriter Waldemar Young, credited on nine of the M-G-M pictures, worked effectively with Browning. At M-G-M, Browning would reach his artistic maturity as a filmmaker.


title: Tod Browning

text: The first of these M-G-M productions established Browning as a talented filmmaker in Hollywood, and deepened Chaney's professional and personal influence on the director: "The Unholy Three".


title: Tod Browning

text: In a circus tale by author Tod Robbins—a setting familiar to Browning—a trio of criminal ex-carnies and a pickpocket form a jewelry theft ring. Their activities lead to a murder and an attempt to frame an innocent bookkeeper. Two of the criminal quartet reveal their humanity and are redeemed; two perish through violent justice.


title: Tod Browning

text: The Unholy Three is an outstanding example of Browning's delight in the "bizarre" (though, here, not macabre) melodrama and its "the perverse characterizations" that Browning and Chaney devise anticipate their subsequent collaborations.


title: Tod Browning

text: Lon Chaney doubles as Professor Echo, a sideshow ventriloquist, and as Mrs. "Granny" O'Grady (a cross-dressing Echo), the mastermind of the gang. Granny/Echo operates a talking parrot pet shop as a front for the operation. Film critic Alfred Eaker notes that Chaney renders "the drag persona with depth of feeling. Chaney never camps it up and delivers a remarkable, multifaceted performance."


title: Tod Browning

text: Harry Earles, a member of The Doll Family midget performers plays the violent and wicked Tweedledee who poses as Granny's infant grandchild, Little Willie. (Granny conveys the diminutive Willie in a perambulator.)


title: Tod Browning

text: Victor McLagen is cast as weak-minded Hercules, the circus strongman who constantly seeks to assert his physical primacy over his cohorts. Hercules detests Granny/Echo, but is terrified by the ventriloquist's "pet" gorilla. He doubles as Granny O'Grady's son-in-law and father to Little Willie.


title: Tod Browning

text: The pickpocket Rosie, played by Mae Busch, is the object of Echo's affection, and they share a mutual admiration as fellow larcenists. She postures as the daughter to Granny/Echo and as the mother of Little Willie.


title: Tod Browning

text: The pet shop employs the diffident bookkeeper, Hector "The Boob" MacDonald (Matt Moore) who is wholly ignorant of the criminal proceedings. Rosie finds this "weak, gentle, upright, hardworking" man attractive.


title: Tod Browning

text: When Granny O'Malley assembles her faux-"family" in her parlor to deceive police investigators, the movie audience knows that "the grandmother is the head of a gang and a ventriloquist, the father a stupid Hercules, the mother a thief, the baby a libidinous, greedy [midget], and the pet...an enormous gorilla." Browning's portrait is a "sarcastic distortion" that subverts a cliched American wholesomeness and serves to deliver "a harsh indictment...of the bourgeois family."


title: Tod Browning

text: Film historian Stuart Rosenthal identifies "the ability to control another being" as a central theme in "The Unholy Three". The deceptive scheme through which the thieves manipulate wealthy clients, demonstrates a control over "the suckers" who are stripped of their wealth, much as circus sideshow patrons are deceived: Professor Echo and his ventriloquist's dummy distract a "hopelessly naive and novelty-loving" audience as pickpocket Rosie relieves them of their wallets. Browning ultimately turns the application of "mental control" to serve justice. When bookkeeper Hector takes the stand in court, testifying in his defense against a false charge of murder, the reformed Echo applies his willpower to silence the defendant, and uses his voice throwing power to provide the exonerating testimony. When Hector descends from the stand, he tells his attorney "That wasn't me talking. I didn't say a word." Browning employs a set of dissolves to make the ventriloquists role perfectly clear.


title: Tod Browning

text: While Lon Chaney was making "The Tower of Lies" (1925) with director Victor Sjöström Browning wrote and directed an Aileen Pringle vehicle, "The Mystic". The picture has many of the elements typical of Browning oeuvre at M-G-M: Carnivals, Hungarian Gypsies and séances provide the exotic "mise-en-scene", while the melodramatic plot involves embezzlement and swindling. An American con man Michael Nash (Conway Tearle) develops a moral conscience after falling in love with Pringle's character, Zara, and is consistent with Browning's "themes of reformation and unpunished crimes." and the couple achieve a happy reckoning. Browning, a former sideshow performer, is quick to reveal to his movie audience the illusionist fakery that serves to extract a fortune from a gullible heiress, played by Gladys Hulette.


title: Tod Browning

text: "Dollar Down" (1925): Browning followed "The Mystic" with another "crook melodrama involving swindlers" for Truart productions. Based on a story by Jane Courthope and Ethyl Hill, "Dollar Down" stars Ruth Roland and Henry B. Walthall.


title: Tod Browning

text: Following these "more conventional" crime films, Browning and Chaney embarked on their final films of the late silent period, "the strangest collaboration between director and actor in cinema history; the premises of the films were outrageous."


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning and Chaney were reunited in their next feature film, "The Blackbird" (1926), one of the most "visually arresting" of their collaborations.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning introduces Limehouse district gangster Dan Tate (Chaney), alias "The Blackbird", who creates an alter identity, the physically deformed christian missionary "The Bishop." Tate's purported "twin" brother is a persona he uses to periodically evade suspicion by the police under "a phony mantle of christian goodness"—an image utterly at odds with the persona of The Blackbird. According to film historian Stuart Rosenthal, "Tate's masquerade as the Bishop succeeds primarily because the Bishop's face so believably reflects a profound spiritual suffering that is absolutely foreign to the title character [The Blackbird]."


title: Tod Browning

text: Tate's competitor in crime, the "gentleman-thief" Bertram "West End Bertie" Glade (Owen Moore, becomes romantically involved with a Limehouse cabaret singer, Mademoiselle Fifi Lorraine (Renée Adorée). The jealous Tate attempts to frame Bertie for the murder of a policeman, but is mortally injured in an accident while in the guise of The Bishop. Tate's wife, Polly (Doris Lloyd discovers her husband's dual identity, and honors him by concealing his role as "The Blackbird." The reformed Bertie and his lover Fifi are united in matrimony.


title: Tod Browning

text: Chaney's adroit "quick-change" transformations from the Blackbird into The Bishop—intrinsic to the methods of "show culture"—are "explicitly revealed" to the movie audience, such that Browning invites them to share in the deception.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning introduces a number of slapstick elements into "The Blackbird". Doris Lloyd, portrays Tate's ex-wife Limehouse Polly, demonstrating her comic acumen in scenes as a flower girl, and Browning's Limehouse drunkards are "archetypical of burlesque cinema." Film historian Boris Henry points out that "it would not be surprising if the fights that Lon Chaney as Dan Tate mimes between his two characters (The Blackbird and The Bishop) were inspired by actor-director Max Linder's performance in Be My Wife, 1921."


title: Tod Browning

text: Film historian Stuart Rosenthal identifies Browning's characterization of Dan Tate/the Blackbird as a species of vermin lacking in nobility, a parasitic scavenger that feeds on carrion and is unworthy of sympathy. In death, according to film critic Nicole Brenez, The Blackbird "is deprived of [himself]...death, then, is no longer a beautiful vanishing, but a terrible spiriting away."


title: Tod Browning

text: Though admired by critics for Chaney's performance, the film was only modestly successful at the box office.


title: Tod Browning

text: Any comprehensive contemporary evaluation of Browning's The Road to Mandalay is problematic. According to Browning biographer Alfred Eaker only a small fraction of the original seven reels exist. A 16mm version survives in a "fragmented and disintegrated state" discovered in France in the 1980s.


title: Tod Browning

text: In a story that Browning wrote with screenwriter Herman Mankiewicz , "The Road to Mandalay" (not related to author Rudyard Kipling's 1890 poem), is derived from the character "dead-eyed" Singapore Joe (Lon Chaney), a Singapore brothel operator. As Browning himself explained:


title: Tod Browning

text: The picture explores one of Browning's most persistent themes: that of a parent who asserts sexual authority vicariously through their own offspring. As such, an Oedipal narrative is established, "a narrative that dominates Browning's work" and recognized as such by contemporary critics.


title: Tod Browning

text: Joe's daughter, Rosemary (Lois Moran), now a young adult, has been raised in a convent where her father left her as an infant with her uncle, Father James (Henry B. Walthall). Rosemary is ignorant of her parentage; she lives a chaste and penurious existence. Brothel keeper Joe makes furtive visits to the shop where she works as a clerk. His attempts to anomalously befriend the girl are met with revulsion at his freakish appearance. Joe resolves to undergo plastic surgery to achieve a reproachment with his daughter and redeem his sordid history. Father James doubts his brothers' commitment to reform and to reestablish his parenthood. A conflict emerges when Joe's cohorts and rivals in crime, "The Admiral" Herrington (Owen Moore) and English Charlie Wing (Kamiyama Sojin), members of "the black spiders of the Seven Seas" appear on the scene. The Admiral encounters Rosemary at the bizarre where she works and is instantly smitten with her; his genuine resolve to abandon his criminal life wins Rosemary's devotion and a marriage is arranged. When Joe discovers these developments, the full force of his "sexual frustrations" are unleashed. Joe's attempt to thwart his daughter's efforts to escape his control ends when Rosemary stabs her father, mortally wounding him. The denouement is achieved when the dying Joe consents to her marriage and Father James performs the last rites upon his brother.


title: Tod Browning

text: Film critic Alfred Eaker observes: ""The Road to Mandalay" is depraved, pop-Freudian, silent melodrama at its ripest. Fortunately, both Browning and Chaney approach this hodgepodge of silliness in dead earnest." Religious imagery commonly appears in Browning's films, "surrounding his characters with religious paraphernalia." Browning, a mason, uses Christian iconography to emphasize Joe's moral alienation from Rosemary. Biographer Stuart Rosenthal writes:


title: Tod Browning

text: Rosenthal adds ""Religion for the Browning hero is an additional spring of frustration - another defaulted promise."


title: Tod Browning

text: As in all of the Browning-Chaney collaborations, "The Road to Mandalay" was profitable at the box office.


title: Tod Browning

text: Whereas Browning's "The Road to Mandalay" (1926) exists in a much deteriorated 16mm abridged version, "London After Midnight" is no longer believed to exist, the last print destroyed in an M-G-M vault fire in 1965.


title: Tod Browning

text: "London After Midnight" is widely considered by archivists the Holy Grail and "the most sought after and discussed lost film of the silent era." A detailed photo reconstruction, based on stills from the film was assembled by Turner Classic Movies' Rick Schmidlin in 2002.


title: Tod Browning

text: Based on Browning's own tale entitled "The Hypnotist", "London After Midnight" is a "drawing room murder mystery'—its macabre and Gothic atmosphere resembling director Robert Wiene's 1920 The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari.


title: Tod Browning

text: Sir Roger Balfour is found dead at the estate of his friend Sir James Hamlin. The gunshot wound to Balfour's head appears self-inflicted. The Scotland Yard inspector and forensic hypnotist in charge, "Professor" Edward C. Burke (Lon Chaney) receives no reports of foul play and the death is deemed a suicide. Five years past, and the estates current occupants are alarmed by a ghoulish, fanged figure wearing a cape and top hat stalking the hallways at night. He is accompanied by a corpse-like female companion. The pair of intruders are the disguised Inspector Burke, masquerading as a vampire (also played by Chaney), and his assistant, "Luna, the Bat Girl" (Edna Tichenor). When the terrified residents call Scotland Yard, Inspector Burke appears and reopens Balfour's case as a homicide. Burke uses his double role to stage a series of elaborate illusions and applications of hypnotism to discover the identity of the murderer among Balfour's former associates.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning's "preposterous" plot is the platform on which he demonstrates the methods of magic and show culture, reproducing the mystifying spectacles of "spirit theater" that purport to operate through the paranormal. Browning's cinematic illusions are conducted strictly through mechanical stage apparatus: no trick photography is employed. "illusion, hypnotism and disguise" are used to mimic the conceits and pretenses of the occult, but primarily for dramatic effect and only to reveal them as tricks.


title: Tod Browning

text: After the murderer is apprehended, Browning's Inspector Burke/The Man in the Beaver Hat reveals the devices and techniques he has used to extract the confession, while systematically disabusing the cast characters—and the movie audience—of any supernatural influence on the foregoing events. Film historians Stefanie Diekmann and Ekkehard Knörer observe succinctly that "All in all, Browning's scenarios [including London After Midnight] appear as a long series of tricks, performed and explained."


title: Tod Browning

text: Lon Chaney's make-up to create the menacing "Man with the Beaver Hat" is legendary. Biographer Alfred Eaker writes: "Chaney's vampire...is a make-up artist's delight, and an actor's hell. Fishing wire looped around his blackened eye sockets, a set of painfully inserted, shark-like teeth producing a hideous grin, a ludicrous wig under a top hat, and white pancake makeup achieved Chaney's kinky look. To add to the effect Chaney developed a misshapen, incongruous walk for the character."


title: Tod Browning

text: London After Midnight received a mixed critical response, but delivered handsomely at the box office "grossing over $1,000,000 in 1927 dollars against a budget of $151,666.14."


title: Tod Browning

text: In 1926, while Lon Chaney was busy making Tell It to the Marines with filmmaker George W. Hill, Browning directed The Show, "one of the most bizarre productions to emerge from silent cinema." ("The Show" anticipates his subsequent feature with Chaney, a "carnival of terror": The Unknown).


title: Tod Browning

text: Screenwriter Waldemar Young based the scenario on elements from the author Charles Tenny Jackson's "The Day of Souls".


title: Tod Browning

text: "The Show" is a "tour-de-force" demonstration of Browning's penchant for the spectacle of carnival sideshow acts combined with the revelatory exposure of the theatrical apparatus and techniques that create these illusions. Film historian Matthew Solomon notes that "this is not specific to his films with Lon Chaney." Indeed, "The Show" features two of M-G-M's leading actors: John Gilbert, as the unscrupulous ballyhoo Cock Robin, and Renée Adorée as his tempestuous lover, Salome. Actor Lionel Barrymore plays the homicidal Greek. Romantic infidelities, the pursuit of a small fortune, a murder, attempted murders, Cock Robin's moral redeemtion and his reconciliation with Salome comprise the plot and its "saccarine" ending.


title: Tod Browning

text: Browning presents a menagerie of circus sideshow novelty acts from the fictitious "Palace of Illusions", including disembodied hands delivering tickets to customers; an illusionary beheading of a biblical figure (Gilbert as John the Baptist); Neptuna (Betty Boyd) Queen of the Mermaids; the sexually untoward Zela (Zalla Zarana) Half-Lady; and Arachnida (Edna Tichenor, the Human Spider perched on her web. Browning ultimately reveals "how the trick is done", explicating the mechanical devices to the film audience - not to the film's carnival patrons.


title: Tod Browning

text: The central dramatic event of "The Show" derives from another literary work, a "magic playlet" by Oscar Wilde entitled "Salomé" (1896). Browning devises an elaborate and "carefully choreographed" sideshow reenactment of Jokanaan's biblical beheading (played by Gilbert), with Adorée as Salomé presiding over the lurid decapitation, symbolic of sadomasochism and castration.


title: Tod Browning

text: "The Show" received generally good reviews, but approval was muted due to Gilbert's unsavory character, Cock Robin. Browning was now poised to make his masterwork of the silent era, "The Unknown" (1927).


title: Tod Browning

text: "The Unknown" marks the creative apogee of the Tod Browning and Lon Chaney collaborations, and is widely considered their most outstanding work of the silent era. More so than any of Browning's silent pictures, he fully realizes one of his central themes in "The Unknown": the linkage of physical deformity with sexual frustration.