title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: The activation polarization is the result of the kinetics involved with the electrochemical reactions. Each reaction has a certain activation barrier that must be overcome in order to proceed and this barrier leads to the polarization. The activation barrier is the result of many complex electrochemical reaction steps where typically the rate limiting step is responsible for the polarization. The polarization equation shown below is found by solving the Butler–Volmer equation in the high current density regime (where the cell typically operates), and can be used to estimate the activation polarization:


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: However, this equation is not valid for deflections exceeding 1/2h, making it less applicable for thin samples, which are of great interest in SOFCs. Therefore, while this method does not require knowledge of crack or pore size, it must be used with great caution and is more applicable to support layers in SOFCs than active layers. In addition to failure stresses and fracture toughness, modern fuel cell designs that favor mixed ionic electronic conductors (MIECs), Creep (deformation) pose another great problem, as MIEC electrodes often operate at temperatures exceeding half of the melting temperature. As a result, diffusion creep must also be considered.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: To properly model creep strain rates, knowledge of Microstructure is therefore of significant importance. Due to the difficulty in mechanically testing SOFCs at high temperatures, and due to the microstructural evolution of SOFCs over the lifetime of operation resulting from Grain growth and coarsening, the actual creep behavior of SOFCs is currently not completely understood


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: DOE target requirements are 40,000 hours of service for stationary fuel cell applications and greater than 5,000 hours for transportation systems (fuel cell vehicles) at a factory cost of $40/kW for a 10 kW coal-based system without additional requirements. Lifetime effects (phase stability, thermal expansion compatibility, element migration, conductivity and aging) must be addressed. The Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance 2008 (interim) target for overall degradation per 1,000 hours is 4.0%.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Research is going now in the direction of lower-temperature SOFCs (600 °C). Low temperature systems can reduce costs by reducing insulation, materials, start-up and degradation-related costs. With higher operating temperatures, the temperature gradient increases the severity of thermal stresses, which affects materials cost and life of the system. An intermediate temperature system (650-800 °C) would enable the use of cheaper metallic materials with better mechanical properties and thermal conductivity. New developments in nano-scale electrolyte structures have been shown to bring down operating temperatures to around 350 °C, which would enable the use of even cheaper steel and elastomeric/polymeric components.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Lowering operating temperatures has the added benefit of increased efficiency. Theoretical fuel cell efficiency increases with decreasing temperature. For example, the efficiency of a SOFC using CO as fuel increases from 63% to 81% when decreasing the system temperature from 900 °C to 350 °C.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Research is also under way to improve the fuel flexibility of SOFCs. While stable operation has been achieved on a variety of hydrocarbon fuels, these cells typically rely on external fuel processing. In the case of natural gas, the fuel is either externally or internally reformed and the sulfur compounds are removed. These processes add to the cost and complexity of SOFC systems. Work is under way at a number of institutions to improve the stability of anode materials for hydrocarbon oxidation and, therefore, relax the requirements for fuel processing and decrease SOFC balance of plant costs.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Research is also going on in reducing start-up time to be able to implement SOFCs in mobile applications. This can be partially achieved by lowering operating temperatures, which is the case for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs). Due to their fuel flexibility, they may run on partially reformed diesel, and this makes SOFCs interesting as auxiliary power units (APU) in refrigerated trucks.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Specifically, Delphi Automotive Systems are developing an SOFC that will power auxiliary units in automobiles and tractor-trailers, while BMW has recently stopped a similar project. A high-temperature SOFC will generate all of the needed electricity to allow the engine to be smaller and more efficient. The SOFC would run on the same gasoline or diesel as the engine and would keep the air conditioning unit and other necessary electrical systems running while the engine shuts off when not needed (e.g., at a stop light or truck stop).


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Rolls-Royce is developing solid-oxide fuel cells produced by screen printing onto inexpensive ceramic materials. Rolls-Royce Fuel Cell Systems Ltd is developing an SOFC gas turbine hybrid system fueled by natural gas for power generation applications in the order of a megawatt (e.g. Futuregen).


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: 3D printing is being explored as a possible manufacturing technique that could be used to make SOFC manufacturing easier by the Shah Lab at Northwestern University. This manufacturing technique would allow SOFC cell structure to be more flexible, which could lead to more efficient designs. This process could work in the production of any part of the cell. The 3D printing process works by combining about 80% ceramic particles with 20% binders and solvents, and then converting that slurry into an ink that can be fed into a 3D printer. Some of the solvent is very volatile, so the ceramic ink solidifies almost immediately. Not all of the solvent evaporates, so the ink maintains some flexibility before it is fired at high temperature to densify it. This flexibility allows the cells to be fired in a circular shape that would increase the surface area over which electrochemical reactions can occur, which increases the efficiency of the cell. Also, the 3D printing technique allows the cell layers to be printed on top of each other instead of having to go through separate manufacturing and stacking steps. The thickness is easy to control, and layers can be made in the exact size and shape that is needed, so waste is minimized.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Ceres Power Ltd. has developed a low cost and low temperature (500–600 degrees) SOFC stack using cerium gadolinium oxide (CGO) in place of current industry standard ceramic, yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ), which allows the use of stainless steel to support the ceramic.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Solid Cell Inc. has developed a unique, low-cost cell architecture that combines properties of planar and tubular designs, along with a Cr-free cermet interconnect.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: The high temperature electrochemistry center (HITEC) at the University of Florida, Gainesville is focused on studying ionic transport, electrocatalytic phenomena and microstructural characterization of ion conducting materials.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: SiEnergy Systems, a Harvard spin-off company, has demonstrated the first macro-scale thin-film solid-oxide fuel cell that can operate at 500 degrees.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: A solid oxide electrolyser cell (SOEC) is a solid oxide fuel cell set in regenerative mode for the electrolysis of water with a solid oxide, or ceramic, electrolyte to produce oxygen and hydrogen gas.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: SOECs can also be used to do electrolysis of CO to produce CO and oxygen or even co-electrolysis of water and CO to produce syngas and oxygen.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: SOFCs that operate in an intermediate temperature (IT) range, meaning between 600 and 800 °C, are named ITSOFCs. Because of the high degradation rates and materials costs incurred at temperatures in excess of 900 °C, it is economically more favorable to operate SOFCs at lower temperatures. The push for high-performance ITSOFCs is currently the topic of much research and development. One area of focus is the cathode material. It is thought that the oxygen reduction reaction is responsible for much of the loss in performance so the catalytic activity of the cathode is being studied and enhanced through various techniques, including catalyst impregnation. The research on NdCrO proves it to be a potential cathode material for the cathode of ITSOFC since it is thermochemically stable within the temperature range.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Another area of focus is electrolyte materials. To make SOFCs competitive in the market, ITSOFCs are pushing towards lower operational temperature by use of alternative new materials. However, efficiency and stability of the materials limit their feasibility. One choice for the electrolyte new materials is the ceria-salt ceramic composites (CSCs). The two-phase CSC electrolytes GDC (gadolinium-doped ceria) and SDC (samaria-doped ceria)-MCO (M=Li, Na, K, single or mixture of carbonates) can reach the power density of 300-800 mW*cm.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Low-temperature solid oxide fuel cells (LT-SOFCs), operating lower than 650 °C, are of great interest for future research because the high operating temperature is currently what restricts the development and deployment of SOFCs. A low-temperature SOFC is more reliable due to smaller thermal mismatch and easier sealing. Additionally, a lower temperature requires less insulation and therefore has a lower cost. Cost is further lowered due to wider material choices for interconnects and compressive nonglass/ceramic seals. Perhaps most importantly, at a lower temperature, SOFCs can be started more rapidly and with less energy, which lends itself to uses in portable and transportable applications.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: As temperature decreases, the maximum theoretical fuel cell efficiency increases, in contrast to the Carnot cycle. For example, the maximum theoretical efficiency of an SOFC using CO as a fuel increases from 63% at 900 °C to 81% at 350 °C.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: This is a materials issue, particularly for the electrolyte in the SOFC. YSZ is the most commonly used electrolyte because of its superior stability, despite not having the highest conductivity. Currently, the thickness of YSZ electrolytes is a minimum of ~10 μm due to deposition methods, and this requires a temperature above 700 °C. Therefore, low-temperature SOFCs are only possible with higher conductivity electrolytes. Various alternatives that could be successful at low temperature include gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC) and erbia-cation-stabilized bismuth (ERB). They have superior ionic conductivity at lower temperatures, but this comes at the expense of lower thermodynamic stability. CeO2 electrolytes become electronically conductive and Bi2O3 electrolytes decompose to metallic Bi under the reducing fuel environment.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: To combat this, researchers created a functionally graded ceria/bismuth-oxide bilayered electrolyte where the GDC layer on the anode side protects the ESB layer from decomposing while the ESB on the cathode side blocks the leakage current through the GDC layer. This leads to near-theoretical open-circuit potential (OPC) with two highly conductive electrolytes, that by themselves would not have been sufficiently stable for the application. This bilayer proved to be stable for 1400 hours of testing at 500 °C and showed no indication of interfacial phase formation or thermal mismatch. While this makes strides towards lowering the operating temperature of SOFCs, it also opens doors for future research to try and understand this mechanism.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology dealt with the instability of BaCeO differently. They replaced a desired fraction of Ce in BaCeO with Zr to form a solid solution that exhibits proton conductivity, but also chemical and thermal stability over the range of conditions relevant to fuel cell operation. A new specific composition, Ba(Zr0.1Ce0.7Y0.2)O3-δ (BZCY7) that displays the highest ionic conductivity of all known electrolyte materials for SOFC applications. This electrolyte was fabricated by dry-pressing powders, which allowed for the production of crack free films thinner than 15 μm. The implementation of this simple and cost-effective fabrication method may enable significant cost reductions in SOFC fabrication. However, this electrolyte operates at higher temperatures than the bilayered electrolyte model, closer to 600 °C rather than 500 °C.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Currently, given the state of the field for LT-SOFCs, progress in the electrolyte would reap the most benefits, but research into potential anode and cathode materials would also lead to useful results, and has started to be discussed more frequently in literature.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: An SOFC-GT system is one which comprises a solid oxide fuel cell combined with a gas turbine. Such systems have been evaluated by Siemens Westinghouse and Rolls-Royce as a means to achieve higher operating efficiencies by running the SOFC under pressure. SOFC-GT systems typically include anodic and/or cathodic atmosphere recirculation, thus increasing efficiency.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Theoretically, the combination of the SOFC and gas turbine can give result in high overall (electrical and thermal) efficiency. Further combination of the SOFC-GT in a combined cooling, heat and power (or trigeneration) configuration (via HVAC) also has the potential to yield even higher thermal efficiencies in some cases.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Another feature of the introduced hybrid system is on the gain of 100% CO capturing at comparable high energy efficiency. These features like zero CO emission and high energy efficiency make the power plant performance noteworthy.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: For the direct use of solid coal fuel without additional gasification and reforming processes, a direct carbon fuel cell (DCFC) has been developed as a promising novel concept of a high-temperature energy conversion system. The underlying progress in the development of a coal-based DCFC has been categorized mainly according to the electrolyte materials used, such as solid oxide, molten carbonate, and molten hydroxide, as well as hybrid systems consisting of solid oxide and molten carbonate binary electrolyte or of liquid anode (Fe, Ag, In, Sn, Sb, Pb, Bi, and its alloying and its metal/metal oxide) solid oxide electrolyte. People's research on DCFC with GDC-Li/NaCO as the electrolyte, SmSrCoO as cathode shows good performance. The highest power density of 48 mW*cm can be reached at 500 °C with O and CO as oxidant and the whole system is stable within the temperature range of 500 °C to 600 °C.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Every household produces waste/garbage on a daily basis. In 2009, Americans produced about 243 million tons of municipal solid waste, which is 4.3 pounds of waste per person per day. All that waste is sent to landfill sites. Landfill gas which is produced from the decomposition of waste that gets accumulated at the landfills has the potential to be a valuable source of energy since methane is a major constituent. Currently, the majority of the landfills either burn away their gas in flares or combust it in mechanical engines to produce electricity. The issue with mechanical engines is that incomplete combustion of gasses can lead to pollution of the atmosphere and is also highly inefficient.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: The issue with using landfill gas to fuel an SOFC system is that landfill gas contains hydrogen sulfide. Any landfill accepting biological waste will contain about 50-60 ppm of hydrogen sulfide and around 1-2 ppm mercaptans. However, construction materials containing reducible sulfur species, principally sulfates found in gypsum-based wallboard, can cause considerably higher levels of sulfides in the hundreds of ppm. At operating temperatures of 750 °C hydrogen sulfide concentrations of around 0.05 ppm begin to affect the performance of the SOFCs.


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: Using the standard heat of formation and entropy ΔG at room temperature (298 K) came out to be 45.904 kJ/mol


title: Solid oxide fuel cell

text: On substitution, K at 1023 K is 1.44 x 10. Hence theoretically we need 3.4% hydrogen to prevent the formation of NiS at 5 ppm HS.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: Quality Street is a line of tinned and boxed toffees, chocolates and sweets, first manufactured by Mackintosh's in Halifax, West Yorkshire, England, in 1936. It was named after J. M. Barrie's play "Quality Street". Since 1988 they have been produced by Nestlé. Quality Street have long been a competitor to Cadbury Roses which were launched by Cadbury in 1938.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: In 1890 John Mackintosh and his wife opened a shop in Halifax, West Yorkshire, England where they created a new kind of sweet by mixing hard toffee with runny caramel. These toffees were made from inexpensive local ingredients such as milk, sugar beets and eggs. They were so successful that in 1898 they expanded the operation to build the world's first toffee factory. It burned down in 1909, so John bought an old carpet factory and converted it into a new facility. When John Mackintosh died, his son Harold inherited the business and in 1936 he invented "Quality Street". The name was inspired by a play of the same name by J. M. Barrie.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: In the early 1930s, only the wealthy could afford boxed chocolates made from exotic ingredients from around the world with elaborate packaging that often cost as much as the chocolates themselves. Harold Mackintosh set out to produce boxes of chocolates that could be sold at a reasonable price and would, therefore, be available to working-class families. His idea was to cover the different toffees with chocolate and present them in low-cost yet attractive boxes.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: Rather than having each piece separated in the box, which would require more costly packaging, Mackintosh decided to have each piece individually wrapped in coloured paper and put into a decorative tin. He also introduced new technology, the world's first twist-wrapping machine, to wrap each chocolate in a distinctive wrapper. By using a tin, instead of a cardboard box, Mackintosh ensured the chocolate aroma burst out as soon as it was opened and the different textures, colours, shapes and sizes of the sweets made opening the tin and consuming its contents a noisy, vibrant experience that the whole family could enjoy.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: In the later 1930s, Britain was still feeling the effects of the economic crash and Mackintosh realised that in times of economic hardship and war, people crave nostalgia. Quality Street chocolates were, therefore, packaged in brightly coloured tins featuring two characters wearing Regency era dress, known affectionately as Miss Sweetly and Major Quality, inspired by the principal characters from J.M. Barrie's play. They featured on all Quality Street boxes and tins until 2000. The original models for the pair were Tony and Iris Coles, the children of Sydney Coles who designed the advertising campaign that first appeared on a front-page newspaper advertisement in the "Daily Mail" on 2 May 1936.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: Individual larger versions of the more popular chocolates are now manufactured and sold separately, as an extension to the brand, such as a bar based on the Purple One.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: In Western Norway, Quality Street is called "Shetlandsgodt" or more commonly "Shetland Snoops" (Shetland Sweets), because it often was brought home by fishermen visiting Shetland. In Iceland it is traditionally known as "Mackintosh".


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: Quality Street gained the implied endorsement of Saddam Hussein when the Iraqi leader was reported to have offered them to visiting British politician George Galloway in 2002. Nestlé were initially positive, but then chose to backtrack about the connection.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: The sweets within the box have changed and evolved over the years. As of September 2019, there are 15 flavours (including the Fruit Cremes box exclusive, John Lewis exclusive, and Matchmakers) of the individually wrapped sweets, all of which are either chocolate or toffee based, as follows:


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: The Toffee Penny wrapper presented a challenge for a number of years because, unlike in the case of the relatively shelf-stable chocolate, the cellophane wrapper would stick to the toffee confection over time due to its hygroscopic properties. Following a suggestion by packaging manufacturer William T. Robson O.B.E, a new barrier material of foil backed paper was adopted by Mackintosh to overcome the problem in 1967. 'Robson Wrap' was a huge success and became a signature of the brand after being rolled out in one variation or another to several different flavours.


title: Quality Street (confectionery)

text: On 15 August 2013, the My Green Bar became available from Nestlé, which consisted of four original green noisette pâté triangles held together by milk chocolate. This was also available in My Purple Bar.


title: Boy Pablo

text: Boy Pablo (stylized as boy pablo) is the indie pop music project of Chilean–Norwegian singer songwriter Nicolas Muñoz. In the recording studio, Muñoz writes, records, performs, and produces all of the project's music. As a touring act, Boy Pablo currently consists of Nicolás Muñoz (guitar, vocals), Gabriel Muñoz (lead guitar), Judah Kubendran (bass guitar) and Esteban Muñoz (drums).


title: Boy Pablo

text: Boy Pablo gained attention in late 2017 after the music video for the song "Everytime" gained international popularity on YouTube's algorithm. The duology concept EPs "Roy Pablo" (2017) and "Soy Pablo" (2018) were released under Boy Pablo's own independent label 777 MUSIC. Their debut studio album, "Wachito Rico" was released in October 2020. Out of nominations for six Norwegian Grammy Awards, Boy Pablo has won two, and has additionally been nominated for three GAFFA Awards and one P3 Gull award, having won the latter.


title: Boy Pablo

text: Nicolás Pablo Rivera Muñoz (born 29 November 1998) grew up in Bergen after his Chilean parents immigrated to Norway in the 1980s. Born into a musical family as the youngest child, his father and brother were both multi-instrumentalists and helped teach him how to play guitar, drums, bass guitar and piano. He attended secondary school at Kongshaug Upper Secondary School of Music, a music boarding school in nearby Os. He and his parents moved to Os, Hordaland when he started secondary school, two years prior to January 2017.


title: Boy Pablo

text: Muñoz began the "Boy Pablo" project in December 2015, and released its debut single "Flowers" in January 2016. Boy Pablo played its first-ever gig as a warm-up band for Tellef Raabe (brother of Norwegian singer Sigrid) at Hulen in April 2016. In September 2016, they performed as part of the Vill Vill Vest festival in Bergen. Boy Pablo as a group gained immense national popularity after receiving a Bergenfest scholarship of 35 thousand kroner in November 2016. Alongside this scholarship, the group additionally won their own headlining gig as well as a performance at the 2017 Bergenfest.


title: Boy Pablo

text: Muñoz further gained international popularity in 2017 with the song and music video for "Everytime", originally uploaded to YouTube in May 2017. Within a few weeks, the video had received millions of views, with Muñoz significantly expanding his fanbase. Boy Pablo released the 6-song EP, "Roy Pablo", in May 2017, which includes "Everytime". In August 2017, Boy Pablo opened as a supporting act for American band Beach Fossils at Red Bull Sound Select in Oslo.


title: Boy Pablo

text: Boy Pablo released the single "Losing You" in March 2018, and embarked on a sold out thirty-nine date headlining world tour of United States, Europe and Asia. On 5 October 2018 Boy Pablo released its second EP, "Soy Pablo". The EP received critical acclaim and was successful commercially in Norway, topping the national Vinyl albums chart. The EP additionally landed in the top 10 of year-end critics lists from Gaffa and Nöjesguiden, placing at Nos. 9 and 4 respectively. At the 2018 Spellemannprisen (also referred to as Norwegian Grammy Awards), Boy Pablo was awarded with the award for Breakthrough of the Year which additionally gave them the Gramo scholarship of 250 thousand kroner. At the same ceremony they were nominated in the categories of Best International Success, and Indie/Alternative of the Year for "Soy Pablo". At the 2018 P3 Gull Awards, Boy Pablo also won Årets Nykommer. In January 2019, Boy Pablo was the only Norwegian act to perform at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in California, U.S. in that year. At the 2019 Spellemannprisen (also referred to as Norwegian Grammy Awards), Boy Pablo was nominated for Best International Success for the second consecutive year in addition to Årets Musikkvideo ("Losing You").


title: Boy Pablo

text: In May 2020, Boy Pablo announced the release of its debut studio album, "Wachito Rico"; the title means "handsome boy" in Chilean Spanish. The album's singles are "Hey Girl", "Honey" and "Rest Up". With the release of the latter single, Boy Pablo announced its second-ever headlining world tour to support "Wachito Rico", which kicked off in the UK in March 2021.


title: Boy Pablo

text: Muñoz cites Mac DeMarco, Veronica Maggio, Tyler, The Creator, The Beatles, Arctic Monkeys, Tame Impala and Mild High Club as musical influences. His rise to fame with a DIY-produced bedroom pop track,"Everytime" (2017), which gained popularity through the YouTube algorithm has drawn comparisons to that of American singer Clairo's rise to fame with her video for "Pretty Girl" (2017).


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Auntie Mame is a 1958 American Technirama Technicolor comedy film based on the 1955 novel of the same name by Edward Everett Tanner III (under the pseudonym Patrick Dennis) and its 1956 theatrical adaptation by Jerome Lawrence and Robert Edwin Lee. This film version stars Rosalind Russell and was directed by Morton DaCosta. It is not to be confused with a musical version of the same story that appeared on Broadway in 1966 and was later made into a 1974 film, "Mame", starring Lucille Ball as the title character.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Patrick Dennis, orphaned in 1928 when his father Edwin dies unexpectedly, is placed in the care of his aunt Mame Dennis in Manhattan. Mame is flamboyant and exuberant, hosting frequent parties with a variety of guests and free-spirited friends including the frequently-drunk actress Vera Charles; Acacius Page, who runs a nudist school; and Lindsay Woolsey, a book publisher. Mame quickly becomes fond of Patrick, and aims to give him as broad a view of life as possible. Patrick's inheritance is managed by Dwight Babcock, a trustee of the highly-conservative Knickerbocker Bank, who was instructed by Edwin to restrain Mame's influence. Without Babcock's knowledge, Mame enrolls Patrick in Page's school. When this is discovered, Babcock forcibly enrolls Patrick into his alma mater, preventing Mame from seeing her nephew except during holidays and during the summer.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: When Mame is bankrupted by the 1929 stock market crash, she takes a series of jobs which end disastrously. During one job as a Macy's sales girl, she meets Southern oil baron Beauregard Jackson Pickett Burnside. Both are smitten, and he invites Mame to his estate. Despite an attempt on her life by Beau's original betrothed, Mame and Beauregard are married, travelling around the world for their honeymoon. Mame continues to receive letters from Patrick (and vice versa), indicating Babcock is influencing him into a more conventional personality. After Beau dies while climbing the Matterhorn in 1937, Mame comes home after a prolonged period of mourning to discover the now-adult Patrick gifted her with a dictaphone, typewriter, and secretary, Agnes Gooch. He and her friends persuade her to write her autobiography. Patrick and Lindsay arrange for a collaborator/ghost writer for Mame, Brian O'Bannion, who rapidly proves to be a fortune hunter.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Patrick announces to Mame that he is engaged to Gloria Upson, a girl approved by Babcock from a "restricted" community in Connecticut called Mountebank. Mame is initially angered by the change in his character, but relents to please him. She also sabotages O'Bannion's attempted wooing by sending Agnes to a party in her place, lying to O'Bannion that Agnes is a secret heiress. When Agnes returns, she barely remembers the evening, thinking they saw a movie with a wedding scene. After Mame meets Gloria, who proves to be spoiled and prejudiced, she visits Gloria's parents in Mountebank at their house, "Upson Downs", some time later. Finding them to be boorish and anti-Semitic, she invites them and Gloria to a dinner party at her apartment with Patrick, Babcock, and some of her friends.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: On the night of the party, Patrick meets Mame's new secretary Pegeen, and the two are attracted to each other; Agnes also lives there, now pregnant due to her night with O'Bannion and presumed to be unmarried. The entire party is choreographed to show up the Upsons, but when Gloria insults Mame's company, Patrick instead defends them and insults Gloria's own circle, ending their relationship. Lindsay surprises the attendees with galleys from Mame's autobiography, reminding Patrick of forgotten adventures. Mame dedicates her royalties to a home for refugee Jewish children in Mountebank, much to the Upsons' horror. The book's release prompts a telegram from O'Bannion demanding half the royalties for his efforts, also revealing that he married Agnes on their night out. The Upsons leave in a huff, and Mame berates Babcock's attempts to manipulate Patrick's life before he also leaves. By 1946, Patrick and Pegeen are married and have a son Michael. Mame and Michael persuade his parents to let Mame take the child on a journey to India, and the movie fades as Mame tells Michael of all the wondrous sights they will see.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Morton Da Costa directed the stage adaptation, which ran from October 1956 through June 1958, for 639 performances. Rosalind Russell originated the role of Mame and was nominated for the 1957 Tony award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play. She played Mame until January 20, 1958, when Greer Garson took over the part. Russell, Peggy Cass, Yuki Shimoda and Jan Handzlik reprised their Broadway roles in the film.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: The "Motion Picture Herald" review observed that the film "provided a unique means of establishing time and plot progression" through the changing decor of Mame's Beekman Place apartment. The review in the "Los Angeles Examiner" (June 1958) named six different styles: Chinese, 1920s Modern, "Syrie Maugham” a French style named for writer Somerset Maugham's wife; English, Danish Modern and East Indian. When the Upsons visit Mame, they run afoul of the Danish Modern furniture, which is equipped with lifts. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Art Direction ("Art Direction:" Malcolm Bert; "Set Decoration:" George James Hopkins).


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: The costume design for the film, which include outfits for Mame that coordinate with the sets, was provided by Orry-Kelly, who had worked with Rosalind Russell on a number of films. "The New York Times" critic Bosley Crowther observed: "The lavish décor of Mame's apartment is changed almost as frequently as are her flashy costumes, and all of them are dazzling, in color and on the modified wide-screen."


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Rosalind Russell broke her ankle on the first take of a scene where she runs down the stairs. Filming was delayed until she recovered.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Several online sources, including Rotten Tomatoes' and AllMovie's biographies of actor and journalist Joanna Barnes, mistakenly describe Gloria Upson as "Vassar educated". Gloria is "an Upper Richmond Girls School girl”, and proud of it. She does not understand the concept of a college major, but proclaims that the school is "top drawer." In 2008, in "The Seattle Weekly", Gavin Borchert described the character succinctly as a "lockjawed prep princess". On AllMovie, Hal Erickson adds that the character "spoke as though she had novacaine in her upper lip (the playwrights' description of the character)."


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Rosalind Russell drew wide praise for her performance. In an article describing why Turner Classic Movies has named it one of “The Essentials.” Andrea Passafiume observes that the role transformed Russell's career, “first on the Broadway stage and then on the big screen. Having long been a top level movie star throughout the 1930s and 40s, Russell's career in Hollywood was dwindling as she settled into middle age. The role of Mame Dennis... gave her the chance to be glamorous and showcase her sharp comedic talents, which reminded the world that she was still a vital force to be reckoned with. The success of the play made her the toast of Broadway, and the hit film gave her her first Oscar® nomination as Best Actress in more than a decade".


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Passafiume adds that the film also transformed Warner Bros. Studios, which was "desperate for a hit, having suffered through a string of recent disappointments which put the once thriving studio increasingly in the red. "Auntie Mame" was the answer to their prayers and helped restore the studio's former glory." "Auntie Mame" became the second highest-grossing film of 1958, earning a net profit of $8,800,000.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" wrote that "for all its absurd exaggerations and bland inconsistencies, this picture of a tireless party-giver is a highly entertaining thing to see. And, because of the gags that gush from it, it is a constantly amusing thing to hear. "Variety" called the film "a faithfully funny recording of the hit play, changed only in some small details to conform to motion picture mores ... Rosalind Russell recreates the title role for the film and re-establishes herself as a top picture personality." "Harrison's Reports" called the film "a fast and furious comedy, with a glamorous background and considerable deep human appeal ... Rosalind Russell, who scored a huge success in the stage play, repeats her wonderful performance as the uninhibited heroine in this screen version. She fits the role so ideally that it is difficult to imagine any one else in the part."


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" called the film "broad as the Atlantic, too broad for me, but it's still a hilarious, observant comedy ... Miss Russell remains just plain wonderful in the part." John McCarten of "The New Yorker" dismissed the film, writing that Russell "works hard," but that the film "bogs down badly before it has gone any distance." "The Monthly Film Bulletin" wrote that the film was "virtually a one-woman revue, a series of turns—Mame as hostess, shopgirl, telephone operator, counterfeit Southern Belle, writer, actress—carried along on a strong current of personality. Rosalind Russell, who created the part on the stage, takes a turn or two to get into her stride; once established, however, her superbly confident timing and powerfully empathic comedy personality see her happily through."


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: Leonard Maltin gives the film 3.5 out of 4 stars: “ Episodic but highly entertaining, sparked by Russell's tour-de-force performance.”


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: As of September 2020, "Auntie Mame" has a score of 93% on the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 14 reviews.


title: Auntie Mame (film)

text: "Auntie Mame" was released on Blu-ray on December 5, 2017 with an all new HD remaster of the film and an audio-only track of music from the film.


title: Widevine

text: Widevine is a proprietary digital rights management (DRM) technology from Google used by the Chromium and Firefox web browsers (including some derivatives), Android MediaDRM, Android TV, and other consumer electronics devices. Widevine technology supports various encryption schemes and hardware security to restrict consumer access to distributed video content according to rules defined by content owners. Widevine mainly provides a Content Decryption Module (CDM) as a client to Google Chrome and other browsers and devices. Widevine is free to use by content providers and as such does not charge any fees for license generation or device integration.


title: Widevine

text: Widevine DRM is used with the Chromium-based web browsers and on Android. It supports MPEG-DASH and HLS. Google Chrome and ChromeOS make use of Encrypted Media Extensions and Media Source Extensions with Widevine, where it is used


title: Widevine

text: to decrypt content. Over thirty chipsets, six major desktop and mobile operating systems, and Google properties such as Chromecast and Android TV have adopted Widevine.


title: Widevine

text: Companies including Amazon Prime Video, BBC, Hulu, Netflix, Spotify and Disney+ use Widevine DRM to manage the distribution of premium content.


title: Widevine

text: It is also used by Firefox since v47, released in 2016, enabled by default on Microsoft Windows and optionally on Linux; it can be disabled and uninstalled in the browser settings. Prior to that, Mozilla used Adobe's "Primetime DRM" library for some versions.


title: Widevine

text: Widevine L3 has been circumvented on at least two occasions and researchers have argued that it is inherently insecure. As with all digital video content, Widevine can be circumvented through an analog hole.


title: Widevine

text: In 2019, a developer tried to bundle Widevine in an Electron/Chromium-based application for video playing and did not get any response from Google after asking for a license agreement, effectively blocking DRM usage in the project. He later got the reply:


title: Widevine

text: Widevine Technologies was a vendor of digital rights management software. One of its early technologies included a software system that replaced smart cards that eliminated the cost and logistical complexity of the card's distribution and introduced the abilities to process more sophisticated rights. It was purchased by Google in 2010.


title: Lángos

text: Lángos () is a typical Hungarian food. Today it is a deep fried flatbread, but in the past it was made of the last bits of the bread-dough and baked at the front of the brick or clay oven, to be served hot as the breakfast of the bread-baking day.


title: Lángos

text: Up to the mid 20th century, bread was baked once a week due to the cost of heating up the large oven and the lengthy process kneading up to 80 pounds of dough. Because the bread loaf, typical to Hungary, was 6 to 10 pounds each, traditionally they used to bake smaller (1-2 pounds) "cipó" rolls for the evening and the next day. The name lángos (literally meaning "flamed") comes from baking these flat breads in the morning while the oven was still heating up. "Lángos" were also used as a side to lunch.


title: Lángos

text: After the communist takeover, with no large scale flour stocks in private households, and as nearly everybody became an employee working in shifts, traditional bread-baking procedure diminished. People started to buy their bread in foodstores in smaller quantities. With no leftover dough and no oven heated up, no lángos was baked.


title: Lángos

text: After the revolution in 1956, very small scale businesses were allowed again and some people started to open small buds in the larger markets to sell a new kind of lángos, fried in lard or sunflower oil. It became very popular and it was the ultimate streetfood along with the sausages "hurka & kolbász" in the 1960s and '70s. Up to the early '80s, there were only 3 varieties: plain (w/ or w/o garlic and salt) and with cabbage or potato in the dough. The first new varieties introduced in the '80s were with sour cream and grated cheese. In the mid 1980s hotdogs and hamburgers became the new favorite streetfoods of the Hungarians, but in the mid '90s lángos came back with many new varieties and has since spread across the globe.


title: Lángos

text: The dough for lángos is made of water or milk, flour, yeast, and salt. The ingredients are worked together either by hand or a kneading machine. As the yeast starts to metabolize the carbohydrates in the flour, carbon dioxide is released which causes the dough to rise, creating the air bubbles in the lángos. The dough is basically the same as pizza dough, but it is not baked but fried in oil. Adding sour cream, yoghurt or mashed potatoes to the dough is optional but highly encouraged, in the latter case it is called potato lángos (in Hungarian "krumplis lángos"). It is eaten fresh and warm, topped with sour cream and grated cheese, or Liptauer, ham, or sausages, or most frequently, without toppings, just rubbed with garlic or garlic butter, or doused with garlic water. Other ingredients and accompaniments can be mushroom, quark cheese, eggplant, cabbage, kefir, omelet, and confectioner's sugar or jam.


title: Lángos

text: In the early 2000s, some people built small, portable clay ovens and started to sell oven baked lángos, called "kenyérlángos" (bread-lángos) on festivals and fairs. Although reminiscent of the traditional lángos, it is more like a pizza with sour cream, onions and bacon.


title: Lángos

text: Lángos is popular all year long. As it is a rather affordable and simple food, it is often sold around bus stations, fairs, local markets and all over Eastern European countries during local celebrations or sport events. It is sold at many fast-food restaurants not only in Hungary but also in Austria. In Austria, especially in Vienna, lángos is very popular as a fast food at fairs and in amusement parks like the Prater. Lángos is known in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Croatia as "langoš", in Serbia as "languš" (although it is commonly called "Mekike"). In Slovenia it is known as Langaš and in Bulgaria as "Mekitsa". It is also popular in Romania (especially in Transylvania) as "langoși". It is also extremely popular in Poland where it is known as "langosz" and in the UK where it's called "langos" or "Hungarian Fried Bread."


title: Reshma Shetty

text: Reshma Shetty (born 2 November 1977) is a British actress, best known for her role as Divya Katdare on the USA Network TV series "Royal Pains".


title: Reshma Shetty

text: Shetty was born on November 2, 1977 to Hindu Indian parents in Manchester, England and was raised in both England and Richmond, Virginia, having moved to the United States at age 15. She originally studied pre-med at James Madison University, but success in vocal competitions prompted her to switch majors and graduate with a BM in opera performance. Shetty received her Master of Music in performance from the University of Kentucky before moving on to the Cincinnati Conservatory of Music, where she earned her artist diploma in opera in 2005.


title: Reshma Shetty

text: Shetty was cast as Priya, the female lead in the national tour of the Broadway musical "Bombay Dreams" in 2006. She also acted in the Off-Broadway play "Rafta Rafta". She was a cast member on the American TV program "Royal Pains" portraying physician assistant Divya Katdare.


title: Reshma Shetty

text: Shetty was also an occasional guest-panelist on the Fox News Channel satire show "Red Eye w/Greg Gutfeld".


title: Reshma Shetty

text: Shetty currently resides in New York City, where they shot parts of "Royal Pains". She is married to actor and financer Deep Katdare, who starred with her in "Bombay Dreams". They married on March 19, 2011. She gave birth to their daughter Ariya Eliana on October 6, 2015.


title: Real World/Road Rules Challenge: The Ruins

text: Real World Road Rules Challenge: The Ruins is the 18th season of the MTV reality television game show, "The Challenge" (at the time known as "Real World/Road Rules Challenge"). This is the last season to use "Real World/Road Rules" in the on-screen title, before being shortened to "The Challenge" in the .


text: The Ruins took place in Phuket, Thailand, with cast members from "The Real World", "Road Rules" and "The Challenge" competing. This season was played in the format of two teams — Champions and Challengers; players on the Champions team had won at least one previous challenge, while players on the Challengers team had never won a challenge.


text: The season premiered on September 30, 2009 and concluded with the "S#!t They Should Have Shown" special on December 23, 2009.


text: This season of the Real World/Road Rules Challenge puts the Champions against the Challengers. The two teams compete in numerous missions, typically called challenges, in order to win cash, prizes and advance in the overall game. The winning team in each challenge receives a cash prize of $20,000, which is split evenly among the team members and placed in their individual bank accounts, as well as a bonus prize for each member of the team.


text: Before every challenge however, the Champions and the Challengers each select three players of each gender within their team to be nominated for elimination. After the challenge, the six nominees from the winning team pick one guy and one girl among themselves, as well as a male-female pair from the losing team's nominees to battle against in the Ruins.


text: In the Ruins, there are two events — one battle for each gender. The winners from each event get to stay in Phuket, and have a chance to compete for a share of $120,000 in the final challenge. The losers are eliminated from the game, and lose all of their prize money in their individual bank accounts to the event winners, though their bonus prizes are not affected.


text: Each team begins by racing to the first checkpoint, "Bizarre Buffet," where each player must completely eat a series of five bizarre foods—beetles, fried frog legs, stinky Thai fruit, red chilies and crickets & grasshoppers—in order to collect a Thai artifact and advance to the second checkpoint. At "Junction," teams are faced with choosing one of four different colored paths, collecting an artifact at the end of each path and placing each artifact into their team stone that will open a secret door. The other checkpoints consist of a jigsaw puzzle, crawling through a mud pit and back, walk through an "Shortcut" obstacle course with bamboo poles and solving a difficult Building Blocks puzzle. If any player falls of the bamboo poles while trying to complete the Shortcut course, the entire team must restart the Shortcut course. If a team does not complete the Building Blocks puzzle within a 30-minute time limit, each player must carry a block with them to the Junction. The team that makes it to the finish line first after opening the secret door with all five artifacts wins an additional $160,000 to be split amongst their team members.


text: The reunion aired on December 16, 2009 and it was hosted by Maria Menounos. Cast members that attended were: Wes, KellyAnne, Brad, Sarah, Evan, Dunbar, Kenny, Johanna, Johnny, Veronica, Susie & Katie. First topic was the weather in Thailand, how hot it was and how it affected the competition. Next topic was the final challenge, Sarah and KellyAnne said that until the final puzzle they thought they had a shot at the money, Susie said that she considered making a deal with the Challengers but at the end it's better to win the money yourself than get it from a deal, Evan then added that he had no doubt about Susie's performance in the final challenge because the night before she told him ""nothing funny"" was going to happen but Johnny said he had doubts. Susie was pointed to be as manipulative as Kenny and Evan.


text: The Brad/Darrell fight was shown and Brad talked about his trip to the hospital and his recovery process. Brad talked about how Tori reacted to the fight and their upcoming wedding, and he added he probably would not come back for another Challenge without Tori. Footage of Wes' multiple fights with the cast was shown. The love pentagon (Cohutta, KellyAnne, Wes, Johanna & Kenny) was also discussed, Johanna explained her side on the story and why she felt so down during the season. KellyAnne and Evelyn's elimination round was discussed next, Wes said he now understands that putting KellyAnne against Evelyn was the smartest decision for the Champions team and that it was not a personal attack, but KellyAnne said she still doesn't understand why her teammates wanted her out. Sarah then talked about how Kenny, Evan and Johnny made her feel and why she cried after Johnny's comments. Johanna said she exploited with Johnny's comments and not with Kenny's because they both had a ""third grade crush"" on each other but Sarah explained it was because Kenny and Evan make fun of so many people that it's normal, Wes said that it was time for the "I'm mean to everyone so I can be mean to you" excuse Kenny uses ends, Johanna added she was in Sarah's position with Kenny and Evan a while ago but it eventually gets better. Johnny and Katie talked about the fight with Sarah.


text: Maria Menounos commented on how this season broke the record of challengers being disqualified and the Veronica/Tonya fight was shown, Veronica said that up until the day of the fight she and Tonya were good on the challenge, that she didn't walk away because she did not think Tonya would hit her. Veronica said Tonya shouldn't have been on the show because she's not stable enough. Some footage of "The S#it They Should Have Shown" is played, as well as a preview for ""


text: In October 2011, two years after "The Ruins" season aired, contestant Tonya Cooley filed a lawsuit against fellow contestants Kenny Santucci and Evan Starkman, MTV, and Bunim/Murray Productions, claiming that she was sexually assaulted during filming. Cooley claimed in the lawsuit that Santucci and Starkman inserted a toothbrush into her vaginal canal while she was passed out from heavy drinking, and stated that she was subjected to an environment in which degrading and harassing behavior was directed at female contestants, including bathing suits stripped off their bodies. The lawsuit was settled out of court one year later.


title: Rube Waddell

text: George Edward Waddell (October 13, 1876 – April 1, 1914) was an American pitcher in Major League Baseball (MLB). A left-hander, he played for 13 years, with the Louisville Colonels, Pittsburgh Pirates, and Chicago Orphans in the National League, as well as the Philadelphia Athletics and St. Louis Browns in the American League. Born in Bradford, Pennsylvania, and raised in Prospect, PA, Waddell was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell is best remembered for his highly eccentric behavior, and for being a remarkably dominant strikeout pitcher in an era when batters were expert at making contact and avoiding making an out without putting a ball in play. He had an excellent fastball, a sharp-breaking curveball, a screwball, and superb control; his strikeout-to-walk ratio was almost 3-to-1, and he led the major leagues in strikeouts for six consecutive years.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell was born on October 13, 1876, just outside Bradford, Pennsylvania. He grew up in the countryside (Prospect, PA). Biographer Alan Levy wrote that Waddell was "a decidedly different sort of child". At the age of three, he wandered over to a local fire station and stayed there for several days. He did not attend school very often. He strengthened his arm as a child by throwing rocks at birds he encountered while working on his family's land. He also worked on mining and drilling sites as a youngster, which helped his conditioning.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell's career wound through a number of teams. He was notably unpredictable; early in his career, he once left in the middle of a game to go fishing. He also had a longstanding fascination with fire trucks and ran off the field to chase after them during games on multiple occasions. He would disappear for months at a time during the offseason, and it was not known where he went until it was discovered that he was wrestling alligators in a circus. He was easily distracted by opposing fans who held up puppies, which caused him to run over to play with them, and shiny objects, which seemed to put him in a trance. An alcoholic for much of his short life, the southpaw reportedly spent his entire first signing bonus on a drinking binge, with "Sporting News" dubbing him a "sousepaw". His eccentric behavior led to constant battles with his managers and scuffles with bad-tempered teammates.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell's first professional contract was for $500 with Louisville, where he pitched two league games and a couple of exhibitions with the team at the end of the 1897 season. When the season ended, he was loaned to the Detroit Tigers of the Western League to gain professional experience. After defaulting on rent and being fined by owner George Vanderbeck, he left Detroit in late May to pitch in Canada before eventually returning to Homestead, Pennsylvania, to pitch semi-pro baseball there. However, Pittsburgh retained his rights and he was lent to Columbus of the Western League in 1899, continued with them when the franchise moved to Grand Rapids mid-season, and finished with a record of 26–8. He rejoined Louisville in the final month of the 1899 season and won seven of nine decisions. When the National League (NL) contracted to eight teams for the 1900 season, Louisville ownership bought the Pittsburgh franchise and the Louisville franchise was terminated. Louisville's top players, including Waddell, Honus Wagner, and Fred Clarke, were transferred to Pittsburgh.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell debuted with the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1900, leading the National League in ERA. However, his erratic behavior led manager Fred Clarke to suspend him. After he pitched in semi-pro ball in small towns such as Punxsutawney, Milwaukee Brewers manager Connie Mack learned of his availability. With Pittsburgh's approval, Mack convinced Waddell to pitch for Milwaukee for several weeks in the summer of 1900. Milwaukee was in the newly named American League (AL), formerly known as the Western League, which was not yet directly competing with the NL. On August 19, Waddell pitched the first game of a doubleheader for Milwaukee, winning in the 17th inning on his own triple. Mack offered Waddell a three-day fishing vacation if he agreed to pitch the second game. After Waddell threw a complete game shutout for the victory, he headed to Pewaukee Lake to go fishing. Pittsburgh's management quickly recognized Waddell's talent and asked for his return.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell had worn out his welcome in Pittsburgh by 1901, and his contract was sold to the Chicago Cubs, then managed by Tom Loftus. Despite his previous successes managing Waddell in Columbus/Grand Rapids, Loftus was not given the latitude to cope with Waddell's problems as the Cubs manager. When problems led to his suspension, Waddell left the Cubs to pitch for semi-pro teams in northern Illinois, as well as Racine and Kenosha, Wisconsin. Frank Chance and Joe Cantillon then invited Waddell to join a barnstorming team that traveled to California, where he was persuaded to stay and joined the Los Angeles Loo Loos in a league that a year later would become the Pacific Coast League.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Connie Mack, then in Philadelphia, was desperate for pitching; when he learned that Waddell was pitching in California, he dispatched two Pinkerton agents to sneak Waddell back to Philadelphia, where he led the Philadelphia Athletics to the 1902 American League crown. Much later, Mack described Waddell as "the atom bomb of baseball long before the atom bomb was discovered". On July 1, 1902, Waddell became the second major-league pitcher to throw an immaculate inning, striking out all three batters on nine total pitches in the third inning of a 2–0 win over the Baltimore Orioles (the present-day New York Yankees).


title: Rube Waddell

text: Shortly after the 1902 baseball season, reports indicated Waddell would play for Connie Mack's Athletics football team. However, he never played for the football Athletics. Mack later said, "There was a little fellow from Wanamaker's who asked for the job of quarterback. I don't think he weighed more than 140 [lbs]. Well, the first practice Waddell tackled him and broke his leg. It was the first inkling John [Shibe] and I had that players could be badly hurt in football. We got Rube out of there without delay. He was supposed to be pretty good, but we never found out." Waddell returned to his family's home in Pennsylvania and played with local football clubs there. He played with various football teams in his later years and had a brief stint as a goalkeeper in the St. Louis Soccer League.


title: Rube Waddell

text: In his prime, Waddell was the game's premier power pitcher, with 302 strikeouts in 1903, 115 more than runner-up Bill Donovan. According to baseball historian Lee Allen in "The American League Story", Waddell began the 1903 season "sleeping in a firehouse at Camden, New Jersey, and ended it tending bar in a saloon in Wheeling, West Virginia. In between those events, he won 22 games for the Philadelphia Athletics, [...] toured the nation in a melodrama called "The Stain of Guilt", courted, married, and became separated from May Wynne Skinner of Lynn, Massachusetts, saved a woman from drowning, accidentally shot a friend through the hand, and was bitten by a lion." His performance in "The Stain of Guilt" was notable in that his co-stars, who had realized that he was incapable of memorizing his lines, allowed him to improvise his lines for every show; the play was critically acclaimed and was much discussed for a scene in which Waddell lifted the actor playing the villain and threw him across the stage with ease. Waddell used his newfound stardom as an actor to negotiate a higher wage for his baseball career.


title: Rube Waddell

text: In Eliot Asinof's 1963 account of the 1919 World Series fix "Eight Men Out" (later made into a film of the same name), mention is made of Waddell being bribed not to pitch in the 1905 World Series against the New York Giants. Further discussion of the 1905 World Series has taken place at SABR. Waddell followed that season with 349 strikeouts in 1904, 110 more than runner-up Jack Chesbro. No other pitcher compiled consecutive 300-strikeout seasons until Sandy Koufax in 1965 and 1966. Waddell was the opposing pitcher for Cy Young's perfect game on May 5, 1904, and hit a flyball for the final out. Waddell's 349 strikeouts represented the modern-era season record for more than 60 years, and remains sixth on the modern list. In 1946, it was initially believed that Bob Feller's 348 strikeouts had broken Waddell's single-season mark, but research into his 1904 season box scores revealed uncounted strikeouts that lifted him back above Feller. Waddell still holds the AL single-season strikeout record by a left-handed pitcher.


title: Rube Waddell

text: In 1905, Waddell won a Triple Crown for pitching. He finished with a 27–10 win–loss record, 287 strikeouts, and a 1.48 earned run average (ERA). It was Waddell's fourth consecutive season to finish with 20 or more wins. Around this time, he was sharing a room with teammate Ossee Schreckengost, as was customary during the era; Schreckengost later refused to share the room until a contract clause was created which would bar Waddell from eating crackers in bed. Waddell also gained more fame for saving the lives of people inside a department store when he picked up a burning oil stove that had overturned and carried it out of the building before it could start a fire.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell's drinking problem was exacerbated by a horrific marriage to May Wynne Skinner, his second of three wives, and a series of injuries in 1905 and 1906. Skinner threatened to prosecute Rube for bigamy because she did not recognize the divorce granted Rube in St. Louis. But the divorce, granted by the circuit court on February 9, 1910, was legal, so the former Mrs. Waddell had no case.


title: Rube Waddell

text: On April 8, 1908, "The Scranton Republican Newspaper" published an interview with Waddell entitled "Unkissed Girl Sought by Rube Waddell". This article provided yet another example of Waddell's progressing instability. Waddell's intent was to use the article as an advertisement for his desire to find himself another wife.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Ken Burns' later documentary "Baseball" claimed Waddell had even lost track of how many women he had married. In time, his alcohol use began to erode his relationships with his Athletics teammates. Schreckengost, a one-time friend who regularly fetched alcohol and fishing poles for Waddell, squabbled with both Waddell and Mack for being treated differently for the same offenses.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell's increasingly erratic behavior included an incident in which he got into a fistfight on a cross-country train after making fun of a teammate's straw hat. Complaints from teammates forced Mack to send Waddell to the St. Louis Browns for $5,000 in early 1908 despite his continued success. Recent commentators such as Bill James have suggested that Waddell suffered from a developmental disability, mental retardation, autism, or attention deficit disorder (ADD). Not much was known about these mental conditions, or their diagnoses, at the time. Though eccentric and childlike, Waddell was not illiterate as some sources have claimed.


title: Rube Waddell

text: To make sure he stayed out of trouble during the off-season, Browns owner Robert Hedges hired him as a hunter over the winters of 1908 and 1909. He set the league record for strikeouts in a game with 16 in 1908. Further drinking and marital problems with his third wife, Madge Maguire, plagued Waddell; he passed out in the middle of a game against New York in 1909. These incidents led to his release in 1910. He finished the season pitching with Joe McGinnity for Newark in the Eastern League and never played another major league game. His career stats were 193–143, 2,316 strikeouts, and a 2.16 earned run average, with 50 shutouts and 261 complete games in 2961.1 innings pitched.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell's pitching repertoire usually consisted of only two pitches: one of the fastest fastballs in the league and a hard curve. However, he had command of many more pitches, including slow curves, screwballs, "fadeaways" and even a "flutterball". Mack once said that Waddell's curve was "even better than his speed... [He] had the fastest and deepest curve I've ever seen".


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell enjoyed waving his teammates off the field and then striking out the side. He actually did so only in exhibition games, since official baseball rules prohibit playing with fewer than nine men on the field in regulation play. But in a league game in Detroit, Waddell actually had his outfielders come in close and sit down on the grass to watch him strike out the side. Once the stunt almost backfired. Pitching an exhibition game in Memphis, he took the field alone with his catcher, Doc Powers, for the last three innings. With two out in the ninth, Powers dropped the third strike, allowing the batter to reach first. The next two hitters blooped pop flies that fell just behind the mound. Despite running himself ragged, Waddell subsequently struck out the last man.


title: Rube Waddell

text: After his major league career was over, Waddell pitched for parts of three more years in the minor leagues, including a 20-win season for the Minneapolis Millers in 1911. In addition to pitching for the Millers, he pitched for the Minneapolis Rough Riders and with the Virginia Ore Diggers of the Northern League in 1913. By that season, however, his health had declined to such an extent that he no longer resembled the muscular, long-limbed hero of the prior decade. While in spring training with the Millers, Waddell helped save the city of Hickman, Kentucky, from a devastating flood in the spring of 1912. Catching pneumonia, he lost much of the vitality that had sustained him, and a second flood in Hickman and another ensuing case of pneumonia in 1913 took the rest. That same year, while in Minneapolis, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and moved to live with his sister in San Antonio, Texas. His health never recovered, and he was placed in a sanitarium in nearby Elmendorf until he died at the age of 37 on April 1, 1914.


title: Rube Waddell

text: Waddell was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1946 by the Veterans Committee that looked to enshrine a number of players from his era and the previous century who had contributed to the growth of the game. One of Waddell's contributions was that he was perhaps the greatest drawing card in the first decade of the century, a man whose unique talents and personality drew baseball fans around the country to ballparks.


title: Rube Waddell

text: In 1981, Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig included him in their book "The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time". Under what they called "the Smoky Joe Wood Syndrome", they argued in favor of including players of truly exceptional talent whose career was curtailed by injury (or, in Waddell's case, substance abuse), despite not having had career statistics that would quantitatively rank them with the all-time greats. In this case, fans and peers recognized Waddell as a baseball great long before Ritter and Honig did.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: The plazas de soberanía (, lit. "strongholds of sovereignty") is a term describing a series of Spanish overseas minor territories scattered along the Mediterranean coast bordering Morocco or that are closer to Africa than Europe. This term is used for those territories that have been a part of Spain since the formation of the modern country (1492–1556), as opposed to African territories acquired by Spain during the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Scramble for Africa.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: Historically, a distinction was made between the so-called "major places of sovereignty", comprising the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, and the "minor places of sovereignty", referring to a number of islands (and a small peninsula) along the coast. In the present, the term refers mainly to the latter.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: During the Reconquista and mainly following the conquest of Granada in 1492, forces of the Castilian and Portuguese kingdoms conquered and maintained numerous posts in North Africa for trade and as a defence against Barbary piracy.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: In August 1415, the Portuguese conquered the city of Ceuta. In 1481, the Papal bull "Aeterni regis" had granted all land south of the Canary Islands to Portugal. Only this archipelago and the possessions of Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1476–1524), Melilla (conquered by Pedro de Estopiñán in 1497), Villa Cisneros (founded in 1502 in current Western Sahara), Mazalquivir (1505), Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508), Oran (1509–1708; 1732–1792), Algiers (1510–1529), Bugia (1510–1554), Tripoli (1511–1551), and Tunis (1535–1569) remained as Spanish territory in Africa. Finally, following the independence of Portugal after the end of the Spanish-led Iberian Union, Ceuta was ceded by Portugal to Spain in 1668.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: In 1848, Spanish troops conquered the Islas Chafarinas. In the late 19th century, after the so-called Scramble for Africa, European nations had taken over colonial control of most of the African continent. The Treaty of Fez (signed on 30 March 1912) made most of Morocco a protectorate of France, while Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern part, Spanish Morocco.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: When Spain relinquished its protectorate and recognized Morocco's independence in 1956, it did not give up these minor territories, as Spain had held them well before the establishment of its protectorate.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: On 11 July 2002, Morocco stationed six gendarmes on Perejil Island, which was at the time a source of complaint by Spain. The Spanish Armed Forces responded by launching a military operation code-named Operation Romeo-Sierra. The operation was carried out by Spanish commandos of "Grupo de Operaciones Especiales". The Spanish Navy and Spanish Air Force provided support; the six Moroccan navy cadets did not offer any resistance and were captured and evicted from the island. It has since been evacuated by both countries.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: Apart from these, there are two other islands usually considered within the "plazas de soberanía". The disputed Perejil Island (), a small uninhabited islet close to Ceuta, is considered by Spain to be a part of Ceuta and not a territory in its own right. Alboran Island (), another small island in the western Mediterranean, about 50 kilometres (31.05 miles) from the African coast and 90 kilometres (55.92 miles) from Europe, is administered as part of the municipality of Almería on the Iberian Peninsula.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: The "plazas de soberanía" are small islands and a peninsula off the coast of Morocco (the only peninsula, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, was an island until a 1934 storm formed a sand bridge with the mainland). They are guarded by military garrisons and administered directly by the Spanish central government.


title: Plazas de soberanía

text: Like Ceuta and Melilla, they are a part of Spain, therefore also part of the European Union, and their currency is the euro.


title: Tikbalang

text: The Tikbalang (/ˈtikbaˌlaŋ/) (also Tigbalang, Tigbalan, Tikbalan, Tigbolan, or Werehorse) is a creature of Philippine folklore said to lurk in the mountains and rainforests of the Philippines. It is a tall, bony humanoid creature with the head and hooves of a horse and disproportionately long limbs, to the point that its knees reach above its head when it squats down. In some versions, it is a transformation of an aborted fetus sent to earth from limbo.


title: Tikbalang

text: ""450. They greatly fear and reverence the tigbàlang or bibit. This is a ghost, goblin, or devil; and as it knows the cowardice of these Indians, it has been wont to appear to them in the mountains—now in the guise of an old man, telling them that he is their nono; now as a horse; and now as a monster. Consequently, the Indians in their terror make various pacts with it, and trade their rosaries for various articles of superstitious value, such as hairs, grass, stones, and other things, in order to obtain all their intents and free themselves from all the dangers. Thus do they live in delusion until God wills that the evangelical ministers undeceive them, which costs no little [effort], because of the very great fear with which they are filled.""


title: Tikbalang

text: ""The tigbalang is another object of which they stand in great awe. It is described as a phantom, which assumes a variety of uncouth and monstrous shapes, and interposes its authority, to prevent their performing the duties, prescribed by our religion"."


title: Tikbalang

text: The form of the Tikbalang traces back 4000 years ago, with roots in Hinduism which explain how that influence evolved into the mysterious half-horse creature we know today.


title: Tikbalang

text: Ancient people in the Philippines believed in animism. They believed that the world had its consciousness and that stones, trees, mountains, water, animals, sun, and the moon had a hidden power known as the spirit or the 'idol'. This power could be good or harm the spirit, but it was believed to control some aspects of life.


title: Tikbalang

text: in 1589, during the earliest days of the Spanish occupation, Father Juan de Plasencia documented the long-term Tikbalang awareness of indigenous peoples.


title: Tikbalang

text: Hinduism, from its origins in India, spread to Southeast Asia in 200 CE as Indian cultural influence spread throughout the region through trade routes. Tikbalang may have originated from Hayagriva, an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. The worship of Hayagriva was recorded in 2000 BCE.


title: Tikbalang

text: The images for giant flying birds, the Tikbalang, and Sirena are straight out of Hindu imagery. Influence on religion was also prevalent with the concept of a multi-layered world – Heaven and Hell. According to the Hindu Puranas, there are fourteen worlds in the universe: the seven upper and the seven lower. The seven upper worlds are Bhuh, Bhavah, Swah, Mahah, Janah. Tapah, and Satyam; and the seven nether worlds are Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala, Talatala, Mahatala, and Patala. The region known as Bhuh is the earth where we dwell.


title: Tikbalang

text: Association with Tikbalang began around the 1860 discovery of a statue in Cambodia during the 10th century. It portrayed the demons that Vadavamuka, the more radical version of the avatar of Vishnu. Eventually, Buddhism changed the image of Hayagriva into a small horse's head floating in a crown of fire. In China, provided the old image of Hayagriva face with horses – one of the keepers of the demon of an inferno. The same thing probably happened to the Tikbalang as the Filipinos adopted it in their beliefs after exacting culture through trade. Nine hundred years before the Spaniards arrived, Chinese merchants settled in the Philippines and used horses. The evolution of the Tikbalang probably started then.


title: Tikbalang

text: The idea of tikbalang evolved over time telling the journey of the Filipino consciousness through colonialism and globalism. As there were no horses in the Philippines before the arrival of the Spanish, the earliest mentions of these mythological creatures did not specify horse or animal morphology (i.e. Plasencia's 16th c. account). Instead in the pre-colonial period, they were represented as ghosts and spirits of the forests, associated with the terms 'multo' and 'bibit' (some entries described them in early Spanish dictionaries as 'fantasma de montes' i.e. 'phantoms of the mountains/wilds', linking them strongly as nature spirits). In historical dictionaries (San Buenaventura's 1613 Vocabulario spelled as "tigbalang"), they were likened to the tiyanac, while in some entries they were given the definition as "satyrs" (satiro), "gnomes" (duendes) or "goblins" (trasgo). Individual tikbalangs, even today among superstitious Filipinos, are thought to inhabit trees as guardians (sometimes depicted as if the very soul of these trees). Specific trees (and nature in general) in pre-colonial Philippines were considered sacred (often used as shrines), esp. the large ficus trees (known locally as balete, ). An offensive expression "Tigbalang ca mandin!" "You are a wild beast!" was used by early Tagalogs to signify one as uncouth and uncivilized. Later on, as horses were brought from China and Japan through the Spanish colonial government, accounts of them appearing horse-like slowly became the norm (i.e. de San Antonio's 18th c. account).


title: Tikbalang

text: This mirrors a similar cultural evolution of another mythological creature from the Philippines, the kapre. The kapre evolved from earlier mentions of forest dwelling-giants who kidnap children during the early colonial period (mirroring how they were viewed in pre-colonial times), to eventually becoming depicted as a tall dark men (cafre slaves brought by Iberians from East Africa via India) who smoked tobacco (a New World plant imported to Asia via Columbian Exchange) during the colonial and modern era.


title: Tikbalang

text: Tikbalangs or Tigbolan scare travelers, lead them astray and play tricks on them such as making them return to an arbitrary path no matter how far they go or turn. This is counteracted by wearing one's shirt inside out. Another countermeasure is to ask permission out loud to pass by or, not to produce too much noise while in the woods in order not to offend or disturb the tikbalang. The "tigbolan" is a ghost which assumes a variety of forms, and sometimes confers a similar gift upon a certain favored individual. A superstition popular with the Tagalogs of Rizal Province is that Tikbalangs are benevolent guardians of elemental kingdoms. They are usually found standing at the foot of large trees looking around for anyone who dares to bestow malignancy on their kingdom's territory.


title: Tikbalang

text: A common saying has it that rain from a clear sky means ""may kinakasal na tikbalang.""(Filipino, "a tikbalang is getting married".) This was potentially connected with a similar Spanish proverb that claimed a witch was getting married when there was rain on a sunny day, although many cultures have such sayings in which a trickster figure gets married (cp. fox's wedding, bear's wedding, monkey's birthday/wedding).


title: Tikbalang

text: In some versions, the tikbalang can also transform itself into human form or turn invisible to humans. They like to lead travelers astray.


title: Tikbalang

text: Tikbalang is generally associated with dark, sparsely populated, foliage-overgrown areas, with legends variously identifying their abode as being beneath bridges, in bamboo clumps or banana groves, and atop Kalumpang (Sterculia foetida) or Balite (Ficus indica) trees.


title: Tikbalang

text: Account of Iluminado Cataytay (1959) from Barangay Sumilang, Quezon province, Philippines provides accurate information, as he witnessed from age of 4 up to his death in 1969.


title: Tikbalang

text: By one account a tikbalang has a mane of sharp spines, with the three thickest of these being of particular importance. A person who obtains one of these spines can use them as an "anting-anting" (talisman) to keep the tikbalang as his servant. The tikbalang must first be subdued, however, by leaping onto it and tying it with a specially-prepared cord. The would-be-tamer must then hang on while the creature flies through the air, fighting madly to dislodge its unwelcome rider until it is exhausted and acknowledges its defeat. Or you can look on his mane and you will see 3 golden hairs and if you pluck 3 of them before he/she eats you, they will serve you until you die.


title: Jessica Amlee

text: Jessica Kelsey Amlee (born July 17, 1994) is a Canadian television and film actress known for playing Mallory on the television series "Heartland". She also appeared as Amy in the thriller-horror film "Beneath" and Jackie Sanders in "Greenhouse Academy" on Netflix.


title: Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich

text: Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich is an American web documentary television miniseries about convicted sex offender Jeffrey Epstein. The miniseries is based on the 2016 book of the same name by James Patterson, and co-written by John Connolly and Tim Malloy. "Filthy Rich" was released on May 27, 2020, on Netflix. The four-part documentary features interviews with several survivors including Virginia Giuffre and Maria Farmer, along with former staff members and former police chief Michael Reiter, a key individual from the first criminal case against Epstein.


title: Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich

text: "Filthy Rich" tells the stories of the survivors of Jeffrey Epstein, and how he used his wealth and power to commit these crimes.


title: Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich

text: The miniseries was based on the 2016 book "Filthy Rich: A Powerful Billionaire, the Sex Scandal that Undid Him, and All the Justice that Money Can Buy: The Shocking True Story of Jeffrey Epstein" written by James Patterson, and co-written by John Connolly with Tim Malloy. "Filthy Rich" was announced prior to Epstein's death, and was in production nine months prior to his arrest. The project was initially known as "The Florida Project", taking precautions as Epstein was still alive, working on a secret server. They also worked in a locked room with cameras and a safe to hold materials.


title: Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 82%, based on reviews from 44 critics, with an average rating of 7.00/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "It lacks new insight, but by focusing on the stories of survivors "Filthy Rich" sheds light on the lasting impact of Epstein's crimes." On Metacritic, the series has a weighted average score of 61 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: 2016–17 AS Monaco FC season

text: The 2016–17 season was AS Monaco FC's fourth consecutive season in Ligue 1 since promotion from Ligue 2 in 2013. They participated in Ligue 1, the Coupe de France, the Coupe de la Ligue and the UEFA Champions League.


title: 2016–17 AS Monaco FC season

text: Following aggregate victories over Fenerbahçe and Villarreal, Monaco qualified for the group stage of the Champions League, and sealed their place in the last 16 as group winners following a 2–1 win over Tottenham Hotspur on the fifth matchday. Monaco defeated Manchester City on away goals in the round of 16 and recorded a 6–3 aggregate win over Borussia Dortmund in the quarter-finals, reaching the semi-finals of the Champions League for the first time since 2004; they failed to reach the final after a 4–1 aggregate defeat to Juventus.


title: 2016–17 AS Monaco FC season

text: Monaco also won Ligue 1 for the first time since 2000, preventing Paris Saint-Germain from earning a fifth consecutive title. They went on a twelve-match winning run to close out the season and finished their league campaign with 95 points and 107 goals scored. The club additionally reached the final of the Coupe de la Ligue and the semi-finals of the Coupe de France; they were eliminated by PSG in both competitions.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The Proto-Greek language (also known as Proto-Hellenic) is the Indo-European language which was the last common ancestor of all varieties of Greek, including Mycenaean Greek, the subsequent ancient Greek dialects (i.e., Attic, Ionic, Aeolic, Doric, Arcadocypriot, and ancient Macedonian—either a dialect or a closely related Hellenic language) and, ultimately, Koine, Byzantine and Modern Greek (along with its variants). Proto-Greek speakers entered Greece sometime between 2200 and 1900 BCE, with the diversification into a southern and a northern group beginning by approximately 1700 BCE.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Proto-Greek emerged from the diversification of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), the last phase of which gave rise to the later language families occurred BCE. Pre-Proto-Greek, the Indo-European dialect from which Proto-Greek originated, emerged BCE in an area which bordered pre-Proto-Indo-Iranian to the east and pre-Proto-Armenian and pre-Proto-Phrygian to the west, at the eastern borders of southeastern Europe. Speakers of what would become Proto-Greek, migrated from their homeland (which could have been northeast of the Black Sea) throughout Europe and reached Greece in a date set around the transition of the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Bronze Age. The evolution of Proto-Greek could be considered within the context of an early Paleo-Balkan sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages. The characteristically Greek representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared, for one, by the Armenian language, which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian, although evidence remains scant.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: In modern bibliography, models about the settlement and development of proto-Greek speakers in the Greek peninsula place it in the region in the period at the earliest around 2200-2000 BCE during the Early Helladic III. Asko Parpola and Christian Carpelan (2005) date the arrival of Proto-Greek speakers into the Greek peninsula to 2200 BCE, while Carl Blegen (1928) dates it to BCE.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: A. L. Katona (2000) places the beginning of the migration of the Proto-Greek speakers from Ukraine towards the south BCE. Their proposed route of migration passed through Romania and the eastern Balkans to the Evros river valley from where their main body moved west. As such Katona as well as M.V Sakellariou agree that the main body of Greek speakers settled in a region that included southwestern Illyria, Epirus, northwestern Thessaly and western Macedonia. Older theories like those of Vladimir I. Georgiev placed Proto-Greek in northwestern Greece and adjacent areas (approximately up to Aulon river to the north including Paravaia, Tymphaia, Athamania, Dolopia, Amphilochia, and Acarnania as well as west and north Thessaly (Histiaeotis, Perrhaibia, Tripolis) and Pieria in Macedonia. during the Late Neolithic period . However, the dating of proto-Greek in Bronze Age Greece is compatible with the inherited lexicon from the common Proto-Indo-European language which excludes any possibility of it being present in Neolithic Greece.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Ivo Hajnal dates the beginning of the diversification of Proto-Greek into the subsequent Greek dialects to a point not significantly earlier than 1700 BCE. The conventional division of the Greek dialects prior of 1955 differentiated them between a West Greek (consisting of Doric and Northwest Greek) and an East Greek (consisting of Aeolic, Arcado-Cypriot, and Attic-Ionic) group. However, after the decipherment of the Linear B script, Walter Porzig and Ernst Risch argued for a division between a Northern (consisting of Doric, Northwest Greek, and Aeolic) and a Southern (consisting of Mycenaean, Arcado-Cypriot, and Attic-Ionic) group, which remains fundamental until today.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The primary sound changes separating Proto-Greek from the Proto-Indo-European language include the following.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Grassmann's law was a process of dissimilation in words containing multiple aspirates. It caused an initial aspirated sound to lose its aspiration when a following aspirated consonant occurred in the same word. It was a relatively late change in Proto-Greek history, and must have occurred independently of the similar dissimilation of aspirates (also known as Grassmann's law) in Indo-Iranian, although it may represent a common areal feature. The change may have even been post-Mycenaean.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Greek is unique among Indo-European languages in reflecting the three different laryngeals with distinct vowels. Most Indo-European languages can be traced back to a dialectal variety of late Proto-Indo-European (PIE) in which all three laryngeals had merged (after colouring adjacent short vowels), but Greek clearly cannot. For that reason, Greek is extremely important in reconstructing PIE forms.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: All of the cases may stem from an early insertion of next to a laryngeal not adjacent to a vowel in the Indo-European dialect ancestral to Greek (subsequently coloured to , , by the particular laryngeal in question) prior to the general merger of laryngeals:


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Consonants followed by consonantal "*y" were palatalized, producing various affricate consonants (still represented as a separate sound in Mycenaean) and geminated palatal consonants. Any aspiration was lost in the process. The palatalized consonants later simplified, mostly losing their palatal character. Palatalization occurred in two separate stages. The first stage affected only dental consonants, and the second stage affected all consonants.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: In the second palatalization, all consonants were affected. It took place following the resolution of syllabic laryngeals and sonorants. The following table, based on American linguist Andrew Sihler, shows the developments.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: In post-Proto-Greek times, the resulting palatal consonants and clusters were resolved in varying ways. Most notably, "*ň" and "*ř" were resolved into plain sonorants plus a palatal on-glide, which eventually turned the preceding vowel into a diphthong.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Between the first and the second palatalizations, new clusters "*tsy" and "*dzy" were formed by restoring a lost "*y" after the newly formed "*ts" and "*dz". That occurred only in morphologically transparent formations by analogy with similar formations in which "*y" was preceded by other consonants. In formations that were morphologically opaque and not understood as such by speakers of the time, the restoration did not take place and so "*ts" and "*dz" remained. Hence, depending on the type of formation, the pre-Proto-Greek sequences "*ty", "*tʰy" and "*dy" have different outcomes in the later languages. In particular, medial "*ty" becomes Attic "s" in opaque formations but "tt" in transparent formations.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The outcome of PG medial "*ts" in Homeric Greek is "s" after a long vowel, and vacillation between "s" and "ss" after a short vowel: "tátēsi" dat. pl. "rug" < "tátēt-", "possí(n)/posí(n)" dat. pl. "foot" < "pod-". This was useful for the composer of the Iliad and Odyssey, since "possí" with double "s" scans as long-short, while "posí" with single "s" scans as short-short. Thus the writer could use each form in different positions in a line.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: In Proto-Greek, Cowgill's law says that a former vowel becomes between a resonant (, , , ) and a labial consonant (including labiovelars), in either order.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Note that when a labiovelar adjoins an affected by Cowgill's law, the new will cause the labiovelar to lose its labial component (as in ' and ', where the usual Greek change "*" > "" has not occurred).


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Sound changes that postdate Proto-Greek, but predate the attested dialects, including Mycenaean Greek, include:


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The following changes are apparently post-Mycenaean because early stages are represented in Linear B:


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Note that and , when following a vowel and not preceding a vowel, combined early on with the vowel to form a diphthong and so were not lost.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Loss of and after a consonant was often accompanied by compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The results of vowel contraction were complex from dialect to dialect. Such contractions occur in the inflection of a number of different noun and verb classes and are among the most difficult aspects of Ancient Greek grammar. They were particularly important in the large class of "contracted verbs", denominative verbs formed from nouns and adjectives ending in a vowel. (In fact, the reflex of contracted verbs in Modern Greek, the set of verbs derived from Ancient Greek contracted verbs, represents one of the two main classes of verbs in that language.)


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Proto-Greek preserved the gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and number (singular, dual, plural) distinctions of the nominal system of Proto-Indo-European. However, the evidence from Mycenaean Greek is inconclusive with regard to whether all eight cases continued to see complete usage, but this is more secure for the five standard cases of Classical Greek (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and vocative) and probably also the instrumental in its usual plural suffix -pʰi and the variant /-ṓis/ for o-stem nouns. The ablative and locative are uncertain; at the time of Mycenaean texts they may have been undergoing a merger with the genitive and dative respectively. It is thought that the syncretism between cases proceeded faster for the plural, with dative and locative already merged as "-si" (the Proto-Indo-European locative plural having been "*-su-"). This merger may have been motivated by analogy to the locative singular "-i-". Nevertheless, seven case distinctions are securely attested in Mycenaean in some domain, with the status of the ablative unclear.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The Proto-Greek nominal system is thought to have included cases of gender change according to number, heteroclisy and stem alternation (ex. genitive form "húdatos" for "húdōr" "water").


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The peculiar oblique stem "gunaik-" "women", attested from the Thebes tablets is probably Proto-Greek. It appears, at least as "gunai-" in Armenian as well.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The pronouns "hoûtos", "ekeînos" and "autós" are created. The use of "ho, hā, to" as articles is post-Mycenaean.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: Proto-Greek inherited the augment, a prefix "e-", to verbal forms expressing past tense. That feature is shared only with Indo-Iranian and Phrygian (and to some extent, Armenian), lending some support to a "Graeco-Aryan" or "Inner PIE" proto-dialect. However, the augment down to the time of Homer remained optional and was probably little more than a free sentence particle, meaning "previously" in the proto-language, which may easily have been lost by most other branches. Greek, Phrygian, and Indo-Iranian also concur in the absence of "r"-endings in the middle voice, in Greek apparently already lost in Proto-Greek.


title: Proto-Greek language

text: The first person middle verbal desinences "-mai", "-mān" replace "-ai", "-a". The third singular "phérei" is an innovation by analogy, replacing the expected Doric "*phéreti", Ionic "*phéresi" (from PIE *).


title: Tennis ball

text: A tennis ball is a ball designed for the sport of tennis. Tennis balls are fluorescent yellow in organised competitions, but in recreational play can be virtually any color. Tennis balls are covered in a fibrous felt which modifies their aerodynamic properties, and each has a white curvilinear oval covering it.


title: Tennis ball

text: Modern tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce criteria to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as . Balls must have masses in the range . Yellow and white are the only colors approved by the ITF, and most balls produced are a fluorescent yellow known as "optic yellow", first introduced in 1972 following research demonstrating they were more visible on television.


title: Tennis ball

text: Tennis balls are filled with air and are surfaced by a uniform felt-covered rubber compound. The felt delays flow separation in the boundary layer which reduces aerodynamic drag and gives the ball better flight properties. Often the balls will have a number on them in addition to the brand name. This helps distinguish one set of balls from another of the same brand on an adjacent court.


title: Tennis ball

text: Tennis balls begin to lose their bounce as soon as the tennis ball can is opened. They can be tested to determine their bounce. Modern regulation tennis balls are kept under pressure (approximately two atmospheres) until initially used; balls intended for use at high altitudes have a lower initial pressure, and inexpensive practice balls are made without internal pressurization. A ball is tested for bounce by dropping it from a height of onto concrete; a bounce between is acceptable if taking place at sea-level and with relative humidity of 60%; high-altitude balls have different characteristics when tested at sea level.


title: Tennis ball

text: The ITF's "Play and Stay" campaign aims to increase tennis participation worldwide, by improving the way starter players are introduced to the game. The ITF recommends a progression that focuses on a range of slower balls and smaller court sizes to introduce the game effectively to both adults and children. The slowest balls, marked with red, or using half red felt, are oversized and unpressurized, or made from foam rubber. The next, in orange, are unpressurized normal sized balls. The last, with green, are half pressured normal sized.


title: Tennis ball

text: Before the development of lawn tennis in the early 1870s, the sport was played as the courtly game of real tennis. England banned the importation of tennis balls, playing cards, dice, and other goods in the Act of Parliament Exportation, Importation, Apparel Act 1463. In 1480, Louis XI of France forbade the filling of tennis balls with chalk, sand, sawdust, or earth, and stated that they were to be made of good leather, well-stuffed with wool. Other early tennis balls were made by Scottish craftsmen from a wool-wrapped stomach of a sheep or goat and tied with rope. Those recovered from the hammer-beam roof of Westminster Hall during a period of restoration in the 1920s were found to have been manufactured from a combination of putty and human hair, and were dated to the reign of Henry VIII. Other versions, using materials such as animal fur, rope made from animal intestines and muscles, and pine wood, were found in Scottish castles dating back to the 16th century. In the 18th century, strips of wool were wound tightly around a nucleus made by rolling a number of strips into a little ball. String was then tied in many directions around the ball and a white cloth covering sewn around the ball.


title: Tennis ball

text: In the early 1870s lawn tennis arose in Britain through the pioneering efforts of Walter Clopton Wingfield and Harry Gem, often using Victorian lawns laid out for croquet. Wingfield marketed tennis sets, which included rubber balls imported from Germany. After Charles Goodyear invented vulcanised rubber, the Germans had been most successful in developing vulcanised air-filled rubber balls. These were light and coloured grey or red with no covering. John Moyer Heathcote suggested and tried the experiment of covering the rubber ball with flannel, and by 1882 Wingfield was advertising his balls as clad in stout cloth made in Melton Mowbray.