title: Niten Ichi-ryū

text: Terao Kyumanosuke (Motomenosuke) had received the complete transmission of the School of Musashi, with certification and Musashi's two swords. He at first refused to teach and sent what he had received to Musashi's adopted son, Iori. Iori refused the succession, since the honor had not been bestowed upon him. With this, Kyumanosuke then agreed to take over as head—both his and Iori's actions were manifestations of their respect for Musashi.


title: Niten Ichi-ryū

text: Succession in the Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryū (the name given by Musashi towards the end of his life) does not follow a hereditary pattern. It is attested to by the bestowing of two artifacts: a scroll on which is written the name of the techniques and the approach to them that must be transmitted if the school is to be perpetuated truly, and a wooden sword that Musashi made himself, with which he trained and used as a walking stick during the last years of his life, today in possession of the city of Usa's Shinto Shrine.


title: Niten Ichi-ryū

text: The Gosho-ha Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū disputed the lineage claiming that Iwami Toshio Gensho is the sole legal representative of Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū until 2007. Miyagawa Yasutaka established a line of Niten Ichi-ryū that continues to practice and thrive in the Kansai region of Japan. Miyagawa Yasutaka and Kiyonaga Tadanao were both students of Aoki Kikuo during the same period. This "Kansai" line, currently under 10th Headmaster Miyagawa Morito, is an alternate but equal lineage to the main line.


title: Niten Ichi-ryū

text: Yoshomochi Kiyoshi died on 4 January 2020 leaving no successor as stated on his own home page. 後継者の指名はなかった。


title: Niten Ichi-ryū

text: 3) Nito Seiho (二刀勢法) Five techniques with two swords corresponding to the five forms in the Water Scroll:


title: L. V. Prasad

text: Akkineni Laxmi Vara Prasada Rao (17 January 1907 – 22 June 1994), known professionally as L. V. Prasad, was an Indian film director, producer, actor, and businessman. He was one of the pioneers of Indian cinema and is the recipient of the Dadasaheb Phalke Award, the highest Award for films in India. In 1980, he was awarded the Raghupathi Venkaiah Award, for his contribution to Telugu cinema.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: He founded "Prasads Group" in 1956, which include the Prasad Art Pictures, Prasad Studios, Prasad's IMAX and L. V. Prasad Eye Institute. He was elected as the President of The South Indian Film Chamber of Commerce for the year 1982–83. The Government of India released a Commemorative postage stamp in his memory in 2006.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: Prasad also had the unique distinction of acting in the first talkies of three different languages of Indian cinema; "Alam Ara" (Hindi), "Bhakta Prahlada" (Telugu) and "Kalidas" (a Tamil and Telugu bilingual film).


title: L. V. Prasad

text: Akkineni Lakshmi Vara Prasada Rao was born on 17 January 1907 in the remote village of Somavarappadu, in Eluru Taluk in West Godavari district, Andhra Pradesh, the second son to Akkineni Sriramulu and Akkineni Basavamma. The family was into agriculture and Prasad was a pampered child, very intelligent, but never interested in studies.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: At the age of 17 in 1924, he married his maternal uncle's daughter, Soundarya Manoharamma. Soon they had a baby girl. Prasad's father had mounting debts and declared insolvency, at which point Prasad looked to a cinema career.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: L. V. Prasad worked as an errand boy for Venus Film Company. He then joined India Pictures as an errand boy, where Akthar Nawaz cast him in a bit-part in the silent film "Star of the East". In 1931, he acted in India's first "talkie", "Alam Ara", recruited through Venus Film Company. Other minor roles followed. These films were made by Imperial Films, through which he met H. M. Reddy. Reddy gave Prasad a small role in "Kalidas", the first Tamil and Telugu bilingual "talkie", and subsequently in "Bhakta Prahlada", the first Telugu "talkie". It was around this time that Prasad made contact with his family and then returned home to visit them. He then returned to Bombay with his wife and daughter, where his sons, Anand and Ramesh, were born.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: Prasad by chance got a role as an assistant director in "Kamar-Al–Zaman", directed by Ali Shah. This was also the time that his name was shortened from Akkineni Lakshmi Vara Prasad Rao to L. V. Prasad, this being a consequence of a clerk finding the name too long to use. The shortened name stuck with him thereafter. Tantra Subrahmanyam assigned him a job of a production supervisor and assistant director for the film "Kashta Jeevi", which took him to Bombay again. The film was abandoned after shooting three reels. Prasad was in no mood to leave now and he got a job as assistant director in a few other films. During this time, using his connections with Prithviraj Kapoor, he joined Prithvi Theatres and satisfied his acting passion. It was during this time that he met Raj Kapoor, the hero of his first Hindi production "Sharada".


title: L. V. Prasad

text: In 1943, he got the opportunity to take on the responsibility of assistant director for "Gruha Pravesam". Due to circumstances, he became the director of the film and then he was also chosen as the lead actor of the film. "Gruha Pravesam", released in 1946 was one of the finest films of the forties and went on to become a classic of the period. After this, K. S. Prakasa Rao offered Prasad an important role in "Drohi". During this time, Ramabrahmam was facing difficulty in finishing his film "Palnati Yudham" due to ill health and he chose Prasad to do justice to this film. After this in 1949, Prasad directed "Mana Desam" and introduced N. T. Rama Rao, later to become a legend in Telugu cinema, in a minor role.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: In 1950 Vijaya Pictures released their first film "Shavukaru", establishing L. V. Prasad as a director. "Samsaram", released in the same year, brought together the two people who would become notable actors in the Telugu film industry as brothers – N. T. Rama Rao and Akkineni Nageswara Rao in a social drama which created records wherever it was released. The film provided a model for later filmmakers, a model and theme relevant and popular amongst film makers even today. After this, success chased him. He directed some memorable films in the fifties all of them known for their drama and fine humour. "Rani" a Hindi film took him to Bombay again and after that Jupiter Films engaged L. V. Prasad to direct their magnum opus "Manohara" (1954), starring the legendary Sivaji Ganesan in Tamil and dub it in Telugu and Hindi.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: But L. V. Prasad had more goals to achieve. In 1955, he assigned D. Yoganand to direct his first production "Ilavelpu" in Telugu under the banner Lakshmi Productions. L. V. Prasad established Prasad Productions, soon after this in 1956. His second son Ramesh returned from the United States after obtaining his B.E.M.S degree and established Prasad Film Labs in Chennai in 1974. Prasad Productions made many memorable box office hits including "Milan", "Khilona", "Sasural" and "Ek Duuje Ke Liye". L. V. Prasad contributed generously towards the establishment of L. V. Prasad Eye Institute in Hyderabad.


title: L. V. Prasad

text: L. V. Prasad was the chairman of the 27th National Film Awards Selection Committee held at New Delhi in 1980. He was the chairman of the All India Selection Panel of Indian Panorama section for the 8th International Film Festival of India from 3 to 17 January 1981. Prasad was also the chairman of the International Jury for Children's Film Festival held in November 1981 at Madras. He was elected as the President of The South Indian Film Chamber of Commerce for the year 1982–83. He was a Member of the Board of Film Censors from October 1980 to February 1987. L. V. Prasad was Chairman of the Studio Owners, Council, a wing of Film Federation of India. The Government of India released a Commemorative postage stamp in his memory in 2006.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: The 1985 European Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool of England and Juventus of Italy on 29 May 1985 at the Heysel Stadium, Brussels, Belgium. It was the final match of the 1984–85 season of the European Cup, Europe's premier cup competition. Liverpool were the reigning champions and were appearing in their fifth final, having won the competition in 1977, 1978, 1981 and 1984. Juventus were appearing in their third European Cup final; they lost both of their previous appearances in 1973 and 1983.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Each club needed to progress through four rounds to reach the final. Matches were contested over two legs, with a match at each team's home ground. All but one of Juventus' matches were won by two goals or more; in the semi-finals, they beat French team Bordeaux 3–2 on aggregate. Liverpool also won the majority of their matches by more than two goals, except in the second round when they beat Portuguese team Benfica 3–2 on aggregate.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: The match is overshadowed for the disaster that occurred before the kick-off. Liverpool fans breached a fence separating the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 people and injuring hundreds. Despite calls for an abandonment, the match went ahead due to authorities and organisers' making a joint decision for public policy doctrine reasons after a state of siege in the city was declared. The disaster prompted UEFA to ban English clubs from European football for five years.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Watched by a crowd of 58,000, the first half was goalless. Juventus took the lead in the 56th minute when Michel Platini scored from a penalty after Gary Gillespie was adjudged to have brought down Zbigniew Boniek in the penalty area, although the foul was actually committed nearly a yard outside the area and the referee was far from the action. The score remained the same throughout the remainder of the match and Juventus won 1–0, achieving their first European Cup win and became the first club to have won all three major European trophies (European Cup/UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League, and the Cup Winners' Cup).


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Juventus gained entry to the competition by winning the 1983–84 Serie A, entering as Italian champions. Their opponents in the first round were Ilves of Finland. The first leg in Finland, held at the Ratina Stadion, was won 4–0 by Juventus with a hat-trick by Paolo Rossi and a goal from Michel Platini. They won the second leg 2–1 at their home ground, Stadio Comunale, to win the tie 6–1 on aggregate.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: In the second round, Juventus were drawn against Swiss team Grasshopper. Juventus won the first leg 2–0 in Italy, and achieved a 4–2 victory in the second leg in Switzerland, which meant that they won the tie 6–2 on aggregate. Juventus' opponents in the quarter-finals were Sparta Prague of Czechoslovakia. Goals from Marco Tardelli, Paolo Rossi and Massimo Briaschi ensured a 3–0 victory for Juventus in the first leg in Italy. They lost the second leg at Sparta's home ground, Letná stadium 1–0, but progressed to the semi-finals due to a 3–1 aggregate victory.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: In the semi-finals, Juventus played French team Bordeaux and won the first leg 3–0 in Italy with goals from Zbigniew Boniek, Briaschi and Platini. The second leg was held at Bordeaux's home ground, the Stade Chaban-Delmas. Despite winning the match 2–0, Bordeaux lost 3–2 on aggregate.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Liverpool were the reigning European champions; they defeated Roma to win the 1983–84 European Cup, and were also the reigning English champions, having won the English league during the same season. They were drawn against Polish team Lech Poznań in the first round, and won the first leg at Poznań's home ground, Stadion Lecha, 1–0. Liverpool won the second leg 4–0 with a hat-trick from John Wark and a goal from Paul Walsh at their home ground, Anfield, to win the tie 5–0 on aggregate.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Liverpool played Portuguese team Benfica in the second round. Liverpool won the first leg 3–1 in England with a hat-trick by Ian Rush. They lost the second leg 1–0 at Benfica's home ground, Estádio da Luz, but still progressed to the quarter-finals due to a 3–2 aggregate victory. Liverpool's opponents in the quarter-finals were Austria Wien of Austria. The first leg at Wien's home ground, the Gerhard Hanappi Stadium, was drawn 1–1, but a 4–1 victory in the second leg in England meant that Liverpool qualified for the semi-finals with a 5–2 aggregate win.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Panathinaikos of Greece were the opposition in the semi-finals. The first leg at Anfield was won 4–0 by Liverpool; Rush scored twice, and Wark and Jim Beglin each scored one goal. The second leg was held at the Olympic Stadium and was won 1–0 by Liverpool. Thus, Liverpool won the tie 5–0 on aggregate to progress to their fifth European Cup final and their second in succession.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Juventus were appearing in their third European Cup final, having lost their previous appearances in 1973 and 1983. Liverpool were appearing in their fifth final, they were the reigning champions after beating Italian team Roma 4–2 in a penalty shoot-out after the 1984 final finished 1–1. Liverpool had also won the competition in 1977, 1978 and 1981. Since Juventus won the 1983–84 European Cup Winners' Cup, both teams had to face each other, during the season, in the 1984 European Super Cup at Juventus' home ground, the Stadio Comunale, due to both clubs experiencing fixture congestion, which was won 2–0 by the Torinese team with two goals from Zbigniew Boniek.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Juventus finished the 1984–85 Serie A in fifth position, which was outside of the European qualification positions. In order to participate in European competition in 1985–86, they needed to win the European Cup. Liverpool had finished second behind Everton in the 1984–85 Football League First Division, and thus qualified for the UEFA Cup, but victory in the final would enable them to compete in the European Cup the following season.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: The final was to be played at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels, Belgium. Liverpool had objected to the choice of venue as they were concerned about the condition of the stadium, which was crumbling, and the decision to allocate a neutral section for Belgian fans.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: The neutral zone that had been allocated to Belgian fans was largely occupied by Juventus supporters, many of whom lived in Italy and travelled in Belgium only to see the match in the stadium. The neutral zone was in section Z, on the same side of the ground as the Liverpool fans. Thus, the two groups stood yards apart, separated only by chicken wire. At approximately 7 p.m., missiles began to be thrown between the two sets of fans; because the stadium was crumbling, fans could pick stones up and throw them across the divide.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: The throwing became more intense as kick-off approached. Moments later, a group of Liverpool fans charged into section Z, causing the fans there to retreat. As they had nowhere to go, they moved towards the side perimeter wall. As more people moved up against the wall, it collapsed, which resulted in 39 deaths and injuries to 600 people. At the other end of the ground, Juventus fans began to riot in retaliation for the events in section Z. They advanced down the pitch towards the Liverpool fans and were stopped by the police. The resulting confrontation lasted two hours and was still going on when the match kicked off. Consequently, the Belgian government declared a state of siege in the City of Brussels.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: The match was delayed for over an hour as a result of the disaster but was played for public policy doctrine reasons because officials felt that abandoning the match would result in further violence due to a joint arrangement between the European confederation, the Italian, English and Belgian national associations—the latter being responsible for organising the event—as well as the country's Ministry of the Interior, the city's mayor and police force despite Juventus' explicit request that the match not be played. Two minutes into the match, Liverpool defender Mark Lawrenson was replaced by Gary Gillespie after Lawrenson suffered a recurrence of a shoulder injury. Juventus deployed Zbigniew Boniek on the right-hand side of the pitch and Massimo Briaschi on the left. Juventus' plan was to use the pace of Briaschi to threaten Liverpool full-back Phil Neal. Juventus' first chance came in the 30th minute when Antonio Cabrini, advanced from the left-back position, but his shot was saved by Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar. Liverpool immediately countered – John Wark ran onto Ronnie Whelan's chipped pass, but his shot was saved by Juventus goalkeeper Stefano Tacconi. Minutes later, Liverpool had another chance, but Whelan's shot was pushed over the Juventus goal by Tacconi.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Five minutes before half-time, Juventus were awarded a free-kick. Boniek, who had beaten three Liverpool players with a run, was brought down outside the Liverpool penalty area by Wark, who received a yellow card for the foul. The resulting free-kick came to nothing, and at half-time the score was 0–0. Almost immediately after the restart, Liverpool suffered another injury. Paul Walsh stretched to reach a pass from Neal, aggravated a stomach strain and was replaced by Craig Johnston. Juventus were gaining an ascendancy in the match, and in the 56th minute they were awarded a penalty kick. After getting on the end of a Platini long ball, Boniek again went on a run through the centre of the Liverpool defence and was brought down by Gillespie. Liverpool believed that the foul was outside the area, but the Swiss referee, from some 25 yards (22.86 m.) behind the ball, awarded the penalty. Michel Platini scored the subsequent penalty to give Juventus a 1–0 lead.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Liverpool tried to find a way back into the match. With 16 minutes left, Whelan was brought down in the Juventus penalty area by Massimo Bonini, but the referee decided that it was not a foul. Liverpool created more chances near the end of the match; Tacconi saved a shot from Whelan. Wark and Steve Nicol saw headers go wide of the Juventus goal. No further goals were scored and at full-time the score was 1–0 to Juventus, who had won their first European Cup and became the first club to win all three seasonal UEFA competitions.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: Despite being considered, from a sporting point of view, as one of the better European finals played until then, after the match, much discussion centred on the disaster that occurred before kick-off. UEFA was adamant that the Liverpool fans were responsible; UEFA official Gunter Schneider stated, "Only the English fans were responsible. Of that there is no doubt." British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher put pressure on The Football Association to withdraw English clubs from European competition and two days later, UEFA banned English clubs for "an indeterminate period of time". On 6 June, FIFA extended the ban to worldwide matches, but this was modified a week later to exclude friendly matches and did not affect the English national team.


title: 1985 European Cup Final

text: English clubs were banned indefinitely from European competition, with a condition that when the ban was lifted, Liverpool would serve an extra three-year ban. The ban eventually lasted for five years, clubs returning to European competition in the 1990–91 season. Liverpool returned to European competition a season later in the 1991–92 UEFA Cup.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: Johnny Tsunami is a 1999 Disney Channel Original Movie (DCOM). The film focuses on a young surfer from Hawaii who must adapt to new challenges when his father's job forces the family to move to Vermont. It was nominated in 2000 for the Humanitas Prize in the Children's Live-Action Category. The film was followed by a sequel, "", released in 2007.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: Johnny Kapahala, a boy living in Hawaii, is a surfer who has good friends and a happy family, including parents Pete and Melanie, and his paternal grandfather, the famous surf legend Johnny Bartholomew Tsunami. When Pete gets a sudden job transfer, the family is forced to move to Vermont, while Tsunami stays in Hawaii.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: In Kapahala's new town, there are two schools: a private school where the students are skiers known as Skies; and the public school where the students are snowboarders known as Urchins. Johnny goes to the skiers' school, but would prefer to snowboard because he thinks it is more like surfing. After some difficulty, Johnny eventually learns how to snowboard with help from a new friend named Sam Sterling.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: At his new school, Johnny becomes good friends with a girl named Emily, who is Headmaster Pritchard's daughter. However, a skier named Brett likes Emily too and thinks Johnny is not right for her. The Urchins ride the side of the mountain that belongs to the skiers and are confronted by the Skies. Later, Emily nearly falls off the mountainside while learning how to snowboard with Johnny and his new friends.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: A fight ensues between Johnny and Brett regarding the incident, but is immediately dispersed when a snow ranger arrives. After a meeting with his parents and the headmaster concerning the fight with Brett, Sam tells Johnny that he is moving to Iceland, as are his father's orders since he is a first sergeant in the U.S. Marine Corps and relocating also means a promotion to sergeant major. Pete tells Johnny that Sam moving away would be best, as he wants Johnny to fit in with his peers at private school. A fight occurs between Johnny and Pete. Johnny wishes his grandfather were there because he understands him better than Pete; however, Pete feels that Johnny Tsunami – a surf bum – is a bad influence on his son. Johnny and Sam run away from home and fly to Hawaii on a cargo plane to stay with Tsunami. Via telephone, Pete demands the boys be sent home immediately, but Tsunami refuses until they are willing to return. Melanie tells Pete her feelings about him unnecessarily punishing Johnny and tells him he needs to stop forbidding Johnny from his friends and let him snowboard. Pete tries unsuccessfully to defend his actions with Melanie, who reveals that she wishes that he could be the easy-going husband that she once loved, before he became the way he is.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: Johnny and Sam enjoy surfing and the warm weather in Hawaii, but they decide to return to Vermont along with Tsunami. Pete is shocked to see his father in Vermont, and the two have a heart-to-heart talk about Pete's punishment in forbidding his son from snowboarding with his friends. Pete admits he went too far in punishing Johnny. Tsunami encourages Pete to go easy on Johnny and let him make his own mistakes so he can learn from them. Tsunami tells Pete the more he tries to punish Johnny, the more resentful he will be towards his father later in life. The next day, Johnny is amazed to learn Tsunami has great snowboarding ability, and they decide to ride the skiers' side of the mountain, where the best rides are.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: Brett and his gang encounter Johnny and Tsunami, and decide to have a one-race challenge between Brett and Johnny Kapahala. If Johnny wins the race, then the skiers must share the mountain with the snowboarders. If Brett wins, then he is awarded the Tsunami Medal, a prize given to the best surfer in Hawaii. Pete encourages Johnny to win the race to keep the medal in the family. He wins the race, despite Brett's cheating attempts, allowing him and Emily to begin a relationship. Brett's friends congratulate Johnny and are inspired to learn how to snowboard with the Urchins.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: Johnny's parents throw a celebration party. Brothers Randy and Ronnie, who own the opposite sides of the mountain, reveal their story as they were the original Sky and Urchin. Their parents divorced long ago and they could not agree on what should happen when they inherited the mountain after their father died 10 years earlier. The mountain was split between the two, with the Skies having the best rides. Randy and Ronnie decide to reunite the mountain and open a new shop which allows everyone access to the best slopes. The brothers thank Johnny for helping them see the error of their ways.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: The movie was filmed in locations such as Utah, including Brighton Resort for many of the skiing and snowboarding scenes, and Hawaii.


title: Johnny Tsunami

text: In 2012, "Complex" ranked the film at number 2 on the magazine's list of the 25 best Disney Channel Original Movies. In March 2016, the film was ranked at number 35 on MTV's list of the best DCOMs, consisting of 99 films. The same year in May, Aubrey Page of Collider ranked each DCOM released up to that point. Page ranked "Johnny Tsunami" at number 30 and wrote that it "managed to combine surfing and winter sports into a veritable smorgasbord of sick Disney stunts". That month, "Entertainment Weekly" ranked it at number 10 on a list of the top 30 DCOMs, with writer Jonathon Dornbush calling the film "one of the most fun" and "finest fish-out-of-water DCOMs around".


title: Russian Bear

text: The Russian Bear () is a widespread symbol (generally of a Eurasian brown bear) for Russia, used in cartoons, articles and dramatic plays since as early as the 16th century, and relating alike to the Russian Empire, the Russian Provisional Government and Russian Republic, the Soviet Union, and the present-day Russian Federation.


title: Russian Bear

text: The uses of the bear are mixed. It was often used by Westerners, in British caricatures and later also used in the United States, and not always in a flattering context – on occasion it was used to imply that Russia is "big, brutal and clumsy". However, Russians have also used it to represent their country, especially in the Russian Federation, where it has been used as a "symbol of national pride."


title: Russian Bear

text: There have been a few examples of Russians depicting bears in coat of arms. Mainly showing Polar Bears and Brown Bear. The Novgorod Oblast coat of arms and flag include two brown bears. The Republic of Marii El's coat of arms is a red bear with a sword and shield. While in the regions of Nenets Autonomous Okrug and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, the coat of arms have polar bears. Meanwhile, the Republic of Karelia and Khabarovsk Krai also have bears in their coat of arms, albeit Black Bears. In Perm Krai and the Republic of Karelia coat of arms, there is a bear meant to symbolize how Orthodox Christianity took over from bear cults. Despite the bear having symbolism inside Russia, the local coat of arms use the bear more to reflect a region or history rather than Russia as a whole.


title: Russian Bear

text: The idea of the Russian bear that pushes Russianness doesn't first appear in Russia but in the West. It's unknown when the Russian bear was first used in the West. One of the earliest usages of the Russian bear was from William Shakespeare's Macbeth in Act 3, Scene 4. Where Shakespeare referred to a "rugged Russian bear."


title: Russian Bear

text: Multiple maps from the 17th to 20th centuries show Russia as inhibited and represented by bears. The maps started with small bears to represent Russia. The small use of the Russian bear led one scholar to suggest that the West viewed Russia as "realms for wild animals" by pointing out the comparison between the bears in Russia and the lions in North Africa. Over time these bears started to represent the entire country. In the end, the bears became connected with the idea of Russia rather than small animals on the map, especially through satirical maps.


title: Russian Bear

text: The Russian Bear has also been depicted in political cartoons, especially in the British publication Punch. One of the earliest uses of the bear's connection to Russia was in the late 18th century when a British cartoon put Catherine the Great's head on a body of a bear ridden by the Russian General Potemkin. The Napoleonic Wars also had bears used to represent Russia alongside other animals, such as the Lion of England. In the Crimean War, Russia was portrayed as a bear multiple times, especially in Punch cartoons showing a bear holding a Turkey representing the Ottoman Empire which is given the subtitle "Turkey in danger?" Representation of the Russian bear continued in cartoons throughout the 19th century and the early 20th century. In the First World War, many Punch cartoons referred to Russia using a bear to represent the empire.


title: Russian Bear

text: The cartoons, however, didn't always represent Russia through war or expansion it also used the bear to describe internal problems. Sometimes the bear is shown as injured from war or internal problems. Especially after the January Uprising in Poland, where a Russian bear is fighting a woman meant to represent the Poles.


title: Russian Bear

text: The bear image was, however, on various occasions (especially in the 20th century) also taken up by Russians themselves. Having the bear cub "Misha" as the mascot of the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games was evidently intended to counter the "big and brutal Russian Bear" image with a small, cuddly and smiling bear cub.


title: Russian Bear

text: In Ronald Reagan's successful 1984 re-election campaign, he used the bear motif in the famous "Bear in the woods" ad, which claimed that he recognized the existence of a Soviet threat, and that his opponent denied its existence.


title: Russian Bear

text: After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was some support in the Russian Parliament for having a bear as the new Russian coat of arms – with the proposers pointing out that "Russia is anyway identified in the world with the Bear" – though eventually it was the Tsarist-era coat of arms of the double-headed eagle that was restored.


title: Russian Bear

text: In Russia, associations with the image of the bear have received relatively mixed reactions. On one hand, Russians themselves appreciate the bear for its raw power and cunning, and bears are very often used as mascots or as a part of a design on a logo. On the other hand, the overuse of the image of the bear by foreigners visiting Russia prior to 20th century led to the image of bear being a sort of insider joke, postulating that "Russian streets are full of bears" as an example of factually inaccurate information about Russia.


title: Russian Bear

text: Later, the bear was taken up as the symbol of the United Russia Party, which has dominated political life in Russia since the early 2000s. Coincidentally, the surname of Dmitry Medvedev, the Russian president elected in 2008, is the possessive adjective of "медведь": i.e. his surname means "bear's".


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The pre-Adamite hypothesis or pre-Adamism is the theological belief that humans (or intelligent yet non-human creatures) existed before the biblical character Adam. Pre-Adamism is therefore distinct from the conventional Abrahamic belief that Adam was the first human. Advocates of this hypothesis are known as "pre-Adamites", along with the humans who they believe existed before Adam.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The first known debate about human antiquity took place in 170 AD between a Christian, Theophilus of Antioch, and an Egyptian pagan, Apollonius the Egyptian (probably Apollonius Dyscolus), who argued that the world was 153,075 years old.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: An early challenge to biblical Adamism came from the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate, who, upon his rejection of Christianity and his return to paganism, accepted the idea that many pairs of original people had been created, a belief termed co-Adamism or multiple Adamism.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Augustine of Hippo's "The City of God" contains two chapters indicating a debate between Christians and pagans over human origins: Book XII, chapter 10 is titled "Of the falseness of the history that the world hath continued many thousand years" and the title of book XVIII, chapter 40 is "The Egyptians' abominable lyings, to claim their wisdom the age of 100,000 years." These titles tend to indicate that Augustine saw pagan ideas concerning both the history of the world and the chronology of the human race as incompatible with the Genesis creation narrative. Augustine's explanation aligned with most rabbis and with the church fathers, who generally dismissed views on the antiquity of the world as myths and fables, whereas Jewish and Christian claims were based on revealed truth.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Augustine did take a critical view of the young earth narrative in some aspects, arguing that everything in the universe had been created simultaneously by God, and not seven literal days. He was primarily concerned with arguing against the idea of humanity having existed eternally rather than a Bible-based chronology of human history.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In early Islam, a common belief held that mankind is actually the successor of other intelligent creatures such as "jinn" and "hinn". Medieval Muslim traditions referred to the "jinn" as "pre-Adamites", depicted as human-like in various ways. Although the notion of Jinn as pre-Adamites was generally accepted, the idea that other humans lived before the known Adam was controversial. From the mid-ninth century onward the idea appeared that God created several Adams, each of whom presides over an era lasting around 50,000 years. This concept was regarded as heretical, but was widely accepted by Ismailis and some Sufis.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: A book titled "Nabatean Agriculture", written or translated by Ibn Wahshiyya in 904, collated texts about the activities and beliefs of Arabic groups such as the Nabataeans, in defense of Babylonian culture against Islam. The book discussed the ideas that people lived before Adam, that he had parents, and that he came from India. It proposed that Adam was the father of an agricultural civilization, rather than the father of the entire human race.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The Jewish poet Yehuda Halevi wrote his "Kitab al Khazari" between 1130 and 1140, which featured a discussion wherein the King of the Khazars questioned three theologians (a Jewish rabbi, a Christian, and a Muslim) which was the true religion, and raised the challenge that people in India said they had buildings and antiquities which were millions of years old. The rabbi responded that his faith was unshaken, as the Indians lacked "a fixed form of religion, or a book concerning which a multitude of people held the same opinion, and in which no historical discrepancy could be found." The rabbi dismissed Indians as dissolute, unreliable people, whose claims could be ignored. Later in the book, Halevi rejected the "Nabatean" claims as these people did not know of the revelation in Scripture, and he dismissed Greek theories of an eternal world. In his conclusion, Halevi maintained that Adam was the first human in this world but left open other possibilities: "If, after all, a believer in the Law finds himself compelled to admit an eternal matter and the existence of many worlds prior to this one, this would not impair his belief that this world was created at a certain epoch, and that Adam and Noah were the first human beings."


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The claims in "Nabatean Agriculture" were also disputed by Maimonides (1135–1204) in "The Guide for the Perplexed". He attributed the concepts to the Sabians and said they were just legends and mythology which deviated from monotheism though drawing on Jewish sources, but in refuting the speculations, he circulated an outline of the ideas among other scholars: "They deem "Adam" to have been an individual born of male and female like any other human individuals, but they glorify him and say that he was a prophet, the envoy of the moon, who called people to worship the moon. and there are compilations of his on how to cultivate the soil." He noted the claim that Adam came from India, and went on to Babylon.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The presence of a belief in the existence of men before Adam among the Familists, a religious community in Friesland, was noted by John Rogers in 1578.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 1591, Giordano Bruno argued that, because no one could imagine that the Jews and the Ethiopians had the same ancestry, God must have either created separate Adams or that Africans were the descendants of pre-Adamic races.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The 17th-century French millenarian Isaac La Peyrère is usually credited with formulating the pre-Adamite theory because of his influence on subsequent thinkers and movements. In his "Prae-Adamitae", published in Latin in 1655, La Peyrère argued that Paul's words in should be interpreted to mean that "if Adam sinned in a morally meaningful sense there must have been an Adamic law according to which he sinned. If law began with Adam, there must have been a lawless world before Adam, containing people." Thus, according to La Peyrère, there must have been two creations; first the creation of the Gentiles and then the creation of Adam, who was the father of the Hebrews. The existence of pre-Adamites, La Peyrère argued, explained Cain's taking of a wife and the building of a city after Abel's murder in the Book of Genesis.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Lazslo Toth writing in "Politica Hermetica" states that "racial theory has as its official birthdate 24 April 1684," when François Bernier distinguished four or five races in an article titled "A new division of the Earth, according to the different species or races of men who inhabit it" published in the "Journal des sçavans". Because of widespread theological opposition to the pre-Adamite theories of his friend La Peyrère, Bernier published his paper anonymously.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: During the Age of Enlightenment, pre-Adamism was adopted widely as a challenge to the biblical account of human origins. In the 19th century, the idea was welcomed by advocates of white superiority. A number of racist interpretive frameworks involving the early chapters of Genesis arose from pre-Adamism. Some pre-Adamite theorists held the view that Cain left his family for an inferior tribe described variously as "nonwhite Mongols" or that Cain took a wife from one of the inferior pre-Adamic peoples.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 19th-century Europe, pre-Adamism was attractive to those who were intent on demonstrating the inferiority of non-Western peoples, and in the United States, it appealed to those who were attuned to racial theories who found it unattractive to contemplate a common history with non-whites.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Scientists such as Charles Caldwell, Josiah C. Nott and Samuel G. Morton rejected the view that non-whites were the descendants of Adam. Morton combined pre-Adamism with cranial measurements. As Michael Barkun explains:


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 1860, Isabella Duncan wrote "Pre-Adamite Man, Or, The Story of Our Old Planet and Its Inhabitants, Told by Scripture & Science", a mixture of geology and scriptural interpretation. The book was popular among a number of geologists because it mixed biblical events with science. She suggested that the pre-Adamites are today's angels. Since they were without sin, for sin did not enter the world until Adam disobeyed God, there was no reason for them not to have been at least raptured into heaven, anticipating what would again occur with the second coming of Jesus Christ. Duncan also believed that some angels had sinned and fallen from Heaven, which caused them to become demons. Duncan believed that such an upheaval would leave geological scars on the earth. The concept of ice ages, pioneered by Louis Agassiz, seemed to provide evidence of such events, drawing the line between the pre-Adamic era and the modern one, which she posited began about 6,000 years ago.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 1867, Buckner H. Payne, writing under the pen name Ariel, published a pamphlet titled "The Negro: What is His Ethnological Status?" He insisted that all of the sons of Noah had been white. According to his hypothesis, if the Flood had been universal, the only survivors of it should have been white, so why were non-white people living on Earth? To answer this question, Payne suggested that the "Negro" is a pre-Adamic beast of the field (specifically, a higher order of monkey), which was preserved on Noah's Ark. According to Payne, the Pre-Adamites were a separate species without immortal souls.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The Irish lawyer Dominick McCausland, a Biblical literalist and anti-Darwinian polemicist, maintained the theory in order to uphold the Mosaic timescale. He believed that the Chinese were descended from Cain and he also believed that the "Caucasian race" would eventually exterminate all other races. He also believed that only the "Caucasian" descendants of Adam were capable of creating civilization, and he tried to explain away the existence of the numerous non-"Caucasian" civilizations by attributing all of them to a vanished "Caucasian race", the Hamites.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 1875, A. Lester Hoyle wrote a book, "The Pre-Adamite, or who tempted Eve?" In his book, he claimed that there had been five distinct creations of races, but only the fifth race, the white race, of which Adam was the father, had been made in God’s own image and likeness. Hoyle further suggested that Cain was the "mongrel offspring" of Eve's being seduced by "an enticing Mongolian" with whom she had repeated trysts, thus laying the foundation for the white supremacist bio-theology that miscegenation was "an abomination".


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In an unusual blend of contemporary evolutionary thinking and pre-Adamism, the Vanderbilt University theistic evolutionist and geologist Alexander Winchell argued in his 1878 tract, "Adamites and Preadamites", for the pre-Adamic origins of the human race, on the basis that the Negroes were too racially inferior to have been descended from the Biblical Adam. Winchell also believed that the laws of evolution operated according to the will of God.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 1891, William Campbell, under the pen name "Caucasian", wrote in "Anthropology for the People: A Refutation of the Theory of the Adamic Origin of All Races" that the non-white peoples were not the descendants of Adam and were therefore "not brothers in any proper sense of the term, but inferior creations" and he also wrote that polygenism was the "only theory reconcilable with scripture." Like Payne before him, Campbell viewed the Great Flood as a consequence of intermarriage between the white (Adamic) and the nonwhite (pre-Adamic) peoples "the only union we can think of that is reasonable and sufficient to account for the corruption of the world and the consequent judgement."


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In 1900, Charles Carroll wrote the first of his two books on pre-Adamism, "The Negro a Beast; or, In the Image of God", in which he sought to revive the ideas which had previously been presented by Buckner H. Payne, describing the Negro as a literal ape rather than a human. In a second book which was published in 1902, "The Tempter of Eve", he put forth the idea that the serpent was actually a black female, and he also theorized that miscegenation was the greatest of all sins. Carroll claimed that the pre-Adamite races, such as blacks, did not have souls. He believed that race mixing was an insult to God because it spoiled His racial plan of creation, and he also believed that the mixing of races had led to the errors of atheism and evolution.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The Scottish millennialist George Dickison wrote "The Mosaic Account of Creation, As Unfolded in Genesis, Verified by Science" in 1902. The book mixed science with a scientifically enhanced reading of Genesis and it also listed geological discoveries which showed that men existed before Adam had been created and proved that Earth was much older than the 6000-year-old span of the Adamic race. Dickison welcomed scientific discoveries from fossil evidence and the palaontological record and used them as evidence of pre-Adamism.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The doctrine which is known as British Israelism, which developed in England in the 19th century, also included a pre-Adamic worldview but Pre-Adamism was a minority position. The model viewed pre-Adamites as a race of inferior bestial creatures which was not descended from Adam, because according to it, Adam was the first white man and consequently, he was the first son of God. In the narrative, Satan seduces Eve, and the resulting offspring is a hybrid creature, Cain. Later, Cain flees to East Turkestan to establish a colony of followers who are intent on realizing the Devil’s plan for domination of the earth. A further elaboration of this myth involved the identification of the Jews with the Canaanites, the putative descendants of Cain, but the eponymous ancestor of the Canaanites is not Cain, but Canaan. It followed that if the tribes of Judah were supposed to have intermarried with Cain’s descendants, the Jews were both the offspring of Satan and the descendants of sundry nonwhite pre-Adamic races.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: In the United States, philo-Semitic British Israelism developed into the antisemitic Christian Identity movement and the serpent seed doctrine. Identity preacher Conrad Gaard wrote that the serpent was a "beast of the field" who was the father of Cain, and since Cain married a pre-Adamite, his descendants were a "mongrel, hybrid race".


title: Pre-Adamite

text: The occultist Paschal Beverly Randolph published "Pre-Adamite Man: Demonstrating The Existence of the Human Race Upon the Earth 100,000 Thousand Years Ago!" under the name Griffin Lee in 1863. The book took a primarily scientific view of pre-Adamism, relying on evidence from linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, paleontology, and ancient history. Being a polygenist, Randolph argued that the color of races, particularly black, was not the result of climate and was proof of separate, pre-Adamite origins.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Pre-Adamite theories have also been held by a number of mainstream Christians such as the Congregational evangelist R. A. Torrey (1856–1928), who believed in the Gap Theory. Torrey believed it was possible to accept both evolution and biblical infallibility, with the pre-Adamite as the bridge between religion and science.


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Gleason Archer Jr. was a believer in pre-Adamism. In his 1985 book "A Survey of Old Testament Introduction" he wrote,


title: Pre-Adamite

text: Archer asserted that only Adam and his descendants were infused with the breath of God and a spiritual nature corresponding to God himself, and that all mankind subsequent to Adam’s time must have been literally descended from him. Regarding the concept of pre-Adamic races (such as the Cro-Magnon man), he says: "They may have been exterminated by God for unknown reasons prior to the creation of the original parent of the present human race."


title: Pre-Adamite

text: More recently, such ideas have been promoted by Kathryn Kuhlman and Derek Prince among Pentecostals, John Stott among Anglicans, and Old Earth creationist Hugh Ross.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: PGA Tour is a series of golf video games developed and published by Electronic Arts - and later their EA Sports sub-label - since 1990. The series primarily features courses featured on the U.S. PGA Tour, and other notable courses (such as those that have hosted majors).


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: In 1998, EA began publishing their golf games with the endorsement of Tiger Woods. Following the "Tiger Woods 99 PGA Tour Golf" release, subsequent titles were named "Tiger Woods PGA Tour" and released yearly.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: Although EA Sports developed most games in the series internally, some SKUs have come from outside developers including the first edition, "Tiger Woods 99 PGA Tour Golf", which Adrenalin Entertainment developed in conjunction with EA for the PlayStation and "Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2001" for the PlayStation, which was developed by Stormfront Studios. IOMO also produced versions of the game for mobile phones for the 2002, 2004, and 2005 editions.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: In October 2013, EA ended its relationship with Woods, being replaced with Rory McIlroy, then top golfer in the world, who became the new title athlete of the franchise, known as "Rory McIlroy PGA Tour".


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: The series was responsible for several innovations in the genre, such as the now standard three-click swing method. In 1995 a critic stated in "GamePro" that "The PGA series flies high above the rest for two reasons: You can completely control a shot, and you play on the best courses around." However, unlike other games in the EA Sports label, the series was often shadowed by other competitors such as the "Jack Nicklaus" series, "Links" series, "Microsoft Golf" or "The Golf Pro".


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: Starting in 1998, Tiger Woods was the star and face of the series. The deal with Woods was worth $6.2 to 7 million a year at the height of his 15 years at EA Sports.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: That's according to Kotaku sources, Electronic Arts reportedly planned to outsource Tiger Woods PGA Tour 15 and give the in-house team at EA Tiburon two years to make Tiger Woods PGA Tour 16 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. However, when CEO John Riccitiello resigned March 2013, this plan was dropped to save costs, the sources said.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: In October 2013, EA's partnership with Woods and a licensing agreement with Augusta National Golf Club reached an end. According to EA, the split is a mutual decision.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: The agreement with HB Studios comes after a similar long-term licensing agreement between the PGA Tour and Electronic Arts came to an end. EA had dominated electronic golf games thanks to a partnership with 15-time major tournament winner Tiger Woods. From 1999 to 2013 "Tiger Woods PGA Tour" was the top video golf game on the market. After EA and Woods ended their agreement in 2013, EA developed a similar game in 2015 in a partnership with Rory McIlroy. "Rory McIlroy PGA Tour" did not fare nearly as well as the previous EA versions featuring Woods. The game was pulled from all digital storefronts in May 2018.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: In September 2018, EA relinquished its agreement with the PGA Tour in what appears to be a move away from golf games.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: In August 2018, "PGA Tour" licensing director Matt Iofredo said the new partnership with HB Studios is part of the sport's on-going efforts to introduce golf to a wider audience.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: On March 29, 2021, EA announced that a new next-gen golf video game, currently in development on the Frostbite (game engine) under the name of EA SPORTS PGA TOUR, will take advantage of next-gen technology.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: EA announced on April 7, 2021, a day before the 2021 Masters, that the Masters and its home, Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia, will be playable exclusively in EA Sports PGA Tour. To be released under the name "EA Sports PGA Tour: Road to the Masters" and along with the Masters event, EA Sports PGA Tour will feature the PGA Championship, the U.S. Open and the Open Championship, making it the only video game to feature all four major men's professional golf tournaments.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: EA Sports, is returning to the golf market to compete with the PGA Tour 2K franchise from 2K Sports. The 2020 PGA Tour 2K21 featured 15 real-world courses, some of which had already hosted major tournaments. But 2K didn't have the rights to the names of the actual major tournaments.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: EA to announce that they had captured the course and traditions of the Masters", having made their first-ever "aerial sweep of its kind to collect millions of data points, previously unavailable in golf games, to authentically recreate Augusta National in the game". (Presumably, this is an improvement over the old technique - when EA announced in 2011 that it was putting Augusta National in its game for the first time, it was using "state-of-the-art laser scanning technology.") It's not yet known if EA is using the same air-scanning technology for the game's other licensed courses.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: On May 17, 2021 Electronic Arts announced that EA Sports PGA Tour would be relaunched in the spring of 2022. Around the next Masters tournament which will take place from April 4 to 10, 2022.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: On November 3, 2021, Electronic Arts later announced that the launch date for EA Sports PGA Tour would be shifted and more plans for the release date would be shared in the coming months.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: On March 22, 2022 Electronic Arts announced the delay of EA Sports PGA Tour by one year to spring 2023. EA did not give a reason for the delay, nor did they announce the game's platforms.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: Developed and published by Electronic Arts for the Amiga, Sega Genesis, and Amiga CD32 in 1994, for the Game Boy in 1995, and for the SNES and MS-DOS in 1996. The SNES version supports the TeeV Golf club peripheral.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: "GamePro" gave the Game Boy version a rave review, saying that it "delivers almost everything that made its 16-bit relative the best." They applauded the selection of courses, effective controls, strong realism, and the graphics, going so far as to state that when played on the Super Game Boy the game looks "almost as good as the Genesis version."


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: Developed by Exient Entertainment and published by Electronic Arts under the EA Sports branding on April 23, 2009 for iOS. The game features commentary by Sam Torrance and Kelly Tilghman. The game offers five golfers: Tiger Woods, Vijay Singh, Retief Goosen, Annika Sörenstam, and Natalie Gulbis. For courses, it has Pebble Beach Golf Links, Old Course at St Andrews, TPC Sawgrass, The K Club, Doral Golf Resort & Spa, Fancourt Links, and TPC Boston.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: Players took part in single player modes or in tournaments. Tournaments were split into weekly and daily competitions, sometimes based on events then happening in the PGA Tour. For example, during the US Open, the courses that have had the US Open had a discount on points.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: Players chose between monthly and yearly subscriptions with unlimited access, or chose to pay for individual rounds through microtransactions. Players who didn't subscribe were still allowed to compete, although they were usually allowed to play only one or two rounds each day.


title: PGA Tour (video game series)

text: On September 6, 2011, it became integrated with the "Tiger Woods PGA Tour 12" PC version. EA Sports retired "Tiger Woods PGA Tour Online" on July 6, 2013.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The 2013 Africa Cup of Nations, also known as the Orange Africa Cup of Nations South Africa 2013 for sponsorship reasons, held from 19 January to 10 February 2013, was the 29th Africa Cup of Nations, the football championship of Africa organized by the Confederation of African Football (CAF). Starting from this edition, the tournament was switched to being held in odd-numbered years instead of even-numbered years so that it does not clash with the FIFA World Cup. This edition was therefore the first to be held in an odd numbered year since 1965.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: South Africa hosted the tournament for the second time, after previously hosting the 1996 African Cup of Nations. The 2013 tournament is the highest attended edition of the Africa Cup of Nations under the current, 16-team format. The South African team was eliminated in the quarter-finals by Mali, following a penalty shoot-out. Zambia were the defending champions, but were eliminated in the group stage.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: Nigeria won its third Africa Cup of Nations championship with a 1–0 victory over Burkina Faso in the final. Nigeria participated in the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup in Brazil as the representative from CAF.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: On 4 September 2006, the Confederation of African Football (CAF) approved a compromise between rival countries to host the Africa Cup of Nations after it ruled out Nigeria. CAF agreed to award the next three editions from 2010 to Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Libya respectively. They assigned Angola in 2010, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon, which submitted a joint bid in 2012, and Libya for 2014.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: Two-time former host Nigeria was the reserve host for the 2010, 2012 and 2014 tournaments, in the event that any of the host countries failed to meet the requirements established by CAF, although this ended up being unnecessary


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The 2014 tournament was pushed forward to 2013 and subsequently held in odd-numbered years to avoid year-clash with the FIFA World Cup.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: Due to the Libyan Civil War, Libya traded years with South Africa, so that South Africa hosted in 2013 and Libya will be hosting in 2017. This was ratified in September 2011 at CAF's Executive Committee in Cairo, Egypt.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: A total of 47 countries entered the qualification, including South Africa, which automatically qualified. Libya was not allowed to keep its automatic qualification after being stripped of its hosting rights due to the Libyan Civil War.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: Many teams made their return to the finals in this tournament. The hosts, South Africa returned after a 4-year absence. Ethiopia appeared for the first time since 1982 (a 31-year absence). Other teams absent from the 2012 finals that featured in 2013 were Nigeria, Togo, DR Congo, and Algeria. Cape Verde made its finals debut. Teams that didn't qualify for this tournament from the 2012 African Cup of Nations were both co-hosts, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, Libya, Senegal, Sudan, Guinea and Botswana. South Sudan was ineligible to participate as the qualifying competition had already started by the time its membership of CAF was confirmed.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The South African Football Association opened bidding to all 2010 FIFA World Cup host cities however a maximum of seven venues would be used. The final list of stadiums was initially to be announced by 30 March, but was pushed back to 4 April, 20 April, and then 3 May 2012.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The venues were announced on 4 May 2012. FNB Stadium hosted the opening match and the final. The other venues selected for matches were Mbombela Stadium, Nelson Mandela Bay Stadium, Royal Bafokeng Stadium and Moses Mabhida Stadium.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The official match ball for the 2013 Africa Cup of Nations was manufactured by Adidas and named the "Katlego", which means "success" in Tswana language. The name was chosen by African football fans via an online voting competition where it beat alternate names, "Khanya" (light) and "Motswako" (mixture).


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The official mascot of the tournament was Takuma, a hippopotamus wearing sports kit in South Africa's official yellow and green. The mascot was designed by Tumelo Nkoana, a 13-year-old South African student from Hammanskraal in Gauteng.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The draw for the final tournament took place on 24 October 2012 in Durban. Positions A1 and C1 were already assigned to the hosts (South Africa) and holders (Zambia) respectively. The other 14 qualified teams were ranked based on their performances during the last three Africa Cup of Nations, i.e. the 2008, 2010 and 2012 editions.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: Moreover, a weighted coefficient on points was given to each of the last three editions of the Africa Cup of Nations as follows:


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: The teams were then divided into four pots based on the ranking. Each group contained one team from each pot.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: If two or more teams end the group stage with the same number of points, their ranking is determined by the following criteria:


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time shall be played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by kicks from the penalty mark to determine the winner, except for the play-off for third place where no extra time shall be played.


title: 2013 Africa Cup of Nations

text: South African public broadcaster SABC was the host broadcaster of the tournament. It paid R65 million (US$7.5 million) for the rights, which entitle it to transmit all of the games across its radio and television platforms.


title: Veyil

text: Veyil ( or "Sun Blaze") is a 2006 Indian Tamil-language drama film written and directed by Vasanthabalan. Bharath and Pasupathy are the male leads whereas Bhavana, Priyanka and Sriya Reddy plays the female leads. Upon release, the movie met with highly positive reviews and was commercially successful. The film was remade in Bengali Bangladesh as "Antor Jala" starring Zayed Khan and Pori Moni. The first third of "Veyil" is very loosely based upon the 1988 Italian classic "Cinema Paradiso". It is the first Tamil language film screened at Cannes as part of the 2007 Cannes Film Festival under the 'Tous les Cinemas du Monde’ section.


title: Veyil

text: Mayandi Thevar, is a butcher who works hard to bring up his four children (two boys and two girls) and have a happy family. Mayandi's sons are Murugesan and Kathir, and Murugesan dotes on his younger brother Kathir. Murugesan's weakness, like any other adolescent, is a love for movies (especially MGR films) that are screened in a local theatre. One day, life changes for Murugesan when his father catches him red-handed from the theatre after he bunks school. Murugesan is severely punished and runs away from home, taking money and jewels.


title: Veyil

text: Along the way, Murugesan gets sidetracked from his intended destination of Chennai by an MGR movie poster. He is shown watching several MGR shows, buying a change of clothes, and eating a hearty meal with his ill-gotten money. After spending the night at local temple, he wakes up to find his money and other possessions missing. Murugesan is then taken under the wings of a theatre projectionist in a nearby town. Slowly, the theatre becomes his home.


title: Veyil

text: As adults, Murugesan and Kathir, fall in love with Thangam and Meenakshi respectively. Thangam is a beautiful girl who lives opposite the theatre, and Meenakshi is an innocent girl. Parallel narration, Kathir starts an advertising agency, and faces opposition from Bose and Annachi, the local gangster.


title: Veyil

text: Murugesan's love ends in Thangam's suicide because her father and his relatives beat up and hang Murugesan as they are trying to kill him due to their dislike of him. At that moment, Thangam shows up with a knife and threatens to kill herself if they do not release Murugesan; as they do not release him, she cuts her throat and dies. Murugesan is heartbroken and is released at that moment after Thangam's death, and he begins to drink heavily. Sometime later, the theatre is demolished, the owner citing loss of business.


title: Veyil

text: Murugesan decides to return home after 20 years. The rest of the film is all about Murugesan's mental turmoil as he is caught between the deep love showered by his younger brother Kathir, and his guilt of not being a responsible son or elder brother, and Murugesan's remorse to his parents. Then there is Paandi, Murugesan's childhood sweetheart.


title: Veyil

text: Bose, fearing that Kathir will be a challenge to his advertising company, ruins Kathir's agency with the help of Annachi. Kathir retaliates by trying to kill Bose but gets stopped by Murugesan. One day, jewels go missing in their house, Murugesan's father suspects him as the thief of their jewels and insults Murugesan in front of everyone, when their daughter arrives and tells him that she took them. After an emotional conversation with his father, he decides to return.


title: Veyil

text: Kathir learns of this and goes to the bus station to bring Murugesan back. But there, Bose's and Annachi's men stab Kathir. In retaliation, Murugesan beats a few thugs. Kathir is rushed to a hospital and is in critical condition. The night, Murugesan decides to avenge his brother's injury. Murugesan goes to Annachi's place, engages in a duel with him, and becomes unconscious. Bose arrives there with his men and tells him that his brother is dead. Believing that his brother is dead, Murugesan kills Bose, and all his men and is stabbed by Bose in the fight. Murugesan dies, while Kathir becomes stable and recovers in the hospital. The next day, all mourn Murugesan's death, and his father is filled with remorse for not having trusted his son when he was alive.


title: Veyil

text: Sandhya was supposed to play the female lead but was replaced by Bhavana. Alamparai Fort was the location of scenes in the movie.


title: Veyil

text: Soundtrack was composed by debutant G. V. Prakash Kumar, nephew of A. R. Rahman and lyrics for all songs were written by Na. Muthukumar. All the songs including "Veyilodu Vilayadi" and "Urugudhe" were well received.


title: Veyil

text: "Rediff" wrote "Director Vasantha Balan has deftly handled the script, making it his own. By maintaining an energetic pace throughout, he ensures the story doesn't become monotonous or conventional, despite the somewhat predictable plot. His characters are distinctly human with myriad personality flaws, so that the audience can identify with them". "Behindwoods" wrote "Veyil is an emotional epic. A must watch for all especially parents." "Indiaglitz" wrote "Vasanthabalan's success also lies in smartly setting the mood for his method. The story is part told in the place the story unspools. The ambience gets across the story as much as the characters do." "Sify" wrote "Once again Shankar has introduced Vasantha Balan a director who understands the nuances of making a realistic film with well-etched out characters and strong screenplay."


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: The Popular Revolutionary Army or Ejercito Popular Revolucionario is a leftist guerrilla movement in Mexico. Though it operates mainly in the state of Guerrero, it has conducted operations in other southern-Mexico states, including Oaxaca, Chiapas, Guanajuato, Tlaxcala and Veracruz.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: The EPR announced its existence on June 28, 1996 at the commemoration of the Aguas Blancas massacre one year earlier. Dozens of rebels, carrying AK-47 and AR-15 rifles, declared war against the Mexican government and read aloud the "Aguas Blancas Manifesto", as well as firing 17 shots into the air to pay respect to the 17 who died in the massacre.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: The Popular Revolutionary Army advocates socialist peasant revolution. Subcomandante Marcos has distanced the EZLN from the EPR in his communiqués, largely because of the EPR activities in the state of Chiapas in the midst of peace talks in 1996 and 1997. The EPR though still asserts its support of the Zapatistas.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: The Popular Revolutionary Army has founded a militarized political party, the Popular Revolutionary Democratic Party, or Partido Democrático Popular Revolucionario. The group often signs its communiqués "PDPR-EPR," combining the Spanish initials of the army and the party. However, the Popular Revolutionary Democratic Party does not function in the political world independent of the Popular Revolutionary Army; the party does not appear on ballots in any local or federal elections.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: June 28, 1996: After the reading of the "Aguas Blancas Manifesto" by "Captain Emiliano", guerrillas engaged police in a fire fight near the Guerrero capital of Chilpancingo, wounding several policemen and one civilian.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: July 2, 1996: An EPR communiqué warns of "imminent" armed clashes with the army and police, this in response to the massive military presence in the area. Military intelligence concludes the EPR to be a genuine force, better equipped and organized than the EZLN.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: July 17, 1996: An attack on an army patrol in the southwest of Guerrero wounds several soldiers and kills one civilian. Two weeks later an ambush on Navy patrolmen leaves another wounded.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: August 7, 1996: EPR snipers killed one soldier and wounded several others. The EPR general command gave a press interview the same day. On August 25, the rebels claim to have killed 59 soldiers since June 28.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: August 28 and 29: The largest assault so far, exceeding public and government conceptions about the group's strength. A coordinated multistate attack hits army, police, and government targets in Oaxaca, Guerrero, Puebla and the Federal District, killing 18 and wounding more than two dozen. The EPR claims 41 dead and 48 wounded. Guerrilla forces also blocked roads in Chiapas to distribute pamphlets and seized a radio station in Tabasco. President Zedillo at his State of the Union Address (Segundo Informe de Gobierno) said: "Against terrorism, all the power of the State" in a message that terrorist acts would be prosecuted.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: July 2007: EPR claimed responsibility for several attacks against Pemex oil facilities in the Bajío region and stated that the attacks would continue until two of its members were released. The government denies responsibility for the disappearance of these 2 members.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: August 1, 2007: EPR also claimed responsibility for a bomb attack on a Sears store in Oaxaca, there was some damage but no injuries. On the same day the EPR also claimed responsibility for an attempted bombing of a Banamex bank branch also in Oaxaca.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: September 10, 2007: Pemex reported explosions due to sabotage on several pipelines located in the key energy producing state of Veracruz and further inland in Tlaxcala. According to reports, there were six explosions targeting pipelines carrying natural gas, propane, and crude oil. The effects of the explosions were so severe that they caused the evacuation of over 20,000 people from the area. The explosions caused millions of dollars in damages to Pemex equipment. Additionally, it is estimated the explosions cost the Mexican economy $100 million a day as over 2,500 businesses were affected and 60% of Mexico's steel industry was shuttered. On September 11, 2007 the EPR claimed responsibility for the explosions.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: Following the July 2007 pipeline attacks, President Calderón deployed 5,000 special troops to secure the pipelines, along with dams and power plants. These troops began regular patrols of the region both on the ground and in the air. However, Pemex has 60,000 km of the pipeline so it will be difficult to secure the pipelines from saboteurs.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: Shortly after the September pipeline attacks, the Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional (Mexican intelligence service) leaked a report stating that Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez was believed to be supporting the EPR with materials, armament, and training.


title: Popular Revolutionary Army

text: Mexican magazine "Contralínea" has announced that at least 21 members of the EPR have gone missing apparently after being kidnapped by government forces since the arrival to power of President Calderón. These disappearances of political activists are not restricted to the EPR but also to many others independent activists. The government claims they are caused by narcotraffic gang disputes.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Lhasa is a prefecture-level city, one of the main administrative divisions of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It covers an area of of rugged and sparsely populated terrain. Its capital and largest city is Lhasa, with around 300,000 residents, which mostly corresponds with the administrative Chengguan District, while its suburbs extend into Doilungdêqên District and Dagzê District. The consolidated prefecture-level city contains additional five, mostly rural, counties.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The city boundaries roughly correspond to the basin of the Lhasa River, a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. It lies on the Lhasa terrane, the last unit of crust to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the continent of India collided with Asia about 50 million years ago and pushed up the Himalayas. The terrain is high, contains a complex pattern of faults and is tectonically active. The temperature is generally warm in summer and rises above freezing on sunny days in winter. Most of the rain falls in summer. The upland areas and northern grasslands are used for grazing yaks, sheep and goats, while the river valleys support agriculture with crops such as barley, wheat and vegetables. Wildlife is not abundant, but includes the rare snow leopard and black-necked crane. Mining has caused some environmental problems.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The 2000 census gave a total population of 474,490, of whom 387,124 were ethnic Tibetans. The Han Chinese population at the time was mainly concentrated in urban areas. The prefecture-level city is traversed by two major highways and by the Qinghai–Tibet railway, which terminates in the city of Lhasa. In the future, the Sichuan–Tibet railway currently under construction will expect to start operations in 2030. Two large dams on the Lhasa River deliver hydroelectric power, as do many smaller dams and the . The population is well-served by primary schools and basic medical facilities, although more advanced facilities are lacking. Tibetan Buddhism and monastic life have been dominant aspects of the local culture since the 7th century. Most of the monasteries were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, but since then many have been restored and serve as tourist attractions.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It is bordered by Nagqu City to the north, Nyingchi City to the east, Shannan/Lhoka City to the south and Xigazê City to the west.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The prefecture-level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River, which is the center of Tibet politically, economically and culturally. Chengguan District is also the center of Tibet in terms of transport, communications, education and religion, as well as being the most developed part of Tibet and a major tourist destination with sights such as the Potala Palace, Jokhang and Ramoche Temple.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Lhasa prefecture-level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River, a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. Exceptions are the north of Damxung County, which crosses the watershed of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains and includes part of the Namtso lake, and Nyêmo County, which covers the basin of the Nimu Maqu River, a direct tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The river basin is separated from the Yarlung Tsangpo valley to the south by the Goikarla Rigyu range.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The largest tributary of the Lhasa River, the Reting Tsangpo, originates in the Chenthangula Mountains in Nagqu Prefecture at an elevation of about , and flows southwest into Lhasa past Reting Monastery.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Lhasa River drains an area of , and is the largest tributary of the middle section of the Yarlung Tsangpo.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Water quality is good, with little discharge of sewage and minimal chemical pesticides and fertilizers.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: These are the Phak Chu, the Phongdolha Chu which flows from Damxung County and the Reting Tsangpo, which rises beyond the Reting Monastery.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Lower down the river valley is flatter and changes its direction to the southwest, The river expands to a width of .


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: There are floods in the summer from July to September, with about 17% of the annual runoff flowing in September.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The former Lhasa prefecture lies in the Lhasa terrane, to which it gives its name. This is thought to be the last crustal block to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the collision with the Indian plate in the Cenozoic.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The terrane is separated from the Himalayas to the south by the Yarlung-Tsangpo suture, and from the Qiangtang terrane to the north by the Bangong-Nujiang suture.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Lhasa terrane consisted of two blocks before the Mesozoic, the North Lhasa Block and the South Lhasa Block.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The collision began towards the end of the late Jurassic ( Ma), and collision activity continued until the early Late Cretaceous ( Ma).


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In some parts of the foreland basin the north-dipping subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic crust below the Lhasa terrane caused volcanism.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Gangdese batholith was formed as this subduction continued along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Contact with India began along the Yarlung-Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the Eocene, and the two continents continue to converge.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The South Lhasa terrane experienced metamorphism and magmatism in the Early Cenozoic (55–45 Ma) and metamorphism in the Late Eocene (40–30 Ma), presumably due to the collision between the continents of India and Eurasia.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Rocks in this region include sedimentary rocks from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic into which granite has intruded during the Cretaceous.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Yangbajing Basin lies between the Nyainquentanglha Range to the northwest and the Yarlu-Zangbo suture to the south.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Yangbajain Geothermal Field is in the central part of a half-graben fault-depression basin caused by the foremontane fault zone of the Nyainqentanglha Mountains.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The basin has been filled with glacial deposits from the north and alluvial-pluvial sediments from the south.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Chemical analysis of the thermal fluid indicate that there is shallow-seated magmatic activity not far below the geothermal field.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: During the ice ages of the last two million years the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas have been covered by the expanded polar ice cap several times. As the ice moved it eroded the rock, filling the river canyons with gravel. In some sections the rivers have cut through the gravel and flow swiftly over bedrock, and in some areas large boulders have fallen into the rivers and formed rapids.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Lhasa valley is roughly the same latitude as the southern United States, but at an altitude of or more it is cooler.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The central river valleys of Tibet are warm in summer, and even in the coldest months of winter the temperature is above freezing on sunny days.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Studies of temperature and precipitation data from 1979 to 2005 indicate that higher temperatures are leading to longer snow-free periods at the lower elevations.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: However, at higher levels the amount of precipitation has increased, so despite warming the snow-free period is shorter.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The higher regions are used by nomadic "drokpa" who tend herds of yaks, sheep and goats on the steppe grasslands of the hills and high valleys.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In the lower parts it is possible to cultivate products that include barley, wheat, black peas, beans, mustard, hemp, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, onions, garlic, celery and tomatoes. The traditional staple food is barley flour called "tsampa", often combined with buttered tea and made into a paste.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Lhasa region does not have abundant wildlife or great numbers of species, but the Lhasa valley does support wintering populations of hundreds of black-necked cranes.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Endangered black-necked cranes migrate to the middle and southern part of Tibet every winter, and may be seen on the reservoir and elsewhere in the Lhasa region.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Other wildlife includes bharal, pheasants, roe deer, Thorold's deer, Mongolian gazelle, Siberian ibex, otter, brown bear, snow leopard and duck.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Medicinal plants include fritillaries ("fritillaria"), stonecrop ("rhodiola"), Indian barberry ("berberis aristata"), Chinese caterpillar fungus ("ophiocordyceps sinensis"), "codonopsis" and Lingzhi mushroom ("ganoderma").


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The dams on the Lhasa river built as part of the Three Rivers Development Project are unlikely to affect the flow of the Brahmaputra in India.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Where grasslands have been converted into irrigated farms fed by dams the result may damage the environment.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Extensive mining in some mountainous regions have turned areas of what was green pasturage into a grey wasteland.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Military personnel have been involved in efforts to protect and improve the environment, including replanting programs.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: A 2015 study reported that during the non-monsoon season the levels of arsenic in the Duilong River, at 205.6 μg/L were higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg/L for drinking water.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The source of the pollution seems to be untreated water from the Yangbajain Geothermal Field power station.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Chengguan District, Doilungdêqên District, and Dagzê District contains most of the urban area of Lhasa, which lies in the Lhasa River valley floor.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Chengguan District is located on the middle reaches of the Lhasa River, with land that rises to the north and south of the river.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Chengguan District is bordered by Doilungdêqên District to the west, Dagzê District to the east and Lhünzhub County to the north.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Before the PRC takeover the city of Lhasa had a population of 25,000–30,000, or 45,000–50,000 if the large monasteries around the city are included.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The old city formed a quadrangle about around the Jokhang temple, about to the east of the Potala Palace.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: During the period before the reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping the old city of Lhasa was left largely intact, while bleakly functional compounds containing symmetrical dormitory-type buildings for both living and working were built apart from the city along the main roads.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The 2000 official census gave a total population of 223,001, of which 171,719 lived in the areas administered by sub-districts and residential committees.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: A 2011 book estimated that up to two-thirds of the city's residents are non-Tibetan, although the government states that Chengguan District as a whole is still 63% ethnic Tibetan.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Doilungdêqên District contains the western urban areas of Lhasa, developed in recent years with the new Lhasa railway station, which begin about from the city center.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The district borders on the north Tibet grasslands in the northwest. The valley of the Duilong River leads south to the Lhasa River. The Duilong is in length.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Dagzê District has a total area of and it contains the eastern urban areas of Lhasa. It has an average elevation of above sea level, and descends from higher ground in the north and south to in the lowest part of the Lhasa River valley.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The main occupation is agriculture. As of 2012 per capita income of farmers and herdsmen was 6,740 yuan.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In 2010 there were 28 schools in the district, including one junior high school and one kindergarten, with 276 full-time teachers.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It is tectonically active. On 6 October 2008 an earthquake measuring 6.6 on the Richter magnitude scale was reported.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In November 2010 a moderate quake in Damxung at 5.2 on the Richter scale shook office windows in Lhasa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In the extreme northeast of the county, Namtso lake has an area of , of which 45% lies in Damxung county.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: A valley with elevation of about runs parallel to the mountains to their southeast, sloping from northwest to southeast.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Damxung is cold and dry in the winter, cool and wet in summer, with very variable weather. The average annual temperature is , with only 62 frost-free days.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The land is frozen from the start of November to the following March. Pasture has 90–120 days for growth.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: There is a large geothermal field at Yangbajain harnessed by generating units that deliver 25,181 kilowatts to the city of Lhasa to the south.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Kangma Monastery is from the county seat. The meditation room has 1,213 carved stone reliefs of Buddha that are about three hundred years old.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: As of 2000 the county had a total population of 50,895, of which 8,111 lived in a community designated as urban. 2,254 had non-agricultural registration and 48,362 had agricultural registration.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In the south the Pengbo valley has an average elevation of with a mild climate. The average temperature is .


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The northern "three rivers" section, crossed by the Lhasa River and its tributary the Razheng River, is mountainous and has an average elevation of .


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Pengbo valley is the main grain-producing region of Lhasa prefecture-level city and Tibet, with a total of of arable land.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Pengbo valley has a long history of pottery-making. Products include braziers, flower pots, vases and jugs.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: There were thirty-seven "gompas" including twenty-five lamaseries with 919 monks and twelve nunneries with 844 nuns as of 2011.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Maizhokunggar County is located on the middle and upper sections of the Lhasa River and the west of Mila Mountain.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The total population as of 2010 was 48,561 people in 9,719 households, the great majority engaged in farming and herding.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Many of the people depend on farming or herding. Development efforts include increased farm animal husbandry, feedstock production, greenhouses for vegetables, and breeding programs.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Crops include barley, winter wheat, spring wheat, canola, peas, cabbage, carrots, eggplant, cucumbers, lettuce, spinach, green peppers, pumpkins, potatoes and other greenhouse crops.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The economy is driven by mineral extraction, which was expected to account for 73.85% of total tax revenue in 2007 while employing 419 people.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Traditional folk handicrafts include pottery, willow basketwork, wooden objects, mats and gold and silver items.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The county is especially noted for its pottery, which does not corrode, retains heat and has an ethnic style. It has a more-than-1000-year-old history.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Drikhung Thil Monastery of the Kagyu Sect was founded in 1179 by Lingchen Repa, a disciple of Phagmo Drupa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The ruined Gyama Palace, in the Gyama Gully in the south of the county, was built by Namri Songtsen in the 6th century after he had gained control of the area from Supi.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The highest point is a peak at above sea level, and the lowest point is where the Maqu River empties into the Brahmaputra at an elevation of .


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: As of 2011 the total population was 30,844 people, of whom 28,474 were engaged in agriculture or herding.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Nyêmo's long tradition of making paper and printing texts using woodblocks dates back to this period.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Nyêmo Chekar monastery is known for its 16th century murals depicting reincarnations of the Samding Dorje Phagmo.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The county is in the Yarlung Tsangpo valley, and is mostly relatively flat, but rises to the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains in the north.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Lhasa River runs south through the eastern part of the county to its confluence with the Yarlung Tsangpo River, which forms the southern boundary of the county.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: China National Highway 318 runs through Qüxü County from Lhasa towards the west. Bridges span the Lhasa River and the Yarlung Tsangpo River.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Qüxü County is semi-agricultural and crops grown are mainly highland barley, winter wheat, spring wheat, peas and rapeseed.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Animal husbandry is also strong, with the main animals farmed including yak, cattle, goats, sheep, horses, donkeys, pigs, and chickens.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Nyethang Drolma Lhakhang Temple is located in Qüxü County, said to have been founded in 1055 by Dromtön, a pupil of Atiśa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The demographics of Lhasa prefecture-level city are difficult to define precisely due to the way in which administrative boundaries have been drawn, and the way in which statistics are collected.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The population of Lhasa prefectural-level city is about 500,000, of whom about 80% are ethnic Tibetan and most of the others are ethnic Han Chinese. Approximately 250,000 people live in the city and in towns, most of them in or near Chengguan District, and the remainder live in rural areas.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The 2000 census give the following breakdown for the population of the prefecture-level city as a whole:


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Outside Chengguan District, in 2000 the rural townships almost all had Han populations below 2.85%, other than one in Duilongdeqing County and one in Qushui County, both near the metropolitan district of Lhasa. Urban towns other than Yangbajain had Han populations of between 2.86% and 11.25%. Within the metropolitan district Han population ranged from 11.26% to 11.25% in the southern rural township to 46.56% to 47.46% in the city street offices.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Han migrants accounted for 20% of the population, but held a much higher percentage of the higher-status office and service-sector jobs.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: According to the November 2000 census, the ethnic distribution in Lhasa Prefecture-level City was as follows:


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Lhasa metropolitan district includes most of the built-up area, which counts as urban, and four rural townships.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The census figures differ considerably from the Tibet Statistical Yearbooks for the same period, since the yearbook only includes the registered population and counts them based on place of origin rather than place of residence. The 1990 census used an approach similar to the yearbook, so the numbers are misleading, but the 2000 census tried to count people who had actually been present in Lhasa for over six months. The census distinguishes between "agricultural" and "non-agricultural" registration, but this does not reflect the actual occupations of the people. Many with an "agricultural" registration may in fact work in the city or in a town.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Also, the census was taken in November, when many of the ethnic Han workers in seasonal industries such as construction would have been away from Tibet.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: There are 2 universities of Tibet University and Tibet Tibetan Medical University and 3 special colleges of Lhasa Teachers College, Tibet Police College and Tibet Vocational and Technical College in the Lhasa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: Tibet University (Tibetan: བོད་ལྗོངས་སློབ་གྲྭ་ཆེན་མོ་) is the main university of Tibet Autonomous Region. Its campus is located in Chengguan District, Lhasa, east of the city-centre. A forerunner was created in 1952 and the university was officially established in 1985, funded by the Chinese government. About 8000 students are enrolled at the university. Tibet University is a comprehensive university with the highest academic level in Tibet Autonomous Region. It is a member of the prestigious Project 211, and is sponsored under the Double First Class Disciplines initiative.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: China National Highway 318 enters the prefecture-level city from the east at Mila Mountain, where it reaches an elevation of .


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It continues along the south bank of the Lhasa River through Dagzê County, then crosses to the north of the river in Chengguan District and runs through the center of the urban district. It turns south to cross Doilungdêqên District, where it is joined by 109, and continues down the west side of the Lhasa River through Qüxü County, and then along the north shore of the Yarlung Tsangpo through Nyêmo County, and onward to the west.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: China National Highway 109 (the Qinghai–Tibet Highway) runs through Damxung County from the northeast to southwest, then turns to the southeast at Yangbajain.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It then runs through Doilungdêqên District along the Duilong River valley, to join China National Highway 318 just west of Lhasa.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Lhasa Airport Expressway from Lhasa to Lhasa Gonggar Airport in Lhoka (Shannan) Prefecture is the first expressway in the Tibet Autonomous Region.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Qinghai–Tibet Railway runs through the Lhasa prefecture-level city beside the Qinghai–Tibet Highway through Damxung County and Doilungdêqên District.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The terminus of the Qinghai–Tibet line, this station is over above sea level, and is its largest passenger transport station.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Liuwu Bridge links central Lhasa to Lhasa railway station and the newly developed Niu New Area of Doilungdêqên District on the south bank of the Lhasa River. Residents in the area were resettled to make way for the new development.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: In 2030, the Sichuan–Tibet Railway currently under construction that will connect Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan, and Lhasa. The line will be long, and cut travel time from Chengdu to Lhasa from 48 to 13 hours.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The Yangbajain Geothermal Station was established in 1977 to exploit the Yangbajain Geothermal Field in Damxung.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: It is the first geothermal power station to be built in Tibet and is the largest geothermal steam power plant in China.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: 4,000 kW of electricity from Yangbajain began to be delivered to Lhasa in 1981 along a transmission line that followed the Doilung Qu River.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: By the end of 2000 eight steam turbo generators had been installed at the Yangbajain Geothermal Station, each with capacity of 3,000 kW, giving a total of 25,000 kW.


title: Lhasa (prefecture-level city)

text: The geothermal field delivers 25,181 kilowatts, or 100 million kilowatt hours annually, to the city of Lhasa to the south.