title: Clinton Foundation

text: According to the hacked Podesta emails, Doug Band, an employee of the Clinton Foundation, accused Chelsea Clinton's husband Marc Mezvinsky of being involved in conflicts of interest. According to Band, Mezvinsky used the foundation to raise money for his hedge fund. Band also said that he could name 500 different conflicts of interest involving the foundation and some that involved Bill Clinton.


title: Clinton Foundation

text: Using the Former Presidents Act Bill Clinton used taxpayer funds to supplement the pay of aides at the Clinton foundation and also used funds for IT equipment. Clinton withdrew 16 million dollars using the president act which was more than any other living president had withdrawn.


title: Clinton Foundation

text: In 2011 Raj Fernando who gave between $100,000 and $250,000 to the Clinton foundation was appointed to the International Security Advisory Board within the State Department despite being unqualified. Fernando's appointment came at the request of Clinton Aide Cheryl Mills and Hillary Clinton. Fernando resigned from the position shortly after an inquiry was made by ABC.


title: Clinton Foundation

text: In 2009 foundation aide Doug Band emailed Huma Abedin requesting a meeting with Hillary Clinton for Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa who had donated 32 million to the Clinton foundation. 2 days later the meeting was arranged.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: The Jenny Jones Show is an American syndicated daytime tabloid talk show that was hosted by comedian/actress/singer Jenny Jones. It was produced by Quincy Jones-David Salzman Entertainment and Telepictures Productions and was distributed by Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution. The show ran for 12 seasons, from September 16, 1991, until May 21, 2003; and was taped in Chicago, Illinois at WMAQ-TV studios.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: When the series began, a traditional talk show format reminiscent of "Oprah" was used. However, ratings were low during the first two seasons, and by 1993 it began to move away from serious subjects and began to take on more unusual subjects and theme shows such as paternity tests, out-of-control teens (including shows in which they are sent to boot camp), confronting former bullies (something Jones dealt with when she was young), makeovers for people who had no sense of fashion or style, celebrity impersonators, talent contests (and at times, people who made it an obsession to enter them, especially parents of the children who enter the pageants/contests/shows), feuding neighbors, strippers and secret crushes.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: The show would also feature regular live performances by bands of varying genres (notably pop, punk, rock, hip-hop, and R&B), ranging from lesser known bands from the local Chicago area to more well known bands from around the U.S. and Canada. Many well-known artists first appeared on "Jenny Jones" including Usher, Ludacris, Tamar Braxton, Nelly, and Three Six Mafia, who made their first national TV appearance on the show. The final live performance of alternative rock band Dinosaur Jr. before their initial 1997 disbandment was a performance of "Out There" on the show earlier that year.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: During its run, critics would equate this show to "The Jerry Springer Show", which was also produced at the WMAQ-TV studios, although Jones claimed that her talk show was not as outrageous as Springer's. Critics also believe that some of Jones' ideas were copied from Ricki Lake after her eponymous show, which debuted in 1993, overtook Jones in the ratings. It was also rumored that, when Rosie O'Donnell started "The Rosie O'Donnell Show", she and Jones had hostility toward each other despite the fact that both their shows were syndicated by Telepictures and both were friends with Lake (both even sent shout-outs to her show, albeit separately). Many of the themes also appear on "Maury", such as DNA testing and boot camp, but the guests on "Jenny Jones" were less contentious than those on "Maury".


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: Show titles were often sensational, and usually in rhyme. For example, the title "You May Shake It for Money, But Leave Those Sexy Clothes at the Club, Honey!" was used to describe a sexy makeover show for women whose occupations involve working in nightclubs or strip clubs. The rhyming titles feature began with the show's third season.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: On March 6, 1995, "Jenny Jones" taped an episode called "Same Sex Secret Crushes" on which Scott Amedure, a gay man, confessed to an associate, Jonathan Schmitz, that he had a crush on him. Schmitz appeared unconcerned as he laughed about that revelation in front of the audience. However, three days after the taping, an upset Schmitz killed Amedure.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: After the murder made headlines, the producers decided not to air the show, though it aired during Court TV's (now TruTV) coverage of the trial as part of the presentation of evidence to the jury. Clips of the episode were also featured in the HBO documentary "Talked to Death", and the first episode of the Netflix docuseries "Trial By Media". Schmitz's history of mental illness and alcohol/drug abuse came to light during the trial in which Schmitz was later convicted of second degree murder. Jones and the producers were later sued by Amedure's family for neglecting to find out Schmitz's history of mental illness and substance abuse. Jones testified under oath that the producers told Schmitz that his admirer could be a man, but Schmitz thought that the admirer was a woman. Amedure's family won the ruling and the show was ordered to pay $25 million, but that decision was later overturned by the Michigan appellate court which ruled that the producers were not responsible for what happened to the guests after their appearance on the show. Schmitz was released on parole on August 21, 2017.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: This incident (and other subjects) led to Dino Corbin, then-general manager of Chico, California, CBS affiliate KHSL-TV, to remove "The Jenny Jones Show" from its line-up. Corbin claimed that what he perceived to be constant objectionable material (one show involving a transgender dating search that KHSL refused to air) was his reason for the cancellation, not the murder.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: By its final two seasons, the show had dropped heavily in the ratings. It was nearly cancelled at the conclusion of season 11, but was saved by a last-minute deal with the Tribune Broadcasting station group, although the subsequent station shuffle necessitated in such key markets as New York City, Chicago and Los Angeles didn't help the ratings erosion.


title: The Jenny Jones Show

text: In the 2002-2003 TV season, Jones' program became the lowest-rated daytime talk show , and after the last episode aired that spring, "Jenny Jones" was canceled in the summer of 2003. Reruns continued to air until September 12 of that year.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Cara Louise Santa Maria (born October 19, 1983) is an American science communicator. She hosts the podcast "Talk Nerdy" and co-hosts "The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe" podcast, and was a co-host of TechKnow on Al Jazeera America.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria wrote her first blog for "The Huffington Post" in March 2010 before joining the publication as its founding science correspondent and host of the "Talk Nerdy to Me" web series from October 2011 until April 2013. She also co-hosted "Take Part Live" with Jacob Soboroff on Pivot TV. She officially joined the online political and social commentary program "The Young Turks" as an occasional panelist in May 2013. She was a guest on the TV series Brain Games.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria was born and raised in Plano, Texas, the younger of two daughters. Her parents, a school teacher and an engineer, both came from Catholic families and converted to Mormonism together as adults, raising their children in the religion, and for a while Santa Maria attended church daily before classes. Years after her parents divorced, she left the LDS church at 15 and came out as an atheist. Her ancestry is Puerto Rican on her mother's side.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria was a vocal jazz performer and auditioned for the second season of "American Idol", but was not selected. She then decided to pursue psychology. In 2004, she earned a Bachelor of Science degree in psychology with a minor in philosophy from the University of North Texas, going on to earn a Master of Science in biological science, with a concentration in neuroscience, from her alma mater in 2007.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria taught biology and psychology courses to university undergraduates as well as high school students in Texas and New York. Her published research has spanned various topics, including clinical psychological assessment, the neuropsychology of blindness, neuronal cell culture techniques, and computational neurophysiology. Santa Maria was enrolled in a doctoral program studying clinical neuropsychology at Queens College, CUNY, where she worked as an adjunct professor and laboratory researcher, but withdrew after a year of coursework to pursue science communication full-time.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: In 2004, Santa Maria won the Texas Psychological Association and Texas Psychology Foundation's Alexander Psychobiology/Psychophysiology Award (Student Merit Research Competition) for contributions in undergraduate research concerning neuropsychological deficits among individuals with alcohol dependence or abuse in a visually impaired/blind population. In the clinical neuropsychological setting, Santa Maria assisted in development and research of computer adapted guides for educational management of students with both neuropsychological dysfunction and visual impairment.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: In a 2013 interview in Skeptical Inquirer, when asked how she became interested in science, Santa Maria said:


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: As of January 2019, Santa Maria was working toward a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology with a concentration in Social Justice and Diversity from Fielding Graduate University.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: In 2009, Santa Maria moved to the Los Angeles area to begin a career in science communication, after previously having worked in academia. She co-produced and hosted a pilot entitled "Talk Nerdy to Me" for HBO, but it never went to air. Santa Maria has appeared on various programs including "Larry King Live", "Geraldo at Large (Fox News)", "Parker Spitzer" (CNN), "Studio 11", "The Young Turks", "Attack of the Show!", "The War Room with Jennifer Granholm", "LatiNation", and "SoCal Connected".


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria has co-hosted "Hacking the Planet" and "The Truth About Twisters" on The Weather Channel, as well as "TechKnow" on Al Jazeera America. She is a former host of "Take Part Live" on the Pivot (TV channel).


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: She makes regular appearances on popular YouTube programs, such as Stan Lee's "FanWars", Wil Wheaton's "Tabletop", and "The Point". She has also guested on multiple podcasts, such as "The Nerdist Podcast", "Point of Inquiry", "Star Talk" and the "Joe Rogan Experience". Speaking with Chris Mooney on "Point of Inquiry" in 2012, Santa Maria recognized that her work on behalf of science can sometimes be polarizing, and said that she tries “to write with a lot of respect and reverence for people's ideas.”


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria has been interviewed by "Scientific American", "The Times" of London, "Columbia Journalism Review", and "Glamour".


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: In March 2014, Santa Maria debuted her weekly podcast entitled "Talk Nerdy". New episodes premiere every Monday and guests typically revolve around those involved in STEM fields, however individuals with careers oriented in new media and pop culture also make appearances. Additionally, atheism and politics are popular topics of conversation.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Santa Maria wrote the foreword of atheism activist David Silverman's book, "Fighting God: An Atheist Manifesto for a Religious World", published in December 2015.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: On July 18, 2015, during the live taping of episode 524 of "The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe" (SGU) podcast at The Amaz!ng Meeting, it was announced that Santa Maria would be joining the podcast, and she joined the other SGU members to record her first show as a regular member of their team.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: In 2016, Santa Maria hosted on-line video segments that accompany the reality TV show "America's Greatest Makers."


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: From 2009 to 2011, Cara Santa Maria was in a relationship with television host and political commentator Bill Maher.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: She has been open about her struggles with major depressive disorder. In a "Point of Inquiry" podcast interview, Santa Maria said that she takes antidepressants daily and that psychotherapy made a huge improvement in her mental health.


title: Cara Santa Maria

text: Along with her co-hosts on The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast, Santa Maria co-authored a book, published in 2018, about scientific skepticism: The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake."


title: Lambert Simnel

text: Lambert Simnel (c. 1477 – after 1534) was a pretender to the throne of England. In 1487, his claim to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick, threatened the newly established reign of Henry VII (1485–1509). Simnel became the figurehead of a Yorkist rebellion organised by John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln. The rebellion was crushed in 1487. Simnel was pardoned because of his tender years, and was thereafter employed by the Royal household as a scullion, and, later, as a falconer.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: Simnel was born around 1477. His real name is not known—contemporary records call him John, not Lambert, and even his surname is suspect. Different sources have different claims of his parentage, from a baker and tradesman to an organ builder. Most definitely, he was of humble origin. At the age of about ten, he was taken as a pupil by an Oxford-trained priest named Richard Simon (or Richard Symonds / Richard Simons / William Symonds) who apparently decided to become a kingmaker. He tutored the boy in courtly manners and contemporaries described the boy as handsome. He was taught the necessary etiquette and was well educated by Simon.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: Simon noticed a striking resemblance between Lambert and the sons of Edward IV, so he initially intended to present Simnel as Richard, Duke of York, son of King Edward IV, the younger of the vanished Princes in the Tower. However, when he heard rumours (at the time false) that the Earl of Warwick had died during his imprisonment in the Tower of London, he changed his mind. The real Warwick was a boy of about the same age, having been born in 1475, and had a claim to the throne as the son of George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, King Edward IV's executed brother. Warwick was a touchstone for Yorkist affections, and people still wore his badge of the bear and ragged staff.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: According to James A. Williamson, Simnel was merely a figurehead for a rebellion that was already being planned by the Yorkists:


title: Lambert Simnel

text: He was merely a commonplace tool to be used for important ends, and the attempt to overthrow Henry VII would have taken place had Simnel never existed. The Yorkist leaders were determined on a serious push, rising of their party in England supported by as great a force as possible from overseas.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: Simon spread a rumour that Warwick had actually escaped from the Tower and was under his guardianship. He gained some support from Yorkists. He took Simnel to Ireland where there was still support for the Yorkist cause, and presented him to the Lord Deputy of Ireland, the Earl of Kildare. Kildare was willing to support the story and invade England to overthrow King Henry. Simnel was paraded through the streets, carried on the shoulders of "the tallest man of the time", an individual called D'Arcy of Platten (this was evidently Sir William Darcy, an ally of Kildare, who is known to have been exceptionally tall). When Henry heard about what was going on, he arranged for the real Earl of Warwick to be taken from the tower and paraded through London, presumably to disprove the rumours of his death or escape. This did not prevent the rebellion, likely because insufficient infrastructure and methods of transport meant news spread slowly.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: On 24 May 1487, Simnel was crowned in Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin as "King Edward VI" but this regnal number was written later when the official story had taken hold. He was about 10 years old. Lord Kildare collected an army of Irish soldiers under the command of his younger brother, Thomas FitzGerald of Laccagh.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln, formerly the designated successor of his uncle the late King Richard III, joined the conspiracy against Henry VII. He fled to Burgundy, where Warwick's aunt Margaret of York, the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, kept her court. Lincoln claimed that he had taken part in young Warwick's supposed escape. He also met Viscount Lovell, who had supported a failed Yorkist uprising in 1486. Margaret collected 2,000 Flemish mercenaries and shipped them to Ireland under the command of Martin Schwartz, a noted military leader of the time. They arrived in Ireland on 5 May. King Henry was informed of this and began to gather troops.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: On 5 June 1487, Simnel's army—mainly Flemish and Irish troops—landed on Piel Island in the Furness area of Lancashire and were joined by some English supporters. However, most local nobles, with the exception of Sir Thomas Broughton, did not join them. Henry had been receiving information about events in Ireland, although it was vague and conflicting. Thanks to existing plans to invade Ireland he was able to react speedily to the invasion and had begun mustering troops as early as February. A lack of English support led Simnel's army to change their plans, deciding their only chance of success was one swift and decisive battle. On 15 June 1487, they set up camp near the small village of East Stoke, Nottinghamshire, near Newark-on-Trent. The royal army of 12,000 set up camp away.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: On 16 June 1487, the rebels clashed with the King's army, at the Battle of Stoke Field in Nottinghamshire, and were defeated. Lincoln and Thomas FitzGerald were killed. Lovell went missing and was rumoured to have escaped to Scotland with Sir Thomas Broughton and hidden to avoid retribution.


title: Lambert Simnel

text: Simons avoided execution due to his priestly status, but was imprisoned for life. Kildare, who had remained in Ireland, was pardoned.


title: Andrea Canning

text: Andrea Mead Canning (born December 10, 1972) is a Canadian-American journalist and writer. She was named a "Dateline NBC" correspondent in October 2012 and contributes to other NBC News platforms such as "Today," "NBC Nightly News " and MSNBC. She also is a fill-in anchor and news anchor on "Today" and "Weekend Today".


title: Andrea Canning

text: Canning was born in Blue Mountain, Ontario and grew up in Collingwood, Ontario. Canning graduated from the University of Western Ontario with a degree in psychology in 1994. She also studied radio and television arts at Ryerson Polytechnic University.


title: Andrea Canning

text: Her earlier assignments included work for WCPO-TV in Cincinnati as a reporter and co-anchor of the evening newscast. From 1999 to 2001 Canning worked for WPTV-TV in West Palm Beach, Florida and from 1997 to 1999 was a reporter and anchor for CKVR-TV in Barrie, Ontario. She was also the morning anchor for WXVT-CBS in Greenville, Mississippi. Prior to CKVR, from 1996 to 1997, Canning was an assignment editor for the tabloid TV show "Extra." While living in Los Angeles she was also an intern for "Baywatch" and shared a house with future media personality and host Ryan Seacrest.


title: Andrea Canning

text: She was a correspondent for ABC News from 2004 until April 2012, where she covered the White House, Congress, the Supreme Court and the Iraq War for ABC's affiliate NewsOne. While at ABC News, Canning covered a wide array of stories ranging from crime stories and notable trials to the devastation of Hurricane Katrina and the Casey Anthony case. Her public profile was elevated considerably after she interviewed Charlie Sheen for "20/20" on February 28, 2011. The interview was subsequently used as the basis for a viral video that received more than 10 million views during its first 9 days on YouTube.


title: Andrea Canning

text: During her time at ABC News, Canning contributed to "Good Morning America," "Nightline," "World News With Diane Sawyer" and "20/20," while regularly anchoring the early morning broadcasts, "World News Now" and "America This Morning." Canning also served as an alternate news reader for "Good Morning America".


title: Andrea Canning

text: Canning joined NBC News in October 2012, as a correspondent for Dateline while contributing to other NBC News platforms.


title: Andrea Canning

text: Canning has appeared in the role of a news anchor in the popular series on Ruby Herring Mystery movies beginning in 2019.


title: Andrea Canning

text: Canning is married to Lt. Col Tony Bancroft, USMCR, an F/A-18 instructor pilot. They have five daughters and one son: Anna, Charlotte "Charlie," Christina "Kiki," Georgia, Elle and George Anthony Bancroft III.


title: Andrea Canning

text: She is a member of Alpha Gamma Delta, and was presented with their Talent of Leadership award in 2015 and their Distinguished Citizens Award in 2018.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The climate of Argentina varies from region to region, as the vast size of the country and wide variation in altitude make for a wide range of climate types. Summers are the warmest and wettest season in most of Argentina except in most of Patagonia where it is the driest season. Warm in the north, cool in the center and cold in the southern parts experiencing frequent frost and snow. Because southern parts of the country are moderated by the surrounding oceans, the cold is less intense and prolonged than areas at similar latitudes in the northern hemisphere. Spring and autumn are transition seasons that generally feature mild weather.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Many regions have different, often contrasting, microclimates. In general, northern parts of the country are characterized by hot, humid, rainy summers and mild winters with periodic droughts. Mesopotamia, in the northeast is characterized by high temperatures and abundant precipitation throughout the year with droughts being uncommon. West of this lies the Chaco region, which is the warmest region in Argentina. Precipitation in the Chaco region decreases westwards, resulting in the vegetation changing from forests in the east to shrubs in the west. Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry and hot although the rugged topography makes it climatically diverse, ranging from the cold, dry Puna to thick jungles. The center of the country, which includes the Pampas to the east and the drier Cuyo region to the west has hot summers with frequent tornadoes and thunderstorms, and cool, dry winters. Patagonia, in the southern parts of the country has a dry climate with warm summers and cold winters characterized by strong winds throughout the year and one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world. High elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions, and the mountainous zones can see heavy snowfall.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The geographic and geomorphic characteristics of Argentina tend to create extreme weather conditions, often leading to natural disasters that negatively impact the country both economically and socially. The Pampas, where many of the large cities are located, has a flat topography and poor water drainage, making it vulnerable to flooding. Severe storms can lead to tornadoes, damaging hail, storm surges, and high winds, causing extensive damage to houses and infrastructure, displacing thousands of people and causing significant loss of life. Extreme temperature events such as heat waves and cold waves impact rural and urban areas by negatively impacting agriculture, one of the main economic activities of the country, and by increasing energy demand, which can lead to energy shortages.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Argentina is vulnerable and will likely be significantly impacted by climate change. Temperatures have increased in the last century while the observed changes in precipitation are variable, with some areas receiving more and other areas less. These changes have impacted river flow, increased the frequency of extreme weather events, and led to the retreat of glaciers. Based on the projections for both precipitation and temperatures, these climatic events are likely to increase in severity and create new problems associated with climate change in the country.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: In Argentina, the climate is divided into four, well defined seasons, those being winter, spring, summer and autumn.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: In winter (June–August), the northern parts of Argentina are generally warm, the central parts mild, and the southern parts cold with frequent frost and snow. The climate of the southern parts of the country is moderated by the surrounding oceans, resulting in cold weather that is less intense and prolonged than at comparable latitudes in the northern hemisphere. The northern parts of the country have the warmest temperatures, with an average of ; the central parts are cooler, with an average of . In the extreme south, mean temperatures are below . At higher altitudes in the Andes, average winter temperatures are below . June and July temperatures are normally similar to each other; however, in August temperatures see a rise of about .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Precipitation varies a lot during the winter months. The highest are in the extreme northern part of the Littoral region and northwestern parts of Patagonia, where mean winter precipitation exceeds . Most of the humid Pampas, averages between while in the north, in areas bordering the Andes, it averages less than .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Spring (September–November) is similar to autumn, with mild days and cool nights. During mid-October a large variety of wild and urban flora are in bloom. Temperatures range from in the north to in the center, and in most of Patagonia. Tierra del Fuego Province and the higher altitudes of the Andes have the coolest springs, with mean temperatures below . Temperatures grow warmer as spring progresses.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: During spring, precipitation in the country varies, with the greatest amounts being in northern Buenos Aires Province and the Littoral region, where the average precipitation exceeds . Arid regions (Arid Diagonal) have the lowest spring precipitation, with an average precipitation of less than .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: In summer (December–February), temperatures range from an average of in the north to a mean of in the center of the country except for the southeastern parts of Buenos Aires Province, where temperatures are cooler in summer due to the maritime influence. In the extreme south of the country, the temperature averages ; at very high altitudes, the average is below .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: During summer, mean precipitation varies throughout the country: the eastern parts of Salta Province, Jujuy Province, northern Tucumán Province and all of Misiones Province are the wettest, receiving more than of precipitation during the season. Most of the Littoral region and Buenos Aires Province, average between . On the other hand, the Patagonia region is dry, with precipitation averaging less than – and occasionally below – much lower than other regions; Patagonia receives a monthly precipitation of . In the central and northern parts of the country, January is usually the wettest month, with an average monthly precipitation of in most places, even exceeding in some places.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Autumn (March–May) is generally mild. Some southern natives forests and vineyards display red and orange autumn foliage, especially in mid-April. Frost arrives notably earlier in the south and later in the north. Mean temperatures can exceed in the northern parts of the country, while they can touch in most of the central parts of the country, and less than at the higher altitudes. As autumn progresses, mean temperatures fall in all regions, with March warmer than May. In the north, mean temperatures range from in March to in May. In the central parts of the country, mean temperatures in March are between , dropping to in May. The mean temperature in Tierra del Fuego Province in the extreme south is , and occasionally lower.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Precipitation is highest in northeast Argentina and lowest in the Patagonia and Cuyo regions. In northeast Argentina, mean precipitation can exceed while in most of Buenos Aires Province and northwest Argentina, mean autumn precipitation ranges between . In most of the western parts of northwest Argentina, Patagonia (except for western Patagonia where precipitation is higher, averaging ) and Cuyo regions, precipitation can average less than . In the northwest, precipitation decreases as autumn progresses, ushering in the dry season. For example, in Tucuman Province, March averages more than of precipitation while May averages less than . In contrast, precipitation increases in Patagonia, particularly in the western parts where May precipitation can exceed .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Different meteorological factors affect the Argentine climate. Some of these factors are local while others come from other countries.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The most important geographical factors that influence the climate of Argentina are latitude, elevation, and distance from the sea. With Argentina extending from 22S to 55S, there are differences in the amount of incoming solar radiation and the amount of daylight received in each season, which affects temperature. Thus, temperatures decrease from north to south due to the differences in latitudes.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Although the centre and the eastern parts of the country are mostly flat, the west is mountainous. Both the Andes and Sierras Pampeanas affect the climate of Argentina, leading to differences in temperature, pressure, and spatial distribution of precipitation depending on the topography and altitude. Here, the Andes exert an important influence on the climate. Owing to the higher altitudes of the Andes north of 40S, they completely block the normal westerly flow, preventing low pressure systems containing moisture from the Pacific Ocean from coming in. Thus, much of Argentina north of 40S is dominated by wind circulation patterns from the South Atlantic High. South of 40S, the Andes are lower in altitude, allowing much of Patagonia to be dominated by westerly winds and air masses from the Pacific Ocean. However, the north–south orientation of the Andes creates a barrier for humid air masses originating from the Pacific Ocean. This is because they force these air masses upwards, cooling adiabactically. Most of the moisture is dropped on the Chilean side, causing abundant precipitation and cloudiness while on the Argentine side, the air warms adiabatically, causing it to become drier as it descends. Thus, an extensive rain–shadow is present in much of Patagonia, causing it to receive very little precipitation. The Sierras Pampeanas influences the climate on a much smaller scale than the Andes.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Distance from the sea is another important geographic factor. Owing to the shape of the country, the close proximity to the ocean means that most of the country, excluding the north is moderated by the surrounding oceans, leading to lower thermal amplitudes than comparable latitudes in the northern hemisphere. The two main currents that impact the climate of Argentina are the Brazil Current from the north and the Malvinas Current from the south (a branch of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current). The Brazil Current transports warm subtropical waters southwards while the Malvinas Current transports cold, subantarctic waters northwards. The Malvinas Current cools the coastal areas, particularly during winter when the current is stronger. Thus, coastal areas of the Pampas have cooler summers and a longer frost period owing to the cold Malvinas Current. As well, it is the main factor in making Tierra del Fuego colder than at comparable latitudes in the northern hemisphere in Europe since it is influenced by the cold Malvinas Current rather than the warm North Atlantic Current.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The South Atlantic High and the South Pacific High both influence the pattern of winds and precipitations in Argentina. Owing to the greater height of the Andes at latitudes north of 40S, much of Argentina is dominated by wind circulation patterns from the South Atlantic High. The South Atlantic High transports moisture from the Atlantic Ocean to Argentina. This occurs throughout the year due to the atmospheric pressure being lower on land than in the ocean. Much of the north and central parts of the country are affected by the South Atlantic High, with a strong influence in the eastern parts than in the west. This is due to the eastern parts being more frequently affected by the South Atlantic High, causing precipitation to decrease westwards.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Throughout the year, the South Pacific High influences the climate by bringing cold, moist air masses originating from Patagonia. During the most intense cold waves, they form when a transient high pressure system located in the South Pacific Ocean moves eastwards to the southern tip of South America. As it begins to move, this high pressure system strengthens the South Pacific High and is forced to move southwards to south of 40S where the Andes are shorter in height. As well, an upper-level ridge forms over the South Pacific Ocean along with an upper-level trough extending from subtropical latitudes to the South Atlantic Ocean. At the same time, a low pressure system forms over the South Atlantic Ocean which eventually strengthens. The formation a cold front associated with it moves to the northeast owing to the topographic barrier that the Andes forms. The passage of the cold front to the northeast leads to the movement of the high pressure system from the South Pacific Ocean into the southern tip of South America. All of these conditions lead to strong anticyclogenesis to the east of the Andes and thus, the high pressure system intensifies as it enters southern Argentina. When both the high pressure system (over southern Argentina) and low pressure system strengthen, it creates a very strong pressure gradient that draws cold air from the south, strengthening southerly winds. Owing to the topographic barrier of the Andes, it forces and channels the cold air to accumulate on the eastern side of the Andes. This generates an ageostropic component from the south (due to a reduction in the Coriolis force caused by accumulation of cold air on the eastern side of the Andes) that draw this cold air northwards, which is driven by this pressure gradient. Cold air can move northwards until 18S when the blocking effect of the Andes is smaller due to a change in its orientation. Overall, these conditions results in the coldest temperatures due to the cold masses from high latitudes being pulled northwards. A weaker cold wave occurs when the South Pacific High remains over the ocean and does not have a migratory high pressure system originating from the South Pacific High that moves east of the Andes (it builds over the Andes). Although this occurs throughout the year, during winters, it leads to cold temperatures while during summer, it leads to strong and deep convections. These convections are responsible for about 50% of summer precipitation south of 25S.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Chaco Low is a semi–permanent low pressure system situated east of the Andes that is approximately located between 20S and 30S during summer (displaced to the north in winter). It is stronger in the summer than in winter due to a combination of high insolation, dry surface conditions, and southward displacement of the South Atlantic and South Pacific High (this makes it difficult for cold fronts to enter at lower latitudes). The Chaco Low interacts with the South Atlantic High, generating a pressure gradient that draws moist air from the northeast to coastal and central regions of Argentina. It also forces easterly winds from the Amazon basin to move southward, which is reinforced by the funneling effect from both the Andes and the Brazilian Plateau. The Chaco Low brings large amounts of moisture that favour the development of convective thunderstorms during summer, reaching as far south as 35S. This movement of air from the north owing to the interaction between the Chaco Low and the South Atlantic high is the strongest in summer when the Chaco Low is at its strongest. These winds bring hot, humid tropical air from the north. Sustained and intense winds from the north are responsible for severe weather events such as heat waves and severe convection. During winter, the Chaco Low weakens as a result of lower insolation. This is partly responsible for the decrease in winter precipitation over much of Argentina (in addition to northward displacement of westerlies) due to a weaker transport of air masses from the tropics. This excludes areas south of 40S where it is dominated by westerlies.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The El Niño–Southern Oscillation leads to changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns (also known as teleconnections). Although the exact mechanisms are unknown, the impacts of the changes in atmospheric circulation patterns caused by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation are more clearly observed in the more humid eastern parts of the country (between Uruguay and southern Brazil). During El Niño events, precipitation is more higher than normal while during La Niña events, precipitation is lower than normal in the Pampas. In general, El Niño tends to increase precipitation during late spring and summer, particularly in the north. The impacts of La Niña in the eastern parts of the country (northeast and the Pampas) are observed in winter where precipitation is lower. In Northwest Argentina, El Niño events are associated with a strong reduction in rainfall during summer. In contrast, La Niña events increase precipitation in northwest Argentina. In the central–western parts of Patagonia, spring precipitation tends to be lower during La Niña events and higher during El Niño events. Summer precipitation exhibits an opposite pattern where La Niña years involve wetter summers while El Niño years featuring drier summers. On the Andes in central western Argentina, precipitation is higher during El Niño year.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: In general, La Niña events are associated with lower temperatures (particularly colder winters) in the Pampas. During winter, frosts are more common during La Niña events compared to El Niño events. This is due to a stronger southerly flow during La Niña events caused by a higher concentration of high pressure systems in the South Pacific and an increase in cyclonic activity (more low pressure systems) in the South Atlantic. This creates conditions that are favourable for bringing cold air from the south, particularly when there is a formation of a high pressure system over Patagonia (associated with the passage of a front) that is responsible for bringing cold air from the south. Thus, invasions of cold air from the south are more common during La Niña events. In contrast, warm spells in the Pampas and northern parts of the country are more intense and frequent during El Niño events. This is due to stronger westerly winds south of 40S, leading to less frequent incursions of cold air from the south while enhancing winds from the north that bring in warm air. Although La Niña events lead to colder winters with more frequent incursions of cold air in both the north and central parts of the country, it leads to more frequent and intense warm spells in the last months of the year. In other regions, El Niño events lead to more frequent and intense warm spells in Northwest Argentina (during autumn), northeast Argentina (during spring) and central Argentina (during summer). Cold air anomalies arising from El Niño events are observed during spring and are the result of an increase in rainfall that lead to reductions in insolation. For the southern parts of the country, El Niño events are associated with more intense and frequent cold spells during the coldest months. In summer, El Niño events are associated with warmer summer temperatures in the southern parts of the country.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Antarctic Oscillation, also known as the Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode is the main factor in tropospheric circulation variability south of 20S and is characterized by pressure anomalies with one situated in the Antarctic and one situated in a band at around 40–50S around the globe. It mainly affects middle and high latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere. It is characterized by the north–south displacement of the westerly wind belt that circle around Antarctica. Such variation in the position of the westerly wind belt affects the intensity and position of cold fronts and mid latitude storm systems and is partly responsible for variation in precipitation in the southern parts of Argentina. The Antarctic Oscillation is characterized by two phases: a positive and a negative phase. A positive phase is when the westerly wind belt is displaced to the south. The positive phase occurs when there is increased surface pressure over the southern parts of the South American continent and decreased pressure in Antarctica. This results in stronger westerly winds in the southern parts of the country while preventing cold fronts from penetrating inland, producing more stable conditions. Furthermore, the positive phase leads to warmer conditions south of 40S, particularly during the summer in areas between 40 and 60S. Precipitation is lower due to less frontal and orographic precipitation resulting from reduced westerly wind flow between 40 and 60S. Opposite conditions occur in the negative phase when the westerly wind belt is shifted equatorward. Cold fronts moving northwards from the south penetrate more frequently, leading to more precipitation and cooler temperatures during the negative phase. The major effect of negative phase of the Antarctic Oscillation occurs in spring when it increases precipitation over southeastern South America.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Indian Ocean Dipole is an atmospheric–oceanic phenomenon characterized by differences in sea surface temperatures between the eastern and western sections of the tropical Indian Ocean. Similar to the Antarctic Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole is characterized by two phases: a positive and a negative phase. In the positive phase, the eastern section of the tropical Indian Ocean is cooler (lower sea surface temperature) and the western section is warmer than normal (higher sea surface temperature). On the other hand, the negative phase is characterized by warmer sea surface temperatures on the eastern section and cooler sea surface temperatures on the western section of the tropical Indian Ocean. Studies have shown that the Indian Ocean Dipole is partly responsible for variations in precipitation in Argentina and South America in general. During a positive phase, precipitation is higher in the Río de la Plata Basin due to teleconnections.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: In general, Argentina has four main climate types: warm, moderate, arid, and cold, all determined by the expanse across latitude, range in altitude, and relief features. The arid and cold climates predominate in the west and south while the warm and moderate climates predominate in the center and north. The Arid Diagonal traverses the country from the northwest to the southeast. The vast size, and wide range of altitudes, contribute to Argentina's diverse climate. Argentina possesses a wide variety of climatic regions ranging from subtropical in the north to subantarctic in the far south. Lying between those is the Pampas region, which features a mild and humid climate. Under the Köppen climate classification, Argentina has 11 different climate types: Humid Subtropical (Cfa, Cwa), moderate oceanic (Cfb), warm semi-arid (BSh), subtropical highland oceanic (Cwb), warm desert (BWh), cold semi–arid (BSk), cold desert (BWk), moderate Mediterranean (Csb), cold oceanic (Cfc), and tundra (ET). Consequently, there is a wide variety of biomes in the country, including subtropical rain forests, semi-arid and arid regions, temperate plains in the Pampas, and cold subantarctic in the south. However, despite the diversity of biomes, about two-thirds of Argentina is arid or semi-arid. Argentina is best divided into six distinct regions reflecting the climatic conditions of the country as a whole. From north to south, these regions are Northwest, Chaco, Northeast, Cuyo/Monte, Pampas, and Patagonia. Each climatic region has distinctive types of vegetation.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Temperatures are the highest in the northern parts, averaging around during summer. Precipitation ranges from in driest and western parts of the Chaco to around in the extreme east. The center and east of Argentina have a temperate climate with annual precipitation between and mean annual temperatures between . The climate in the center of the country becomes more arid towards the west. In the south (Patagonia), most precipitation falls in the Bosque Andino Patagónico located in the Andes while the in the east on the Patagonian Steppe, the climate is arid with mean annual precipitation around . Temperatures in Patagonia exceed during winter months and owing to the maritime influences of the surrounding Pacific and Atlantic oceans, the thermal amplitude is smaller than at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The region of Mesopotamia includes the provinces of Misiones, Entre Ríos and Corrientes. It has a subtropical climate with no dry season. Under the Köppen climate classification, it has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"). The main features of the climate are high temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year; this abundant rainfall makes water scarcity and extended periods of drought uncommon; most of the region has a positive water balance.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Average annual precipitation ranges from less than in the southern parts of the Province to approximately in the eastern parts. Precipitation is slightly higher in the summer than in the winter and generally decreases from east to west and from north to south. Summer precipitation levels range from a low of to a high of . In this season, most rain falls during convective thunderstorms. Autumn is one of the rainiest seasons, with many places receiving over . As in summer, precipitation falls mainly during convective thunderstorms. Winter is the driest season, with precipitation ranging from less than in the west to over in the east. Most of the precipitation during winter comes from frontal systems, particularly the sudestada (Spanish for strong southeasterly winds), bringing long periods of rain, cloudiness, cooler temperatures, and strong winds. Spring is similar to autumn, with a mean precipitation of .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Summers are very hot while winters are mild to warm. The northern parts of the region are warmer than the southern parts. During heat waves, temperatures can exceed in the summer months, while in the winter months, cold air masses from the south can push temperatures below freezing, resulting in frost. However, such cold fronts are brief and are less intense than areas further south or at higher altitudes. Snowfall is extremely rare and mainly confined to the uplands of Misiones Province, where the last significant snowfall occurred in 1975 in Bernardo de Irigoyen.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Chaco region in the center-north completely includes the provinces of Chaco, and Formosa. Eastern parts of Jujuy Province, Salta Province, and Tucumán Province, and northern parts of Córdoba Province and Santa Fe Province are part of the region. As well, most of Santiago del Estero Province lies within the region. This region, located in the center-north has a subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and mild, dry winters. Under the Köppen climate classification, the west has a semi-arid climate ("Bs") while the east has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"). Chaco is one of the few natural regions in the world located between tropical and temperate latitudes that is not a desert. Precipitation and temperature are relatively homogeneous throughout the region.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Mean annual precipitation ranges from in the eastern parts of Formosa Province to a low of in the west and southwest. Summer witnesses the maximum precipitation. Summer rains are intense, and torrential rain is common, occasionally causing floods and soil erosion. During the winter months, precipitation is sparse. Eastern areas receive more precipitation than western areas since they are more influenced by moist air from the Atlantic Ocean, which penetrates the eastern areas more than the west, bringing in more precipitation. As a result, the vegetation differs: eastern areas are covered by forests, savannas, marshes and subtropical wet forest, and western areas are dominated by medium and low forests of mesophytic and xerophytic trees and a dense understory of shrubs and grasses. In all parts of the region, precipitation is highly variable from year to year.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Chaco region is the hottest in Argentina, with a mean annual temperature of . With mean summer temperatures occasionally reaching , the region has the hottest summers in the country. Winters are mild and brief, with mean temperatures in July ranging from in the northern parts to in the southernmost parts. Temperatures can reach as high has in summer, and during cold waves can fall to .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Northwest Argentina consists of the provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy, La Rioja, and western parts of Salta Province, and Tucumán Province. Although Santiago del Estero Province is part of northwest Argentina, much of the province lies in the Chaco region. Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry, hot, and subtropical. Owing to its rugged and varied topography, the region is climatically diverse, depending on the altitude, temperature and distribution of precipitation. Consequently, the vegetation will also differ. Under the Köppen climate classification, the region has five different climate types: semi–arid ("BS"), arid ("BW"), temperate without a dry season and temperate with a dry season ("Cf" and "CW" respectively), and, at the highest altitudes, an alpine.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Precipitation is highly seasonal and mostly concentrated in the summer months. It is distributed irregularly due to the country's topography although it generally decreases from east to west. The eastern slopes of the mountains receives between of precipitation a year, though some places receive up to annually owing to orographic precipitation. The high rainfall on these first slopes creates a thick jungle that extends in a narrow strip along these ranges. The temperate valleys, the location of major cities such as Salta and Jujuy, have an average precipitation ranging between , with rainfall mainly concentrated in the summer months, often falling in short but heavy bursts. Valleys in the southern parts of the region are drier than those in the north due to the greater height of the Andes and the Sierras Pampeanas on the eastern slopes than the northern mountains, presenting a significant orographic barrier that blocks moist winds from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. These valleys receive less than of precipitation per year and are characterized by sparse vegetation adapted to the arid climate. The area further west in the Puna region, with an average altitude of , is mostly a desert due to the blocking of the easterly winds by the Andes and the northwest extension of the Sierras Pampeanas. Precipitation in the Puna region averages less than a year while high isolation, strong winds, and low humidity exacerbate the dry conditions.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Temperatures in northwest Argentina vary by altitude. The temperate valleys have a temperate climate, with mild summers and dry and cool winters with regular frosts.In the Quebrada de Humahuaca valley, mean annual temperatures range from , depending on altitude. In the Calchaquí Valleys in Salta Province, the climate is temperate and arid with large thermal amplitudes, long summers, and a long frost-free period. In the valleys in the south in La Rioja Province, Catamarca Province and the southwest parts of Santiago del Estero Province, which is part of the arid Chaco ecoregion, temperatures during the summer are very high, averaging in January while winters are mild, averaging . Cold fronts from the south bringing cold Antarctic air can cause severe frosts in the valleys of La Rioja Province and Catamarca Province. In contrast, the Zonda wind, which occurs more often during the winter months, can raise temperatures up to with strong gusts, sometimes causing crop damage. Temperatures in the Puna region are much colder, with a mean annual temperature of less than owing to the high altitude. The Puna region is characterized by being cold with a large diurnal range but sunny throughout the year.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Cuyo region includes the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, and San Luis. Western parts of La Pampa Province (as shown in map) also belong in this region, having similar climatic and soil characteristics to it. It has an arid or a semi-arid climate. The region's wide range in latitude, combined with altitudes ranging from to nearly , means that it has a variety of different climate types. In general, most of the region has a temperate climate, with valleys at higher altitudes having a milder climate. At the highest altitudes (over ), icy conditions persist year round.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Average annual precipitation ranges from , though it is generally unpredictable. More than 85% of annual rainfall occurs from October to March, which constitutes the warm season. In contrast, the winter months are dry. Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than the western areas since they receive more summer rainfall. Precipitation is highly variable from year to year and appears to follow a cycle between dry and wet years in periods of about 2, 4–5, 6–8, and 16–22 years. In wet years, easterly winds caused by the subtropical South Atlantic High are stronger, causing moisture to flow towards this region; during dry years, these winds are weaker.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Summers in the region are hot and generally sunny; winters are dry and cold. Since this region has a wide range of altitudes, ranging from to nearly , temperatures can vary widely. The Sierras Pampeanas, which cross into both San Juan Province and San Luis Province, have a milder climate with mean annual temperatures ranging from . Throughout the region, the diurnal range is great, with very high temperatures during the day followed by cold nights. In all locations, at altitudes over , permafrost is present; icy conditions persist year round at altitudes over .


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Zonda, a Foehn wind characterized by warm, dry air, can cause temperatures to exceed and occasionally , as occurred in 2003. However, cold waves are also common, caused by the channeling by the Andes of cold air from the south, making for frequent cold fronts during the winter months and bringing temperatures that can fall below freezing, and occasionally below at higher altitudes.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Pampas includes all of Buenos Aires Province, eastern and southern Córdoba Province, eastern La Pampa Province, and southern Santa Fe Province. It is subdivided into two parts: the humid Pampas to the east, and the dry/semi–arid Pampas to the west.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The Pampas has land that is appropriate for agriculture and raising livestock. It is a mostly flat area, interrupted only by the Tandil and Ventana sierras in its southern portion. The climate of the Pampas is characterized as temperate and humid with no dry season, featuring hot summers and mild winters ("Cfa/Cfb" according to the Köppen climate classification). The weather in the Pampas is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms that impact the region. Annual temperatures range from in the north to in the south. Precipitation increases toward the east and ranges from under in the south and west to in the northeast. Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year in the easternmost parts of the Pampas; in the western parts, most of the precipitation is concentrated during the summer months, and winters are drier. The Pampas are influenced by the El Niño Southern Oscillation, which is responsible for variation in annual precipitation. An El Niño year leads to higher precipitation while a La Niña year leads to lower precipitation.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Summers in the Pampas are hot and humid with coastal areas being modified by the cold Malvinas Current. Afternoon thunderstorms, which can bring intense amounts of precipitation, are common, as are heat waves that can bring temperatures in the range for a few days. These thunderstorms are known to have the most frequent lightning and highest convective cloud tops in the world. The severe thunderstorms produce intense hailstorms, floods, including flash floods, as well as the most consistently active tornado region outside the central and southeastern US. These are usually followed a day or two of strong Pampero winds from the south, which bring cool, dry air. Precipitation in the summer is high, with monthly amounts averaging between and in most places.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Autumn arrives in March and brings periods of very rainy weather followed by dry, mild stretches and cool nights. Some places in the east receive rainfall throughout autumn whereas in the west, after the rains, the weather quickly becomes very dry. Generally, frost arrives in early April in the southernmost areas, in late May in the north, and ends by mid-September, although the dates of the first and last frosts can vary from year to year. Frost is rarely intense or prolonged and may not occur each year.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Winters are mild with frequent frosts and cold spells. Temperatures are usually mild during the day and cold during the night. Most precipitation results from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and sudestada, which bring long periods of precipitation, cloudiness and cooler temperatures, particularly in the southern and eastern parts. Dull, gray and damp weather characterize winters in the Pampas. Occasionally, tropical air masses from the north may move southward, providing relief from the cool, damp temperatures. Snowfall is extremely rare. When it does snow, it usually lasts for only a day or two.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro, Santa Cruz, and Tierra del Fuego are the provinces that make up Patagonia. The Patagonian climate is classified as arid to semi-arid and temperate to cool temperate. One defining characteristic are the strong winds from the west which blow year round (stronger in summer than in winter), which favors evaporation and is a factor in making the region mostly arid. There are three major factors that influence the climate of the region: the Andes, the South Pacific High and South Atlantic High, and an isolation that is more pronounced in eastern than western areas.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The north–south orientation of the Andes creates a barrier for humid air masses coming from the Pacific Ocean, forming an extensive rain shadow and causing most of the region to be arid. South of 52°S, the Andes are lower in elevation, reducing the rain shadow effect in Tierra del Fuego Province and allowing forests to thrive on the Atlantic coast. Patagonia is located between the subtropical high pressure belt and the subpolar low pressure zone, meaning it is exposed to westerly winds that are strong, since south of 40°S there is little land to block these winds. Because Patagonia is located between the semi-permanent anticyclones of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean at around 30°S, and the Subpolar Low at around 60°S, the movement of the high and low pressure systems along with ocean currents determine the precipitation pattern.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The influence of the Pacific Ocean, general circulation patterns, and the topographic barrier caused by the Andes results in one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world. Precipitation steeply decreases from west to east, ranging from in the west on the Andean foothills at 41°S to in the central plateaus. The high precipitation in the Andes in this region allows forests to thrive as well as glaciers and permanent snowfields. Most of the region receives less than of precipitation per year. The aridity of the region is due to the combination of low precipitation, strong winds, and high temperatures in the summer months, all of which cause high evaporation rates. In most of Patagonia, precipitation is concentrated in the winter months, except for the northeastern and southern parts, where precipitation is more evenly distributed. Thunderstorms are infrequent, occurring only during summer. Snowfall occurs mainly in the west and south, which can result in strong snowstorms.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Patagonia's temperatures are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Malvinas Current (also called the Falkland(s) Current) and the high altitude. A characteristic of the temperature pattern is the NW–SE distribution of isotherms due to the presence of the Andes. The warmest parts of the region are in northern parts of Rio Negro Province and Neuquén Province, where mean annual temperatures range from , while the coldest are in western Santa Cruz Province and Tierra del Fuego Province, where mean temperatures range from . At higher altitudes in the Andes stretching from Neuquén Province to Tierra del Fuego Province, mean annual temperatures are below . Strong westerly winds can decrease the perception of temperature (wind chill), particularly in summer. The annual range of temperatures in Patagonia is lower than at similar latitudes in the northern hemisphere owing to the narrowness of the region at higher latitudes and the stronger maritime influence.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The average annual precipitation ranges from less than in the Atacama Desert near the border with Chile to over in the northeast and along the eastern slopes of the Andes in the northern parts of the country. The Andean foothils of Patagonia in the western parts of the region can receive up to per year. Mean annual temperatures range from in the far south to in the north. Shown below are the mean monthly temperature and precipitation for selected places in Argentina along with the overall averages for the country (based on a 0.5 latitude/longitude grid). Year-round averages and totals are displayed along with conversions to imperial units.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: In general, the highest temperatures in Argentina are recorded in the northern Chaco region where temperatures of have been recorded. According to the World Meteorological Organization, the highest temperature ever recorded in Argentina and South America was in Rivadavia, Salta Province on 11 December 1905. Since 1961 when nationwide temperature monitoring began, the warmest year on record is 2017 when mean temperatures nationally were above the mean national temperatures based on the 1981–2010 reference period.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Patagonia and the Puna region register the lowest temperatures in Argentina where temperatures lower than have been recorded. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Argentina and South America was in Sarmiento, Chubut Province on 1 June 1907. This was recorded under standard conditions. On a national scale, the coldest year on record is 1975 when mean temperatures nationally were below the mean national temperatures based on the 1981–2010 reference period.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: With an average annual precipitation of , Lago Frías in Río Negro Province is considered to be the wettest place in Argentina. Although an average annual precipitation of has been recorded in Lago Tromen in Neuquén Province, the validity of the data is dubious owing to fewer years of data. Lago Frías also has the record for wettest monthly precipitation in Argentina: of precipitation was recorded in May 1951. In contrast, the driest place is La Casualidad, Salta Province, which has received as low as only a of precipitation in a year. The highest recorded one-day rainfall total occurred on 2 April 2013, when of rain fell in La Plata at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory, causing massive flooding and power outages.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: On a national scale, the wettest year on record is 1985 when annual precipitation in the country was 29.6% higher than the mean annual precipitation (based on a reference period of 1981–2010). The driest year on record in the country is 1988 when annual precipitation was 29.9% lower than the mean annual precipitation (based on a reference period of 1981–2010).


title: Climate of Argentina

text: The longest duration for a single lightning flash globally was recorded in Argentina on 18 June 2020 along the Argentina–Uruguay border, when it lasted for 17.1 seconds.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Argentina's geomorphic characteristics make the country highly vulnerable to floods. These floods can damage infrastructure, cause loss of life, increase the risk of diseases, and negatively impact agricultural productivity, which is one of the main economic activities of the country. Many of the large Argentinean cities and agriculturally productive areas lie near rivers. The plains are at highest risk for flooding, particularly in the northeastern and central parts of the country, including Greater Buenos Aires. This is because these plains, which cover 35% of the land area in the country (including the Chaco and Pampean areas), are characterized by a flat landscape, which can impede proper water drainage. Both the Parana and Paraguay basins have a flat landscape and are thus highly susceptible to flooding due to river overflows following high rainfall. These floods can last for months, particularly in the Parana River, owing to its large basin. In the most extreme case, during the year 1982–1983, the floods in the Parana River persisted for more than a year, negatively impacting the area both socially and economically. Major flooding events in the Parana River include those of 1992 and 1997 and have been more frequent since the 1980s due to higher precipitation trends. Similarly, in Buenos Aires Province, flooding occurs due to river overflows and poor water drainage; major flooding events in the province occurred in 1987, 2002/2003, 2012 and in 2014, causing damage to agriculture production. Most of the flooding events occur in El Niño years owing to higher rainfall. Flooding can also affect Patagonia and urban centers in the northwest, but the number of people affected and economic losses are lower than those in the Pampas owing to lower population densities. Flooding can jeopardize access to safe water. A leptospirosis outbreak occurred following a flood in 1998.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Droughts are the most harmful natural disasters that are difficult to monitor, identify, analyse, and to manage. Events of droughts have considerable and serious negative impacts socially and economically. In the case of Argentina, it is highly dependent on rainfall in order to sustain production related to cereals and oilseeds. Argentina is highly dependent on water supplies originating outside its borders, making it highly vulnerable to changes in water supply due to climate change. In arid parts of the country, agricultural production is highly dependent on irrigation, making it vulnerable to droughts as they can reduce the availability of water which can negatively affect the commercial production of agricultural products or food security for smaller producers that depend on agriculture to feed their families. Droughts are frequent and devastating. Several years of droughts during the last decade have severely affected agricultural production and reduced economic growth. In 2018, a severe drought affected the country from the final months of 2017 to April 2018 was the worst in the last 50 years and one of the 10 most destructive climate related events in the world in 2018. Rainfall in some parts of the country were 50% below normal from December to February. As a result of this, yields of soybeans and maize were reduced by 31% and 20% respectively, both of which make up 37% of all of Argentina's exports. The drought lead to $6 billion in losses and caused the country to enter into a recession. It was labelled by some to be the most expensive disaster on record. Before the drought in 2018, a drought in 2009 was previously the worst drought in more than 50 years. Many cattle died of hunger, and huge swaths of soy, corn and wheat fields were affected. It was estimated that the country lost more than US$5 billion from the drought. A drought in 2011 affected farming of soy and corn, causing losses of US$2.5 billion.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Drier parts of the country are highly prone to dust storms. These include areas west of Buenos Aires, which can average more than eight dust storms per year, and parts of Patagonia, owing to its aridity and windy climate. Certain areas in the Altiplano are also highly prone to dust storms owing to extensive areas of closed depressions and the presence of salt flats that erode the rock, which becomes a source of fine material that can travel large distances during periods of strong wind. Dust storms are more frequent during droughts, particularly in agricultural areas. Dust storms can effect large areas, leading to numerous impacts. These dust storms can lead to loss of crop and livestock, affecting the local economy. Productive topsoil may be lost during dust storms, leading to loss in soil productivity, which can increase soil erosion and negatively affect crop productivity in the long term. In addition to the impact on agriculture, dust storms can damage cars and buildings, lower visibility on roads, affect air quality, and affect water quality in rivers and lakes.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Argentina experiences frequent tornadoes each year. Tornadoes occur in the South American "tornado alley" ("Spanish: Pasillo de los Tornados"), which includes the provinces of Entre Ríos, Córdoba Province, Santa Fe, La Pampa and Greater Buenos Aires. The frequency of tornadoes is similar to the one found in Tornado Alley in North America. However, there is no exact number of tornado occurrences per year, owing to the lack of data. These regions have the most frequent and intense mesoscale convective systems. Tornadoes occur between November and April. In this region, which occupies most of the Pampas, cold air from Patagonia meets warm, humid air from Brazil with dry air coming from the Andes. When these air masses collide, they can produce intense storms, frequently becoming supercells that can produce tornadoes. With a larger number of convective storms, there is a higher chance that some of these storms will produce tornadoes. Most tornadoes are relatively weak and rarely cause deaths. The strongest tornado recorded in Argentina occurred in 1973 when a tornado struck San Justo, Santa Fe. The tornado was an F5 on the Fujita scale, with winds up to , making it the worst tornado in Latin America and the Caribbean.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Severe storms impact large cities more often and can damage cars, houses and disrupt public services such as transportation and collection and disposal of urban solid waste. The foothills of the Andes and the Sierras de Cordoba are vulnerable to hail. This is because the Andes force humid air from the Atlantic upwards, intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms, making hail more likely. Mendoza, a city located in the Andean foothills, experiences frequent hailstorms that can impact the agriculture of the region. Hailstorms have caused serious losses in both urban and rural areas. It is estimated that wine and fruit production experience yearly losses of US$50 million and US$30 million, respectively, due to hail. Most of these hailstorms occur in the summer although they can occur in winter, particularly in the east where warm and humid air from the north frequently collides with cold air from the south, leading to convective thunderstorms that can produce hail.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Storm surges caused by extratropical cyclones have been recorded along the coastal areas. These storm surges are formed from strong winds that blow towards the land. They are formed due to the interaction between the semi-permanent South Pacific High and a low pressure system over the Atlantic, southeast of Argentina, creating strong winds from the south or southwest. The sudestada, which brings the worst storm surges, occurs when there is a high pressure system over southern Argentina in the Atlantic Ocean that interacts with a low pressure over Uruguay and southern Brazil, causing strong winds from the southeast. Storm surges have caused flooding of coastal areas, leading to extensive property loss and other damage. It is also the main natural factor in the erosion of coastlines. The flooding as a result of storm surges are particularly destructive in flat coastal areas such as the Rio de La Plata shores, and the Salado Basin.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Argentina regularly receives cold air from the south that can reach low latitudes owing to the influence of the Andes. Cold waves are usually accompanied with severe snowstorms or extremely cold conditions that can have a devastating impact on the country's economy. These snowstorms and/or extremely cold conditions can partially or completely paralyze activities in large areas of Patagonia and the center of the country. In addition, cold conditions can lead to energy shortages during the winter months due to increased demand. The low temperatures brought by these cold waves can cause frosts that can damage plants, severely affecting agricultural production and devastating the local economy.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: According to the national government and scientists, climate change is predicted to have a significant effect on the climate of Argentina. There has been an increase in annual precipitation in almost all of Argentina during the 20th century, particularly in the northeast and the center of the country, where agricultural production has expanded to the west by more than in areas that were previously too dry during middle of the 20th century. In contrast, the Andean part of Patagonia, along with the Cuyo region, has seen a decrease in precipitation, leading to a reduction in river flow in the last 100 years. These trends were observed with an increase in the river–stream flows in most of the country, excluding rivers originating from the Andes, and an increase in extreme precipitation events that led to considerable socioeconomic losses.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Mean temperatures have increased by between 1901 and 2012, slightly lower than the global average. Temperatures in the Andean part of Patagonia have increased by more than , which has caused the retreat of almost all of the glaciers. This is affecting water availability to the arid areas of the country that depend on glacier meltwater. Higher temperatures can reduce winter snowfall, causing river flow to decrease, which in turn can reduce hydroelectric energy production; losses of up to 40% have been observed. There has been a decrease in the number of days with frost, and there have been increases in the frequency of hot nights and heat waves throughout the country.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Within the next two or three decades (2016–2035), mean temperatures are predicted to increase by under the two scenarios (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. In both scenarios, the projected warming will be more pronounced during the summer months. The predicted trend for precipitation is not as clear as the one for temperature. In the northern and central regions, precipitation is predicted to increase while in most of central–western Argentina and Patagonia, precipitation is predicted to decrease.


title: Climate of Argentina

text: Scientists predict that glaciers will continue to recede and melt or, in some areas, disappear. It is also predicted that the Cuyo region could face a potential water crisis due to an increase in water demand caused by a reduction in river streamflows. In the north and central parts of the country, the higher temperatures and lower precipitation projected for this region will lead to higher evaporation, intensifying droughts and leading to desertification. Heat waves could become more frequent and intense, negatively impacting agricultural production while placing more demand on energy needs. Intense precipitation could become more common, increasing the likelihood of suffering from events such as flooding, since most of its population lives in urban areas near a body of water (rivers, lakes and oceans). Though most of the coastal regions of Argentina will not suffer permanent flooding associated with sea level rise, it is predicted that storm surges will become more frequent in coastal areas, affecting locations such as Buenos Aires.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament of Georgia () is the supreme national legislature of Georgia. It is a unicameral parliament, currently consisting of 150 members; of these, 120 are proportional representatives and 30 are elected through single-member district plurality system, representing their constituencies. According to the 2017 constitutional amendments, the Parliament will transfer to fully proportional representation in 2024.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: All members of the Parliament are elected for four years on the basis of universal human suffrage. The Constitution of Georgia grants the Parliament of Georgia a central legislative power, which is limited by the legislatures of the autonomous republics of Adjara and Abkhazia.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The idea of limiting royal power and creating a parliamentary-type body of government was conceived among the aristocrats and citizens in the 12th century Kingdom of Georgia, during the reign of Queen Tamar, the first Georgian female monarch.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: In the view of Queen Tamar's oppositionists and their leader, Qutlu Arslan, the first Georgian Parliament was to be formed of two "Chambers": a) "Darbazi" – or assembly of aristocrats and influential citizens who would meet from time to time to take decisions on the processes occurring in the country, the implementation of these decisions devolving on the monarch b) "Karavi" – a body in permanent session between the meetings of the Darbazi. The confrontation ended in the victory of the supporters of royal power. Qutlu Arslan was arrested on the Queen's order.. However, Queen Tamar did during her reign have a chamber of advisors, who could propose laws for the monarch however did not have final say about laws and how the country should be governed.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: Subsequently, it was only in 1906 that the Georgians were afforded the opportunity of sending their representatives to a parliamentary body of government, to the Second State Duma (from 1801 Georgia had been incorporated in the Russian Empire).


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: Georgian deputies to the Duma were Noe Zhordania (later the President of independent Georgia in 1918-21), Ilia Chavchavadze (founder of the Georgian National Movement), Irakli Tsereteli (leader of the Social-Democratic Faction in the Second Duma, later Minister of Internal Affairs of Russia's Provisional Government), Karlo Chkheidze (leader of the Menshevik Faction in the Fourth State Duma, Chairman of the first convocation of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies in 1917, and Chairman of the Trans-Caucasian Seym in 1918), and others.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: In 1918 the first Georgian National Parliament was established in the newly independent Democratic Republic of Georgia. In 1921 the Parliament adopted the first Georgian Constitution. However, shortly after the adoption of the Constitution, Georgia was occupied by the Bolshevik Red Army. This was followed by a 69-year-long absence of independent parliamentary government in Georgian history. The construction of the current main parliament building, which was dedicated to the Supreme Soviet (Council) of the Georgian SSR, started in 1938 and completed in 1953, when Georgia was a part of the Soviet Union. It was designed by architects Viktor Kokorin and Giorgi Lezhava.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The first multiparty elections in the Georgian SSR were held on October 28, 1990. The elected members later proclaimed the independence of Georgia. On May 26, 1991 Georgia's population elected the Chairman of the Supreme Council Zviad Gamsakhurdia as President of the country.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The tension between the ruling and opposition parties gradually intensified, which in 1991-92 developed into an armed conflict. The President left the country, the Supreme Council ceased to function and power was taken over by the Military Council.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: In 1992, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Soviet Union Eduard Shevardnadze returned to Georgia, assuming Chairmanship of the Military Council which was reconstituted into a State Security Council. The State Council restored Georgia's Constitution of 1921, announcing August 4, 1992 as the day of parliamentary elections.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: In 1995, the newly elected Parliament adopted a new Constitution. Georgia now has a semi-presidential system with a unicameral parliament.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: In 2011 Mikheil Saakashvili, the president of Georgia, signed a constitutional amendment which decreed that the seat of the parliament shall be the western city of Kutaisi.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: On 26 May 2012, Saakashvili inaugurated the new Parliament building in Kutaisi. This was done in an effort to decentralise power and shift some political control closer to the breakaway region of Abkhazia, although it has been criticised as marginalising the legislature, and also for the demolition of a Soviet war memorial at the new building's location.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: Starting from January 1, 2019, Tbilisi is once again the sole seat of the Parliament and all operations and meetings now take place in the capital, similar to the situation that existed prior to the 2012 move to Kutaisi.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament of Georgia is the country's supreme representative body which effects legislative authority, determines the main directions of the country's home and foreign policy, controls the activity of the Government within limits defined by the Constitution and exercises other rights.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament of Georgia is a unicameral legislature. The Constitution envisages, following the full restoration of Georgia's jurisdiction throughout the entire territory of Georgia (including breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia, designated by Georgia as Russian-occupied territories), creation of a bicameral parliament: the Council of the Republic and the Senate. The Council is to be composed of members elected through a proportional system; members of the Senate are to be elected from the autonomous republics of Abkhazia, Adjara, and other territorial units of Georgia, and five members appointed by the President of Georgia.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament is composed of 150 members (a reduction from a total of 235 in 1995), elected for a term of four years through a mixed system: 77 are proportional representatives and 73 are elected through single-member district plurality system, representing their constituencies. According to the 2017 constitutional amendments, the Parliament will make a transition to fully proportional representation in 2024.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament of Georgia is elected on the basis of universal, free, equal and direct suffrage, by secret ballot. Scheduled parliamentary elections are held on the last Saturday of October of the calendar year in which the term of Parliament expires. In case of the dissolution of the Parliament, elections are called no earlier than the 45th day and no later than the 60th day after the legislature is dissolved. If the election date coincides with a state of emergency or martial law, elections are held no earlier than the 45th day and no later than the 60th day after the state of emergency or martial law has been revoked.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The 2017 amendment increased the membership candidacy age from 21 to 25. Any citizen of Georgia with the electoral right and who has lived in Georgia for at least 10 years qualifies for membership of the Parliament. A person sentenced to prison cannot be elected as a member of Parliament. A political party whose member is an incumbent member of the Parliament or is supported by the signatures of at least 25,000 voters can take part in the election. For the 2020 election, the threshold for entering the Parliament will be reduced to 3% and parties will be allowed to form electoral blocs. However, beginning in 2024, the threshold will return to 5% and electoral blocs will no longer be allowed.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The first meeting of the newly elected Parliament is held no later than the 10th day after the election results have been officially announced. The first meeting of Parliament is called by the President of Georgia. The Parliament meets in its official capacity for a regular session twice a year, from September to December and from February to June. In between the sessions, the President of Georgia can convene an extraordinary session of the Parliament at the request of the Chairperson of Parliament, at least one fourth of members of Parliament or the Government.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Government, a Member of Parliament, a parliamentary faction, a parliamentary committee, the supreme representative bodies of the Autonomous Republics of Abkhazia and Adjara, and no less than 25,000 voters have the right of to initiate a bill. A law is adopted if it is supported by a majority of the members of Parliament present but at least 1/3 of the total number of the members of Parliament. A law passed by Parliament is to be submitted to the President of Georgia within 10 days. The President can sign and promulgate the law or return it to the Parliament with justified remarks within 2 weeks. If the remarks are adopted, the final version of the law is submitted to the President within 5 days, and the latter must sign and promulgate the law within 5 days. If the President's remarks are rejected, the initial version of the law is put to a vote in the Parliament and, if adopted, submitted to the President within 3 days for signature and promulgation. If the President fails to promulgate the law, then the Chairperson of Parliament does this after the respective deadline expires.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament has the power to ratify, denounce and annul international treaties by a majority of the total number of its members. They can also impeach the President, a member of the Government, a judge of the Supreme Court, a General Prosecutor, a General Auditor, or a member of the Board of the National Bank. The Parliament can be dissolved by the President of Georgia if the legislature fails to approve the incoming Government in the established time-frame.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament of Georgia elects the Chairperson for its term by a majority of the total number of its members by secret ballot. The Chairperson of Parliament presides over the work of Parliament, ensures the free expression of opinion, and signs the acts adopted by Parliament.


title: Parliament of Georgia

text: The Parliament of Georgia is headquartered in Tbilisi, the capital of Georgia. From 2012 to 2018, the regular parliamentary sessions were held in a new building specially constructed for this purpose in Kutaisi, then the second largest city of Georgia, west of Tbilisi. The 2017 amendment entered into force in December 2018, containing no reference to Kutaisi as the seat of the Parliament, meaning that the Parliament will fully return to the capital in January 2019.


title: Monstrance

text: A monstrance, also known as an ostensorium (or an ostensory), is a vessel used in Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, High Church Lutheran and Anglican churches for the display on an altar of some object of piety, such as the consecrated Eucharistic host during Eucharistic adoration or Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. It is also used as reliquary for the public display of relics of some saints. The word "monstrance" comes from the Latin word "monstrare", while the word "ostensorium" came from the Latin word "ostendere". Both terms, meaning "to show", are used for vessels intended for the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament, but "ostensorium" has only this meaning.


title: Monstrance

text: In the Catholic tradition, at the moment of consecration the elements (called "gifts" for liturgical purposes) are transformed (literally transubstantiated) into the body and blood of Christ. Catholic doctrine holds that the elements are not only spiritually transformed, but are (substantially) transformed into the body and blood of Christ. Although the elements retain the appearance, or accidents of bread and wine, they become the body and blood of Christ. The presence of Jesus Christ God in the Eucharist is known as the doctrine of the Corporeal Presence within the Roman Catholic Magisterium. The Corporeal Presence is believed to be real (in Latin: "realiter") and of the whole ("totaliter") Christ, in Body, Soul and Spirit. The name "Corporeal Presence" concerns the Corporal reserved to the chalice, paten and the ciborium during the Holy Mass.


title: Monstrance

text: Other Christians (notably in the Anglican Church, Old Catholic Church, and Lutheran Church) accept the doctrine of the Real Presence, whilst rejecting transubstantiation as a philosophical concept ("cf". sacramental union). Owing to these beliefs, the consecrated elements are given the same adoration and devotion that Christians of these traditions accord to Christ himself.


title: Monstrance

text: Within churches of these traditions the reserved sacrament serves as a focal point of religious devotion. In many of them, during Eucharistic adoration, the celebrant displays the sacrament in the monstrance, typically on the altar. When not being displayed, the reserved sacrament is locked in a tabernacle (more common in Roman Catholicism) or aumbry (more common in the other traditions mentioned).


title: Monstrance

text: In the service of benediction, (the priest blesses the people with the Eucharist displayed in the monstrance). This blessing differs from the priest's blessing, as it is seen to be the blessing by Christ rather than that of the individual priest. The exposition of the monstrance during Benediction is traditionally accompanied by chanting or singing of the hymn "Tantum Ergo".


title: Monstrance

text: Monstrances are usually elaborate in design; most are carried by the priest. Others may be much larger fixed constructions, typically for displaying the host in a special side chapel, often called the "Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament". For portable designs, the preferred form is a sunburst on a stand, usually topped by a cross.


title: Monstrance

text: Before the Council of Trent, the most common design was the tower. The sun design derives from Latin American Catholicism, where missionaries employed monstrances with the sunburst to appropriate sun imagery to the eucharist, and hence supplant sun worship among the natives. This was part of a larger scale entwining of helioatry that was present both in Catholicism and pagan cults in Latin American.


title: Monstrance

text: Medieval monstrances were more varied in form than contemporary ones. Those used for relics, and occasionally for the host, typically had a crystal cylinder in a golden stand, and those usually used for hosts had a crystal window in a flat-faced golden construction, which could stand on its base. The monstrance was most often made of silver-gilt or other precious metal, and highly decorated. In the center of the sunburst, the monstrance normally has a small round glass the size of a host, through which the Blessed Sacrament can be seen. Behind this glass is a round container made of glass and gilded metal, called a lunette, which holds the host securely in place. When not in the monstrance, the host in its luna is placed in a special standing container, called a standing "pyx", in the Tabernacle. Before the current design, earlier "little shrines" or reliquaries of various shapes and sizes were used.


title: The Human Condition

text: The Human Condition, first published in 1958, is Hannah Arendt's account of how "human activities" should be and have been understood throughout Western history. Arendt is interested in the "vita activa" (active life) as contrasted with the "vita contemplativa" (contemplative life) and concerned that the debate over the relative status of the two has blinded us to important insights about the "vita activa" and the way in which it has changed since ancient times. She distinguishes three sorts of activity (labor, work, and action) and discusses how they have been affected by changes in Western history.


title: The Human Condition

text: "The Human Condition" was first published in 1958. A second edition, with an introduction by Margaret Canovan, was issued in 1998. The work consists of a prologue and six parts.


title: The Human Condition

text: Arendt introduces the term "vita activa" (active life) by distinguishing it from "vita contemplativa" (contemplative life). Ancient philosophers insisted upon the superiority of the vita contemplativa, for which the vita activa merely provided necessities. Karl Marx flipped the hierarchy, claiming that the vita contemplativa is merely a superstructure on the fundamental basic life-processes of a society. Arendt's thesis is that the concerns of the vita activa are neither superior nor inferior to those of the vita contemplativa, nor are they the same. The vita activa may be divided into three sorts of activities: labor, work and action.


title: The Human Condition

text: According to Arendt, ancient Greek life was divided between two realms: the public realm in which "action" was performed, and the private realm, site of the household ruled by its head. The mark of the private was not intimacy, as it is in modern times, but biological necessity. In the private realm, heads of households took care of needs for food, shelter, and sex. By contrast, the public realm was a realm of freedom from these biological necessities, a realm in which one could distinguish oneself through "great words and great deeds." Property requirements for citizenship reflected the understanding that unless one was able to take care of one's biological necessities, one could not be free from them and hence could not participate in the public realm as a free person among equals. Slaves and subordinated women were confined to the private realm where they met the biological necessities of the head of the household. The public realm naturally was accorded higher status than the private.


title: The Human Condition

text: With the fall of the Roman Empire, the church took over the role of the public realm (though its otherworldly orientation gave it a character distinct from the previous public realm), and the feudal lords ran their lands and holdings as private realms. The modern period saw the rise of a third realm, the social realm. The social realm is concerned with providing for biological needs, but it does so at the level of the state. Arendt views the social realm as a threat to both the private and the public realm. In order to provide for the needs of everyone, it must invade the private sphere, and because it makes biological needs a public matter, it corrupts the realm of free action: There is no longer a realm free from necessity.