title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: From 1993 to 1996, the port city of Karachi had become a political battleground between prime minister Benazir Bhutto's Pakistan People's Party and the Muhajir Qaumi Movement. In the wake of the ensuing political unrest, the MQM had remained vocal about the arbitrary arrests and extrajudicial killings of its members.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: In 2015, The Lahore High Court banned his media coverage, with airing of his images and speeches banned across all electronic and print media. The Anti Terrorism Court of Pakistan declared him a fugitive on the charges of treason, inciting violence and hate speeches and sentenced him to 81 years in prison. In 2017, the Anti Terrorism Court of Pakistan issued non-bailable arrest warrants for Hussain in the murder case of Dr. Imran Farooq, who was a senior member of the MQM. Pakistan asked Interpol to issue a red warrant against Hussain but Interpol refused it by saying it does not "intervene in political and religious matters of a state".


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: It was reported that the Karachi police and the paramilitary Rangers force had arrested Nasir Hussain and his son from the Federal B area in Karachi on 4 and 6 December 1995, respectively. In a statement issued on 7 December 1995, the MQM blamed the government and the law enforcement agencies for the unlawful arrests of Nasir and Arif from their residence in Samanabad. On 9 December 1995, the badly mutilated corpses of both Nasir and Arif were found in an isolated area in Gadap Town in Karachi, from where they were taken to a nearby Edhi centre.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain and other leaders of the MQM decried cases against him, which the party alleges were false politically motivated cases against the MQM in the back drop of the 1990s operation against them. In November 2009 all the cases were dropped under National Reconciliation Ordinance.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: On 20 June 2013 the Metropolitan Police started a money laundering case against Altaf Hussain when it recovered some cash from his residence during a search. On 3 June 2014 he went to a police station for an interview. On 17 September 2016, Altaf Hussain's bail was cancelled for insufficient evidence. On 13 October 2016, Scotland Yard officially dismissed the money laundering case on the basis of lack of evidence.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf's chairman Imran Khan accused Altaf of inciting violence and soliciting murder in Karachi. In response, numerous complaints were filed with London Metropolitan Police against Altaf for inciting violence. Scotland Yard couldn't find any credible evidence in the incitement of violence case and subsequently dropped it.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: On 11 June 2019, Hussain was detained by Scotland Yard in connection with a speech made on a 22 August 2016 under the Section 44 of the Serious Crime Act 2007 and was acquitted on 15 February 2022. Sattar, one of the senior members of the MQM in Pakistan, distanced himself from Hussain's statements following day and the London-based leadership and said they are not against Pakistan.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Since 2015, Hussain has been a fugitive from the Anti Terrorism Court of Pakistan on the charges of murder, targeted killings, treason, inciting violence and hate speeches. He fled the country in 1992 after a crackdown against his party was launched and since then is living in the United Kingdom. Scotland Yard maintains that sufficient evidence for the charges is lacking and the content of his speeches do not violate UK laws.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain married Faiza Gabol in 2001 and divorced in 2007. He has daughter named Afza Altaf born in 2002.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: The "Invincible"-class submarines, formally classified as the Type 218SG submarines, is a class of conventionally-powered attack submarines, ordered by the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) from German-based naval conglomerate ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS). The Type 218SG is an extensively-customised derivative of the export-oriented Type 214 submarine, with specific design characteristics drawn from Type 212 submarines. They feature several capabilities - including a substantial level of automation, a significant payload capacity, enhanced underwater endurance and superlative ergonomics.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: Singapore's Ministry of Defense (MINDEF) ordered four Type 218SG submarines - two in 2013 and two in 2017, as a replacement to the RSN's currently-serving and submarines. The first submarine - RSS "Invincible", was launched in February 2019, and is expected to be commissioned by 2022. The RSN plans to have all four submarines in active service by 2024.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: The design of the Type 218SG was jointly created by Singapore's Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA), ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) and the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN). The design of the submarines is a highly customised one - conceived to fulfill specific naval requirements of the RSN - including naval operations in littoral waters, guarding sea lines of communication (SLOC), intelligence-gathering (ISTAR) and special operations. The design is believed to be based on the Type 214 export-centric submarine, with design inferences from the Type 212 submarine - both of which were designed by TKMS. The design of the Type 218SG is also believed to have been influenced by the Type 216 submarine concept.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: The Type 218SG has a length of and a beam of , with an overall displacement of about 2,000 t when surfaced and 2,200 t while submerged. It has an estimated speed of about while surfaced and while submerged.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: Current details about the Type 218SG's armament are scant; however, it is understood that the submarine features eight and two forward-firing torpedo tubes - which may be used for firing heavyweight torpedoes, anti-ship missiles and for laying naval mines.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: The Type 218SG is reported to have a greater ordnance payload (and essentially greater firepower) than the RSN's previous submarines, owing to its much larger size.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: Details about the Type 218SG's sensors and automation are also scant; however, it is understood the submarines are equipped with a "Combat Management System" (CMS) jointly developed by German-based Atlas Elektronik and Singapore-based ST Electronics, along with data analytics and decision support engines developed by the DSTA. The high levels of sophisticated automation and decision-making systems allows the submarines to run on three 8-hour shifts (instead of two 12-hour shifts), thus allowing the crew more rest to endure prolonged underwater missions.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: Given its sophisticated equipment, each submarine is manned by only twenty-eight sailors - a number similar to the RSN's other submarines, but fewer than other contemporary conventional submarines.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: In November 2013, Singapore's Ministry of Defense (MINDEF) selected the Type 218SG design, offered by TKMS, as a replacement to the RSN's existing submarine fleet, siding an offer of three conventionally-powered submarines (presumably the ) from French-based naval conglomerate "Direction des Constructions Navales" (now Naval Group). On 29 November 2013, MINDEF officially contracted TKMS to supply two Type 218SG submarines, along with a training and logistics package, at an estimated cost of USD $1.36 billion. The order for the two submarines bore noteworthy significance for being the RSN's first-ever order for new custom-built submarines, since the service had previously relied on the acquisitions of the second-hand "Challenger"-class and the "Archer"-class submarines. The purchase of the two submarines was officially announced on 2 December. According to the terms of the contract, the two submarines were initially scheduled to be delivered between 2020 and 2021.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: On 16 May 2017, Singapore's minister of defense Dr. Ng Eng Hen announced that the RSN had placed an additional order for two more Type 218SG submarines, with additional arrangements of logistics and crew-training, bringing the total number of its ordered submarines to four. According to the terms of the contract, the two additional submarines are to be delivered between 2024 and 2025.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: In December 2021, German news outlet "Der Spiegel" reported that the German government, headed by then-outgoing Chancellor Angela Merkel, had sanctioned a series of last-minute arms deals, including the export of an additional Type 218SG to Singapore. However, neither the RSN nor TKMS have officially confirmed the update.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: The construction of the first submarine began in 2014, with a steel cutting ceremony at TKMS' shipyard in Kiel. The first submarine, christened as the "Invincible", was launched in an elaborate ceremony on 18 February 2019, with defense minister Ng Eng Hen and representatives of the RSN in attendance. During the ceremony, Ng revealed the names of the other three submarines, namely - "Impeccable", "Illustrious" and "Inimitable". "Invincible" began its sea trials in September 2020, with its planned delivery date scheduled for 2020. However, in June 2020, Ng announced that the delivery of "Invincible" had been postponed to 2022, owing to restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: The construction of the second ordered batch began in January 2018, commencing with the steel-cutting ceremony of the third submarine, "Illustrious", at Kiel, with representatives from TKMS and the DSTA in attendance.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: In April 2021, German news outlet "Lübecker Nachrichten" reported that a Type-218SG submarine, presumably the "Invincible" or the "Impeccable", had suffered an outbreak of fire during its sea trials; however, the submarine in question did not appear to have sustained severe damage, nor were the crew of 28 aboard at the time reported to have sustained injuries.


title: Invincible-class submarine

text: In November 2022, while hosting German chancellor Olaf Scholz, Singapore's prime minister Lee Hsien Loong revealed that the second and third submarines of the class, namely, "Impeccable" and "Illustrious", would be launched in December of that year. The launch ceremony of the two submarines, which was conducted in Kiel on 13 December, was attended by Scholz, Lee, his spouse Ho Ching and Vivian Balakrishnan - Singapore's minister of foreign affairs. The two submarines are expected to be delivered to the RSN by 2023, while the fourth submarine, "Inimitable", remains under construction.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: Tim Chantarangsu (born March 6, 1986), formerly known as Timothy DeLaGhetto (and previously Traphik), is an American internet and television personality. He is best known from the improv comedy show "Wild 'N Out" where he was a cast member between 2013–2018 and 2020–2021.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: Chantarangsu is also known as the co-host of the food-based web shows "Basic to Bougie," "Deliciousness" on MTV, and "Send Foodz" on Thrillist. His career started on YouTube where he uploaded comedic videos and original music.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: Chantarangsu was born in Billings, Montana, to parents of Thai heritage. He was raised in Long Beach, California, until the age of nine before moving to Paramount, California, where his parents opened the Thai Smile restaurant. He attended Paramount High School and went on to attend California State University, Long Beach but dropped out to pursue an entertainment career.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: In 2011, Chantarangsu was fired from his job at a California Pizza Kitchen in Long Beach for tweeting that their new uniforms were "lame". As a child, he developed a business plan modeled after Will Smith, which he called the "Fresh Prince Format"; the plan outlined three career objectives: get a record deal, a television show, and a movie deal.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: His former stage name, Timothy DeLaGhetto, was inspired by an episode of "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air".


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: Chantarangsu's main YouTube channel had over 4 million subscribers and over 800 million video views . It features original skits, parodies, rants, and a series called "Dear DeLaGhetto".


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: , Chantarangsu had produced over 800 vlogs, and has garnered approximately 1.2 million subscribers and over 195 million video views on his vlog channel. The channel consists of collaborations with other musical artists, songs from his albums and mixtapes, and a series called Weekly 16's. In 2017, he retired his rap alias "Traphik".


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: His style channel, also known as The Bakery, has over 234,000 subscribers and over 16 million video views. The channel is composed of his fit-of-the-day videos, clothing collections and style videos and interviews with fellow sneaker fans called "Kickin' It". One of his newest video ventures includes an animated web series named "Powerhouse" in which he plays himself.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: In 2014, Chantarangsu's YouTube Channel was listed on New Media Rockstars Top 100 Channels, ranked at #64.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: Chantarangsu has participated in two episodes of "Epic Rap Battles of History", as Kim Jong-Il in Season 1 in 2011 and as Sun Tzu in Season 4 in 2015.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: Chantarangsu began regularly uploading his dating and relationship podcast, "No Chaser", onto his main YouTube channel and other podcasting platforms in February 2019. His regular co-hosts include 97.7 KWIN host Nikki Blades and Youtuber Ricky Shucks.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: He co-hosts the food show "Send Foodz" with fellow YouTuber David So. The show was picked up by Thrillist shortly after its initial debut on Chantarangsu's channel and airs every other Thursday.


title: Timothy DeLaGhetto

text: In April 2020, Chantarangsu announced that he was retiring the "Timothy DeLaGhetto" moniker and would begin using his birth name professionally.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Clara Zetkin (; ; "née" Eißner ; 5 July 1857 – 20 June 1933) was a German Marxist theorist, communist activist, and advocate for women's rights.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Until 1917, she was active in the Social Democratic Party of Germany. She then joined the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) and its far-left wing, the Spartacist League. This later became the Communist Party of Germany (KPD), which she represented in the Reichstag during the Weimar Republic from 1920 to 1933.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Clara Josephine Eißner (Eissner) was born the eldest of three children in , a peasant village in Saxony, now part of the municipality Königshain-Wiederau. Her father, Gottfried Eissner, was a schoolmaster, church organist and a devout Protestant, while her mother, Josephine Vitale, had French roots, came from a middle-class family from Leipzig and was highly educated. In 1872, her family moved to Leipzig, where she was educated at the Leipzig Teachers’ College for Women. While in school she established contacts with the infant Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (SPD; Social Democratic Party).


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Because of the ban placed on socialist activity in Germany by Bismarck in 1878, Zetkin left for Zurich in 1882 then went into exile in Paris, where she studied to be a journalist and a translator. During her time in Paris she played an important role in the foundation of the Socialist International group. She also adopted the name of her lover, the Russian-Jewish , a devoted Marxist, with whom she had two sons, Maxim and Konstantin (known as Kostja). Ossip Zetkin became severely ill in early 1889 and died in June of that year. Following the loss of her lover, Zetkin moved to Stuttgart with her children. She was married to artist Georg Friedrich Zundel, who was eighteen years her junior, from 1899 to 1928.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Her political career began after being introduced to Ossip Zetkin, whom she later married. Within a few months of attending and taking part in socialist meetings, Zetkin became entirely committed to the party, offering a Marxist approach to the demand for women's liberation. Around the time of 1880, due to the political climate in Germany, Zetkin went into exile in Switzerland and later in France. Upon her return to Germany, nearly a decade later, she became the editor of the Social Democratic Party of Germany's newspaper for women, "Die Gleichheit" (Equality), a post she occupied for twenty-five years.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Having studied to become a teacher, Zetkin developed connections with the women's movement and the labour movement in Germany from 1874. In 1878 she joined the Socialist Workers' Party ("Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei", SAP). This party had been founded in 1875 by merging two previous parties: the ADAV formed by Ferdinand Lassalle and the SDAP of August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht. In 1890 its name was changed to its modern version Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Around 1898, Zetkin formed a friendship with the younger Rosa Luxemburg that lasted 20 years. Despite Luxemburg's indifference to the women's movement, which absorbed so much of Zetkin's energies, they became firm political allies on the far left of the SDP. Luxemburg once suggested that their joint epitaph would be "Here lie the last two men of German Social Democracy." In the debate on Revisionism at the turn of the 20th century they jointly attacked the reformist theses of Eduard Bernstein, who had rejected the ideology of a revolutionary change, towards "revolutionary socialism".


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Zetkin was very interested in women's politics, including the fight for equal opportunities and women's suffrage, through a socialist means. She helped to develop the social-democratic women's movement in Germany; from 1891 to 1917 she edited the SPD women's newspaper "Die Gleichheit" (Equality). In 1907 she became the leader of the newly founded "Women's Office" at the SPD. She also contributed to International Women's Day (IWD). In August 1910, an International Women's Conference was organized to precede the general meeting of the Socialist Second International in Copenhagen, Denmark. Inspired in part by American socialists' actions, Zetkin, Käte Duncker and others proposed that "a special Women's Day" be organized annually, although no date was specified at that conference. Delegates (100 women from 17 countries) agreed with the idea as a strategy to promote equal rights including suffrage for women. The following year on 19 March 1911, IWD was marked for the first time, by over a million people in Austria, Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: However, Zetkin was deeply opposed to the concept of "bourgeois feminism," which she claimed was a tool to divide the unity of the working classes. In a speech she delivered to the Second International in 1889 she stated:


title: Clara Zetkin

text: She viewed the feminist movement as being primarily composed of upper-class and middle-class women who had their own class interests in mind, which were incompatible with the interests of working-class women. Thus, feminism and the socialist fight for women's rights were incompatible. In her mind, socialism was the only way to truly end the oppression of women. One of her primary goals was to get women out of the house and into work so that they could participate in trade unions and other workers rights organizations in order to improve conditions for themselves. While she argued that the socialist movement should fight to achieve reforms that would lessen female oppression, she was convinced that such reforms could only prevail if they were embedded into a general move towards socialism; otherwise, they could easily be eradicated by future legislation.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: During the period of the First World War, at the international women's peace conference in Switzerland, activists, revolutionaries, and supporters gathered to confront the concern for unity among workers across the battle lines. There, Zetkin spoke:


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Around that time Zetkin, along with Karl Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, Luise Kähler and other influential SPD politicians, rejected the party's policy of "Burgfrieden" (a truce with the government, promising to refrain from any strikes during the war). Among other anti-war activities, Zetkin organized an international socialist women's anti-war conference in Berlin in 1915. Because of her anti-war opinions, she was arrested several times during the war, and in 1916 taken into "protective custody" (from which she was later released on account of illness).


title: Clara Zetkin

text: In 1916 Zetkin was one of the co-founders of the Spartacist League and the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) which had split off in 1917 from its mother party, the SPD, in protest at its pro-war stance.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: In January 1919, after the German Revolution in November of the previous year, the KPD (Communist Party of Germany) was founded; Zetkin also joined this and represented the party from 1920 to 1933 in the Reichstag. She and Paul Levi were the first communists to enter the Reichstag.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: Until 1924 Zetkin was a member of the KPD's central office; from 1927 to 1929 she was a member of the party's central committee. She was also a member of the executive committee of the Communist International (Comintern) from 1921 to 1933. She also presided over an international secretariat for women, which was created by the Communist International in October 1920. In June 1921, the Second International Conference of Communist Women, which was held in Moscow and was chaired by Clara Zetkin changed the date of the International Women's Day to 8 March. This remains the date of the IWD until today. In 1925 she was elected president of the German left-wing solidarity organisation "Rote Hilfe".


title: Clara Zetkin

text: In summer 1922, Zetkin was part of the prosecution team during the Trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries in Moscow, but at other times, she was critical of Moscow's influence over the German Communist Party, within which she was part of the right wing. She was removed from the Central Committee of the KPD when the left, led by Ruth Fischer took control. She opposed a policy decision made in Moscow in 1928 to get communist trade unions in Germany to split from the main, socialist dominated federation and form the rival "Rote Gewerkschaftsbund". When Joseph Stalin put this to the executive of Comintern, in December 1928, Zetkin was one of only three members of the executive to vote against. The other two, Angelo Tasca and Jules Humbert-Droz), were publicly humiliated the following year, but Zetkin retained her position as a member of the executive, and the Praesidium of Comintern.


title: Clara Zetkin

text: In August 1932, despite having recently fallen gravely ill in Moscow, she returned to Berlin to preside over the opening of the newly elected Reichstag, as its oldest deputy. She used her opening address to call for workers to unite in the struggle against fascism, stating:


title: Clara Zetkin

text: When Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party took over power, the Communist Party of Germany was banned, following the Reichstag fire in 1933. Zetkin went into exile for the last time, this time to the Soviet Union. She died there, at Arkhangelskoye, near Moscow, in 1933, aged nearly 76. Her ashes were placed in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, by the Moscow Kremlin Wall, near the Red Square. The funeral was attended by leading communists from all over Europe, including Joseph Stalin and Nadezhda Krupskaya (Lenin's widow).


title: Clara Zetkin

text: After 1949, Zetkin became a much-celebrated heroine in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), and every major city had a street named after her. Her name can still be found on the maps of the former lands of the GDR. There is also a street in Tula, Russia named for Zetkin (ул. Клары Цеткин) which runs parallel to Red Army Prospect which is the main thoroughfare leading to the Moscow Train Station in that city.


title: Patrick Roach

text: Patrick Roach (born March 4, 1969) is a Canadian actor and investor. He is best known for playing Randy on the television series "Trailer Park Boys".


title: Patrick Roach

text: Roach was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, but grew up in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, to parents Jim and Julie Roach. He attended Saint Mary’s University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and graduated in 1992.


title: Patrick Roach

text: For the first four years he appeared on "Trailer Park Boys", Roach continued to work as a regional sales manager for Sparkling Springs, a bottled water company. He would film "Trailer Park Boys" on his vacation time, but in July 2004 he quit his job (which he had held since 1993) in order to concentrate on acting. He also appeared in a commercial for the telephone service Vonage.


title: Patrick Roach

text: When asked what it was like appearing shirtless in nearly every episode of "Trailer Park Boys", Roach replied that "it was uncomfortable at first, but after everyone in Canada has seen you, what the hell". His character works as Assistant Trailer Park Supervisor and Weekend Trailer Park Supervisor. His character, Randy, is in an on-again/off-again relationship with the Trailer Park Supervisor Jim Lahey (John Dunsworth), whom he always calls Mr. Lahey. Lahey is largely dependent on his assistant for his daily care. Roach has commented in an interview that Randy is gay, though the show portrays the character as bisexual.


title: Patrick Roach

text: He was also in the original "Trailer Park Boys" short film before it was made into a series. His character was the basis for Randy, but was named Patrick and wore a shirt. In between shooting the show, Roach and Dunsworth traveled across Canada performing at comedy clubs and other music events as a stand-up/improv act. After Dunsworth's death in 2017, Roach created his own stand-up comedy show called Randy's Cheeseburger Picnic.


title: Patrick Roach

text: From 2009 to 2013, Roach worked at Investors Group as a personal finance consultant. In 2010, Roach reunited with many of his former "Trailer Park Boys" castmates in the new series "The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Fun Time Hour".


title: Olive Thomas

text: Olive Thomas (born Oliva R. Duffy; October 20, 1894 – September 10, 1920) was an American silent-film actress, art model, and photo model.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Thomas began her career as an illustrator's model in 1914, and moved on to the "Ziegfeld Follies" the following year. During her time as a Ziegfeld girl, she also appeared in the more risqué show "The Midnight Frolic". In 1916, she began a successful career in silent films and would appear in more than 20 features over the course of her four-year film career. That year she also married actor Jack Pickford, the younger brother of fellow silent-film star Mary Pickford.


title: Olive Thomas

text: On September 10, 1920, Thomas died in Paris five days after ingesting her husband's syphilis medication, mercury dichloride, that brought on acute nephritis. Although her death was ruled accidental, news of her hospitalization and subsequent death were the subject of speculation in the press. Thomas' death is considered one of the first major Hollywood scandals.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Oliva R. Duffy was born in Charleroi, Pennsylvania, but often claimed her birth name was Oliveretta Elaine Duffy. She was the eldest of three children born to Rena and James Duffy, both of whom were of Irish descent. She had two brothers, James (born 1896) and William (born 1899), both of whom she later helped to secure work in the film industry; after serving in the United States Marine Corps in France during World War I, William worked as a cameraman and James worked as an assistant director. At the time of her death, both brothers were employed by Selznick Productions.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Her father, James Duffy, was a steelworker and died in a work-related accident in 1906. After his death, the family moved to McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, a small mill town. Thomas and her brothers often stayed with their grandparents while their mother Rena worked in a local factory. Rena Duffy later married Harry M. Van Kirk, a worker on the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad. Their only child together, daughter Harriet, was born in 1914 and died in a car accident in 1931.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Thomas left school at 15 to help support her siblings. She got a job selling gingham at Joseph Horne's department store for per week (). At 16 in April 1911, she married Bernard Krug Thomas in McKees Rocks. During the two-year marriage, she reportedly worked as a clerk in Kaufmann's, a major department store in Pittsburgh. After their separation in 1913, Thomas moved to New York City and lived with a family member. She later found work in a Harlem department store.


title: Olive Thomas

text: In 1914, Thomas entered and subsequently won the "Most Beautiful Girl in New York City" contest held by Howard Chandler Christy, a commercial artist. Winning the contest helped establish her career as an artists' model, and she would later pose for Harrison Fisher, Raphael Kirchner, Penrhyn Stanlaws, and Haskell Coffin. Thomas was featured on many magazine covers, including that of the "Saturday Evening Post".


title: Olive Thomas

text: Fisher wrote a letter of recommendation to Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr., resulting in Thomas' being hired for the "Ziegfeld Follies". However, Thomas later disputed this, claiming she "walked right up and asked for the job". She made her stage debut in the "Ziegfeld Follies of 1915" on June 21, 1915. Thomas' popularity in the "Follies" led to her being cast in Ziegfeld's more risqué "Midnight Frolic" show. The "Frolic" was staged after hours in the roof garden of the New Amsterdam Theatre. It was primarily a show for famous male patrons who had plenty of money to bestow on the beautiful young female performers. Thomas received expensive gifts from her admirers; it was rumored that German Ambassador Albrecht von Bernstorff had given her a $10,000 string of pearls.


title: Olive Thomas

text: During her time in "The Follies", Thomas began an affair with Florenz Ziegfeld. Ziegfeld, who was married to actress Billie Burke, had affairs with other Ziegfeld girls, including Lillian Lorraine and Marilyn Miller (who later married Thomas' widower Jack Pickford). Thomas ended the affair with Ziegfeld after he refused to leave Burke to marry her.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Thomas continued modeling while appearing in the Follies. Alberto Vargas, Florenz Ziegfeld’s artist-in-residence who painted many stars of the Ziegfeld stage, immortalized Thomas in the portrait he painted of her from memory after her death and titled it "Memory of Olive Thomas or The Lotus Eater" (as noted on the label he placed on the back of the completed work). "Lotus Eater" was a reference to Lotus-eaters of Greek mythology. The portrait depicts Thomas nude from the waist up, covering her left breast with her left hand while holding a rose with her right above her upraised face. The painting remained in his personal collection until his death in 1982 and was sold by his estate to a private collector in 1986. Vargas called Thomas "one of the most beautiful brunettes that Ziegfeld ever glorified.


title: Olive Thomas

text: In July 1916, Thomas signed with the International Film Company. She made her on-screen debut in Episode 10 of "Beatrice Fairfax", a film serial. In 1917, she made her full-length feature debut in "A Girl Like That" for Paramount Pictures.


title: Olive Thomas

text: That same year, she signed with Triangle Pictures. Shortly after, news broke of her engagement to actor Jack Pickford, whom she had married a year prior. Thomas and Pickford, who was the younger brother of Mary Pickford, kept the marriage secret because Thomas did not want people to think her success in film was due to her association with the Pickfords. Her first film for Triangle, "Madcap Madge", was released in June 1917. Thomas' popularity at Triangle grew with performances in "Indiscreet Corrine" (1917) and "Limousine Life" (1918). In 1919, she portrayed a French girl who poses as a boy in "Toton the Apache". Thomas later said that she felt her work in "Toton" was "the first real thing I've ever done." She made her final film for Triangle, "The Follies Girl", that same year.


title: Olive Thomas

text: After leaving Triangle, Thomas signed with Myron Selznick's Selznick Pictures Company in December 1918 for a salary of $2,500 a week. She hoped for more serious roles, believing that with her husband signed to the same company, she would have more influence. Her first film for Selznick, "Upstairs and Down" (1919), proved successful and established her image as a "baby vamp". She followed with roles in "Love's Prisoner" and "Out Yonder", both in 1919. In 1920's "The Flapper", Thomas played a teenage schoolgirl who yearns for excitement beyond her small Florida town. Thomas was the first actress to portray a lead character who was a flapper, and the film was the first of its kind to portray the flapper lifestyle. Frances Marion, who wrote the scenario, was responsible for bringing the term into the American vernacular. "The Flapper" proved to be popular and became one of Thomas' most successful films. On October 4, 1920, Thomas' final film, "Everybody's Sweetheart", was released.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Thomas' first marriage was to Bernard Krug Thomas, a man she met at age 15 while living in McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania. They married on April 1, 1911 and lived with his parents in McKees Rocks for the first six months of their marriage, then moved into their own apartment. Krug Thomas worked as a clerk at the Pressed Steel Car Company while Olive took care of the home. In 1913, the couple separated and Olive moved to New York City to pursue a career as a model. She was granted a divorce on September 25, 1915 on the grounds of desertion and cruelty. In 1931, Bernard Krug Thomas gave an interview to "The Pittsburg Press", detailing his marriage to Olive, implying that a cause of the demise of their marriage was her ambition, a desire to obtain a life of "luxury", and "improve her station".


title: Olive Thomas

text: In late 1916, Thomas met actor Jack Pickford, brother of one of the most successful silent stars, Mary Pickford, at a beach cafe on the Santa Monica Pier. Both Thomas and Pickford were known for their partying. Screenwriter Frances Marion remarked, "I had seen her often at the Pickford home, for she was engaged to Mary's brother, Jack. Two innocent-looking children, they were the gayest, wildest brats who ever stirred the stardust on Broadway. Both were talented, but they were much more interested in playing the roulette of life than in concentrating on their careers." Thomas eloped with Pickford on October 25, 1916 in New Jersey. None of their family was present, with actor Thomas Meighan as their only witness. Although the couple never had their own children, in 1920 they adopted Thomas' six-year-old nephew, the son of one of her brothers, after his mother died.


title: Olive Thomas

text: By most accounts, Thomas was the love of Pickford's life. However, the marriage was tumultuous and filled with highly-charged conflict, followed by lavish making up through the exchange of expensive gifts. Pickford's family did not always approve of Thomas, but most of the family did attend her funeral. In Mary Pickford's 1955 autobiography "Sunshine and Shadow", she wrote:I regret to say that none of us approved of the marriage at that time. Mother [i.e., Charlotte Hennessey] thought Jack was too young, and Lottie and I felt that Olive, being in musical comedy, belonged to an alien world. Ollie had all the rich, eligible men of the social world at her feet. She had been deluged with proposals from her own world of the theater as well. Which was not at all surprising. The beauty of Olive Thomas is legendary. The girl had the loveliest violet-blue eyes I have ever seen. They were fringed with long dark lashes that seemed darker because of the delicate translucent pallor of her skin. I could understand why Florenz Ziegfeld never forgave Jack for taking her away from "the Follies". She and Jack were madly in love with one another, but I always thought of them as a couple of children playing together.


title: Olive Thomas

text: For several years, Thomas and Pickford had intended to vacation together. Both were constantly traveling and had little time to spend together. With their marriage on the rocks, the couple decided to take a second honeymoon. In August 1920, the pair headed for Paris, hoping to combine a vacation with some film preparations.


title: Olive Thomas

text: On the night of September 5, 1920, they went out for a night of entertainment and partying at the famous bistros in the Montparnasse Quarter of Paris. Returning to their suite in the Hotel Ritz around 3 a.m., Pickford either fell asleep or was outside the bedroom. An intoxicated and tired Thomas ingested a mercury bichloride solution, a topical medication that had been prescribed to Pickford to treat sores caused by his chronic syphilis. While accounts vary, authorities speculated that Thomas thought the flask contained either drinking water or a sleeping tonic. The medication's label was in French, which may have added to her confusion. After drinking the liquid she screamed, "Oh, my God!" and Pickford rushed to assist her. She was taken to the American Hospital in the Paris suburb of Neuilly-sur-Seine, where Pickford and his former brother-in-law Owen Moore remained at her side until she died five days later.


title: Olive Thomas

text: While Thomas lay in the American Hospital dying, the press began reporting on the various rumors that began to arise about the circumstances of the incident. Some papers reported that Thomas had attempted suicide after having a fight with Pickford over his alleged infidelities, while others said she attempted suicide after discovering Pickford had given her syphilis. There were rumors that Thomas was plagued by a drug addiction, that she and Pickford had been involved in "champagne and cocaine orgies," or that Pickford tricked her into drinking poison in an attempt to murder her to collect her insurance money. Owen Moore, who accompanied Pickford and Thomas in Paris, denied the rumors, saying that Thomas was not suicidal and that she and Pickford had not fought that evening. Jack Pickford also denied the rumors, stating, "Olive and I were the greatest pals on Earth. Her death is a ghastly mistake."


title: Olive Thomas

text:
On September 13, 1920, Pickford gave his account of that night to the "Los Angeles Herald-Examiner":We arrived back at the Ritz hotel at about 3 o'clock in the morning. I had already booked airplane seats for London. We were going Sunday morning. Both of us were tired out. We both had been drinking a little. I insisted that we had better not pack then, but rather get up early before our trip and do it then. I went to bed immediately. She fussed around and wrote a note to her mother. ... She was in the bathroom.
Suddenly she shrieked: 'My God.' I jumped out of bed, rushed toward her and caught her in my arms. She cried to me to find out what was in the bottle. I picked it up and read: 'Poison.' It was a toilet solution and the label was in French. I realized what she had done and sent for the doctor. Meanwhile, I forced her to drink water in order to make her vomit. She screamed, 'O, my God, I'm poisoned.' I forced the whites of eggs down her throat, hoping to offset the poison. The doctor came. He pumped her stomach three times while I held Olive.
Nine o'clock in the morning I got her to the Neuilly Hospital, where Doctors Choate and Wharton took charge of her. They told me she had swallowed bichloride of mercury in an alcoholic solution, which is ten times worse than tablets. She didn't want to die. She took the poison by mistake. We both loved each other since the day we married. The fact that we were separated months at a time made no difference in our affection for each other. She even was conscious enough the day before she died to ask the nurse to come to America with her until she had fully recovered, having no thought she would die.
She kept continually calling for me. I was beside her day and night until her death. The physicians held out hope for her until the last moment, until they found her kidneys paralyzed. Then they lost hope. But the doctors told me she had fought harder than any patient they ever had. She held onto her life as only one case in fifty. She seemed stronger the last two days. She was conscious, and said she would get better and go home to her mother. 'It's all a mistake, darling Jack,' she said. But I knew she was dying.
She was kept alive only by hypodermic injections during the last twelve hours. I was the last one she recognized. I watched her eyes glaze and realized she was dying. I asked her how she was feeling and she answered: 'Pretty weak, but I'll be all right in a little while, don't worry, darling.' Those were her last words. I held her in my arms and she died an hour later. Owen Moore was at her bedside. All stories and rumors of wild parties and cocaine and domestic fights since we left New York are untrue.


title: Olive Thomas

text: After Thomas' death, the police initiated an investigation and an autopsy was performed. Thomas' death was attributed to acute nephritis caused by mercury bichloride absorption. On September 13, 1920, her death was ruled accidental by the Paris physician who conducted her autopsy.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Jack Pickford brought Thomas' body back to the United States. Several accounts state that Pickford tried to commit suicide en route but was talked out of it. In her autobiography, Mary Pickford recalls her brother's disclosure that he had made such an attempt during the return trip:


title: Olive Thomas

text: On September 29, 1920, an Episcopal funeral service for Thomas was held at St. Thomas Episcopal Church in New York City. According to "The New York Times", police escorts were needed at the event, for the entire church was crowded with “hundreds” of fellow actors, other invited attendees, as well as a horde of curious onlookers. Several women are reported to have fainted during the ceremony, and several men had their hats crushed in the rush to view the casket. Thomas is interred in a crypt at the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Thomas did not leave a will upon her death. Her estate, which was later valued at $27,644, () was split between her mother, her two brothers, and husband Jack Pickford. Pickford later relinquished his right to a portion of the money, choosing instead to give his share to Thomas' mother.


title: Olive Thomas

text: On November 22, 1920, the bulk of Thomas' personal property was auctioned off in an estate sale, which netted approximately $30,000. Lewis Selznick bought Thomas' town car for an undisclosed sum. Mabel Normand bought a 20-piece toilet set, a 14 karat gold cigarette case, and three pieces of jewelry, including a sapphire pin.


title: Olive Thomas

text: The press coverage of Olive Thomas' death was one of the first examples of the media sensationalism related to a major Hollywood star. Her death has been cited as one of the first major Hollywood scandals.


title: Olive Thomas

text: Other scandals including the Fatty Arbuckle trial in 1921, the murder of William Desmond Taylor in 1922, and the drug-related death of Wallace Reid caused many religious and morality groups to label Hollywood as "immoral".


title: Paycheck

text: A paycheck, also spelled paycheque, pay check or pay cheque, is traditionally a paper document (a cheque) issued by an employer to pay an employee for services rendered. In recent times, the physical paycheck has been increasingly replaced by electronic direct deposits to the employee's designated bank account or loaded onto a payroll card. Employees may still receive a pay slip to detail the calculations of the final payment amount.


title: Paycheck

text: A salary statement, commonly called a payslip, pay stub, paystub, pay advice, or sometimes paycheck stub or wage slip, is a document received by an employee that either includes a notice that the direct deposit transaction has gone through or that is attached to the paycheck. Each country has laws as to what must be included on a payslip, but this typically includes details of the gross wages for the pay period and the taxes and any other deductions the employer is required to make by law as well as other personal deductions such as retirement plan or pension contributions, insurances, garnishments, or charitable contributions taken out of the gross amount to arrive at the final net amount of the pay, also including the year to date totals in some circumstances.


title: Paycheck

text: In most countries with a developed wire transfer system, payment of wages and salaries is increasingly being effected by electronic means, rather than by the use of a physical cheque. This saves the company money on printing and processing cheques and reduce the problem of fraud.


title: Paycheck

text: However, vocabulary referring to the figurative "pay cheque" persists in some languages, but this commonly refers to a payslip or stub rather than an actual cheque. Some company payrolls have eliminated both the paper cheque and stub, in which case an electronic image of the stub is available on a website. Most of the provinces and territories in Canada allow employers to issue electronic payslips if the employees have confidential access to it and are able to print it.


title: Paycheck

text: For employees that do not have access to a personal bank account, most major payroll service providers can arrange for the net pay of an employee to be loaded onto a payroll card, which is a plastic card similar to a debit card. A payroll card functions like a debit card and allows an employee to access their pay. A payroll card is typically less convenient than cashing a paper paycheck, because the card can be used at participating automatic teller machines to withdraw cash (which usually requires the employee to pay a hefty fee to access their own money and always have daily limits for how much of their own money an employee can access daily) or in stores to make purchases. Most payroll cards will charge a fee if used at an ATM more than once per pay period.


title: Paycheck

text: The payroll card account may be held as a single bank account in the employer's name. In that case, the bank account holds the payroll funds for all employees of that company using the payroll card system, and an intermediary limits each employee's draw to an amount specified by the company for a specified pay period. Some payroll card programs establish a separate account for each employee. Most payroll card accounts in the United States are insured by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.


title: Paycheck

text: Before a company can give a payroll card to a worker, the business must first contract with a payroll card program manager. The payroll card company performs required "know-your-customer" due diligence as a condition of accepting the application.


title: Paycheck

text: In the United States, payroll cards are regulated by state wage-and-hour-laws and by a variety of federal laws including the Electronic Funds Transfer Act and the Consumer Financial Protection Act.


title: Paycheck

text: Businesses may elect to use a payroll card program in order to reduce payroll expense. According to Visa, it costs an employer about 35 cents to issue pay electronically but two dollars to write a paper paycheck.


title: Paycheck

text: Payroll warrants look like cheques and clear through the banking system like checks and are therefore often called paychecks by their recipients. But they are not checks because they are not drawn against a checking account. Instead they are drawn against "available funds" that are not in a bank account so the issuer can delay redemption. In the U.S., warrants are issued by government entities such as the military and state and county governments for payroll to individuals and for accounts payable to vendors. Deposited warrants are routed to a collecting bank which processes them as collection items like maturing treasury bills and presents the warrants to the government entity's treasury department for payment each business day.


title: Paycheck

text: In the UK, warrants are issued as payment by National Savings and Investments when a premium bond is chosen.


title: 2025 ICC Champions Trophy

text: The 2025 ICC Champions Trophy will be the ninth ICC Champions Trophy, a One Day International cricket tournament that is set to be hosted by Pakistan.


title: 2025 ICC Champions Trophy

text: In 2016, the ICC had announced that the Champions Trophy would be canceled after the 2017 tournament. The ICC aimed to have one tournament for each of the three formats of international cricket. However, in November 2021, the ICC announced that the tournament would return in 2025. This will be first global tournament that Pakistan will host since the 2009 attack on the Sri Lanka national cricket team. The last major tournament to take place in Pakistan was in 1996 when they co-hosted the World Cup along with India and Sri Lanka. Ramiz Raja the current chairman of Pakistan Cricket Board has expressed interest in getting a piece of land in Islamabad for a proposed cricket stadium with the aim of the stadium being ready by the tournament.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson Memorial is a presidential memorial built in Washington, D.C. between 1939 and 1943 in honor of Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence, a central intellectual force behind the American Revolution, founder of the Democratic-Republican Party, and the nation's third president.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson Memorial features multiple Jefferson quotes designed to capture Jefferson's ideology and philosophy, known as Jeffersonian democracy, which was staunchly supportive of American republicanism, individual rights, religious freedom, states' rights, and virtue and prioritized and valued what he saw as the undervalued independent yeoman. Jefferson was simultaneously deeply skeptical of cities and financiers and hostile to aristocracy, elitism, and corruption. He is widely considered among the most influential political minds of his age and one of the most consequential intellectual forces behind the American Revolution.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson Memorial is built in neoclassical style and is situated in West Potomac Park on the shore of the Potomac River. It was designed by John Russell Pope, a New York City architect, and built by Philadelphia contractor John McShain. Construction on it began in 1939 and was completed in 1943, though the bronze statue of Jefferson was not completed and added until four years after its dedication and opening, in 1947. Pope made references to the Roman Pantheon, whose designer was Apollodorus of Damascus, and to Jefferson's own design for the rotunda at the University of Virginia as inspirations for the memorial's aesthetics.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson Memorial and White House form a main anchor point to the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The Washington Monument, initially intended to be built at the intersection of the White House and the Jefferson Memorial's site, was ultimately built further east because the ground at that location was deemed too soft and swampy.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson Memorial is a designated national memorial and is managed by the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior's National Mall and Memorial Parks division. In 1966, the Jefferson Memorial was named to the National Register of Historic Places. In 2007, it ranked fourth on the "list of America's favorite architecture", published by the American Institute of Architects.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The site ultimately selected for the Jefferson Memorial's construction was built was appealing at least partly because it was located directly south of, and in view of, the White House. By 1901, the Senate Park Commission, known as the McMillan Plan, proposed building a Pantheon-like structure on the site that would host "the statues of the illustrious men of the nation, or whether the memory of some individual shall be honored by a monument of the first rank may be left to the future," but no action was taken by Congress on the commission's recommendation.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The completion of the Tidal Basin Inlet Bridge in 1908 helped facilitate and expand recreational usage of East and West Potomac Parks. In 1918, large liquid chlorine dispensers were installed under the bridge to treat the water, which made the Tidal Basin, also known as Twining Lake, suitable for swimming. The Tidal Basin Beach, on the site of the future Jefferson Memorial, opened in May 1918, operating as a "Whites Only" facility until 1925, when it was permanently closed to avoid addressing the question of whether or not it should be racially integrated. The same year, however, a design competition was held for a memorial to Theodore Roosevelt. The winning design, submitted by John Russell Pope, consisted of a half-circle memorial situated next to a circular basin. Like the McMillan Plan in 1901, however, the plan was never funded by Congress or acted upon.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: Another opportunity for the Memorial's development emerged in 1934 when then President Franklin Roosevelt, who admired Jefferson (in large part because of a book on Jefferson by his friend Claude G. Bowers) inquired with the Commission of Fine Arts about erecting a memorial to Jefferson. Roosevelt included plans for the Jefferson Memorial in the Federal Triangle project, which was then under construction. Later the same year, Congressman John J. Boyland followed Roosevelt's lead, urging Congress to create the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Commission to explore the memorial's development. Boylan was appointed the Commission's first chairman, and Congress eventually appropriated $3 million for the Jefferson Memorial.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The following year, in 1935, the Commission chose John Russell Pope as architect for the Jefferson Memorial. Pope had served previously as architect for the National Archives Building and the original West Building of the National Gallery of Art. He prepared four different plans for the project, each on a different site. One was on the Anacostia River at the end of East Capitol Street; one at Lincoln Park; one on the south side of the National Mall across from the National Archives administration building; and one was situated on the Tidal Basin, directly south of the White House. The Commission preferred the site on the Tidal Basin mainly because it was the most prominent site of those proposed and completed the four-point plan called for by the McMillan Commission, which encompassed the region including the Lincoln Memorial to the Capitol and from the White House to the Tidal Basin site. Pope designed a very large pantheon-like structure designed to be situated on a square platform, flanked by two smaller, rectangular, colonnaded buildings.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: Construction on the Jefferson Memorial began December 15, 1938. The cornerstone was laid roughly eleven months later, on November 15, 1939, by Roosevelt himself. By this point, Pope had died in 1937 and his surviving partners, Daniel P. Higgins and Otto R. Eggers, assumed leadership for the Jefferson Memorial's construction. At the request of the Commission of Fine Arts, a slightly more conservative design for the memorial was agreed upon. The memorial's cost was approximately $3 million.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: Construction commenced amid some opposition. The Commission of Fine Arts never actually approved any design for the memorial and even published a pamphlet in 1939 opposing both the proposed design and site for the memorial. Additionally, some Washingtonians opposed the proposed location for it because it did not align with L'Enfant's original plan for the city, and many established elm and cherry trees, including rare stock donated by Japan in 1912, would be removed under the memorial's original plan. Construction continued amid the opposition, which included women protestors chaining themselves to cherry trees around the construction site. Opposition to the memorial proved dismaying to Roosevelt, but the opposition diminished notably once revised plans identified a means for maintaining the surrounding cherry blossoms amidst the memorial's construction.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: In 1939, the Memorial Commission hosted a competition to select a sculptor for the planned Jefferson statue to be placed in the center of the memorial. They received 101 entries and chose six finalists. Of the six, Rudulph Evans was chosen as the main sculptor, and Adolph A. Weinman was chosen to sculpt the pediment relief situated above the memorial's entrance.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. designed the memorial landscape, which featured a simple design within a circular driveway including primarily Evergreen trees with limited flowering trees or shrubs. The design was perceived as too thin, so white pines and some other plantings were later added before the memorial's dedication in 1943. In the 1970s, nearly three decades after the memorial's opening, additional changes to Olmsted's landscaping were implemented. But in 1993 and 2000, attempts to restore the integrity of Olmsted's initial design were made. Roosevelt ordered trees be cut so that the Jefferson Memorial was clearly visible from the White House; additional tree pruning was also completed to create an unobstructed view between the Jefferson Memorial and Lincoln Memorial.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: On April 13, 1943, the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birthday, the Jefferson Memorial was officially dedicated and opened by Roosevelt. At the time, Evans' statue had not yet been finished due to material shortages that emerged during World War II. Instead, the memorial opened with a temporary plaster cast statue similar to the ultimate bronze statue that Evans ultimately completed four years later, in 1947. The statue's cast was developed by Roman Bronze Works in New York City.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: On October 15, 1966, in recognition of the Jefferson Memorial historical and artistic significance, the Jefferson Memorial was named to the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson Memorial is composed of circular marble steps, a portico, a circular colonnade of Ionic order columns, and a shallow dome. The building is open to the elements. It has a diameter of approximately .


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The memorial is constructed with white Imperial Danby marble taken from Vermont, which rests on a series of granite and marble-stepped terraces. A flight of granite and marble stairs and platforms, flanked by granite buttresses, leads up to the memorial from the Tidal Basin to a portico with a triangular pediment.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The pediment features a sculpture by Adolph Alexander Weinman depicting the Committee of Five, the five members of the committee charged with drafting the U.S. Declaration of Independence. In addition to Jefferson, who was the primary author, committee members included John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. A cornice with an egg and dart molding surrounds this pediment, and below that is a plain frieze.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The memorial's interior has a tall, bronze statue of Jefferson developed by sculptor Rudulph Evans. The statue was added four years after the dedication. Among many Jefferson quotes inside the memorial, one of the most prominently situated are those inscribed in the frieze below the dome: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man." This sentence is taken from a letter written by Jefferson on September 23, 1800, to Dr. Benjamin Rush in which Jefferson defends the constitutional refusal to recognize a state religion.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men. We ... solemnly publish and declare, that these colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states...And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine providence, we mutually pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The inscription uses the word ""in"alienable", as appears in Jefferson's draft rather than ""un"alienable" as ultimately appeared in the final Declaration.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: On the panel of the northwest interior wall is a quote from the 1777 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which excludes the quote's final sentence and is taken from an August 28, 1789, letter Jefferson wrote to James Madison:


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: Almighty God hath created the mind free...All attempts to influence it by temporal punishments or burthens...are a departure from the plan of the Holy Author of our religion...No man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship or ministry or shall otherwise suffer on account of his religious opinions or belief, but all men shall be free to profess and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion. I know but one code of morality for men whether acting singly or collectively.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The Jefferson quotes from the panel on the northeast interior wall come from multiple sources. The first, which begins "God who gave us life gave us liberty" is from "A Summary View of the Rights of British America". The second, third, and fourth sentences are from "Notes on the State of Virginia". The fifth quote, which begins "Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than that these people are to be free" is from Jefferson's autobiography. The sixth sentence, beginning "Establish the law...", is from a letter of August 13, 1786, to George Wythe. The final sentence is from a letter of January 4, 1786, to George Washington:


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: God who gave us life gave us liberty. Can the liberties of a nation be secure when we have removed a conviction that these liberties are the gift of God? Indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that his justice cannot sleep forever. Commerce between master and slave is despotism. Nothing is more certainly written in the book of fate than these people are to be free. Establish the law for educating the common people. This it is the business of the state to effect and on a general plan.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The inscription on the panel of the southeast interior wall is excerpted from Jefferson's July 12, 1816, letter to Samuel Kercheval:


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: I am not an advocate for frequent changes in laws and constitutions. But laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind. As that becomes more developed, more enlightened, as new discoveries are made, new truths discovered and manners and opinions change, with the change of circumstances, institutions must advance also to keep pace with the times. We might as well require a man to wear still the coat which fitted him when a boy as civilized society to remain ever under the regimen of their barbarous ancestors.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: The monument is located in West Potomac Park in Washington, D.C. on the shore of the Potomac River's Tidal Basin. The park is enhanced with the massed planting of Japanese cherry blossom trees, which pre-dated the memorial's construction and were a 1912 gift from the people of Japan.


title: Jefferson Memorial

text: Although the Jefferson Memorial is geographically removed from other buildings and monuments in Washington, D.C., the National Mall, and Washington Metro, the memorial plays host to many events and ceremonies each year, including memorial exercises, the Easter Sunrise Service, and the annual National Cherry Blossom Festival and ranks highly among destinations for visitors to the city each year.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: Overexposed is the fourth studio album by the American pop band Maroon 5. It was released on June 20, 2012, by A&M Octone Records. The album was recorded between 2011 and 2012 and was driven after the moderate success of their third album, "Hands All Over" (2010), and later by the enormous success of the re-released edition, which was promoted by the single "Moves Like Jagger", recorded as a collaboration with Christina Aguilera. It is the band's only album not to feature keyboardist, rhythm guitarist and background vocalist Jesse Carmichael, who took a temporary break from performing with the group to focus on his studies and was replaced by musician PJ Morton. The band worked with different producers, such as Max Martin, who serves as the album's executive producer, Ryan Tedder, Shellback and Benny Blanco. The band's guitarist and Levine's usual co-writer James Valentine, only has four credits on the album.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The accompanying artwork, created by Los Angeles artist Young & Sick, is a colorful collage of illustrations seemingly inspired by the likes of Picasso and a range of modern cartoonists. Its title is a smirking allusion to Levine's ubiquity, while its sound is a reflection of how the group wishes to retain the large audience they won once again with "Moves Like Jagger". The album's lead single "Payphone", featuring rapper Wiz Khalifa, produced by Shellback and Benny Blanco, was released and performed on "The Voice", on April 16, 2012. The song was a success, reaching number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, as well as on the ARIA Charts, while it topped the UK Singles Chart, Canadian Hot 100 and Italian Singles Chart. The second single "One More Night", was released on June 19, 2012. The song topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 for nine weeks, becoming their longest Hot 100 reign. All four singles released from "Overexposed" have reached the Hot 100 top-ten, including the last two of them: "Daylight" and "Love Somebody".


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The album received a mixed reception from music critics. Some praised the album, calling it their strongest effort, but others criticized the direction the band decided to take, calling it a failed attempt to go mainstream. Additionally, critics and fans alike perceived the album as overly focused on Levine. It debuted at number 2 on the UK Albums Chart, selling 38,000 copies, and on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, selling 222,000 copies. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Overexposed" was the 11th global best-selling album of 2012 with sales of 2.2 million copies. To promote the album, the band embarked on the Overexposed Tour (2012–2014).


title: Overexposed (album)

text: In September 2010, the band released their third studio album, "Hands All Over". While preparing the album, the band received a phone call from Robert John "Mutt" Lange, who had heard the band was beginning to write a new record, and expressed an interest in producing it. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics and debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 chart. However, the album experienced moderate success in overall sales; regarding that, the band guitarist James Valentine expressed some frustration and said that a new album may be coming sooner than was originally planned. Valentine further commented:


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "It would be nice to start working on another record next year". "I think with the last two records, it's been a little bit unbalanced, in that we had so much success and there was so much of the world to cover that our studio/road balance was a little off... In a perfect world we'd tour for six months and maybe record for six months, but that's not the way it works. But the whole point is to make more music, and if anything you can spend too much time out there."


title: Overexposed (album)

text: Valentine also said the band has "tons of material" available, including holdovers including songs from "Hands All Over" and also other tracks the band has written since then. "I think everybody's been pretty busy compiling ideas for the next one," he stated. "With technology and the recording capacity we have on our laptops, we can be a little more prolific while we're [touring]. We've never been able to do that before. I think we could go in and make a record today and have a pretty solid album." In July 2011, the band re-released "Hands All Over" and included a new song called "Moves Like Jagger" which featured American recording artist Christina Aguilera. The song enjoyed a massive commercial success reaching number one on over 22 national singles chart including on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. In an interview with Mike Wood of "Los Angeles Times", Levine explained what went wrong on "Hands All Over", "I don't think we knew what kind of record we were making. It was such a hodgepodge — all these disparate ideas and songs that didn't make any sense together. He also stated, "We were in this idyllic paradise, which is a horrible place to make a record. Switzerland's neutrality is very famous, and I feel like that neutrality infected Maroon 5's third album". Levine further stated that "Moves Like Jagger" saved them and totally revived the group.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The band started writing songs for "Overexposed" during their latest tour in support of "Hands All Over". After concluding with the tour, the band recorded the material of the album at the Conway Recording Studios located in Los Angeles, California. Speaking about the development on the material, Valentine revealed that "Moves Like Jagger" was the first time the band worked with an outside writer, so they decided to implement it more on "Overexposed". "At this point in our career I think it was a good thing to completely mix up our process and it yielded good results, as well as a more collaborative spirit within the band. We wanted to make something that sounded contemporary with the elements of a lot of early eras of pop music" explained Valentine. On the development of the album, Levine also commented, ""Overexposed" is definitely our most diverse and poppiest album yet. We had a great time recording it. I can't wait for our fans to hear the record, as well as hitting the road to play it live for everyone later this year." In another interview for "Rolling Stone", the singer revealed that is their most dance-driven album ever, commenting: "It's very much an old-fashioned disco tune. I have a love/hate relationship with it – but mostly I love it."


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The album was executively produced by Max Martin, with additional tracks produced by Benny Blanco and Ryan Tedder. Tedder commented that the sound of the songs was very fresh and would affect kids. However, he further stated, "maintaining that interest — that's the hardest thing in the world." Blanco explained that he and Levine first met during recording the song "Stereo Hearts" by Gym Class Heroes on which Levine is featured. The producer explained that when Levine heard the song he solely wanted in for himself on which Blanco responded that they will make another track for the band. After producing "Moves Like Jagger", he also worked on "Overexposed" and produced some songs including the lead single of the album, "Payphone". Although new collaborators were recruited to help in developing the album, Levine wrote all the songs with additional help from Valentine and produced a large portion of it, including the ballad "Sad". According to Valentine, the development of the song began one morning, when he woke up and "before he was even awake" he was at his living room's piano playing the melody. For an interview with MTV News, Levine told that "Sad" is his most personal track on the album, but didn't reveal the inspiration behind it.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "Overexposed" is a pop and pop rock album with dance-pop, disco, electropop, R&B and reggae influences. According to the band's official website, the album is "a chock-full collection of undeniable, anthemic melodies." Multiple critics stated that "Moves Like Jagger" served as the biggest influence for composing and writing most songs on "Overexposed". Additionally, they noted that the works by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna influenced the album's sound.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The album's opening track, "One More Night", is an "irresistible sexy reggae jam" that features influences of pop and rock music. Lyrically, the storyline follows or being able to untangle from the particular love interest. The second track on the album, "Payphone" is a pop and R&B song that contains hip hop beats and piano hooks. Featuring a verse by American rapper Wiz Khalifa, the song explores the way a relationship used to be in the past. "Daylight" is a soft rock song, that carries influence from the works of English band Coldplay (who, incidentally, also have a song called "Daylight"). According to Adam Markovitz of "Entertainment Weekly", the song has choruses that are thickly produced and the only physical instrument that you can pick is Levine's larynx. "Lucky Strike" is a funk song that features dubstep and soul rock influences and lyrically discovers the theme of sexual intercourse. The fifth track on the album, "The Man Who Never Lied," produced by Brian West, is a pop and pop rock song that finds the protagonist in a relationship trouble where he is playing the role of a good person. According to Nate Chinen of "The New York Times", in the song, Levine sings "about spoiling his perfect record of honesty to spare a quarreling lover some hurtful feelings." "Love Somebody" is the sixth track on the album; a dance-pop song it contains a Sly Stone-meets-Eurythmics synth hook. The funk-laden seventh song, "Ladykiller" features a guitar solo and an elastic funk groove, combined with Adam Levine's blue-eyed soul vocal and pleasing echoes of Hall & Oates. It was inspired by the work of American recording artist Michael Jackson, as noted by the reviewers of BBC Music and Virgin Media.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The eighth song on the album, "Fortune Teller" has a pop tempo piano beat, that meshes with the song to provide a mix of emotions. The song gives a sort of "I want you, but I can't decide for you" feel. "Sad" is a piano ballad, which highlights Levine's soulful tone that his voice possesses. Nick Levine of "NME" labeled the song as "an Adele-apeing weepie". Lyrically, "Sad" is a song on which Levine "achingly" declares the end of his relationship and his heartbreak. The tenth track "Tickets" features twisting production that "comes through as a tight, techno-influenced pop song". According to a reviewer of "Billboard", the song is reminiscent of Maroon 5's 2010 single "Give a Little More" and it has lyrics about someone being a snob. "Doin' Dirt" is a high-energy, beat-driven song, and a "a revved, funky club cut". Its verses talk about "horndog rhapsodies", with lyrics such as: "I light you up when I get inside". The final track on the album, "Beautiful Goodbye" was described as a "rhythmic ballad." It's an acoustic ode that's bittersweet, but at the same time positive. Additional three tracks are present on the deluxe edition of "Overexposed", including "Wipe Your Eyes", "Wasted Years" and "Kiss", a cover of the 1986 single by Prince and the Revolution. "Wipe Your Eyes" is a mid-tempo piano-driven ballad that contains a sample of the recording "Sabali" by the Mali musical duo Amadou & Mariam.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: On April 10, 2012, the band debuted the artwork of the album on their official website. Created by the LA based art project Young & Sick, the cover art doesn't feature any images of Maroon 5 and is instead a colorful collage of illustrations seemingly inspired by the likes of Picasso and a range of modern cartoonists. According to Natalie Finn from E! News, "the psychedelic Beatles-dipped-in-Cream cover is a where-do-you-look-first wink at the pop-music world, which is so crowded with egos and images these days that it becomes almost impossible to just focus on the music." Allison Bowsher of MuchMusic described the artwork as a combination of the 1967 album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" by The Beatles and illustrations of American show "The Simpsons". The reviewer further noted that this is second time the band uses similar illustration the first one being on their 2002 debut album "Songs About Jane". Jessica Sager from Pop Crush wrote, "the bright colors and cartoon images are representative of the album's themes." Similarly, Rebecca Francois of Global Grind wrote that the artwork is like Maroon 5's music "fun and pop". Becky Bain of website "Idolator", negatively reviewed the cover and wrote that "it is what an episode of "The Simpsons" looks like if you're on acid."


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "Payphone" featuring Wiz Khalifa, was released as the lead single from the album on April 16, 2012. The song was received generally positive reviews from critics, they noted departure from older Maroon 5 songs. However, some them were praised of the music direction where the band has taken. Magazine "Rolling Stone" placed "Payphone" at number 46 on their list of 50 Best Songs of 2012. Commercially, the song reached number one on over eight national singles charts and peaked within the top-ten on 20 additional charts. "Payphone" reached number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number one on the UK Singles Chart. It was the fifth best selling single of 2012 with over 9.1 million digital copies sold worldwide. The music video of "Payphone" premiered on May 9, 2012, on E! and was directed by Samuel Bayer. The video features Levine being mistaken for a bank robber and fighting a fleet of policemen.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "One More Night" was released as the second single from the album on June 19, 2012. The song received generally positive reviews from critics who praised "the catchy reggae-drenched musical production" and "Adam Levine's confident pop vocals". "One More Night" reached the top-ten on over 26 national charts worldwide. It topped the US "Billboard" Hot 100 for nine consecutive weeks becoming Maroon 5's longest topping single on the chart and was tied with "Call Me Maybe" by Carly Rae Jepsen for longest lead of the year. The music video of "One More Night" premiered on June 25, 2012, on MTV and was directed by Peter Berg. The video follows Levine's character being a boxer whose relationship is in ruins because of his profession, his love interest is played by American actress Minka Kelly.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "Daylight" was released as the third single from the album on November 8, 2012. The song received generally mixed reviews from critics with Cameron Adams of "Herald Sun" noting that "it sounds like Max Martin trying to write a Coldplay song by recycling his Backstreet Boys handiwork." "Daylight" reached the top-ten on over eight national charts worldwide including number seven on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number five on the Canadian Hot 100. Two music videos of the song are released, the first video titled "The Daylight Project", features fans express things they love and hate throughout the video and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund. A second video titled "Playing for Change", is directed by Mark Johnson. This video includes several street musicians from around the world to sing along and playing instruments with scenes of the band performing live on concert shows.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The fourth and final single from the album "Love Somebody" was released in the US contemporary hit radio on May 14, 2013. The song was received with mixed reviews from critics who praised the composition but were critical towards to Levine's vocals of the song. "Love Somebody" reached number 10 both on the Canadian Hot 100 and on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. A music video for the song was directed by Rich Lee and premiered on NBC on May 20, following "The Voice". It features Levine, the other members of the band and Levine's love interest (played by Emily Ratajkowski) covered in paint.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: To promote the album, Maroon 5 performed many songs on the "Late Show with David Letterman", on June 26, 2012. The band promoted the album on "The Today Show", on June 29, 2012. They performed the hits "Payphone", "One More Night, "Moves Like Jagger" and "Harder to Breathe". Adam Levine gave an interview and performed "Payphone" with the band on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon", on June 28.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: The band started the Overexposed Tour with 4 shows in Mexico, 3 of them sold out, with the first show being on August 14, 2012, in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. In August, they performed 3 shows in Brazil. and visited three other South American countries. Through September and October, they visited many East Asian countries, including: South Korea, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, Indonesia and Thailand. The tour also included two shows in Sydney and Melbourne, Australia in October 2012. On September 7, 2012, Levine announced that the band would be extending the tour and play some more shows, starting in early 2013. Apparently, extra eight shows in Istanbul, Auckland, Bogota, Madrid, Warsaw, Caracas and Quito were planned, but this ultimately never came to fruition. On October 22, 2012, Levine revealed the U.S. tour dates and stated that Neon Trees and Owl City, will be supporting them throughout the U.S. tour. The tour ended on January 20, 2014 in Amsterdam, Netherlands.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "Overexposed" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 54, based on 14 reviews. Evan Sawdey of "PopMatters" found it both interesting and flawed because of Maroon 5's attempt to pursue different ideas, which are ultimately unsuccessful. Caroline Sullivan of "The Guardian" said that the album lacks memorable hooks and "charm", despite Maroon 5's collaboration with popular producers. Adam Markowitz of "Entertainment Weekly" felt that the lyrics are poorly written and that its production by several "pop kingpins" detracts from the band's performance, as the album does not consolidate its "rock grit and dance-pop glitz". musicOMH's Martyn Young wrote that Maroon 5's pop-produced direction exposes their limitations and lacks subtlety. Andy Gill of "The Independent" found the album dull, unimaginative, and marred by inarticulate "whoah-oh-oh" hooks. Nick Levine of "NME" panned Adam Levine's singing and called him "the sort of chump who thinks that he's a 'player' but then goes and writes a song called 'Ladykiller' about, erm, a girl." Keith Harris of "Spin" found the album middling with "plaintive vulnerability" that lacks both distractions and highlights.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: In a positive review for "Rolling Stone", Rob Sheffield called "Overexposed" the band's best album yet and said that its first-rate, dulcet sound is complemented by sharp, womanizing lyrics. Nate Chinen of "The New York Times" felt that, although Levine sounds awkward when deviating from the slick style, the album further invests in their "glib" strengths, including Levine's supple voice. Stephen Thomas Erlewine, writing for AllMusic, said that the "briskly contemporary" album may not be as good as "Hands All Over", but it will ensure the band's commercial momentum. "American Songwriter" magazine's Eric Allen believed that newer fans of the band from "today's beat oriented downloading musical culture" will be excited by "Overexposed", although it may alienate their older fans and "music snobs".


title: Overexposed (album)

text: "Overexposed" debuted at number 2 on the "Billboard" 200, behind Linkin Park's "Living Things", with sales of 222,000 copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. A little over 1,000 copies sold separates the two titles. "Living Things" also kept the album from reaching number one in many other countries. "Overexposed" is the band's fourth studio album, and follows 2010's "Hands All Over", which also peaked at number 2, selling 142,000 in its first week. "Overexposed"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s start marks the band's best sales week for an album since 2007's "It Won't Be Soon Before Long" debuted at number one with 429,000 copies. In the second week, the album fell to number 4, with sales of 68,000 copies. It felling out of top 10 in its seventh week, but the album rose to number 5, in its eight-week, as the album benefits from Amazon MP3 sale priced for $3.99 on August 17, 2012. It sold 988,000 copies in the US in 2012, the 11th best-selling album of the year. As of August 2013, it has sold 1,431,000 copies in the US.


title: Overexposed (album)

text: In Canada, the album debuted at number 3 on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 17,800 copies. The album has sold 30,000 copies in Brazil, being certified Gold. The album was certified Gold in Japan after selling 100,000+ copies. The album debuted at number 2 on the UK Albums Chart, selling 38,000 copies, becoming their third British bestseller. It was 3,000 copies behind of Linkin Park's "Living Things", which debuted at number one with 41,000 copies. The album sold 263,000 copies in 2012 in the UK.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The history of Poland from 1939 to 1945 encompasses primarily the period from the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to the end of World War II. Following the German–Soviet non-aggression pact, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany on 1 September 1939 and by the Soviet Union on 17 September. The campaigns ended in early October with Germany and the Soviet Union dividing and annexing the whole of Poland. After the Axis attack on the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941, the entirety of Poland was occupied by Germany, which proceeded to advance its racial and genocidal policies across Poland. Under the two occupations, Polish citizens suffered enormous human and material losses. According to the Institute of National Remembrance estimates, about 5.6 million Polish citizens died as a result of the German occupation and about 150,000 died as a result of the Soviet occupation. The Jews were singled out by the Germans for a quick and total annihilation and about 90 percent of Polish Jews (close to three million people) were murdered as part of the Holocaust. Jews, Poles, Romani people and prisoners of many other ethnicities were killed "en masse" at Nazi extermination camps, such as Auschwitz, Treblinka and Sobibór. Ethnic Poles were subjected to both Nazi German and Soviet persecution. The Germans killed an estimated two million ethnic Poles. They had future plans to turn the remaining majority of Poles into slave labor and annihilate those perceived as "undesirable" as part of the wider "Generalplan Ost". Ethnic cleansing and massacres of Poles and to a lesser extent Ukrainians were perpetrated in western Ukraine (prewar Polish Kresy) from 1943. The Poles were murdered by Ukrainian nationalists.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: In September 1939, the Polish government officials sought refuge in Romania, but their subsequent internment there prevented the intended continuation abroad as the government of Poland. General Władysław Sikorski, a former prime minister, arrived in France, where a replacement Polish Government-in-Exile was soon formed. After the fall of France, the government was evacuated to Britain. The Polish armed forces had been reconstituted and fought alongside the Western Allies in France, Britain and elsewhere. A Resistance movement began organizing in Poland in 1939, soon after the invasions. Its largest military component was a part of the Polish Underground State network of organizations and activities and became known as the Home Army. The whole clandestine structure was formally directed by the Government-in-Exile through its delegation resident in Poland. There were also peasant, right-wing, leftist, Jewish and Soviet partisan organizations. Among the failed anti-German uprisings were the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and the Warsaw Uprising. The aim of the Warsaw Uprising was to prevent domination of Poland by the Soviet Union.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: In order to cooperate with the Soviet Union after Operation Barbarossa, Sikorski, an important war ally of the West, negotiated in Moscow with Joseph Stalin and they agreed to form a Polish army in the Soviet Union, intended to fight on the Eastern Front alongside the Soviets. The "Anders' Army" was instead taken to the Middle East and then to Italy. Further efforts to continue the Polish-Soviet cooperation had failed because of disagreements over the borders, the discovery of the Katyn massacre of Polish POWs perpetrated by the Soviets, and the death of General Sikorski. Afterwards, in a process seen by many Poles as a Western betrayal, the Polish Government-in-Exile gradually ceased being a recognized partner in the Allied coalition.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Stalin pursued a strategy of facilitating the formation of a Polish government independent of (and in opposition to) the exile government in London by empowering the Polish communists. Among Polish communist organizations established during the war were the Polish Workers' Party in occupied Poland and the Union of Polish Patriots in Moscow. A new was formed in the Soviet Union to fight together with the Soviets. At the same time Stalin worked on co-opting the Western Allies (the United States led by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the United Kingdom led by Prime Minister Winston Churchill), who, in terms of practical implementations, conformed to Stalin's views on Poland's borders and future government. The fate of Poland had been determined in a series of negotiations that included the conferences in Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam. In 1944, the Polish Government-in-Exile approved and the underground in Poland undertook unilateral political and military actions aimed at establishing an independent Polish authority, but the efforts were thwarted by the Soviets. The Polish communists founded the State National Council in 1943/44 in occupied Warsaw and the Polish Committee of National Liberation in July 1944 in Lublin, after the arrival of the Soviet army. The Soviet Union kept the eastern half of prewar Poland, granting Poland instead the greater southern portion of the eliminated German East Prussia and shifting the country west to the Oder–Neisse line, at the expense of Germany.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: After the death of Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the Sanation government of his political followers, along with President Ignacy Mościcki, embarked on a military reform and rearmament of the Polish Army in the face of the changing political climate in Europe. Thanks in part to a financial loan from France, Poland's new Central Industrial Region participated in the project from 1936 in an attempt to catch-up with the advanced weapons development by Poland's richer neighbors. Foreign Minister Józef Beck continued to resist the growing pressure on Poland from the West to cooperate with the Soviet Union in order to contain Germany. Against the rapidly growing German military force, Poland not only possessed no comparable quantity of technical resources, but also lacked the knowledge and concepts of developing modern warfare.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The officially pursued German rearmament began in 1935 under Adolf Hitler, contrary to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles the foundation of the post-World War I international order. Unable to prevent Hitler's remilitarization of the Rhineland, the United Kingdom and France also pursued rearmament. Meanwhile, the German territorial expansion into central Europe began in earnest with the "Anschluss" of Austria in March 1938. Poland dispatched special diversionary groups to the disputed Zaolzie (Czech Silesia) area in hope of expediting the breakup of Czechoslovakia and regaining the territory. The Munich Agreement of 30 September 1938 was followed by Germany's incorporation of the Sudetenland. Faced with the threat of a total annexation of Czechoslovakia, the Western Powers endorsed the German partition of the country.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: Poland insistently sought a great power status but was not invited to participate in the Munich conference. Minister Beck, disappointed with the lack of recognition, issued an ultimatum on the day of the Munich Agreement to the government of Czechoslovakia, demanding an immediate return to Poland of the contested Zaolzie border region. The distressed Czechoslovak government complied, and Polish military units took over the area. The move was negatively received in both the West and the Soviet Union, and it contributed to the worsening of the geopolitical situation of Poland. In November, the Polish government also annexed a small border region in dispute with the newly autonomous state of Slovakia and gave its support to Hungary's expansion into Carpatho-Ukraine, located within the now federal Czechoslovakia.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The Munich Agreement of 1938 did not last for long. In March 1939 the German occupation of Czechoslovakia began with the invasion of Bohemia and Moravia, leaving Slovakia as a German puppet state. Lithuania was forced to give up its Klaipėda Region ("Memelland"). Formal demands were made for the return of the Free City of Danzig to Germany, even though its status was guaranteed by the League of Nations. In early 1939 Hitler proposed Poland an alliance on German terms, with an expectation of compliance. The Polish government would have to agree to Danzig's incorporation by the Reich and to an extraterritorial highway passage connecting East Prussia with the rest of Germany through the so-called Polish Corridor (an area linking the Polish mainland with the Baltic Sea). Poland would join an anti-Soviet alliance and coordinate its foreign policy with Germany, thus becoming a client state. The independence-minded Polish government was alarmed and a British guarantee of Poland's independence was issued on 31 March 1939. Reacting to this act and to Poland's effective rejection of the German demands, Hitler renounced the existing German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact on April 28.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: In August 1939 negotiations took place in Moscow, launched by the competing Allied-Soviet and Nazi-Soviet working groups, each attempting to enlist Stalin's powerful army on their side. By the evening of 23 August 1939, Germany's offer was accepted by default, because the Polish leaders' refusal to cooperate militarily with the Soviets prevented the possibility of the alternate outcome. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of non-aggression was signed. In anticipation of an attack and occupation of Poland by Nazi Germany, the pact had secret provisions attached, which delineated carving up parts of Eastern Europe into spheres of influence of the two signatories. The dividing line was running through the territory of east-central Poland. The "desirability of the maintenance of an independent Polish State" was left to mutually agreed "further political developments" read the text, which was discovered years later.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The Soviet Union, having its own reasons to fear the German eastward expansionism, repeatedly negotiated with France and the United Kingdom, and through them made an offer to Poland of an anti-German alliance, similar to the earlier one made to Czechoslovakia. The British and the French sought the formation of a powerful political-military bloc, comprising the Soviet Union, Poland and Romania in the east, and France and Britain in the west. As of May 1939, the Soviet conditions for signing an agreement with Britain and France were as follows: the right of the Red Army troops to pass through Polish territory, the termination of the Polish–Romanian alliance, and the limitation of the British guarantee to Poland to cover only Poland's western frontier with Germany. The Polish leaders believed that once on Polish territory the Soviet troops would not leave and throughout 1939 refused to agree to any arrangement which would allow Soviet troops to enter Poland.


title: History of Poland (1939–1945)

text: The Polish unwillingness to accept the Soviet dangerous offer of free entry is illustrated by the quote of Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły, commander-in-chief of the Polish armed forces, who said: "With the Germans we run the risk of losing our liberty. With the Russians we will lose our soul". The attitude of the Polish leadership was also reflected by Foreign Minister Józef Beck, who, apparently confident in the French and British declarations of support, asserted that the security of Poland was not going to be guaranteed by a "Soviet or any other Russia". The Soviets then turned to concluding the German offer of a treaty and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed. The Soviet-Nazi cooperation had been making progress since May 1939, when Vyacheslav Molotov became the Soviet minister of foreign affairs.