title: Efficient energy use

text: Because industrial processes are so diverse it is impossible to describe the multitude of possible opportunities for energy efficiency in industry. Many depend on the specific technologies and processes in use at each industrial facility. There are, however, a number of processes and energy services that are widely used in many industries.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Various industries generate steam and electricity for subsequent use within their facilities. When electricity is generated, the heat that is produced as a by-product can be captured and used for process steam, heating or other industrial purposes. Conventional electricity generation is about 30% efficient, whereas combined heat and power (also called co-generation) converts up to 90 percent of the fuel into usable energy.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Advanced boilers and furnaces can operate at higher temperatures while burning less fuel. These technologies are more efficient and produce fewer pollutants.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Over 45 percent of the fuel used by US manufacturers is burnt to make steam. The typical industrial facility can reduce this energy usage 20 percent (according to the US Department of Energy) by insulating steam and condensate return lines, stopping steam leakage, and maintaining steam traps.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Electric motors usually run at a constant speed, but a variable speed drive allows the motor's energy output to match the required load. This achieves energy savings ranging from 3 to 60 percent, depending on how the motor is used. Motor coils made of superconducting materials can also reduce energy losses. Motors may also benefit from voltage optimisation.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Industry uses a large number of pumps and compressors of all shapes and sizes and in a wide variety of applications. The efficiency of pumps and compressors depends on many factors but often improvements can be made by implementing better process control and better maintenance practices. Compressors are commonly used to provide compressed air which is used for sand blasting, painting, and other power tools. According to the US Department of Energy, optimizing compressed air systems by installing variable speed drives, along with preventive maintenance to detect and fix air leaks, can improve energy efficiency 20 to 50 percent.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The estimated energy efficiency for an automobile is 280 Passenger-Mile/10 Btu. There are several ways to enhance a vehicle's energy efficiency. Using improved aerodynamics to minimize drag can increase vehicle fuel efficiency. Reducing vehicle weight can also improve fuel economy, which is why composite materials are widely used in car bodies.


title: Efficient energy use

text: More advanced tires, with decreased tire to road friction and rolling resistance, can save gasoline. Fuel economy can be improved by up to 3.3% by keeping tires inflated to the correct pressure. Replacing a clogged air filter can improve a cars fuel consumption by as much as 10 percent on older vehicles. On newer vehicles (1980s and up) with fuel-injected, computer-controlled engines, a clogged air filter has no effect on mpg but replacing it may improve acceleration by 6-11 percent. Aerodynamics also aid in efficiency of a vehicle. The design of a car impacts the amount of gas needed to move it through air. Aerodynamics involves the air around the car, which can affect the efficiency of the energy expended.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Turbochargers can increase fuel efficiency by allowing a smaller displacement engine. The 'Engine of the year 2011' is the Fiat TwinAir engine equipped with an MHI turbocharger. "Compared with a 1.2-liter 8v engine, the new 85 HP turbo has 23% more power and a 30% better performance index. The performance of the two-cylinder is not only equivalent to a 1.4-liter 16v engine, but fuel consumption is 30% lower."


title: Efficient energy use

text: Energy-efficient vehicles may reach twice the fuel efficiency of the average automobile. Cutting-edge designs, such as the diesel Mercedes-Benz Bionic concept vehicle have achieved a fuel efficiency as high as , four times the current conventional automotive average.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The mainstream trend in automotive efficiency is the rise of electric vehicles (all-electric or hybrid electric). Electric engines have more than double the efficiency of internal combustion engines. Hybrids, like the Toyota Prius, use regenerative braking to recapture energy that would dissipate in normal cars; the effect is especially pronounced in city driving. Plug-in hybrids also have increased battery capacity, which makes it possible to drive for limited distances without burning any gasoline; in this case, energy efficiency is dictated by whatever process (such as coal-burning, hydroelectric, or renewable source) created the power. Plug-ins can typically drive for around purely on electricity without recharging; if the battery runs low, a gas engine kicks in allowing for extended range. Finally, all-electric cars are also growing in popularity; the Tesla Model S sedan is the only high-performance all-electric car currently on the market.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Cities around the globe light up millions of streets with 300 million lights. Some cities are seeking to reduce street light power consumption by dimming lights during off-peak hours or switching to LED lamps. LED lamps are known to reduce the energy consumption by 50% to 80%.


title: Efficient energy use

text: There are several ways to improve aviation's use of energy through modifications aircraft and air traffic management. Aircraft improve with better aerodynamics, engines and weight. Seat density and cargo load factors contribute to efficiency.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Air traffic management systems can allow automation of takeoff, landing, and collision avoidance, as well as within airports, from simple things like HVAC and lighting to more complex tasks such as security and scanning.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Alternative fuels, known as non-conventional or advanced fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels, other than conventional fuels. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, bioalcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol), chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, non-fossil methane, non-fossil natural gas, vegetable oil, and other biomass sources. The production efficiency of these fuels greatly differs.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Energy conservation is broader than energy efficiency in including active efforts to decrease energy consumption, for example through behaviour change, in addition to using energy more efficiently. Examples of conservation without efficiency improvements are heating a room less in winter, using the car less, air-drying your clothes instead of using the dryer, or enabling energy saving modes on a computer. As with other definitions, the boundary between efficient energy use and energy conservation can be fuzzy, but both are important in environmental and economic terms. This is especially the case when actions are directed at the saving of fossil fuels. Energy conservation is a challenge requiring policy programmes, technological development and behavior change to go hand in hand. Many energy intermediary organisations, for example governmental or non-governmental organisations on local, regional, or national level, are working on often publicly funded programmes or projects to meet this challenge. Psychologists have also engaged with the issue of energy conservation and have provided guidelines for realizing behavior change to reduce energy consumption while taking technological and policy considerations into account.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) maintains a comprehensive list of apps useful for energy efficiency.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Commercial property managers that plan and manage energy efficiency projects generally use a software platform to perform energy audits and to collaborate with contractors to understand their full range of options. The Department of Energy (DOE) Software Directory describes EnergyActio software, a cloud based platform designed for this purpose.


title: Efficient energy use

text: If the demand for energy services remains constant, improving energy efficiency will reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions. However, many efficiency improvements do not reduce energy consumption by the amount predicted by simple engineering models. This is because they make energy services cheaper, and so consumption of those services increases. For example, since fuel efficient vehicles make travel cheaper, consumers may choose to drive farther, thereby offsetting some of the potential energy savings. Similarly, an extensive historical analysis of technological efficiency improvements has conclusively shown that energy efficiency improvements were almost always outpaced by economic growth, resulting in a net increase in resource use and associated pollution. These are examples of the direct rebound effect.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Estimates of the size of the rebound effect range from roughly 5% to 40%. The rebound effect is likely to be less than 30% at the household level and may be closer to 10% for transport. A rebound effect of 30% implies that improvements in energy efficiency should achieve 70% of the reduction in energy consumption projected using engineering models. Saunders et al. showed in 2010 that lighting has accounted for about 0.7% of GDP across many societies and hundreds of years, implying a rebound effect of 100%. However, some of the authors argue in a followup paper that increased lighting generally increases economic welfare and has substantial benefits. A 2014 study has shown the rebound effect to be rather low for household lighting, in particular for high use bulbs.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Energy efficiency and renewable energy are considered as main elements in sustainable energy policy. Both strategies must be developed concurrently in order to stabilize and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Efficient energy use is essential to slowing the energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. If energy use grows too rapidly, renewable energy development will chase a receding target. Likewise, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total carbon emissions; a reduction in the carbon content of energy sources is also needed. A sustainable energy economy thus requires major commitments to both efficiency and renewables.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The first EU-wide energy efficiency target was set in 1998. Member states agreed to improve energy efficiency by 1 percent a year over twelve years. In addition, legislation about products, industry, transport and buildings has contributed to a general energy efficiency framework. More effort is needed to address heating and cooling: there is more heat wasted during electricity production in Europe than is required to heat all buildings in the continent. All in all, EU energy efficiency legislation is estimated to deliver savings worth the equivalent of up to 326 million tons of oil per year by 2020.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The EU set itself a 20% energy savings target by 2020 compared to 1990 levels, but member states decide individually how energy savings will be achieved. At an EU summit in October 2014, EU countries agreed on a new energy efficiency target of 27% or greater by 2030. One mechanism used to achieve the target of 27% is the 'Suppliers Obligations & White Certificates'. The ongoing debate around the 2016 Clean Energy Package also puts an emphasis on energy efficiency, but the goal will probably remain around 30% greater efficiency compared to 1990 levels. Some have argued that this will not be enough for the EU to meet its Paris Agreement goals of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% compared to 1990 levels.


title: Efficient energy use

text: As of late 2015, national policy includes the following efficiency and consumption targets (with actual values for 2014):


title: Efficient energy use

text: Recent progress toward improved efficiency has been steady aside from the financial crisis of 2007–08.


title: Efficient energy use

text: believe energy efficiency is still under-recognised in terms of its contribution to Germany's energy transformation (or "Energiewende").


title: Efficient energy use

text: Efforts to reduce final energy consumption in transport sector have not been successful, with a growth of 1.7% between 2005–2014. This growth is due to both road passenger and road freight transport. Both sectors increased their overall distance travelled to record the highest figures ever for Germany. Rebound effects played a significant role, both between improved vehicle efficiency and the distance travelled, and between improved vehicle efficiency and an increase in vehicle weights and engine power.


title: Efficient energy use

text: On 3 December 2014, the German federal government released its National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency (NAPE).


title: Efficient energy use

text: The areas covered are the energy efficiency of buildings, energy conservation for companies, consumer energy efficiency, and transport energy efficiency. The policy contains both immediate and forward-looking measures. The central short-term measures of NAPE include the introduction of competitive tendering for energy efficiency, the raising of funding for building renovation, the introduction of tax incentives for efficiency measures in the building sector, and the setting up energy efficiency networks together with business and industry. German industry is expected to make a sizeable contribution.


title: Efficient energy use

text: On 12 August 2016, the German government released a green paper on energy efficiency for public consultation (in German). It outlines the potential challenges and actions needed to reduce energy consumption in Germany over the coming decades. At the document's launch, economics and energy minister Sigmar Gabriel said "we do not need to produce, store, transmit and pay for the energy that we save". The green paper prioritizes the efficient use of energy as the "first" response and also outlines opportunities for sector coupling, including using renewable power for heating and transport. Other proposals include a flexible energy tax which rises as petrol prices fall, thereby incentivizing fuel conservation despite low oil prices.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The Australian national government is actively leading the country in efforts to increase their energy efficiency, mainly through the government's Department of Industry and Science. In July 2009, the Council of Australian Governments, which represents the individual states and territories of Australia, agreed to a National Strategy on Energy Efficiency (NSEE).


title: Efficient energy use

text: This is a ten-year plan accelerating the implementation of a nationwide adoption of energy-efficient practices and a preparation for the country's transformation into a low carbon future. There are several different areas of energy use addressed within the NSEE. But, the chapter devoted to the approach on energy efficiency that is to be adopted on a national level stresses four points in achieving stated levels of energy efficiency:


title: Efficient energy use

text: The overriding agreement that governs this strategy is the National Partnership Agreement on Energy Efficiency.


title: Efficient energy use

text: This document also explains the role of both the commonwealth and the individual states and territories in the NSEE, as well provides for the creation of benchmarks and measurement devices which will transparently show the nation's progress in relation to the stated goals, and addresses the need for funding of the strategy in order to enable it to move forward.


title: Efficient energy use

text: In August 2017, the Government of Canada released Build Smart - Canada's Buildings Strategy, as a key driver of the Pan-Canadian Framework on Clean Growth and Climate Change, Canada's national climate strategy.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The Build Smart strategy seeks to dramatically increase the energy-efficiency performance of existing and new Canadian buildings, and establishes five goals to that end:


title: Efficient energy use

text: The strategy details a range of activities the Government of Canada will pursue, and investments it will make, in support of the goals. As of early 2018, only one of Canada's 10 provinces and three territories, British Columbia, has developed a policy in support of federal government's goal to reach net zero energy ready ambitions: the BC Energy Step Code.


title: Efficient energy use

text: Local British Columbia governments may use the BC Energy Step Code, if they wish, to incentivize or require a level of energy efficiency in new construction that goes above and beyond the requirements of the base building code. The regulation and standard is designed as a technical roadmap to help the province reach its target that all new buildings will attain a net zero energy ready level of performance by 2032.


title: Efficient energy use

text: The United States is the second-largest single consumer of energy in the world. The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial. A 2011 Energy Modeling Forum study covering the United States examines how energy efficiency opportunities will shape future fuel and electricity demand over the next several decades. The US economy is already set to lower its energy and carbon intensity, but explicit policies will be necessary to meet climate goals. These policies include: a carbon tax, mandated standards for more efficient appliances, buildings and vehicles, and subsidies or reductions in the upfront costs of new more energy-efficient equipment.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: The Calling of Saint Matthew is a painting by Caravaggio, depicting the moment at which Jesus Christ inspires Matthew to follow him. It was completed in 1599–1600 for the Contarelli Chapel in the church of the French congregation, San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome, where it remains. It hangs alongside two other paintings of Matthew by Caravaggio, "The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew" (painted around the same time as the "Calling") and "The Inspiration of Saint Matthew" (1602).


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: Over a decade before, Cardinal Matthieu Cointerel (in Italian, Matteo Contarelli) had left in his will funds and specific instructions for the decoration of a chapel based on themes related to his namesake, Saint Matthew. The dome of the chapel was decorated with frescoes by the late Mannerist artist Giuseppe Cesari, Caravaggio's former employer and one of the most popular painters in Rome at the time. But as Cesari became busy with royal and papal patronage, Cardinal Francesco Del Monte, Caravaggio's patron and also the prefect of the Fabbrica of St Peter's (the Vatican office for Church property), intervened to obtain for Caravaggio his first major church commission and his first painting with more than a handful of figures.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: The "Calling" hangs opposite "The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew". While the "Martyrdom" was probably the first to be started, the "Calling" was, by report, the first to be completed. The commission for these two lateral paintings — the "Calling" and the "Martyrdom" — is dated July 1599, and final payment was made in July 1600. Between the two, at the altar, is "The Inspiration of Saint Matthew" (1602).


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: The painting depicts the story from the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 9:9): "Jesus saw a man named Matthew at his seat in the custom house, and said to him, "Follow me", and Matthew rose and followed Him." Caravaggio depicts Matthew the tax collector sitting at a table with four other men. Jesus Christ and Saint Peter have entered the room, and Jesus is pointing at Matthew. A beam of light illuminates the faces of the men at the table who are looking at Jesus Christ.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: There is some debate over which man in the picture is Saint Matthew, as the surprised gesture of the bearded man at the table can be read in two ways.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: Most writers on the "Calling" assume Saint Matthew to be the bearded man, and see him to be pointing at himself, as if to ask "Me?" in response to Christ's summons. This theory is strengthened when one takes into consideration the other two works in this series, "The Inspiration of Saint Matthew", and "The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew". The bearded man who models as Saint Matthew appears in all three works, with him unequivocally playing the role of Saint Matthew in both the "Inspiration" and the "Martyrdom".


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: A more recent interpretation proposes that the bearded man is in fact pointing at the young man at the end of the table, whose head is slumped. In this reading, the bearded man is asking "Him?" in response to Christ's summons, and the painting is depicting the moment immediately before a young Matthew raises his head to see Christ. Other writers describe the painting as deliberately ambiguous.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: Some scholars speculate that Jesus is portrayed as the Last Adam or Second Adam as titled in the New Testament. This is displayed in Christ's hand as it reaches out towards Matthew. It is almost a mirrored image of Adam's hand in "The Creation of Adam" by Michelangelo, the namesake of Caravaggio. Twice in the New Testament, an explicit comparison is made between Jesus and Adam. In Romans 5:12–21, Paul argues that "just as through the disobedience of the one man the many were made sinners, so also through the obedience of the one man the many will be made righteous" (Romans 5:19, NIV). In 1 Corinthians 15:22, Paul argues that "as in Adam all die, so in Christ, all will be made alive," while in verse 45 he calls Jesus the "last/ultimate/final Adam".


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: The three adjacent Caravaggio canvases in the Contarelli chapel represent a decisive shift from the idealising Mannerism of which Cesari was the last major practitioner, to the newer, more naturalistic and subject-oriented art represented by Caravaggio and Annibale Carracci: they were highly influential in their day.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: In some ways, most of the plebeian, nearly life-sized inhabitants of Levi's money table are the equivalent of, if not modeled by, those persons in other Caravaggio paintings, including Caravaggio's famous secular genre painting of "The Cardsharps" (1595).


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: In this painting, the gloom and the canvassed window appears to situate the table indoors. Christ brings the true light to the dark space of the sitting tax-collectors. This painting records the collision of two worlds — the ineluctable power of the immortal faith, and the mundane, foppish world of Levi. Jesus spears him with a beam of light, with an apparent effortless hand gesture he exerts an inescapable sublime gravity, with no need for wrenching worldly muscularity. Jesus' bare feet are classical simplicity in contrast with the dandified accountants; being barefoot may also symbolize holiness, as if one is on holy ground. Similarly to his treatment of Paul in the "Conversion on the Way to Damascus", Caravaggio chronicles the moment when a daily routine is interrupted by the miraculous. Around the man to become Matthew are either the unperceptive or unperturbed bystanders.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: Caravaggio's audience would have seen the similarity between the gesture of Jesus as he points towards Matthew and the gesture of God as he awakens Adam in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel. Following the line of Christ's left arm, it seems that Matthew is being invited to follow him into the world at large. "This clear legibility, so different from many Mannerist paintings, ... accounted for the work's enormous popularity." The position of Christ's hand, however, reflects that of Adam's in the Sistine Chapel; the Church considered Christ to be the Second Adam. But instead of being gifted life, as the first Adam was, Christ is instead the one who bestows it, calling Levi to a new life as Matthew.


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: Pope Francis has said that he often went to San Luigi as a young man to contemplate the painting. Referring both to Christ's outstretched arm and Matthew's response, Francis said, "This is me, a sinner on whom the Lord has turned his gaze."


title: The Calling of St Matthew

text: There are many other early modern representations of the calling of Matthew. Two were painted prior to Caravaggio's but it is unlikely that Caravaggio would have encountered them.


title: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd.

text: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd. is a 2007 Indian comedy drama film. It is produced by Farhan Akhtar and Ritesh Sidhwani under Excel Entertainment banner and marked the debut of Reema Kagti as a director. The movie has six different parts in it.


title: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd.

text: The story is about six couples, who are on their honeymoon with the Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd. bus and their trials and tribulations during the four-day journey to Goa. The couples are:


title: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd.

text: As the bus continues its journey, it is followed by a mysterious biker, who is revealed early on to be Jignesh Shilpa's boyfriend.


title: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd.

text: John Abraham and Shilpa Shetty were the first choices to play Jignesh and Shilpa, respectively. After Abraham refused to play the role of Jignesh, Shetty decided she didn't want to play Shilpa and backed out, too.


title: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd.

text: Anupama Chopra of India Today gave a positive review saying "Thankfully, Kagti, who also scripted the movie, works with a light hand. There are a few leaden emotional scenes but they are crowded out by the non-stop fun and games. It all heads toward the superb set-piece item: Sajna main vari vari. The cast reads like a who's who of Bollywood's most underrated actors: Ranvir Shorey, Abhay Deol, Kay Kay Menon, Raima Sen. The last two are especially good as the Bengali couple whose equation changes as their honeymoon progresses. Kagti's is a fresh and original voice. This ride is worth taking."


title: Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd.

text: Conversely, Khalid Mohamed writing for Hindustan Times stated "Despite a jumbo starcast, Honeymoon Travels Pvt Ltd is just about passable." Elvis D'Silva of Rediff.com gave the film 1.5 stars out of 5, writing "As a debutante it must be wonderful for director Reema Kagti to have the backing of major industry players like Farhan Akhtar and Ritesh Sidhwani. Nothing about the film serves as proof of that faith."


title: Jack Cutmore-Scott

text: Jack Cutmore-Scott (born 16 April 1987) is an English actor. He is known for his role in the ABC drama series "Deception".


title: Jack Cutmore-Scott

text: Born in London to two accountants, he spent a gap year at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art, and was involved in the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.


title: Jack Cutmore-Scott

text: Cutmore-Scott was educated at Harvard University, where he studied English literature, languages, and theater. Cutmore-Scott started his acting career at the age of 20.


title: Jack Cutmore-Scott

text: Cutmore-Scott is prominently known for playing the title character in the television series "Cooper Barrett's Guide to Surviving Life". He also played the role of Rufus Saville in the 2014 film "".


title: Jack Cutmore-Scott

text: As of March 11, 2018, Cutmore-Scott dons an American accent to play disgraced illusionist/magician-turned-FBI consultant Cameron Black following an illusion that goes horribly wrong in the new ABC murder-mystery series "Deception". Cutmore-Scott also portrays Cameron's incarcerated, identical-twin brother Jonathan. "Deception" began airing the same evening in Canada on CTV.


title: Jack Cutmore-Scott

text: To prepare for the roles in "Deception" Cutmore-Scott worked with magicians David Kwong and Francis Menotti to learn how to perform the magic tricks on the show.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: "Band on the Run" is a song by the British–American rock band Paul McCartney and Wings, released as the title track to their 1973 album "Band on the Run". The song was released as a single in April 1974 in the US and in June 1974 in the UK, following the success of "Jet", and became an international chart success. The song topped the charts in the United States, also reaching number 3 in the United Kingdom. The single sold over one million copies in 1974 in America. It has since become one of the band's most famous songs.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: A medley of three distinct musical passages that vary in style from folk rock to funk, "Band on the Run" is one of McCartney's longest singles at 5:09. The song was partly inspired by a comment that George Harrison had made during a meeting of the Beatles' Apple record label. The song-wide theme is one of freedom and escape, and its creation coincided with Harrison, John Lennon and Ringo Starr having parted with manager Allen Klein in March 1973, leading to improved relations between McCartney and his fellow ex-Beatles. The original demos for this and other tracks on "Band on the Run" were stolen shortly after Wings arrived in Lagos, Nigeria, to begin recording the album. With the band reduced to a trio consisting of McCartney, his wife Linda, and Denny Laine, "Band on the Run" was recorded at EMI's Lagos studio and completed at AIR Studios in London.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: In a 1973 interview with Paul Gambaccini, McCartney stated that the lyric "if we ever get out of here" was inspired by a remark made by George Harrison during one of the Beatles' many business meetings. McCartney recalled: "He was saying that we were all prisoners in some way [due to the ongoing problems with their company Apple] … I thought it would be a nice way to start an album." McCartney added, referring to his inspiration for "Band on the Run": "It's a million things … all put together. Band on the run – escaping, freedom, criminals. You name it, it's there."


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: In a 1988 interview with "Musician" magazine, McCartney noted the drug busts experienced by musicians of the late 1960s and early 1970s as an inspiration for the "Band on the Run", also referencing the "desperado" image he attributed to bands like the Byrds and the Eagles as an influence. McCartney, who had been having legal trouble involving pot possession, said, "We were being outlawed for pot … And our argument on ['Band on the Run'] was 'Don't put us on the wrong side … We're not criminals, we don't want to be. So I just made up a story about people breaking out of prison.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: According to "Mojo" contributor Tom Doyle, the song's lyrics, recalled through memory following the robbery of the band's demo tapes for the "Band on the Run" album, were altered to reflect on the band's then-current status, "stuck inside the four walls of the small, cell-like studio, faced with grim uncertainty."


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: "Nineteen Hundred and Eighty-Five", the closing track of the "Band on the Run" album, concludes with a brief excerpt of the chorus.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: "Band on the Run" is a three-part medley: the first section is a slow ballad, the second a funk-rock-style piece, and the finale a country-esque section. AllMusic writer Stewart Mason described the last and longest section as "an effortless mélange of acoustic rhythm guitars, country-ish slide fills, and three-part harmonies on the chorus" and compared its sound to that of California rock group Eagles. The lyrics of the entire song, however, are related: all based on the general theme of freedom and escape. Music critic Robert Christgau characterized the lyrical content of the song as "about the oppression of rock musicians by cannabis-crazed bureaucrats".


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: The original demo recording for "Band on the Run", as well as multiple other tracks from the album, was stolen from the McCartneys while Paul McCartney and Wings were recording in Lagos, Nigeria. Robbed at knifepoint, they relinquished the demos, only recovering the songs through memory. Paul McCartney later remarked, "It was stuff that would be worth a bit on eBay these days, you know? But no, we figured the guys who mugged us wouldn’t even be remotely interested. If they’d have known, they could have just held on to them and made themselves a little fortune. But they didn’t know, and we reckoned they’d probably record over them."


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: The song was recorded in two parts, in different sessions. The first two were taped in Lagos, while the third section was recorded in October 1973 at AIR Studios in London. Orchestrator Tony Visconti was hired by McCartney, who liked his arrangements for T. Rex. Visconti was given three days to write arrangements for the whole album, including the 60-person orchestra for the title track. Visconti said that the arrangements were collaborations with McCartney, and was surprised he was not credited with his work until the 25th anniversary reissue.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: Originally, Paul McCartney planned not to release any singles from "Band on the Run", a strategy he compared to that used by the Beatles. However, he was convinced by Capitol Records vice president Al Coury to release singles from the album, resulting in the single release of "Jet" and "Band on the Run".


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: "Band on the Run", backed with "Nineteen Hundred and Eighty-Five", was released in America on 8 April 1974 as the follow-up single to Paul McCartney and Wings' top-ten hit "Jet". The song was a smash hit for the band, becoming McCartney's third non-Beatles American chart-topping single, and the second with Wings. The single was later released in Britain (instead backed with "Zoo Gang", the theme song to the television show of the same name), reaching number 3 on the British charts. The song reached number 1 in both Canada and New Zealand. The song was also a top 40 single in multiple European countries, such as the Netherlands (number 7), Belgium (number 21), and Germany (number 22).


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: The US radio edit was 3:50 in length. The difference was largely caused by the removal of the middle or the second part of the song, as well as the verse that starts with "Well, the undertaker drew a heavy sigh …"


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: The single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over one million copies. It was the second of five number-one singles for the band on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 1974, "Billboard" ranked it number 22 on its Top Pop Singles year-end chart. "Billboard" also listed the song as Paul McCartney's sixth most successful chart hit of all time, excluding Beatles releases.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: "Band on the Run" has also been featured on numerous McCartney/Wings compilation albums, including "Wings Greatest", "All the Best!", and "". The song is also performed in many of McCartney's live shows, with a live version being included on the 1976 live album "Wings over America". In June 2022, one week after his 80th birthday, McCartney performed the song with Dave Grohl at the Glastonbury Festival.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: An independent film produced by Michael Coulson, while he was a college student in the mid 1970s, was later included in "The McCartney Years" video compilation as well as the 2010 re-issue of the album "Band on the Run". It served mostly as a tribute to the Beatles, featuring montages of still pictures from their career. Wings were not shown. The video ends with a collage of Beatles pictures much like the album cover of "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band".


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: In 2014, a new video for "Band on the Run" was created. The video was designed by Ben Ib, an artist who created tour visuals for Paul McCartney (as well as Roger Waters and The Smashing Pumpkins) and the cover for Paul McCartney's 2013 solo album "New". In the video, all of the objects, including the "band on the run" itself, are made up of words.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: The song was praised by former bandmate and songwriting partner, John Lennon, who considered it "a great song and a great album". In 2014, "Billboard" praised "Band on the Run" for having "three distinct parts that don't depend on a chorus yet still manage to feel anthemic." "Cash Box" said that the "excellent build to eventual power pitch, coupled with some fine music and vocals makes this another McCartney masterpiece." AllMusic critic Stewart Mason called the track "classic McCartney", lauding the song for "manag[ing] to be experimental in form yet so deliciously melodic that its structural oddities largely go unnoticed."


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: Paul McCartney and Wings won the Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Duo, Group or Chorus for "Band on the Run" at the 17th Annual Grammy Awards. NME ranked the song as the tenth best song of the 1970s, as well as the fifteenth best solo song by an ex-Beatle. In 2010, AOL Radio listeners voted "Band on the Run" the best song of Paul McCartney's solo career, achieving a better ranking than "Maybe I'm Amazed" and "Silly Love Songs". In 2012, "Rolling Stone" readers ranked the song as McCartney's fourth best song of all time, behind "Maybe I'm Amazed", "Hey Jude", and "Yesterday". "Rolling Stone" readers also ranked the song the fifth best solo song by ex-members of The Beatles.


title: Band on the Run (song)

text: Since its release, "Band on the Run" has been covered by multiple artists. Former Wings member Denny Laine released a version of "Band on the Run" on his 1996 album "Wings at the Sound of Denny Laine". A cover version was recorded in 2007 by the rock band Foo Fighters as their contribution to the "" album; on 1 June 2008 McCartney was joined onstage by Foo Fighters lead singer Dave Grohl for a special performance of the song in Liverpool. Grohl played guitar and sang backing vocals on "Band on the Run" and then played drums on Beatles songs "Back in the U.S.S.R." and "I Saw Her Standing There". A cover version by Heart was included on the 2014 tribute album "The Art of McCartney". Owsley covers the song on a hidden track on his album "The Hard Way".


title: Maureen McGovern

text: Maureen Therese McGovern (born July 27, 1949) is an American singer and Broadway actress, well known for her renditions of the songs "The Morning After" from the 1972 film "The Poseidon Adventure"; "We May Never Love Like This Again" from "The Towering Inferno" in 1974; and her No. 1 "Billboard" adult contemporary hit "Different Worlds", the theme song from the television series "Angie".


title: Maureen McGovern

text: McGovern was born in Youngstown, Ohio, United States, the daughter of James Terrence McGovern and Mary Rita (née Welsh). She has Irish ancestry. As a child, McGovern would listen to her father's singing quartet rehearse in their home. She was told by her elders that she began singing at the age of three, and would sometimes sing herself to sleep with things she heard on the radio. She decided at age eight that she wanted to be a professional singer. Her influences include Barbra Streisand, Judy Collins, and Joni Mitchell.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: After graduating from Boardman High School in 1967, she worked as a secretary and performed part-time as a singer for a local folk band called Sweet Rain. Her singing caught the attention of Russ Regan (then head of 20th Century Records) in 1972 when he heard a demonstration she had recorded. At the time, Regan was searching for a singer to record "The Morning After" (the theme from "The Poseidon Adventure") for release as a record. He hired McGovern sight unseen to record the song, which resulted in her contracting with 20th Century Records. After it won an Oscar for Best Original Song, "The Morning After" scored well on the popular chart, reaching No. 1 during 1973. It sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in August 1973. Following the success of "The Morning After", she received a Grammy Award nomination in 1974 for 'Best New Artist'.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: During 1974, she recorded two movie themes: "We May Never Love Like This Again" from the disaster film "The Towering Inferno", in which she made a short appearance when she is seen singing the song as the evening's entertainment, and "Wherever Love Takes Me" from the British disaster film "Gold". The former won an Oscar (though it was only a minor pop hit), and the latter received an Oscar nomination.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: In 1976, she recorded her cover version of "The Continental", the very first Oscar-winning track for Best Original Song. It proved to be her only hit on the UK Singles Chart, where it peaked at No. 16.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: McGovern's contract with 20th Century ended during 1976. Her career declined and so did her finances. In an interview on "BBC Woman's Hour" on May 18, 2009, McGovern stated that exorbitant fees charged by her manager (40%) together with her band being on a full-time salary, whether she was performing or not, were the cause of her perilous financial state. Ready to begin her life over again, she moved to Marina del Rey and took a secretarial job under an assumed name, Glenda Schwartz. Nevertheless, she was still in demand occasionally for international live concerts. Her career improved when McGovern was asked to record a version of "Can You Read My Mind", the love theme from 1978's "Superman", which was not recorded for the film. The single achieved minor success on the pop chart. Toward the end of the decade, McGovern recorded "Different Worlds", the theme from the ABC-TV sitcom "Angie". The song, her only other Top 40 pop single aside from "The Morning After", soared to No. 18 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 during 1979 and hit at No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart. During 1980, McGovern made a brief appearance as Sister Angelina, the singing nun, in the comedy-disaster movie "Airplane!"


title: Maureen McGovern

text: At the beginning of the 1980s, McGovern gave up singing movie themes to begin a career on Broadway (her first foray into acting). During 1981, she made her Broadway debut as Mabel in a revival of Gilbert & Sullivan's musical "The Pirates of Penzance", taking over from fellow 1970s popular singer Linda Ronstadt. She then performed in two productions with the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera: "The Sound of Music" (1981; as Maria) and "South Pacific" (1982; as Nellie Forbush). She returned to Broadway in 1982 to replace Karen Akers in "Nine" starring alongside Raul Julia. She continued her theatrical career throughout the 1980s and originated the role of Mary in the Off-Broadway production of "Brownstone" in 1985. In 2005 she originated the role of Marmee in "Little Women The Musical".


title: Maureen McGovern

text: She slowly returned to music during the mid-1980s, contributing songs to musical soundtracks and recording for various-artist compilations. She also returned to touring and performing in concerts and began establishing herself as a nightclub and cabaret performer. Starting in 1987, she released three albums for CBS in three years: "Another Woman in Love" (a voice/piano album), "State of the Heart" (a fully orchestrated album), and "Naughty Baby" (recorded live on November 20, 1988, Studio A at Clinton Recording Studios, New York City, it features an early first recording of a lost Gershwin song, "A Corner of Heaven With You" (written ca. 1917). "Naughty Baby" was released in 1989 coinciding with McGovern's Gershwin concert at Carnegie Hall.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: From the 1990s into the 21st century, McGovern continued her careers in musical theatre, performing in concerts, and recording albums, and she occasionally made guest appearances on television. Other recordings include "Baby I'm Yours" (1992), a collection of her favorite songs from 1955 to 1970, and "Out of This World" (1996), a collection of songs by Harold Arlen. She was nominated twice for a Grammy, for her albums "The Music Never Ends" (1997), a collection of songs by Alan & Marilyn Bergman, and "The Pleasure of His Company" (1998), another voice/piano album.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: In 2003, "Out of This World" and "The Music Never Ends" were re-released by Fynsworth Alley Records; both albums included bonus tracks, the former two, and the latter three.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: In 2005, McGovern returned to the Broadway stage as Marmee opposite Sutton Foster's Jo in the musical adaptation of Louisa May Alcott's "Little Women". With negative reviews, it ended quickly, but McGovern reprised her role for the successful subsequent national tour.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: She continued to appear in concert as a headliner and as a guest with symphony orchestras around the country. "A Long and Winding Road", released on the PS Classics label, covers singer–songwriters of the 1960s including Paul Simon, Joni Mitchell, Lennon–McCartney, and Randy Newman. She performed a concert act based on this material at the Metropolitan Room in New York City and the Rrazz Room in San Francisco.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: McGovern continues her work with the Muscular Dystrophy Association, and appeared regularly on The Jerry Lewis MDA Labor Day Telethon through 2014.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: She created, along with Philip Himberg, a one-woman biographical musical "Carry It On" which premiered at Geva Theatre Center October 12 – November 14, 2010.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: In 2012, she was listed as a guest star with The Fabulous Palm Springs Follies at the Plaza Theatre in Palm Springs, California.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: McGovern was scheduled to headline the North Coast Men's Chorus 30th Anniversary Concert on March 24, 2018, at the KeyBank State Theatre in Cleveland, Ohio.


title: Maureen McGovern

text: On August 19, 2022, McGovern announced that she has been diagnosed with posterior cortical atrophy, a form of dementia, and would retire from performing in concert.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The Jaguar XK120 is a sports car manufactured by Jaguar between 1948 and 1954. It was Jaguar's first sports car since SS 100 production ended in 1939.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The XK120 is a highly desirable model. In 2016, Bonhams sold a matching numbers left-hand-drive alloy-bodied roadster - one of only 184 - for $396,000 (£302,566). This marks the highest price achieved for an XK120 at auction so far.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The XK120 was launched in open two-seater or (US) roadster form at the 1948 London Motor Show as a testbed and show car for the new Jaguar XK engine designed by Jaguar Chief Engineer William Heynes. The display car was the first prototype, chassis number 660001. It looked almost identical to the production cars except that the straight outer pillars of its windscreen were curved on the production version. The sports car caused a sensation, which persuaded Jaguar founder and Chairman William Lyons to put it into production.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: Beginning in 1948, the first 242 cars wore wood-framed open 2-seater bodies with aluminium panels. Production switched to the 1cwt or heavier all-steel in early 1950. The "120" in the name referred to the aluminium car's 120 mph (193 km/h) top speed (faster with the windscreen removed), which made it the world's fastest production car at the time of its launch. In 1949 the first production car, chassis number 670003, was delivered to Clark Gable.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The XK120 was ultimately available in three versions or body styles, first as an open 2-seater described in the US market as a roadster (OTS) then as a fixed head coupé (FHC) from 1951 and finally as a drophead coupé (DHC) from 1953, all two-seaters and available with Left (LHD) or Right Hand Drive (RHD). However, certain Special Equipment roadster and fixed head coupe cars were produced between 1948 and 1949 denoted by an 'S' preceding the chassis number. These Special Equipment cars were sold as an early production build for enthusiasts.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: A version with a smaller engine (2-litre 4-cylinder) designated the XK100 and intended for the UK market was cancelled prior to production.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: On 30 May 1949, on the empty Ostend-Jabbeke motorway in Belgium, a prototype XK120 timed by the officials of the Royal Automobile Club of Belgium achieved an average of runs in opposing directions of 132.6 mph with the windscreen replaced by just one small aero screen and a catalogued alternative top gear ratio, and 135 mph with a passenger-side tonneau cover in place. In 1950 and 1951, at Autodrome de Linas-Montlhéry, a banked oval track in France, open XK120s averaged over 100 mph for 24 hours and over 130 mph for an hour. In 1952 a fixed-head coupé took numerous world records for speed and distance when it averaged 100 mph for a week.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The first 242 production XK120s, hand-built with aluminium bodies on ash framing mounted on a steel chassis mostly copied from the Jaguar Mark V chassis using many of the same parts, were constructed between late 1948 and early 1950. To meet demand, and beginning with the 1950 model year, all subsequent XK120s were mass-produced with pressed-steel bodies. Aluminium doors, bonnet, and boot lid were retained. The DHC and FHC versions, more luxuriously appointed than the constantly exposed open cars, had wind-up windows and wood veneers on the dashboard and interior door caps.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: With a high-temperature, high-strength aluminum alloy cylinder head, hemispherical combustion chambers, inclined valves and twin side-draft SU carburetors, the dual overhead-cam 3.4 L straight-6 XK engine was highly advanced for a mass-produced unit of the time. Using 80 octane fuel a standard 8:1 compression ratio developed . Most of the early cars were exported; a 7:1 low-compression version, with commensurately reduced performance, was reserved for the UK market, where the post-war austerity measures then in force restricted buyers to 70 octane "Pool petrol". The Jaguar factory's access to 80 octane fuel allowed it to provide cars with the higher compression ratio to the press, enabling journalists to test the model's optimum performance in Belgium, on a long, straight stretch of road between Jabbeke and Ostend. The XK engine's basic design by William Heynes, later modified into 3.8 and 4.2-litre versions, survived until 1992.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: All XK120s had independent Heynes designed torsion bar front suspension, semi-elliptic leaf springs at the rear, recirculating ball steering, telescopically adjustable steering column, and all-round 12-inch drum brakes which were prone to fade. Some cars were fitted with Alfin (ALuminium FINned) brake drums to help overcome the fade.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The open two-seater provided little weather protection. Its lightweight folding canvas top and detachable sidescreens stowed out of sight behind the seats. The doors had no external handles; they were opened by an interior pull-cord, accessed through a flap in the sidescreens when the weather equipment was in place. The windscreen could be removed for aeroscreens to be fitted.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The drophead coupé (DHC) had a padded, lined canvas top, which folded onto the rear deck behind the seats when retracted, and roll-up windows with opening quarter lights. The flat glass two-piece windscreen was set in a steel frame that was integrated with the body and painted the same colour. Dashboards and door-caps in both the DHC and the closed coupé (FHC) were wood-veneered, whereas the open cars were leather-trimmed. All models had removable spats ("fender skirts" in America) covering the rear wheel arches, which enhanced the streamlined look. On cars fitted with optional centre-lock wire wheels (available from 1951), the spats were omitted as they gave insufficient clearance for the chromed, two-eared Rudge-Whitworth knockoff hubs. Chromium-plated wire wheels were optional from 1953. Factory standard 6.00 × 16-inch cross ply tyres were fitted on 16 × 5K solid wheels (Pre–1951), with 185VR16 Pirelli Cinturato radial tyres available as a later option.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: In addition to wire wheels, upgrades on the Special Equipment (SE) version (called the M version for Modified in the United States) included increased power, stiffer suspension and dual exhaust system.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: "The Motor" magazine road-tested an XK120 in November 1949. This pre-production car, chassis number 660001, road-registered as HKV 455, was the first prototype built. It was also the 1948 London Motor Show display model, and had been driven by Prince Bira in the 1949 Silverstone Production Car Race. When tested, it had the 8:1 compression ratio, was fitted with an undertray, and ran with hood and sidescreens in place. The magazine reported a top speed of , acceleration from 0– in 10.0 seconds and fuel consumption of . The car as tested cost £1263 including taxes.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: The XK120 M for US market accelerated from 0– in 8.7 seconds, a top speed was by speedometer, but actual top speed was about .


title: Jaguar XK120

text: In 1950 Jaguar allocated six alloy-bodied XK120s to drivers Leslie Johnson, Peter Walker, Nick Haines, Clemente Biondetti, Ian Appleyard and Tommy Wisdom.


title: Jaguar XK120

text: A 2-litre four-cylinder version of the twin cam XK engine was to have powered an XK100 variant of the XK120 for the UK market. Details of the model were included in an "Advance Particulars" brochure for the XK but Jaguar's managers were dissatisfied with the engine and the project was cancelled prior to production.


title: Geist

text: Geist () is a German noun with a significant degree of importance in German philosophy. Its semantic field corresponds to English ghost, spirit, mind, intellect. Some English translators resort to using "spirit/mind" or "spirit (mind)" to help convey the meaning of the term.


title: Geist

text: "Geist" is also a central concept in Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's 1807 "The Phenomenology of Spirit" ("Phänomenologie des Geistes"). Notable compounds, all associated with Hegel's view of world history of the late 18th century, include Weltgeist "world-spirit", Volksgeist "national spirit" and Zeitgeist "spirit of the age".


title: Geist

text: German "Geist" (masculine gender: "der Geist") continues Old High German "geist", attested as the translation of Latin "spiritus".


title: Geist

text: It is the direct cognate of English "ghost", from a West Germanic "gaistaz". Its derivation from a PIE root "g̑heis-" "to be agitated, frightened" suggests that the Germanic word originally referred to frightening (c.f. English ghastly) apparitions or ghosts, and may also have carried the connotation of "ecstatic agitation, "furor"" related to the cult of Germanic Mercury.


title: Geist

text: As the translation of biblical Latin "spiritus" (Greek πνεῦμα) "spirit, breath" the Germanic word acquires a Christian meaning from an early time, notably in reference to the Holy Spirit (Old English "sē hālga gāst" "the Holy Ghost", OHG " ther heilago geist", Modern German "der Heilige Geist").


title: Geist

text: The English word is in competition with Latinate "spirit" from the Middle English period, but its broader meaning is preserved well into the early modern period.


title: Geist

text: The German noun much like English "spirit" could refer to spooks or ghostly apparitions of the dead, to the religious concept, as in the Holy Spirit, as well as to the "spirit of wine", i.e. ethanol.


title: Geist

text: However, its special meaning of "mind, intellect" never shared by English "ghost" is acquired only in the 18th century, under the influence of French "esprit".


title: Geist

text: In this sense it became extremely productive in the German language of the 18th century in general as well as in 18th-century German philosophy.


title: Geist

text: "Geist" could now refer to the quality of intellectual brilliance, to wit, innovation, erudition, etc.


title: Geist

text: It is also in this time that the adjectival distinction of "geistlich" "spiritual, pertaining to religion" vs. "geistig" "intellectual, pertaining to the mind" begins to be made. Reference to spooks or ghosts is made by the adjective "geisterhaft" "ghostly, spectral".


title: Geist

text: Numerous compounds are formed in the 18th to 19th centuries, some of them loan translations of French expressions, such as "Geistesgegenwart" = "présence d'esprit" ("mental presence, acuity"), "Geistesabwesenheit" = "absence d’esprit" ("mental absence, distraction"), "geisteskrank" "mentally ill", "geistreich" "witty, intellectually brilliant", "geistlos" "unintelligent, unimaginative, vacuous" etc.


title: Geist

text: It is from these developments that certain German compounds containing "-geist" have been loaned into English, such as "Zeitgeist".


title: Geist

text: German "Geist" in this particular sense of "mind, wit, erudition; intangible essence, spirit" has no precise English-language equivalent, for which reason translators sometimes retain "Geist" as a German loanword.


title: Geist

text: There is a second word for "ghost" in German: "" (neutral gender). "Der Geist" is used slightly more often to refer to a ghost (in the sense of flying white creature) than "das Gespenst". The corresponding adjectives are "gespenstisch" ("ghostly", "spooky") and "gespensterhaft" ("ghost-like"). A "Gespenst" is described in German as "spukender Totengeist", a "spooking ghost of the dead". The adjectives "geistig" and "geistlich" on the other hand, can not be used to describe something spooky, as "geistig" means "mental", and "geistlich" means either "spiritual" or refers to employees of the church. "Geisterhaft" would also mean, like "gespensterhaft", "ghost-like". While "spook" means "der Spuk" (male gender), the adjective of this word is only used in its English form, "spooky". The more common German adjective would be "gruselig", deriving from "der Grusel" ("das ist gruselig", colloquially: "das ist spooky", meaning "that is spooky").


title: Geist

text: "Geist" is a central concept in Hegel's "The Phenomenology of Spirit" ("Phänomenologie des Geistes"). According to some interpretations, the "Weltgeist" ("world spirit") is not an actual object or a transcendental, Godlike thing, but a means of philosophizing about history. "Weltgeist" is effected in history through the mediation of various "Volksgeister" ("national spirits"), the great men of history, such as Napoleon, are the "concrete universal".


title: Geist

text: This has led some to claim that Hegel favored the great man theory, although his philosophy of history, in particular concerning the role of the "universal state" ("Universalstaat", which means a universal "order" or "statute" rather than "state"), and of an "End of History" is much more complex.


title: Geist

text: For Hegel, the great hero is unwittingly utilized by "Geist" or "absolute spirit", by a "ruse of reason" as he puts it, and is irrelevant to history once his historic mission is accomplished; he is thus subjected to the teleological principle of history, a principle which allows Hegel to reread the history of philosophy as culminating in his philosophy of history.


title: Geist

text: "Weltgeist", the world spirit concept, designates an idealistic principle of world explanation, which can be found from the beginnings of philosophy up to more recent time. The concept of world spirit was already accepted by the idealistic schools of ancient Indian philosophy, whereby one explained objective reality as its product. (See metaphysical objectivism) In the early philosophy of Greek antiquity, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all paid homage, amongst other things, to the concept of world spirit. Hegel later based his philosophy of history on it.


title: Geist

text: Weltgeist ("world-spirit") is older than the 18th century, at first (16th century) in the sense of "secularism, impiety, irreligiosity" ("spiritus mundi"), in the 17th century also personalised in the sense of "man of the world", "mundane or secular person".


title: Geist

text: Also from the 17th century, "Weltgeist" acquired a philosophical or spiritual sense of "world-spirit" or "world-soul" ("anima mundi, spiritus universi") in the sense of Panentheism, a spiritual essence permeating all of nature, or the active principle animating the universe, including the physical sense, such as the attraction between magnet and iron or between Moon and tide.


title: Geist

text: This idea of "Weltgeist" in the sense of "anima mundi" became very influential in 18th-century German philosophy. In philosophical contexts, "der Geist" on its own could refer to this concept, as in Christian Thomasius, "Versuch vom Wesen des Geistes" (1709).


title: Geist

text: Belief in a "Weltgeist" as animating principle immanent to the universe became dominant in German thought due to the influence of Goethe, in the later part of the 18th century.


title: Geist

text: "Weltgeist" in the sense of Goethe comes close to being a synonym of God and can be attributed agency and will.


title: Geist

text: Herder, who tended to prefer the form "Weltengeist" (as it were "spirit of worlds"), pushes this to the point of composing prayers addressed to this world-spirit:


title: Geist

text: For the 19th century, the term as used by Hegel (1807) became prevalent, less in the sense of an animating principle of nature or the universe but as the invisible force advancing world history:


title: Geist

text: Hegel's description of Napoleon as "the world-soul on horseback" ("die Weltseele zu Pferde") became proverbial.


title: Geist

text: The phrase is a shortened paraphrase of Hegel's words in a letter written on 13 October 1806, the day before the Battle of Jena, to his friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer:


title: Geist

text: I saw the Emperor – this world-soul – riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it.


title: Geist

text: The letter was not published in Hegel's time, but the expression was attributed to Hegel anecdotally, appearing in print from 1859.


title: Geist

text: It is used without attribution by Meyer Kayserling in his "Sephardim" (1859:103), and is apparently not recognized as a reference to Hegel by the reviewer in "Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen", who notes it disapprovingly, as one of Kayserling's "bad jokes" ("schlechte Witze").


title: Geist

text: "Volksgeist" or "Nationalgeist" refers to a "spirit" of an individual people ("Volk"), its "national spirit" or "national character". The term "Nationalgeist" is used in the 1760s by Justus Möser and by Johann Gottfried Herder. The term "Nation" at this time is used in the sense of "natio" "nation, ethnic group, race", mostly replaced by the term "Volk" after 1800.


title: Geist

text: In the early 19th century, the term "Volksgeist" was used by Friedrich Carl von Savigny in order to express the "popular" sense of justice.


title: Geist

text: Savigniy explicitly referred to the concept of an "esprit des nations " used by Voltaire. and of the "esprit général" invoked by Montesquieu.


title: Geist

text: Based on the Hegelian use of the term, Wilhelm Wundt, Moritz Lazarus and Heymann Steinthal in the mid-19th-century established the field of "Völkerpsychologie" ("psychology of nations").


title: Geist

text: In Germany the concept of Volksgeist has developed and changed its meaning through eras and fields. The most important examples are: In the literary field, Schlegel and the Brothers Grimm. In the history of cultures, Herder. In the history of the State or political history, Hegel. In the field of law, Savigny and in the field of psychology Wundt. This means that the concept is ambiguous. Furthermore it is not limited to Romanticism as it is commonly known.


title: Geist

text: The concept of was also influential in American cultural anthropology. According to the historian of anthropology George W. Stocking, Jr., "… one may trace the later American anthropological idea of culture back through Bastian's Volkergedanken and the folk psychologist's Volksgeister to Wilhelm von Humboldt's Nationalcharakter – and behind that, although not without a paradoxical and portentous residue of conceptual and ideological ambiguity, to the Herderian ideal of Volksgeist."


title: Geist

text: The compound "Zeitgeist" (;, "spirit of the age" or "spirit of the times") similarly to "Weltgeist" describes


title: Geist

text: The term is now mostly associated with Hegel, contrasting with Hegel's use of "Volksgeist" "national spirit" and "Weltgeist" "world-spirit",


title: Geist

text: The term as used contemporarily may more pragmatically refer to a fashion or fad which prescribes what is acceptable or tasteful, e.g. in the field of architecture.


title: Geist

text: Hegel in "Phenomenology of the Spirit" (1807) uses both "Weltgeist" and "Volksgeist" but prefers the phrase "Geist der Zeiten" "spirit of the times" over the compound "Zeitgeist".


title: Geist

text: Hegel believed that culture and art reflected its time. Thus, he argued that it would be impossible to produce classical art in the modern world, as modernity is essentially a "free and ethical culture".


title: Geist

text: For example, Charles Darwin's 1859 proposition that evolution occurs by natural selection has been cited as a case of the "zeitgeist" of the epoch, an idea "whose time had come", seeing that his contemporary, Alfred Russel Wallace, was outlining similar models during the same period.


title: Geist

text: Similarly, intellectual fashions such as the emergence of logical positivism in the 1920s, leading to a focus on behaviorism and blank-slatism over the following decades, and later, during the 1950s to 1960s, the shift from behaviorism to post-modernism and critical theory can be argued to be an expression of the intellectual or academic "zeitgeist".


title: Geist

text: "Zeitgeist" in more recent usage has been used by Forsyth (2009) in reference to his "theory of leadership" and in other publications describing models of business or industry.


title: Geist

text: Malcolm Gladwell argued in his book "Outliers" that entrepreneurs who succeeded in the early stages of a nascent industry often share similar characteristics.


title: Earth analog

text: An Earth analog, also called an Earth analogue, Earth twin, or second Earth, is a planet or moon with environmental conditions similar to those found on Earth. The term Earth-like planet is also used, but this term may refer to any terrestrial planet.


title: Earth analog

text: The possibility is of particular interest to astrobiologists and astronomers under reasoning that the more similar a planet is to Earth, the more likely it is to be capable of sustaining complex extraterrestrial life. As such, it has long been speculated and the subject expressed in science, philosophy, science fiction and popular culture. Advocates of space colonization and space and survival have long sought an Earth analog, either as a second or as a new planetary settlement for mankind.


title: Earth analog

text: Before the scientific search for and study of extrasolar planets, the possibility was argued through philosophy and science fiction. The mediocrity principle suggests that planets like Earth should be common in the Universe, while the Rare Earth hypothesis suggests that they are extremely rare. The thousands of exoplanetary star systems discovered so far are profoundly different from the Solar System, supporting the Rare Earth Hypothesis.


title: Earth analog

text: Philosophers have suggested that the size of the universe is such that a near-identical planet must exist somewhere. In the far future, humans might artificially produce an Earth analog by terraforming.


title: Earth analog

text: On November 4, 2013, astronomers reported, based on "Kepler" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarf stars within the Milky Way Galaxy. The nearest such planet could be expected to be within 12 light-years of the Earth, statistically. In September 2020, astronomers identified 24 superhabitable planet (planets better than Earth) contenders, from among more than 4000 confirmed exoplanets at present, based on astrophysical parameters, as well as the natural history of known life forms on the Earth.


title: Earth analog

text: Scientific findings since the 1990s have greatly influenced the scope of the fields of astrobiology, models of planetary habitability and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI).


title: Earth analog

text: Between 1858 and 1920, Mars was thought by many, including some scientists, to be very similar to Earth, only drier with a thick atmosphere, similar axial tilt, orbit and seasons as well as a Martian civilization that had built great Martian canals. These theories were advanced by Giovanni Schiaparelli, Percival Lowell and others. As such Mars in fiction portrayed the red planet as similar to Earth's deserts. Images and data from the Mariner (1965) and Viking space probes (1975–1980), however, revealed the planet as a barren cratered world. However, with continuing discoveries, other Earth comparisons remained. For example, the Mars Ocean Hypothesis had its origins in the Viking missions and was popularised during the 1980s. With the possibility of past water, there was the possibility that life could have begun on Mars, and it was once again perceived to be more Earth-like.


title: Earth analog

text: Likewise, until the 1960s, Venus was believed by many, including some scientists, to be a warmer version of Earth with a thick atmosphere and either hot and dusty or humid with water clouds and oceans. Venus in fiction was often portrayed as having similarities to Earth and many speculated about Venusian civilization. These beliefs were dispelled in the 1960s as the first space probes gathered more accurate scientific data on the planet and found that Venus is a very hot world with the surface temperature around under an acidic atmosphere with a surface pressure of .


title: Earth analog

text: From 2004, "Cassini–Huygens" began to reveal Saturn's moon Titan to be one of the most Earth-like worlds outside of the habitable zone. Though having a dramatically different chemical makeup, discoveries such as the confirmation of Titanian lakes, rivers and fluvial processes in 2007, advanced comparisons to Earth. Further observations, including weather phenomena, have aided the understanding of geological processes that may operate on Earth-like planets.


title: Earth analog

text: The Kepler space telescope began observing the transits of potential terrestrial planets in the habitable zone from 2011. Though the technology provided a more effective means for detecting and confirming planets, it was unable to conclude definitively how Earth-like the candidate planets actually are. In 2013, several Kepler candidates less than 1.5 Earth radii were confirmed orbiting in the habitable zone of stars. It was not until 2015 that the first near-Earth sized candidate orbiting a solar candidate, Kepler-452b, was announced.


title: Earth analog

text: The probability of finding an Earth analog depends mostly on the attributes that are expected to be similar, and these vary greatly. Generally it is considered that it would be a terrestrial planet and there have been several scientific studies aimed at finding such planets. Often implied but not limited to are such criteria as planet size, surface gravity, star size and type (i.e. Solar analog), orbital distance and stability, axial tilt and rotation, similar geography, oceans, air and weather conditions, strong magnetosphere and even the presence of Earth-like complex life. If there is complex life, there could be some forests covering much of the land. If there is intelligent life, some parts of land could be covered in cities. Some factors that are assumed of such a planet may be unlikely due to Earth's own history. For instance the Earth's atmosphere was not always oxygen-rich and this is a biosignature from the emergence of photosynthetic life. The formation, presence, influence on these characteristics of the Moon (such as tidal forces) may also pose a problem in finding an Earth analog.


title: Earth analog

text: Size is often thought to be a significant factor, as planets of Earth's size are thought more likely to be terrestrial in nature and be capable of retaining an Earth-like atmosphere.


title: Earth analog

text: The list includes planets within the range of 0.8–1.9 Earth masses, below which are generally classed as sub-Earth and above classed as super-Earth. In addition, only planets known to fall within the range of 0.5–2.0 Earth radius (between half and twice the radius of the Earth) are included.


title: Earth analog

text: This comparison indicates that size alone is a poor measure, particularly in terms of habitability. Temperature must also be considered as Venus and the planets of Alpha Centauri B (discovered in 2012), Kepler-20 (discovered in 2011), COROT-7 (discovered in 2009) and the three planets of Kepler-42 (all discovered in 2011) are very hot, and Mars, Ganymede and Titan are frigid worlds, resulting also in wide variety of surface and atmospheric conditions. The masses of the Solar System's moons are a tiny fraction of that of Earth whereas the masses of extrasolar planets are very difficult to accurately measure. However discoveries of Earth-sized terrestrial planets are important as they may indicate the probable frequency and distribution of Earth-like planets.


title: Earth analog

text: Another criterion often cited is that an Earth analog must be terrestrial, that is, it should possess a similar surface geology—a planetary surface composed of similar surface materials. The closest known examples are Mars and Titan and while there are similarities in their types of landforms and surface compositions, there are also significant differences such as the temperature and quantities of ice.


title: Earth analog

text: Many of Earth's surface materials and landforms are formed as a result of interaction with water (such as clay and sedimentary rocks) or as a byproduct of life (such as limestone or coal), interaction with the atmosphere, volcanically or artificially. A true Earth analog therefore might need to have formed through similar processes, having possessed an atmosphere, volcanic interactions with the surface, past or present liquid water and life forms.


title: Earth analog

text: There are several factors that can determine planetary temperatures and therefore several measures that can draw comparisons to that of the Earth in planets where atmospheric conditions are unknown. Equilibrium temperature is used for planets without atmospheres. With atmosphere, a greenhouse effect is assumed. Finally, surface temperature is used. Each of these temperatures is affected by climate, which is influenced by the orbit and rotation (or tidal locking) of the planet, each of which introduces further variables.


title: Earth analog

text: Another criterion of an ideal life-harboring earth analog is that it should orbit a solar analog; that is, a star much like our Sun. However, this criteria may not be entirely valid as many different types of stars can provide a local environment hospitable to life. For example, in the Milky Way, most stars are smaller and dimmer than the Sun. One such star, TRAPPIST-1, is located 12 parsecs (39 light years) away and is roughly 10 times smaller and 2,000 times dimmer than our sun, yet it harbors at least 6 earth-like planets in its habitable zone. While these conditions may seem unfavorable to life as we know it, TRAPPIST-1 is expected to continue burning for 12 trillion years (compared to our suns remaining 5 billion year lifetime) which is time enough for life to arise by abiogenesis. For comparison, life evolved on earth in a mere 1 billion years.


title: Earth analog

text: The concept of the habitable zone (or Liquid Water Zone) defining a region where water can exist on the surface, is based on the properties of both the Earth and Sun. Under this model, Earth orbits roughly at the centre of this zone or in the "Goldilocks" position. Earth is the only planet currently confirmed to possess large bodies of surface water. Venus is on the hot side of the zone while Mars is on the cold side. Neither are known to have persistent surface water, though evidence exists that Mars did have in its ancient past, and it is speculated that the same was the case for Venus. Thus extrasolar planets (or moons) in the Goldilocks position with substantial atmospheres may possess oceans and water clouds like those on Earth. In addition to surface water, a true Earth analog would require a mix of oceans or lakes and areas not covered by water, or "land".


title: Earth analog

text: Some argue that a true Earth analog must not only have a similar position of its planetary system but also orbit a solar analog and have a near circular orbit such that it remains continuously habitable like Earth.


title: Earth analog

text: The mediocrity principle suggests that there is a chance that serendipitous events may have allowed an Earth-like planet to form elsewhere that would allow the emergence of complex, multi-cellular life. In contrast, the Rare Earth hypothesis asserts that if the strictest criteria are applied, such a planet, if it exists, may be so far away that humans may never locate it.


title: Earth analog

text: Because the Solar System proved to be devoid of an Earth analog, the search has widened to extrasolar planets. Astrobiologists assert that Earth analogs would most likely be found in a stellar habitable zone, in which liquid water could exist, providing the conditions for supporting life. Some astrobiologists, such as Dirk Schulze-Makuch, estimated that a sufficiently massive natural satellite may form a habitable moon similar to Earth.


title: Earth analog

text: The frequency of Earth-like planets in both the Milky Way and the larger universe is still unknown. It ranges from the extreme Rare Earth hypothesis estimates – one (i. e., Earth) – to innumerable.


title: Earth analog

text: Several current scientific studies, including the Kepler mission, are aimed at refining estimates using real data from transiting planets. A 2008 study by astronomer Michael Meyer from the University of Arizona of cosmic dust near recently formed Sun-like stars suggests that between 20% and 60% of solar analogs have evidence for the formation of rocky planets, not unlike the processes that led to those of Earth. Meyer's team found discs of cosmic dust around stars and sees this as a byproduct of the formation of rocky planets.


title: Earth analog

text: In 2009, Alan Boss of the Carnegie Institution of Science speculated that there could be 100 billion terrestrial planets just in our Milky Way galaxy.


title: Earth analog

text: In 2011 NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and based on observations from the Kepler Mission is that about 1.4% to 2.7% of all Sun-like stars are expected to have Earth-size planets within the habitable zones of their stars. This means there could be two billion of them in the Milky Way galaxy alone, and assuming that all galaxies have a similar number as the Milky Way, in the 50 billion galaxies in the observable universe, there may be as many as a hundred quintillion. This would correspond to around 20 earth analogs per square centimeter of the Earth.


title: Earth analog

text: In 2013, a Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics using statistical analysis of additional Kepler data suggested that there are at least 17 billion Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way. This, however, says nothing of their position in relation to the habitable zone.


title: Earth analog

text: In the Spring of 2022, China proposed a technical mission that includes a space telescope with the objective of detecting "thousands of terrestrial exoplanets over a wide range of orbital periods and in interstellar space including Earth 2.0s, which are habitable Earth-like planets (0.8-1.25 Earth radius) orbiting solar-type stars". The mission would use a "space-based ultra-high precision CMOS photometer combined with a microlensing telescope" which would allow such determinations according to the astronomers proposing the notion.


title: Earth analog

text: Terraforming (literally, "Earth-shaping") of a planet, moon, or other body is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying its atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecosystems to be similar to those of Earth to make it habitable to humans.


title: Earth analog

text: Due to proximity and similarity in size, Mars, and to a lesser extent Venus, have been cited as the most likely candidates for terraforming.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Latent tuberculosis (LTB), also called latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is when a person is infected with "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", but does not have active tuberculosis. Active tuberculosis can be contagious while latent tuberculosis is not, and it is therefore not possible to get TB from someone with latent tuberculosis. The main risk is that approximately 10% of these people (5% in the first two years after infection and 0.1% per year thereafter) will go on to develop active tuberculosis. This is particularly true, and there is added risk, in particular situations such as medication that suppresses the immune system or advancing age.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The identification and treatment of people with latent TB is an important part of controlling this disease. Various treatment regimens are in use for latent tuberculosis. They generally need to be taken for several months.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: ""TB Bacteria Are Spread Only from a Person with Active TB Disease ... In people who develop active TB of the lungs, also called pulmonary TB, the TB skin test will often be positive. In addition, they will show all the signs and symptoms of TB disease, and can pass the bacteria to others. So, if a person with TB of the lungs sneezes, coughs, talks, sings, or does anything that forces the bacteria into the air, other people nearby may breathe in TB bacteria. Statistics show that approximately one-third of people exposed to pulmonary TB become infected with the bacteria, but only one in ten of these infected people develop active TB disease during their lifetimes.""However, exposure to tuberculosis is very unlikely to happen when one is exposed for a few minutes in a store or in a few minutes social contact. "It usually takes prolonged exposure to someone with active TB disease for someone to become infected.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: After exposure, it usually takes 8 to 10 weeks before the TB test would show if someone had become infected."""Depending on ventilation and other factors, these tiny droplets [from the person who has active tuberculosis] can remain suspended in the air for several hours. Should another person inhale them, he or she may become infected with TB. The probability of transmission will be related to the infectiousness of the person with TB, the environment where the exposure occurred, the duration of the exposure, and the susceptibility of the host." In fact, "it isn't easy to catch TB. You need consistent exposure to the contagious person for a long time. For that reason, you're more likely to catch TB from a relative than a stranger.""If a person had latent tuberculosis, they do not have active/contagious tuberculosis. Once exposed, people very often have latent tuberculosis. To convert to active tuberculosis, the bacteria must become active.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: In some Countries like Canada people have medical privacy or "confidentiality" and do not have to reveal their active tuberculosis case to family, friends, or co-workers; therefore, the person who gets latent tuberculosis may never know who had the active case of tuberculosis that caused the latent tuberculosis diagnosis for them. Only by required testing (required in some jobs) or developing symptoms of active tuberculosis and visiting a medical doctor who does testing will a person know they have been exposed. Because tuberculosis is not common in the United States, doctors may not suspect tuberculosis; therefore, they may not test. If a person has symptoms of tuberculosis, it is wise to be tested.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Persons with diabetes may have an 18% chance of converting to active tuberculosis. In fact, death from tuberculosis was greater in diabetic patients. Persons with HIV and latent tuberculosis have a 10% chance of developing active tuberculosis every year. "HIV infection is the greatest known risk factor for the progression of latent M. tuberculosis infection to active TB. In many African countries, 30–60% of all new TB cases occur in people with HIV, and TB is the leading cause of death globally for HIV-infected people."


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Once a person has been diagnosed with Latent Tuberculosis (LTBI) and a medical doctor confirms no active tuberculosis, the person should remain alert to symptoms of active tuberculosis for the remainder of their life. Even after completing the full course of medication, there is no guarantee that the tuberculosis bacteria have all been killed."When a person develops active TB (disease), the symptoms (cough, fever, night sweats, weight loss etc.) may be mild for many months. This can lead to delays in seeking care, and results in transmission of the bacteria to others."


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Tuberculosis does not always settle in the lungs. If the outbreak of tuberculosis is in the brain, organs, kidneys, joints, or others areas, the patient may have active tuberculosis for an extended period of time before discovering that they are active. "A person with TB disease may feel perfectly healthy or may only have a cough from time to time." However, these symptoms do not guarantee tuberculosis, and they may not exist at all, yet the patient may still have active tuberculosis. A person with symptoms listed may have active tuberculosis, and the person should immediately see a physician so that tuberculosis is not spread. If a person with the above symptoms does not see a physician, ignoring the symptoms can result in lung damage, eye damage, organ damage and eventually death.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: When tuberculosis settles in other organs (rather than lungs) or other parts of the body (such as the skeletal), symptoms may be different from when it settles in the lungs (such as the symptoms listed above). Thus, without the cough or flu-like symptoms, a person can unwittingly have active tuberculosis. Other symptoms include back pain, flank pain, PID symptoms, confusion, coma, difficulty swallowing, and many other symptoms that would be a part of other diseases. (Please see the reference for more information on symptoms.) Therefore, seeing a physician and asking for a tuberculosis test is absolutely necessary to rule out tuberculosis when a patient has symptoms without a diagnosis of disease.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: There are two classes of tests commonly used to identify patients with latent tuberculosis: tuberculin skin tests and IFN-γ (Interferon-gamma) tests.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The tuberculin skin test (TST) in its first iteration, the Mantoux Test, was developed in 1908. Conceptually, it's quite simple: tuberculin (also called purified protein derivative or PPD) is a standardised dead extract of cultured TB, injected into the skin to measure the person's immune response to the bacteria. So, if a person has been exposed to the bacteria previously, they should express an immune reaction to the injection, usually a mild swelling or redness around the site. There have been two primary methods of TST: the Mantoux test, and the Heaf test. The Heaf test was discontinued in 2005 because the manufacturer deemed its production to be financially unsustainable, though it was previously preferred in the UK because it was felt to require less training to administer and involved less inter-observer variation in its interpretation than the Mantoux test. The Mantoux test was the preferred test in the US, and is now the most widely used TST globally.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The Mantoux test is now standardised by the WHO. 0.1 ml of tuberculin (100 units/ml), which delivers a dose of 5 units is given by intradermal injection into the surface of the lower forearm (subcutaneous injection results in false negatives). A waterproof ink mark is drawn around the injection site so as to avoid difficulty finding it later if the level of reaction is small. The test is read 48 to 72 hours later. The area of induration (NOT of erythema) is measured transversely across the forearm (left to right, not up and down) and recorded to the nearest millimetre.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The Heaf test was first described in 1951. The test uses a Heaf gun with disposable single-use heads; each head has six needles arranged in a circle. There are standard heads and pediatric heads: the standard head is used on all patients aged 2 years and older; the pediatric head is for infants under the age of 2. For the standard head, the needles protrude 2 mm when the gun is actuated; for the pediatric heads, the needles protrude 1 mm. Skin is cleaned with alcohol, then tuberculin (100,000 units/ml) is evenly smeared on the skin (about 0.1 ml); the gun is then applied to the skin and fired. The excess solution is then wiped off and a waterproof ink mark is drawn around the injection site. The test is read 2 to 7 days later.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: "Tuberculin conversion" is said to occur if a patient who has previously had a negative tuberculin skin test develops a positive tuberculin skin test at a later test. It indicates a change from negative to positive, and usually signifies a new infection.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The phenomenon of "boosting" is one way of obtaining a false positive test result. Theoretically, a person's ability to develop a reaction to the TST may decrease over time – for example, a person is infected with latent TB as a child, and is administered a TST as an adult. Because there has been such a long time since the immune responses to TB has been necessary, that person might give a negative test result. If so, there is a fairly reasonable chance that the TST triggers a hypersensitivity in the person's immune system – in other words, the TST reminds the person's immune system about TB, and the body overreacts to what it perceives as a reinfection. In this case, when that subject is given the test again (as is standard procedure, see above) they may have a significantly greater reaction to the test, giving a very strong positive; this can be commonly misdiagnosed as Tuberculin Conversion. This can also be triggered by receiving the BCG vaccine, as opposed to a proper infection. Although boosting can occur in any age group, the likelihood of the reaction increases with age.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Boosting is only likely to be relevant if an individual is beginning to undergo periodic TSTs (health care workers, for example). In this case the standard procedure is called two-step testing. The individual is given their first test and in the event of a negative, given a second test in 1 to 3 weeks. This is done to combat boosting in situations where, had that person waited up to a year to get their next TST, they might still have a boosted reaction, and be misdiagnosed as a new infection.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Here there is a difference in US and UK guidelines; in the US testers are told to ignore the possibility of false positive due to the BCG vaccine, as the BCG is seen as having waning efficacy over time. Therefore, the CDC urges that individuals be treated based on risk stratification regardless of BCG vaccination history, and if an individual receives a negative and then a positive TST they will be assessed for full TB treatment beginning with X-ray to confirm TB is not active and proceeding from there. Conversely, the UK guidelines acknowledge the potential effect of the BCG vaccination, as it is mandatory and therefore a prevalent concern – though the UK shares the procedure of administering two tests, one week apart, and accepting the second one as the accurate result, they also assume that a second positive is indicative of an old infection (and therefore certainly LTBI) or the BCG itself. In the case of BCG vaccinations confusing the results, Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) tests may be used as they will not be affected by the BCG.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: According to the U.S. guidelines, there are multiple size thresholds for declaring a positive result of latent tuberculosis from the Mantoux test: For testees from high-risk groups, such as those who are HIV positive, the cutoff is 5  mm of induration; for medium risk groups, 10  mm; for low-risk groups, 15 mm. The U.S. guidelines recommend that a history of previous BCG vaccination should be ignored. For details of tuberculin skin test interpretation, please refer to the CDC guidelines (reference given below).


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The UK guidelines are formulated according to the Heaf test: In patients who have had BCG previously, latent TB is diagnosed if the Heaf test is grade 3 or 4 and have no signs or symptoms of active TB; if the Heaf test is grade 0 or 1, then the test is repeated. In patients who have not had BCG previously, latent TB is diagnosed if the Heaf test is grade 2, 3 or 4, and have no signs or symptoms of active TB. Repeat Heaf testing is not done in patients who have had BCG (because of the phenomenon of boosting). For details of tuberculin skin test interpretation, please refer to the BTS guidelines (references given below).


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: Given that the US recommendation is that prior BCG vaccination be ignored in the interpretation of tuberculin skin tests, false positives with the Mantoux test are possible as a result of: (1) having previously had a BCG (even many years ago), or (2) periodical testing with tuberculin skin tests. Having regular TSTs boosts the immunological response in those people who have previously had BCG, so these people will falsely appear to be tuberculin conversions. This may lead to treating more people than necessary, with the possible risk of those patients developing adverse drug reactions. However, as Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccine is not 100% effective, and is less protective in adults than pediatric patients, not treating these patients could lead to a possible infection. The current US policy seems to reflect a desire to err on the side of safety.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The U.S. guidelines also allow for tuberculin skin testing in immunosuppressed patients (those with HIV, or who are on immunosuppressive drugs), whereas the UK guidelines recommend that tuberculin skin tests should not be used for such patients because it is unreliable.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The role of IFN-γ tests is undergoing constant review and various guidelines have been published with the option for revision as new data becomes available.CDC:MMWR Health Protection Agency:UK


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: There are currently two commercially available interferon-γ release assays (IGRAs): QuantiFERON-TB Gold and T-SPOT.TB. These tests are not affected by prior BCG vaccination, and look for the body's response to specific TB antigens not present in other forms of mycobacteria and BCG (ESAT-6). Whilst these tests are new they are now becoming available globally.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: It is usually assumed by most medical practitioners in the early stages of a diagnosis that a case of latent tuberculosis is the normal or regular strain of tuberculosis. It will therefore be most commonly treated with Isoniazid (the most used treatment for latent tuberculosis.) Only if the tuberculosis bacteria does not respond to the treatment will the medical practitioner begin to consider more virulent strains, requiring significantly longer and more thorough treatment regimens.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: The treatment of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) is essential to controlling and eliminating TB by reducing the risk that TB infection will progress to disease. Latent tuberculosis will convert to active tuberculosis in 10% of cases (or more in cases of immune compromised patients). Taking medication for latent tuberculosis is recommended by many doctors.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: In the U.S., the standard treatment is nine months of isoniazid, but this regimen is not widely used outside of the US.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: There is no agreement regarding terminology: the terms "preventive therapy" and "chemoprophylaxis" have been used for decades, and are preferred in the UK because it involves giving medication to people who have no disease and are currently well: the reason for giving medication is primarily to prevent people from becoming unwell. In the U.S., physicians talk about "latent tuberculosis treatment" because the medication does not actually prevent infection: the person is already infected and the medication is intended to prevent existing silent infection from becoming active disease. There are no convincing reasons to prefer one term over the other.


title: Latent tuberculosis

text: It is essential that assessment to rule out active TB be carried out before treatment for LTBI is started. To give treatment for latent tuberculosis to someone with active tuberculosis is a serious error: the tuberculosis will not be adequately treated and there is a serious risk of developing drug-resistant strains of TB.