title: Spaceport

text: The term rocket launch site is used for any facility from which rockets are launched. It may contain one or more launch pads or suitable sites to mount a transportable launch pad. It is typically surrounded by a large safety area, often called a rocket range or missile range. The range includes the area over which launched rockets are expected to fly, and within which some components of the rockets may land. Tracking stations are sometimes located in the range to assess the progress of the launches.


title: Spaceport

text: Major spaceports often include more than one launch complex, which can be rocket launch sites adapted for different types of launch vehicles. (These sites can be well-separated for safety reasons.) For launch vehicles with liquid propellant, suitable storage facilities and, in some cases, production facilities are necessary. On-site processing facilities for solid propellants are also common.


title: Spaceport

text: A spaceport may also include runways for takeoff and landing of aircraft to support spaceport operations, or to enable support of HTHL or HTVL winged launch vehicles.


title: Spaceport

text: The first rockets to reach space were V-2 rockets launched from Peenemünde, Germany in 1944 during World War II. After the war, 70 complete V-2 rockets were brought to White Sands for test launches, with 47 of them reaching altitudes between 100 km and 213 km.


title: Spaceport

text: The world's first spaceport for orbital and human launches, the Baikonur Cosmodrome in southern Kazakhstan, started as a Soviet military rocket range in 1955. It achieved the first orbital flight (Sputnik 1) in October 1957. The exact location of the cosmodrome was initially held secret. Guesses to its location were misdirected by a name in common with a mining town 320 km away. The position became known in 1957 outside the Soviet Union only after U-2 planes had identified the site by following railway lines in the Kazakh SSR, although Soviet authorities did not confirm the location for decades.


title: Spaceport

text: The Baikonur Cosmodrome achieved the first launch of a human into space (Yuri Gagarin) in 1961. The launch complex used, Site 1, has reached a special symbolic significance and is commonly called Gagarin's Start. Baikonur was the primary Soviet cosmodrome, and is still frequently used by Russia under a lease arrangement with Kazakhstan.


title: Spaceport

text: In response to the early Soviet successes, the United States built up a major spaceport complex at Cape Canaveral in Florida. A large number of uncrewed flights, as well as the early human flights, were carried out at Cape Canaveral Space Force Station. For the Apollo programme, an adjacent spaceport, Kennedy Space Center, was constructed, and achieved the first crewed mission to the lunar surface (Apollo 11) in July 1969. It was the base for all Space Shuttle launches and most of their runway landings. For details on the launch complexes of the two spaceports, see List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites.


title: Spaceport

text: The Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, is the major European spaceport, with satellite launches that benefit from the location 5 degrees north of the equator.


title: Spaceport

text: Breaking with tradition, in June 2004 on a runway at Mojave Air and Space Port, California, a human was for the first time launched to space in a privately funded, suborbital spaceflight, that was intended to pave the way for future commercial spaceflights. The spacecraft, SpaceShipOne, was launched by a carrier airplane taking off horizontally.


title: Spaceport

text: At Cape Canaveral, SpaceX in 2015 made the first successful landing and recovery of a first stage used in a vertical satellite launch.


title: Spaceport

text: Rockets can most easily reach satellite orbits if launched near the equator in an easterly direction, as this maximizes use of the Earth's rotational speed (465 m/s at the equator). Such launches also provide a desirable orientation for arriving at a geostationary orbit. For polar orbits and Molniya orbits this does not apply.


title: Spaceport

text: In principle, advantages of high altitude launch are reduced vertical distance to travel and a thinner atmosphere for the rocket to penetrate. However, altitude of the launch site is not a driving factor in spaceport placement because most of the delta-v for a launch is spent on achieving the required horizontal orbital speed. The small gain from a few kilometers of extra altitude does not usually off-set the logistical costs of ground transport in mountainous terrain.


title: Spaceport

text: Many spaceports have been placed at existing military installations, such as intercontinental ballistic missile ranges, which are not always physically ideal sites for launch.


title: Spaceport

text: A rocket launch site is built as far as possible away from major population centers in order to mitigate risk to bystanders should a rocket experience a catastrophic failure. In many cases a launch site is built close to major bodies of water to ensure that no components are shed over populated areas. Typically a spaceport site is large enough that, should a vehicle explode, it will not endanger human lives or adjacent launch pads.


title: Spaceport

text: Planned sites of spaceports for sub-orbital tourist spaceflight often make use of existing ground infrastructure, including runways. The nature of the local view from altitude is also a factor to consider.


title: Spaceport

text: The space tourism industry (see List of private spaceflight companies) is being targeted by spaceports in numerous locations worldwide. e.g. Spaceport America, New Mexico.


title: Spaceport

text: The establishment of spaceports for tourist trips raises legal issues, which are only beginning to be addressed.


title: Spaceport

text: The following is a table of spaceports and launch complexes for vertical launchers with documented achieved launches of humans to space (more than altitude). The sorting order is spaceport by spaceport according to the time of the first human launch.


title: Spaceport

text: ‡ STS-51-L ("Challenger") failed to reach orbit and is not counted. STS-107 ("Columbia") reached orbit and is therefore included in the count (disaster struck on re-entry).


title: Spaceport

text: The following is a table of spaceports with a documented achieved launch to orbit. The table is sorted according to the time of the first launch that achieved satellite orbit insertion. The first column gives the geographical location. Operations from a different country are indicated in the fourth column. A launch is counted as one also in cases where the payload consists of multiple satellites.


title: Spaceport

text: The following table shows spaceports with documented achieved launches of humans to at least 100 km altitude, starting from a horizontal runway. All the flights were sub-orbital.


title: Spaceport

text: Spaceports have been proposed for locations on the Moon, Mars, orbiting the Earth, at Sun-Earth and Earth-Moon Lagrange points, and at other locations in the Solar System. Human-tended outposts on the Moon or Mars, for example, will be spaceports by definition. The 2012 Space Studies Program of the International Space University studied the economic benefit of a network of spaceports throughout the solar system beginning from Earth and expanding outwardly in phases, within its team project Operations And Service Infrastructure for Space (OASIS). Its analysis claimed that the first phase, placing the "Node 1" spaceport with space tug services in low Earth orbit (LEO), would be commercially profitable and reduce transportation costs to geosynchronous orbit by as much as 44% (depending on the launch vehicle). The second phase would add a Node 2 spaceport on the lunar surface to provide services including lunar ice mining and delivery of rocket propellants back to Node 1. This would enable lunar surface activities and further reduce transportation costs within and out from cislunar space. The third phase would add a Node 3 spaceport on the Martian moon Phobos to enable refueling and resupply prior to Mars surface landings, missions beyond Mars, and return trips to Earth. In addition to propellant mining and refueling, the network of spaceports could provide services such as power storage and distribution, in-space assembly and repair of spacecraft, communications relay, shelter, construction and leasing of infrastructure, maintaining spacecraft positioned for future use, and logistics.


title: Scale model

text: A scale model is a physical model which is geometrically similar to an object (known as the prototype). Scale models are generally smaller than large prototypes such as vehicles, buildings, or people; but may be larger than small prototypes such as anatomical structures or subatomic particles. Models built to the same scale as the prototype are called mockups.


title: Scale model

text: Scale models are used as tools in engineering design and testing, promotion and sales, filmmaking special effects, military strategy, and hobbies such as rail transport modeling, wargaming and racing; and as toys. Model building is also pursued as a hobby for the sake of artisanship.


title: Scale model

text: Scale models are constructed of plastic, wood, or metal. They are usually painted with enamel, lacquer, or acrylics, and decals may be applied for lettering and fine details. They may be built from scratch, or from commercially made kits, either out of the box or modified (known as kitbashing).


title: Scale model

text: Model prototypes include all types of vehicles (railroad trains, cars, trucks, military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft), buildings, people, and science fiction themes (spaceships and robots).


title: Scale model

text: Models are built to scale, defined as the ratio of any linear dimension of the model to the equivalent dimension on the full-size subject (called the "prototype"), expressed either as a ratio with a colon (ex. 1:8 scale), or as a fraction with a slash (1/8 scale). This designates that 1 inch (or centimeter) on the model represents 8 such units on the prototype. In English-speaking countries, the scale is sometimes expressed as the number of feet on the prototype corresponding to one inch on the model, e.g. 1:48 scale = "1 inch to 4 feet", 1:96 = "1 inch to 8 feet", etc.


title: Scale model

text: Models are obtained by three different means: kit assembly, scratch building, and collecting pre-assembled models. Scratch building is the only option available to structural engineers, and among hobbyists requires the highest level of skill, craftsmanship, and time; scratch builders tend to be the most concerned with accuracy and detail. Kit assembly is done either "out of the box", or with modifications (known as "kitbashing"). Many kit manufacturers, for various reasons leave something to be desired in terms of accuracy, but using the kit parts as a baseline and adding after-market conversion kits, alternative decal sets, and some scratch building can correct this without the master craftsmanship or time expenditure required by scratch building.


title: Scale model

text: Modeling is a hobby that can be begun by children as young as 10 years old, yet also enjoyed by adults. Model kits are graded by skill level from 1 to 5 based on the processes required and number of parts. On this ranking, kitbashing is level 6, and scratch building is level 7.


title: Scale model

text: Scale models are generally of two types: "static", and "animated". They are used for several purposes in many fields, such as:


title: Scale model

text: Most hobbyist's models are built for static display, but some have operational features, such as railroad trains that roll, and airplanes and rockets that fly. Flying airplane models may be simple unpowered gliders, or have sophisticated features such as radio control powered by miniature methanol/nitromethane engines.


title: Scale model

text: Cars in 1:24, 1:32, or HO scale are fitted with externally powered electric motors which run on plastic road track fitted with metal rails on slots. The track may or may not be augmented with miniature buildings, trees, and people.


title: Scale model

text: Children can build and race their own gravity-powered, uncontrolled cars carved out of a wood such as pine, with plastic wheels on metal axles, which run on inclined tracks.


title: Scale model

text: The most famous wood racing event is the Boy Scouts of America's annual Pinewood Derby which debuted in 1953. Entry is open to Cub Scouts. Entrants are supplied with a kit containing a wooden block out of which to carve the body, four plastic wheels, and four axle nails; or they may purchase their own commercially available kit. Regulations generally limit the car's weight to , width to , and length to . The rules permit the cars to be augmented with tungsten carbide weights up to the limit, and graphite axle lubricant.


title: Scale model

text: Miniature wargames are played using miniature soldiers, artillery, vehicles, and scenery built by the players.


title: Scale model

text: Before the advent of computer-generated imagery (CGI), visual effects of vehicles such as marine ships and space ships were created by filming "miniature" models. These were considerably larger scale than hobby versions to allow inclusion of a high degree of surface detail, and electrical features such as interior lighting and animation. For "", a pre-production model was created in December 1964, mostly of pine, with Plexiglass and brass details, at a cost of $600. This was followed by a production model constructed from plaster, sheet metal, and wood, at ten times the cost of the first. As the "Enterprise" was originally reckoned to be long, this put the models at 1:344 and 1:83.9 scale respectively. The Polar Lights company sells a large plastic "Enterprise" model kit essentially the same size as the first TV model, in 1:350 scale (32 inches long). It can be purchased with an optional electronic lighting and animation (rotating engine domes) kit.


title: Scale model

text: Although structural engineering has been a field of study for thousands of years and many of the great problems have been solved using analytical and numerical techniques, many problems are still too complicated to understand in an analytical manner or the current numerical techniques lack real world confirmation. When this is the case, for example a complicated reinforced concrete beam-column-slab interaction problem, scale models can be constructed observing the requirements of similitude to study the problem. Many structural labs exist to test these structural scale models such as the Newmark Civil Engineering Laboratory at the University of Illinois, UC.


title: Scale model

text: For structural engineering scale models, it is important for several specific quantities to be scaled according to the theory of similitude. These quantities can be broadly grouped into three categories: "loading", "geometry", and "material properties". A good reference for considering scales for a structural scale model under static loading conditions in the elastic regime is presented in Table 2.2 of the book "Structural Modeling and Experimental Techniques".


title: Scale model

text: Structural engineering scale models can use different approaches to satisfy the similitude requirements of scale model fabrication and testing. A practical introduction to scale model design and testing is discussed in the paper "Pseudodynamic Testing of Scaled Models".


title: Scale model

text: Aerodynamic models may be used for testing new aircraft designs in a wind tunnel or in free flight. Models of scale large enough to permit piloting may be used for testing of a proposed design.


title: Scale model

text: Architecture firms usually employ model makers or contract model making firms to make models of projects to sell their designs to builders and investors. These models are traditionally hand-made, but advances in technology have turned the industry into a very high tech process than can involve Class IV laser cutters, five-axis CNC machines as well as rapid prototyping or 3D printing. Typical scales are 1:12, 1:24, 1:48, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, etc.


title: Scale model

text: With elements similar to miniature wargaming, building models and architectural models, a plan-relief is a means of geographical representation in relief as a scale model for military use, to visualize building projects on fortifications or campaigns involving fortifications.


title: Scale model

text: In the first half of the 20th century, navies used hand-made models of warships for identification and instruction in a variety of scales. That of 1:500 was called "teacher scale." Besides models made in 1:1200 and 1:2400 scales, there were also ones made to 1:2000 and 1:5000. Some, made in Britain, were labelled "1 inch to 110 feet", which would be 1:1320 scale, but aren't necessarily accurate.


title: Scale model

text: Many research workers, hydraulics specialists and engineers have used scale models for over a century, in particular in towing tanks. Manned models are small scale models that can carry and be handled by at least one person on an open expanse of water. They must behave just like real ships, giving the shiphandler the same sensations. Physical conditions such as wind, currents, waves, water depths, channels, and berths must be reproduced realistically.


title: Scale model

text: Manned models are used for research (e.g. ship behaviour), engineering (e.g. port layout) and for training in shiphandling (e.g. maritime pilots, masters and officers). They are usually at 1:25 scale.


title: Scale model

text: This includes injection molded or extruded plastics such as polystyrene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), butyrate, and clear acrylic and copolyester (PETG). Parts can also be cast from synthetic resins.


title: Scale model

text: Aluminum or brass can be used in tubing form, or can be used in flat sheets with photo-etched surface detail. Model figures used in wargaming can be made of white metal.


title: Scale model

text: Styrene parts are welded together using plastic cement, which comes both in a thick form to be carefully applied to a bonding surface, or in a thin liquid which is applied into a joint by capillary action using a brush or syringe needle. Ethyl cyanoacrylate (ECA) aka "super-glue", or fast-setting epoxy, must be used to bond styrene to other materials.


title: Scale model

text: Glossy colors are generally used for car and commercial truck exteriors. Flat colors are generally desirable for military vehicles, aircraft, and spacecraft. Metallic colors simulate the various metals (silver, gold, aluminum, steel, copper, brass, etc.)


title: Scale model

text: Enamel paint has classically been used for model making and is generally considered the most durable paint for plastics. It is available in small bottles for brushing and airbrushing, and aerosol spray cans. Disadvantages include toxicity and a strong chemical smell of the paint and its mineral spirit thinner/brush cleaner. Modern enamels are made of alkyd resin to limit toxicity. Popular brands include Testor's in the US and Humbrol (now Hornby) in the UK.


title: Scale model

text: Enamels have been generally replaced in popularity by acrylic paint, which is water-based. Advantages include decreased toxicity and chemical smell, and brushes clean with soap and water. Disadvantages include possibly limited durability on plastic, requiring priming coats, at least two color coats, and allowing adequate cure time. Popular brands include the Japanese import Tamiya.


title: Scale model

text: Some beginner's level kits avoid the necessity to paint the model by adding pigments and chrome plating to the plastic.


title: Scale model

text: Decals are generally applied to models after painting and assembly, to add details such as lettering, flags, insignia, or other decorations too small to paint. Water transfer (slide-on) decals are generally used, but beginner's kits may use dry transfer stickers instead.


title: Scale model

text: Model railroading (US and Canada; known as "railway modeling" in UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Ireland) is done in a variety of scales from 1:4 to 1:450 (T scale). Each scale has its own strengths and weaknesses, and fills a different niche in the hobby:


title: Scale model

text: Model railroads originally used the term "gauge", which refers to the distance between the rails, just as full-size railroads continue to do. Although model railroads were also built to different gauges, standard gauge in full-size railroads is 4' 8.5". Therefore, a model railroad reduces that standard to scale. An HO scale model railroad runs on track that is 1/87 of 4' 8.5", or 0.649" from rail to rail. Today model railroads are more typically referred to using the term "scale" instead of "gauge" in most usages.


title: Scale model

text: Confusion arises from indiscriminate use of "scale" and "gauge" synonymously. The word "scale" strictly refers to the proportional size of the model, while "gauge" strictly applies to the measurement between the inside faces of the rails. It is completely incorrect to refer to the mainstream scales as "HO gauge", "N gauge, "Z gauge", etc. This is further complicated by the fact some scales use several different gauges; for example, HO scale uses 16.5 mm as the standard gauge of , 12 mm to represent gauge (HOm), and (HOn3-1/2), and 9 mm to represent a prototype gauge of .


title: Scale model

text: The most popular scale to go with a given gauge was often arrived at through the following roundabout process: German artisans would take strips of metal of standard metric size to construct their products from blueprints dimensioned in inches. "Four mm to the foot" yielded the 1:76.2 size of the British "OO scale", which is anomalously used on the standard HO/OO scale (16.5 mm gauge from 3.5 mm/foot scale) tracks, because early electric motors weren't available commercially in smaller sizes. Today, most scale sizes are internationally standardized, with the notable exceptions of O scale and N scale.


title: Scale model

text: There are three different versions of the "O" scale, each of which uses tracks of 32 mm for the standard gauge. The American version follows a dollhouse scale of 1:48, sometimes called "quarter-gauge" as in "one-quarter-inch to the foot". The British version continued the pattern of sub-contracting to Germans, so, at 7 mm to the foot, it works out to a scale of 1:43.5. Later, the European authority of model railroad firms MOROP declared that the "O" gauge (still 32 mm) must use the scale of 1:45, to allow wheel, tire, and splasher clearance for smaller than realistic curved sections.


title: Scale model

text: N scale trains were first commercially produced at 1:160 scale in 1962 by the Arnold company of Nuremberg. This standard size was imported to the US by firms such as the Aurora Plastics Corporation. However, the early N-scale motors would not fit in the smaller models of British locomotives, so the British N gauge was standardized to allow a slightly larger body size. Similar sizing problems with Japanese prototypes led to adoption of a 1:150 scale standard there. Since space is more limited in Japanese houses, N scale has become more popular there than HO scale.


title: Scale model

text: Static model aircraft are commonly built using plastic, but wood, metal, card and paper can also be used. Models are sold painted and assembled, painted but not assembled (snap-fit), or unpainted and not assembled. The most popular types of aircraft to model are commercial airliners and military aircraft. Popular aircraft scales are, in order of increasing size: , 1:87 (also known as HO, or "half-O scale"), (the most numerous), , , , , 1:6, and . Some European models are available at more metric scales such as . The highest quality models are made from injection molded plastic or cast resin. Models made from Vacuum formed plastic are generally for the more skilled builder. More inexpensive models are made from heavy paper or card stock. Ready-made die-cast metal models are also very popular. As well as the traditional scales, die-cast models are available in , , , , and .


title: Scale model

text: The majority of aircraft modelers concern themselves with depiction of real-life aircraft, but there are some modelers who 'bend' history by modeling aircraft that either never actually flew or existed, or by painting them in a color scheme that did not actually exist. This is commonly referred to as 'What-if' or 'Alternative' modeling, and the most common theme is 'Luftwaffe 1946' or 'Luftwaffe '46'. This theme stems from the idea of modeling German secret projects that never saw the light of day due to the close of World War II. This concept has been extended to include British, Russian, and US experimental projects that never made it into production.


title: Scale model

text: Recreational models are often made to resemble some real type. However the aerodynamic requirements of a small model are different from those of a full-size craft, so flying models are seldom fully accurate to scale. Flying model aircraft are one of three types: free flight, control line, and radio controlled. Some flying model kits take many hours to put together, and some kits are almost ready to fly or ready to fly.


title: Scale model

text: Model rocketry dates back to the Space Race of the 1950s. The first model rocket engine was designed in 1954 by Orville Carlisle, a licensed pyrotechnics expert, and his brother Robert, a model airplane enthusiast.


title: Scale model

text: Static model rocket kits began as a development of model aircraft kits, yet the scale of 1:72 [V.close to 4 mm.::1foot] never caught on. Scales 1:48 and 1:96 are most frequently used. There are some rockets of scales 1:128, , and , but Russian firms put their large rockets in 1:288. Heller SA offers some models in the scale of 1:125.


title: Scale model

text: Science fiction space ships are heavily popular in the modeling community. In 1966, with the release of the television show "", AMT corporation released an model of the Starship "Enterprise". This has been followed over the decades by a complete array of various starships, shuttlecraft, and space stations from the Star Trek franchise. The 1977 release of the first "Star Wars" film and the 1978 TV series "Battlestar Galactica" also spawned lines of licensed model kits in scales ranging from 1:24 for fighters and smaller ships, to 1:1000, 1:1400, and 1:2500 for most main franchise ships, and up to 1:10000 for the larger "Star Wars" ships (for especially objects like the Death Stars and Super Star Destroyers, even smaller scales are used). Finemolds in Japan have recently released a series of high quality injection molded Star Wars kits in , and this range is supplemented by resin kits from Fantastic Plastic.


title: Scale model

text: Although the British scale for 0 gauge was first used for model cars made of rectilinear and circular parts, it was the origin of the European scale for cast or injection molded model cars. MOROP's specification of 1:45 scale for European 0 does not alter the series of cars in , as it has the widest distribution in the world.


title: Scale model

text: In America, a series of cars was developed from at first cast metal and later styrene models ("promos") offered at new-car dealerships to drum up interest. The firm Monogram, and later Tamiya, first produced them in a scale derived from the Architect's scale: , while the firms AMT, Jo-Han, and Revell chose the scale of 1:25. Monogram later switched to this scale after the firm was purchased by Revell. Some cars are also made in , and rolling toys are often made on the scale . Chinese die-cast manufacturers have introduced 1/72 scale into their range. The smaller scales are usually die-cast cars and not the in the class as model cars. Except in rare occasions, Johnny Lightning and Ertl-made die-cast cars were sold as kits for buyers to assemble. Model cars are also used in car design.


title: Scale model

text: Typically found in , most manufacturers of commercial vehicles and heavy equipment commission scale models made of die-cast metal as promotional items to give to prospective customers. These are also popular children's toys and collectibles. The major manufacturers of these items are Conrad and NZG in Germany. Corgi also makes some 1:50 models, as well as Dutch maker Tekno.


title: Scale model

text: Trucks are also found as diecast models in and injection molded kits (and children's toys) in . Recently some manufacturers have appeared in like Code 3.


title: Scale model

text: A model construction vehicle (or engineering vehicle) is a scale model or die-cast toy that represents a construction vehicle such as a bulldozer, excavator, crane, concrete pump, backhoe, etc.


title: Scale model

text: Construction vehicle models are almost always made in , particularly because the cranes at this scale are often three to four feet tall when extended and larger scales would be unsuited for display on a desk or table. These models are popular as children's toys in Germany. In the US they are commonly sold as promotional models for new construction equipment, commissioned by the manufacturer of the prototype real-world equipment. The major manufacturers in Germany are Conrad and NZG, with some competition from Chinese firms that have been entering the market.


title: Scale model

text: Japanese firms have marketed toys and models of what are often called mecha, nimble humanoid fighting robots. The robots, which appear in animated shows (anime), are often depicted at a size between 15-20m in height, and so scales of 1:100 and are common for these subjects, though other scales such as are commonly used for robots and related subjects of different size.


title: Scale model

text: The most prolific manufacturer of mecha models is Bandai, whose Gundam kit lines were a strong influence in the genre in the 1980s. Even today, Gundam kits are the most numerous in the mecha modeling genre, usually with dozens of new releases every year. The features of modern Gundam kits, such as color molding and snap-fit construction, have become the standard expectations for other mecha model kits.


title: Scale model

text: Due to the fantasy nature of most anime robots, and the necessary simplicity of cel-animated designs, mecha models lend themselves well to stylized work, improvisations, and simple scratchbuilds. One of Gundam's contributions to the genre was the use of a gritty wartime backstory as a part of the fantasy, and so it is almost equally fashionable to build the robots in a weathered, beaten style, as would often be expected for AFV kits as to build them in a more stylish, pristine manner.


title: Scale model

text: Scale models of people and animals are found in a wide variety of venues, and may be either single-piece objects or kits that must be assembled, usually depending on the purpose of the model. For instance, models of people as well as both domestic and wild animals are often produced for display in model cities or railroads to provide a measure of detail or realism, and scaled relative to the trains, buildings, and other accessories of a certain line of models. If a line of trains or buildings does not feature models of living creatures, those who build the models often buy these items separately from another line so they can feature people or animals. In other cases, scale model lines feature living creatures exclusively, often focusing on educational interests.


title: Scale model

text: Model kits of superheroes and super-villains from popular franchises such as DC Entertainment and Marvel Entertainment are also sold, as are models of real-world celebrities, such as Marilyn Monroe and Elvis Presley.


title: Scale model

text: One type of assembly kit sold as educational features skeletons and anatomical structure of humans and animals. Such kits may have unique features such as glow-in-the-dark pieces. Dinosaurs are a popular subject for such models. There are also garage kits, which are often figures of anime characters in multiple parts that require assembly.


title: Scale model

text: Michele Morciano says small scale ship models were produced in about 1905 linked to the wargaming rules and other publications of Fred T. Jane. The company that standardized on 1:1200 was Bassett-Lowke in 1908. The British Admiralty subsequently contracted with Bassett-Lowke and other companies and individual craftsmen to produce large numbers of recognition models, to this scale, in 1914–18.


title: Scale model

text: Just before the Second World War, the American naval historian (and science fiction author) Fletcher Pratt published a book on naval wargaming as could be done by civilians using ship models cut off at the waterline to be moved on the floors of basketball courts and similar locales. The scale he used was non-standard (reported as 1:666), and may have been influenced by toy ships then available, but as the hobby progressed, and other rule sets came into use, it was progressively supplemented by the series 1:600, 1:1200, and 1:2400. In Britain, 1:3000 became popular and these models also have come into use in the USA. These had the advantage of approximating the nautical mile as 120 inches, 60 inches, and 30 inches, respectively. As the knot is based on this mile and a 60-minute hour, this was quite handy.


title: Scale model

text: After the war, firms emerged to produce models from the same white metal used to make toy soldiers. Lines Bros. Ltd, a British firm, offered a tremendously wide range of waterline merchant and naval ships as well as dockyard equipment in the scale 1:1200 which were die-cast in Zamak. In the US, at least one manufacturer, of the wartime 1:1200 recognition models, Comet, made them available for the civilian market postwar, which also drove the change to this scale. In addition, continental European manufacturers and European ship book publishers had adopted the 1:1250 drawing scale because of its similar convenience in size for both models and comparison drawings in books.


title: Scale model

text: A prestige scale for boats, comparable to that of 1:32 for fighter planes, is 1:72, producing huge models, but there are very few kits marketed in this scale. There are now several clubs around the world for those who choose to scratch-build radio-controlled model ships and submarines in 1:72, which is often done because of the compatibility with naval aircraft kits. For the smaller ships, plank-on-frame or other wood construction kits are offered in the traditional shipyard scales of 1:96, 1:108, or 1:192 (half of 1:96). In injection-molded plastic kits, Airfix makes full-hull models in the scale the Royal Navy has used to compare the relative sizes of ships: 1:600. Revell makes some kits to half the scale of the US Army standard: 1:570. Some American and foreign firms have made models in a proportion from the Engineer's scale: "one-sixtieth-of-an-inch-to-the-foot", or 1:720.


title: Scale model

text: Just before the 20th century, the British historian and science fiction author H. G. Wells published a book, "Little Wars", on how to play at battles in miniature. His books use 2" lead figures, particularly those manufactured by Britains. His fighting system employed spring-loaded model guns that shot matchsticks.


title: Scale model

text: This use of physical mechanisms was echoed in the later games of Fred Jane, whose rules required throwing darts at ship silhouettes; his collection of data on the world's fleets was later published and became renowned. Dice have largely replaced this toy mayhem for consumers.


title: Scale model

text: For over a century, toy soldiers were made of white metal, a lead-based alloy, often in architect's scale-based ratios in the English-speaking countries, and called tin soldiers. After the Second World War, such toys were on the market for children but now made of a safe plastic softer than styrene. American children called these "army men". Many sets were made in the new scale of . A few styrene model kits of land equipment were offered in this and in 1:48 and 1:32 scales. However, these were swept away by the number of kits in the scale of .


title: Scale model

text: Those who continued to develop miniature wargaming preferred smaller scale models, the soldiers still made of soft plastic. Airfix particularly wanted people to buy scale soldiers and tanks to go with "00" gauge train equipment. Roco offered scale styrene military vehicles to go with "HO" gauge model houses. However, although there is no scale model railroad, more toy soldiers are now offered in this scale because it is the same as the popular aircraft scale. The number of fighting vehicles in this scale is also increasing, although the number of auxiliary vehicles available is far fewer than in .


title: Scale model

text: A more recent development, especially in wargaming of land battles, is 15 mm white metal miniatures, often referred to as 1:100. The use of 15 mm scale metals has grown quickly since the early 1990s as they allow a more affordable option over 28 mm if large battles are to be refought, or a large number of vehicles represented. The rapid rise in the detail and quality of castings at 15 mm scale has also helped to fuel their uptake by the wargaming community.


title: Scale model

text: Armies use smaller scales still. The US Army specifies models of the scale 1:285 for its sand table wargaming. There are metal ground vehicles and helicopters in this scale, which is a near "one-quarter-inch-to-six-feet" scale. The continental powers of NATO have developed the similar scale of 1:300, even though metric standardizers really don't like any divisors other than factors of 10, 5, and 2, so maps are not commonly offered in Europe in scales with a" "3" "in the denominator.


title: Scale model

text: Consumer wargaming has since expanded into fantasy realms, employing scales large enough to be painted in imaginative detail - so called "heroic" 28 mm figures, (roughly ). Firms that produce these make small production lots of white metal.


title: Scale model

text: Alternatively to the commercial models, some modelers also tend to use scraps to achieve home-made warfare models. While it doesn't always involve wargaming, some modelers insert realistic procedures, enabling a certain realism such as firing guns or shell deflection on small scale models.


title: Scale model

text: Kits for building an engine model are available, especially for kids. The most popular are the internal combustion, steam, jet, and Stirling model engine. Usually they move using an electric motor or a hand crank, and many of them have a transparent case to show the internal process in action.


title: Scale model

text: Most hobbyists who build models of buildings do so as part of a diorama to enhance their other models, such as a model railroad or model war machines. As a stand-alone hobby, building models are probably most popular among enthusiasts of construction toys such as Erector, Lego and K'Nex. Famous landmarks such as the Empire State Building, Big Ben and the White House are common subjects. Standard scales have not emerged in this hobby. Model railroaders use railroad scales for their buildings: HO scale (1:87), OO scale (1:76), N scale (1:160), and O scale (1:43). Lego builders use miniland scale (1:20) and minifig scale (1:48) and micro scale (1:192) Generally, the larger the building, the smaller the scale. Model buildings are commonly made from plastic, foam, balsa wood or paper. Card models are published in the form of a book, and some models are manufactured like 3-D puzzles. Professionally, building models are used by architects and salesmen.


title: Scale model

text: Typically found in and also called model house, model home or display house, this type of model is usually found in stately homes or specially designed houses. Sometimes this kind of model is commissioned to mark a special date like an anniversary or the completion of the architecture, or these models might be used by salesmen selling homes in a new neighborhood.


title: Scale model

text: Miniatures and model kits are used in contemporary art whereby artists use both scratch built miniaturizations or commercially manufactured model kits to construct a dialogue between object and viewer. The role of the artist in this type of miniature is not necessarily to re-create an historical event or achieve naturalist realism, but rather to use scale as a mode of articulation in generating conceptual or theoretical exploration. Political, conceptual, and architectural examples are provided by noted artists such as Bodys Isek Kingelez, Jake and Dinos Chapman (otherwise known as the Chapman Brothers), Ricky Swallow, Shaun Wilson, Sven Christoffersen, or the Psikhelekedana artists from Mozambique, James Casebere, Oliver Boberg, and Daniel Dorall.


title: Murder on My Mind

text: "Murder on My Mind" (censored as "Mischief on My Mind") is the third single by American rapper YNW Melly from his debut mixtape "I Am You". The song was originally uploaded onto SoundCloud on March 4, 2017, and later released as a single by 300 Entertainment on June 1, 2018. "Murder on My Mind" is considered YNW Melly's breakout hit, and garnered even further attention after the rapper turned himself in for double murder charges on February 13, 2019.


title: Murder on My Mind

text: YNW Melly thought up the chorus of "Murder on My Mind" when he was first incarcerated at the age of 16. The song is not written as a confession of his alleged double murder, as the song was released in March 2017, while the alleged murders occurred in October 2018.


title: Murder on My Mind

text: After news broke of YNW Melly's murder charges on February 13, 2019, "Murder on My Mind" garnered major public interest. Days later, the song reached number one on the US Apple Music chart. On national charts, it peaked inside the top 20 in the US, the UK and New Zealand, as well as reaching the top 10 in both Canada and Belgium.


title: Closing credits

text: Closing credits or end credits are a list of the cast and crew of a particular motion picture, television program, or video game. Where opening credits appear at the beginning of a work, closing credits appear close to, or at the very end of a work. A full set of credits can include the cast and crew, but also production sponsors, distribution companies, works of music licensed or written for the work, various legal disclaimers, such as copyright and more.


title: Closing credits

text: Typically, the closing credits appear in white lettering on a solid black background, often with a musical background. Credits are either a series of static frames, or a single list that scrolls from the bottom of the screen to the top. Occasionally closing credits will divert from this standard form to scroll in another direction, include illustrations, extra scenes, bloopers, joke credits, or post-credits scenes.


title: Closing credits

text: The use of closing credits in film to list complete production crew and the cast was not firmly established in American film until the late 1960s and early 1970s. Films generally had opening credits only, which consisted of just major cast and crew, although sometimes the names of the cast and the characters they played would be shown at the end. Two of the first major films to contain extensive closing credits – but almost no opening credits – were the blockbusters "Around the World in 80 Days" (1956) and "West Side Story" (1961). "West Side Story" showed only the title at the beginning of the film, and "Around the World in 80 Days" had no opening credits at all.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: Udupi Shri Krishna Temple is a well-known historic Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Krishna and Dvaita Matha located in the city of Udupi in Karnataka, India. The Matha area resembles a living Aashram, a holy place for daily devotion and living. Surrounding the Shri Krishna Temple are several temples namely the Udupi Anantheshwara Temple which is over a thousand years old.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: The Krishna Matha was founded by the Vaishnavite saint Jagadguru Shri Madhvacharya in the 13th century. He was the founder of the Dwaita school of Vedanta. It is believed that Madhwacharya found the vigraha of Shri Krishna in a large ball of "gopichandana". As told by Sri Madhvacharya, in his Tantrasara Sangraha, the Vigraha is placed Pashchimabhimukha (facing west). All the other Vigrahas in other Ashta Muthas face west as well. Devotees always have darshan of Lord Krishna through the inner window, known as the Navagruha Kindi & the outer window known as the Kanakana Kindi, which is decorated by an arch named after him. A statue has also been erected. A similar window covers the immediate front of the Vigraha and is called Navagraha Kindi. It is often mistaken to be the Kanakuna Kindi.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: The temple opens at 5:30 hours IST. The unique feature of the temple is that the deity is worshipped through a silver-plated window with nine holes (Navagraha Kindi). The temple also offers prasadam (lunch) at noon and is popularly called "Anna Brahma" as it feeds a vast number of devotees.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: The daily sevas (offerings to god) and administration of the Krishna Mathas is managed by the Ashta Mathas (eight monasteries). Each of the Ashta Mathas performs temple management activities for two years in a cyclical order. They are collectively known as the "Ashta Mathagalu" in Kannada. Each Ashta Matha has its own deity which is called "Pattada Devaru."


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: The Krishna Matha is known throughout the world for its religious customs, traditions and tenets of Dvaita or Tatvavada philosophy. It is also the center of Daasa Saahitya, a form of literature that originated in Udupi.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: The expenses of Udupi Krishna Matha are borne by the voluntary contributions of the devotees and by the Ashta Mathas that manage the Krishna Matha. The contribution may be in cash or kind. The Krishna Matha, which owned large tracts of land, lost it all in 1975 due to the enactment of the Land Reforms Act 1975 by the Government of Karnataka.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: The Pauli of Krishna Matha was renovated and the Brahmakalashotsava ceremony was held on 18 May 2017.


title: Udupi Sri Krishna Matha

text: During the Paryaya festival, held once every two years, the temple management is handed over to the next Ashta Matha, which has been entrusted the responsibility of running the temple turn by turn. Each of the Mathas is headed by a Swami, who will be in charge of the temple during his Paryaya. The Paryaya is held on even years like 2008, 2010 and 2012. The Paryaya tradition has completed 500 years as of 2021. Presently, Sri Admaru Math is administering the temple with Junior Pontiff Sri Eshapriya Teertha Swami ascending the post of Sarvajna or Paryaya Peetha. Festivals like Makara Sankranthi, Ratha Sapthami, Madhva Navami, Hanuman Jayanthi, Sri Krishna Janmashtami, Navarathi Mahotsava, Madhva Jayanti (Vijaya Dashami), Naraka Chathurdashi, Deepavali, Geetha Jayanthi etc. are celebrated very grandly by Paryaya Mutt every year.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: The M1941 Johnson Light Machine Gun, also known as the "Johnson" and the "Johnny gun", was an American recoil-operated light machine gun designed in the late 1930s by Melvin Johnson. It shared the same operating principle and many parts with the M1941 Johnson rifle and the M1947 Johnson auto carbine.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: The M1941 light machine gun was designed by a Boston lawyer and captain in the Marine Corps Reserve named Melvin Johnson Jr. His goal was to build a semi-automatic rifle that would outperform the M1 Garand the US Army had adopted. By late 1937, he had designed, built, and successfully tested both a semi-automatic rifle and a prototype light machine gun. Each shared a significant number of physical characteristics and common parts, and both operated on the principle of short recoil with a rotating bolt. He took the parts of other guns, switching them out and creating the M1941 light machine gun.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: Johnson's curved, single-column magazine attached to the left side of the receiver; company brochures list a 20-round magazine as standard. Additionally, the weapon could be loaded by stripper clip at the ejection port, or by single rounds fed into the breech. The rate of fire was adjustable, from 200 to 600 rounds per minute. Two versions were built: the M1941 with a wooden stock and a metal bipod, and the M1944 with a tubular steel butt and a wooden monopod.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: The design intended the recoil forces to travel, along with the mass of the weapon's moving parts, in a direct line to the shoulder of the gunner. While this design minimized muzzle climb, the sights had to be placed higher above the bore.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: The weapon has many parallels with the German FG 42. Both feed from the left side, and both fire from an open bolt while in automatic, and a closed bolt while in semi-auto. Both weapons were awkward to carry loaded, with a side-mounted magazine; the Johnson had an especially lengthy single-column magazine, and this feature tended to unbalance the weapon. Despite these similarities, there is no evidence that either weapon had any effect on the design of the other. Both weapons attempted to solve similar problems, and adopted similar solutions.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: Prototypes of semi-automatic rifles, 20-round magazine-fed, based on the Johnson LMG were also produced. The M1947 Johnson auto carbine is an example. A belt fed variant also existed.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: During the Second World War, special forces within the Allies demanded a more portable, lighter, more accurate automatic rifle that provided the equivalent stopping power of the American BAR. As a result, this machine gun was adapted as the BAR replacement for commandos operating behind Axis lines. The First Special Service Force, raised jointly with men from both Canada and the United States (the famous Devil's Brigade), traded the Marine Corps 125 of the new Johnson light machine guns for plastic explosives. They were used in lieu of BARs, but as they wore out and were lost in combat they were replaced by BARs.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: The Johnson LMG was used by the Philippine Army and Philippine Constabulary during World War II under the Japanese Military Occupation from 1942 to 1945 and post-war from 1945 to 1960s including during the Hukbalahap Rebellion (1946-1954) and by the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea or PEFTOK (1950-1955).


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: Shortly after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, the predecessor of the Israel Defense Forces, Haganah, developed a close copy of the Johnson LMG, the Dror, in both .303 British and 7.92×57mm Mauser. Israeli forces found the Dror prone to jam from sand and dust ingress, and the weapon was discontinued after a brief period of service. Ernesto "Che" Guevara notably used a Johnson in the Cuban Revolution.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: Melvin Johnson continued to develop small arms. In 1955, he was asked to assist Fairchild/ArmaLite in (unsuccessfully) promoting Eugene Stoner's AR-10 rifle with the U.S. Department of Defense, then with ArmaLite and Colt's Manufacturing Company as an advocate for the AR-15. Armalite relied heavily on Johnson's efforts and the AR-15 used a similar bolt design to the M1941 Johnson. The AR-15 is still produced today by numerous manufacturers, as is its derivative, the M16 rifle. One of Johnson's last postwar firearms ventures was a 5.7 mm-caliber version of the M1 carbine, aka 'the Spitfire'.


title: M1941 Johnson machine gun

text: A prototype using hydrazine for a caseless firearm was also developed. The firearms would have been very effective and pretty equivalent in performance to conventional propellants, while offering improved supply lines. The main concern was in the durability of pressure seals in field conditions as well as toxicity of the substance to the user.


title: LaChanze

text: Rhonda LaChanze Sapp, known professionally as LaChanze (; born December 16, 1961), is an American actress, singer, and dancer. She won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical in 2006 for her role as Celie Harris Johnson in "The Color Purple".


title: LaChanze

text: Born in St. Augustine, Florida, to Walter and Rosalie Sapp, her stage name "LaChanze" (Creole: the charmed one) is taken from her grandmother. After moving to Connecticut, her childhood love of singing and dancing caused her mother to enroll her in the Bowen Peters Cultural Arts Center in New Haven. There she discovered her love for performing. At Warren Harding High School in Bridgeport, LaChanze made her debut as Lola in the school production of "Damn Yankees".


title: LaChanze

text: After high school, LaChanze studied drama at Morgan State University in Baltimore, Maryland, before transferring to the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, where she studied Theater and Dance.


title: LaChanze

text: Her first summer job was as a tap dancer in the ensemble of "Uptown... It's Hot!" at the Tropicana Hotel in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The show opened on Broadway in January 1986, where LaChanze began her professional career in the theater.


title: LaChanze

text: LaChanze played the role of Ti Moune in the Lynn Ahrens and Stephen Flaherty musical "Once on This Island" in 1990 and received nominations for the Tony Award as Best Actress in a Featured Role in a Musical and Drama Desk Award as Outstanding Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical. In December 1998, she joined the cast of the Ahrens and Flaherty and Terrence McNally Broadway musical "Ragtime", replacing Audra McDonald in the role of "Sarah." She played the role of Viveca in the Playwrights Horizons Off-Broadway production of the musical "The Bubbly Black Girl Sheds Her Chameleon Skin", which opened in June 2000. She received a Drama Desk nomination, Actress (Musical), for her performance. LaChanze participated in an Actors Fund of America benefit concert of "Funny Girl", with many performers portraying the character of Fanny Brice, in September 2002.


title: LaChanze

text: In 2005 she played a runaway slave in the Ahrens and Flaherty musical "Dessa Rose". The musical opened Off-Broadway at the Mitzi Newhouse Theatre at Lincoln Center in March 2005. LaChanze received an Obie Award for Performance for "Dessa Rose". LaChanze appeared as Celie Harris Johnson in the Broadway musical "The Color Purple", from its opening in 2005 to November 2006. She won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical for this performance.


title: LaChanze

text: In September 2008 she participated in the Boston Pops concert, "Handel's Messiah Rocks" at Emerson College. The performance was filmed by Public Broadcasting Service. She was in the Off-Broadway production of "Inked Baby", written by Christina Anderson, which opened in March 2009 at Playwrights Horizons Peter Jay Sharp Theater. In June and July 2009, she played the role of Glinda in the City Center Encores! staged Summer Stars concert production of "The Wiz".


title: LaChanze

text: She published her first picture book, "Little Diva", in 2010. She was in the Broadway production of "If/Then" in 2014, starring as Kate. In 2018, she was in "" on Broadway, playing Diva Donna/Mary Gaines. In 2019 she appeared in "A Christmas Carol" on Broadway, starring as the Ghost of Christmas Present.


title: LaChanze

text: In January 2022, Lachanze took a star turn in "TROUBLE IN MIND", written by Alice Childress in 1955. Lachanze earned a Tony nomination for her performance as Wiletta Mayer.


title: LaChanze

text: In 2022, Lachanze began her career as a Broadway Producer. She is producing TOPDOG UNDERDOG with David Stone, Rashad V. Chambers, Marc Platt, Debra Martin Chase, and the Shubert Organization.


title: LaChanze

text: She is also produced KIMBERLY AKIMBO on Broadway with David Stone, Aaron Glick, Patrick Catullo and James L. Nederlander.


title: LaChanze

text: While LaChanze was eight months pregnant with her second child, Zaya, her husband, securities trader Calvin Gooding, was killed in the September 11, 2001 attacks. He was working at Cantor Fitzgerald in Tower One of the World Trade Center.


title: LaChanze

text: On September 6, 2002, she sang the National Anthem at a joint meeting of Congress in Federal Hall National Memorial, the first meeting of Congress in New York since 1790. She sang "Amazing Grace" at the dedication of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum on May 15, 2014, dedicating her performance to her late husband.


title: LaChanze

text: LaChanze remarried in 2005 to Derek Fordjour, and divorced him in 2014. The divorce was finalized on March 27, 2014, in Westchester County.


title: LaChanze

text: In 2019, LaChanze and the elder of her two daughters, Celia Rose Gooding, made history by becoming the first mother and daughter ever to perform on Broadway at the same time, with LaChanze starring in "A Christmas Carol" and Gooding starring in "Jagged Little Pill".


title: King Curtis

text: Curtis Ousley (born Curtis Montgomery; February 7, 1934 – August 13, 1971), known professionally as King Curtis, was an American saxophonist who played rhythm and blues, jazz, and rock and roll. A bandleader, band member, and session musician, he was also a musical director and record producer. A master of the instrument, he played tenor, alto, and soprano saxophone. He played riffs and solos on hit singles such as "Respect" by Aretha Franklin (1965), and "Yakety Yak" by The Coasters (1958) and his own "Soul Twist" (1962), "Soul Serenade" (1964), and "Memphis Soul Stew" (1967).


title: King Curtis

text: Curtis Montgomery was born in Fort Worth, Texas, the son of Ethel Montgomery, and was adopted, with his sister Josephine Allen (died 2019), by Josie and William Ousley. Curtis attended I.M. Terrell High School, and studied and performed music with schoolmate Ornette Coleman (1930–2015).


title: King Curtis

text: Curtis started playing saxophone at the age of twelve in the Fort Worth area. He took interest in many musical genres including jazz, rhythm and blues, and popular music. As a student pursuing music, he turned down college scholarships in order to join the Lionel Hampton Band. During his time with Hampton, he was able to write and arrange music and learn guitar. In 1952 Curtis decided to move to New York and became a session musician, recording for such labels as Prestige, Enjoy, Capitol, and Atco. He recorded with Nat Adderley, Wynton Kelly, Buddy Holly, Waylon Jennings and Andy Williams.


title: King Curtis

text: Stylistically, Curtis took inspiration from saxophonists Lester Young, Louis Jordan, Illinois Jacquet, Earl Bostic, and Gene Ammons. Known for his syncopated and percussive style, he was both versatile and powerful as a musician. He put together a group during his time as a session musician that included Richard Tee, Cornell Dupree, Jerry Jemmott, and Bernard Purdie.


title: King Curtis

text: Curtis enjoyed playing both jazz and rhythm and blues but decided he would make more money as a rhythm and blues musician. In a 1971 interview with Charlie Gillett he said: "I love the authentic rhythm and blues more than anything, and I also like to live well." From the 1950s until the mid-1960s, he worked as a session musician, recording under his own name and with others such as The Coasters, with whom he recorded "Yakety Yak" and "Charlie Brown", among others. Buddy Holly hired him for session work, during which they recorded "Reminiscing." Holly wrote this song, but gave Curtis the songwriting credit for flying down to the session. His best-known singles from this period are "Soul Twist"—his highest-charting single, reaching number one on the R&B chart and number 17 on the "Billboard" pop chart—and "Soul Serenade." He provided backing on a number of songs for LaVern Baker, including her 1958 hit single "I Cried a Tear", where his saxophone became "a second voice".


title: King Curtis

text: In 1965 he moved to Atlantic Records and recorded his most successful singles, "Memphis Soul Stew" and "Ode to Billie Joe" (1967). In 1966 Curtis recorded 3 songs with Jimi Hendrix, "Linda Lou", "Baby How About You" and "I Can't Take It". Unissued, the tapes were later destroyed in a fire at Atlantic's master tape library. He worked with The Coasters, and led Aretha Franklin's backing band the Kingpins. The Kingpins opened for the Beatles during their 1965 performance at Shea Stadium. Curtis produced records, often working with Jerry Wexler and recorded for Groove Records during this period, including the Joe South song "Games People Play" with guitarist Duane Allman. One unique session came in 1963, when Curtis provided the honking sax backing for "Mad Magazine"'s novelty burping record, "It's a Gas."


title: King Curtis

text: In March 1971 he appeared with Aretha Franklin and the Kingpins at the Fillmore West, which resulted in two live albums: "Aretha Live at Fillmore West", and Curtis' own "Live at Fillmore West". In July 1971, Curtis recorded saxophone solos on "It's So Hard" and "I Don't Wanna Be a Soldier" from John Lennon's "Imagine". Along with the Rimshots, he recorded the original theme song for the 1971 hit television show "Soul Train," titled "Hot Potatoes".


title: King Curtis

text: On June 17, 1971, Curtis played at the Montreux Jazz Festival, in the Casino Kursaal, with Champion Jack Dupree, backed by Cornell Dupree on guitar, Jerry Jemmott on bass and Oliver Jackson on drums. The recording of the concert was later released as the 1973 album "King Curtis & Champion Jack Dupree – Blues at Montreux" on the Atlantic label.


title: King Curtis

text: Curtis was stabbed on August 13, 1971, during an argument with a pair of drug dealers. He was discovered on the steps outside his Manhattan apartment at 50 West 86th Street. Curtis was attempting to carry an air conditioner into his apartment when a man named Juan Montanez refused to move from the entrance. A fight ensued and Montanez stabbed Curtis. Curtis was transferred to Roosevelt Hospital, where he died. In March 1972, Montanez had his charge reduced from second degree murder to second degree manslaughter in exchange for pleading guilty. He was released on December 5, 1977, from the Wallkill Correctional Facility for good behavior.


title: King Curtis

text: On the day of Curtis's funeral, Atlantic Records closed their offices. Jesse Jackson administered the service and as the mourners filed in, Curtis's band, the Kingpins, played "Soul Serenade". Among those attending were Ousley's immediate family, including sister Josephine Ousley Allen, other family members, Aretha Franklin, Cissy Houston, Brook Benton and Duane Allman. Franklin sang the closing spiritual "Never Grow Old" and Stevie Wonder performed "Abraham, Martin and John and now King Curtis". Allman went on to honor Curtis by interweaving a medley of "Soul Serenade" into the band's rendition of "You Don't Love Me", first in a show at the Academy of Music on East 14th Street in Manhattan on August 15, and later during a live in-studio recording at A&R Studios in Manhattan on August 26, recorded for posterity and released on LP as part of the band's "Dreams" compilation in 1989.


title: King Curtis

text: In the film "The Buddy Holly Story" (1978), King Curtis was played by actor Craig White. He appears in the scene at New York's Apollo Theater, which would have taken place between August 16–22, 1957 during Holly's Irvin Feld Tour. In the television series "Genius: Aretha Franklin" he is portrayed by actor Marque Richardson.


title: King Curtis

text: In 1970, a year before his death, Curtis won the Best R&B Instrumental Performance Grammy for "Games People Play". He was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on March 6, 2000.


title: Usha Kiran

text: Usha Kiran (22 April 1929 – 9 March 2000) was an Indian actress. In a career spanning over four decades, she acted in over 50 Hindi and Marathi films, notably "Daag" (1952), "Patita" (1953), "Baadbaan" (1954), "Chupke Chupke" (1975), "Mili" (1975) and "Bawarchi" (1972). She was also the Sheriff of Mumbai during 1996 and 1997.


title: Usha Kiran

text: She began her acting career on stage with M.G. Rangnekar's Marathi play "Ashirwad". She entered the Hindi film industry with a small role in Uday Shankar's dance-drama film "Kalpana" (1948). She went on to act in numerous popular Hindi films such as "Nazrana" (1961), "Daag" (1952), and "Baadbaan" (1954), (for which she won the very first Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1955), "Kabuliwala" (1961), "Patita" (1953), "Mili", "Bawarchi" (1972) and "Chupke Chupke" (1975).


title: Usha Kiran

text: Her famous Marathi films include "Shikleli Bayko", "Jasach Tase", "Postatli Mulgi", "Dudh Bhakar", "Stree Janma Hi Tuzi Kahani", "Kanyadaan" (for which she received the Maharashtra Government's award for best actress), "Gariba Gharchi Lek", and "Kanchanganga".


title: Usha Kiran

text: She starred opposite Hindi film actors such as Kishore Kumar, Raj Kapoor, Dev Anand, Ashok Kumar, Dilip Kumar, Rajendra Kumar, Rajesh Khanna, Dharmendra and Amitabh Bachchan.


title: Usha Kiran

text: Usha was born into a Marathi-speaking family as Usha Balkrishna Marathe, daughter of Balkrishna Vishnu Marathe and his wife Radhabai Marathe. She was the second among five daughters. She was married to Dr. Manohar Kher, who became Dean of Sion Hospital in Mumbai. They were the parents of two children, a son, Advait Kher and a daughter, Tanvi Azmi. Usha Kiran's son Advait is a former model, now settled in Nashik with his wife Uttara (who was Femina Miss India of 1982) and his two daughters Saunskruti Kher and Saiyami Kher. Usha Kiran's daughter Tanvi Azmi is a well known television and film actress, married to cinematographer Baba Azmi, brother of Shabana Azmi.


title: Bhiwandi

text: Bhiwandi () is a city in the Thane district in Maharashtra, India. It is located northeast of Mumbai and northeast of the city of Thane. The city is a part of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region.


title: Bhiwandi

text: Bhiwandi is a commercial city and a major trade center that connects Mumbai and the rest of India through the Mumbai–Agra highway. It is known for its textile industry, though in recent years, economic downturn has forced the closure of a large portion of the sector.


title: Bhiwandi

text: Bhiwandi lies in the Konkan coastal lowland, a region known geographically for its hills and streams. The city houses the tehsil headquarters of Bhiwandi, and it is administered by the Bhiwandi-Nizampur Municipal Corporation. According to the 2021 census, the total population of the Bhiwandi-Nizampur Municipal Corporation area is 874,032.


title: Bhiwandi

text: The city of Bhiwandi has the largest number of power looms and handlooms in the country. The majority of the population is employed in the power loom sector. The second-largest power loom, after the one in Surat, is located in Bhiwandi. Since 2012, the city's textile industry has been in decline, partly caused by the sudden enactment of new goods and services taxes. Another concern facing textile producers is a lack of contact with buyers, leading many to sell primarily to middlemen, mostly from Gujrat, who charge significant markup prices. Bhiwandi has also a red light area.


title: Bhiwandi

text: Bhiwandi initially developed as an industrial hub for the textile industry, but more recently has hosted other industries and logistics sectors. Bhiwandi is among Asia's biggest warehousing hubs; its godowns are considered Asia's largest. It is a major contributor to the logistic landscape of Mumbai and India due to its close proximity to the Nhava Seva port of Mumbai, India's financial capital. Many e-commerce companies like Amazon, Flipkart, Reliance Industries, Snapdeal, and FedEx have branches in the city. The city is the next developed region for MMRDA, which has developed other regions such as the Bandra–Kurla Complex, Mumbai Metro, Monorail Project, and Eastern Freeway.


title: Bhiwandi

text: Bhiwandi's economy is divided into three sectors: textiles, groceries, and service (supplying, logging, and food delivery). During the COVID-19 pandemic, small hotels faced significant challenges.


title: Bhiwandi

text: Bhiwandi has a large water treatment plant at Panjrapur with 455 MLD capacity, making it one of the largest water treatment plants in Asia.


title: Bhiwandi

text: A city bus proposal was scheduled to be realised in Bhiwandi but was canceled due to the Auto Rickshaw strike. Bhiwandi has a central railway station at Anjur Phata. The train station has a link with the central railways and the local train of Mumbai as well. Bhiwandi Metro Project (Mumbai Metro line 5) is proposed with completion anticipated in 2025.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The University of Hyderabad (IAST: "Hydarāvād visvavidyālayamu") is a top ranking public central research university located in Hyderabad, Telangana, India.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Founded in 1974, this mostly residential campus has more than 5,000 students and 400 faculty, from several disciplines. The governor of the state of Telangana is ex-"officio" the chief rector of the university, while the President of India is the visitor to the university.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university was established along the lines of the Six-Point Formula of 1973. The first vice-chancellor of the university was Banaras Hindu University organic chemist Gurbaksh Singh, from 1974 to 1979. Shri B D Jatti was the first chancellor of the university.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: In January 2015, the University of Hyderabad received the Visitor's Award for the Best Central University in India, awarded by the President of India.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university is located in Gachibowli, on 2300-odd acres. The campus is rich in flora and fauna, home to over 734 flower plants, ten species of mammals, fifteen species of reptiles, and 220 species of birds.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university is recognized as an Institute of Eminence (IoE) by the University Grants Commission (UGC) through the "UGC (Declaration of Government Institutions as Institutions of Eminence) Guidelines, 2017" for public institutions


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university campus on 2300-odd acres, has a large area under forest cover, with two perennial and three seasonal lakes, as well as rock formations characteristic of the Deccan. It is home to 734 plant, 10 mammal, 15 reptile and 220 bird species (at last count). Notable animals include spotted deer, hares, peacocks, porcupines and wild boar. The campus also has a protected megalithic site.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: A study, which ranged over three decades (1990–2010), reported that of the plants present on campus, 315 species were used in traditional Indian medicine. 39 species of plants belong to the group that face the threat of extinction. These listings were the result of field studies done on campus by students and faculty members.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university follows the semester calendar beginning in mid-July and ending in early-May. About 90% of the students are residential. The Master's programme is usually of 2 years while the MPhil and PhD programme are of 18 months and 5 years respectively.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university follows the continuous assessment pattern, with 40% marks awarded through assignments spread out through the semester and 60% through semester-end examinations. Grading is on a 10.0 point scale, with D being the lowest passing grade, and A+ being the highest. The toppers post-graduate courses are awarded medals.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university is primarily a post-graduate research university. UoH conducts its own entrance examinations for all courses during the months of May–June each year and interviews in the month of May annually. The university offers integrated M.Sc., M.A., MFA, M.Tech., M.B.A, M.C.A., MPhil and PhD degrees. Admissions to UoH are highly competitive. The university follows the positive-discrimination reservation system as per University Grants Commission of India guidelines.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The University of Hyderabad was ranked 601–650 in the QS World University Rankings of 2020. It is ranked 15 in India overall and sixth in India among universities by the National Institutional Ranking Framework in 2020. In 2020, the university was ranked 2nd among India's government universities by India Today.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university library is a central facility to support teaching and research activities of the university. This present library building was inaugurated by Shankar Dayal Sharma, the then Vice President of India, on 21 October 1988 and named after late Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The library is connected to Campus Network. The library also created learning environment by establishing Online Public Access Catalog (WebOPAC), OPAC Searching Area, Internet browsing area, Laptop zone with Wi-Fi facility, specialised workstations & software for visually-challenged students and by facilitating electronic resources, search services/tools.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Indira Gandhi Memorial library is the first automated university library in the country. The library serves as a resources station to all scholars and has a print collection around 400,000, that include monographs, text books, back volumes of journals, theses / dissertations, CDs/DVDs. It subscribes around 500 print journals in various disciplines of the university and provides access to more than 25,000 e-resources including e-books. It also comprises a reading room which is accessible round-the-clock for the benefit of the students.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: College for Integrated Studies (CIS) was established in the year 2006 to offer 5-year Integrated master's degree courses. The centre offers 5-year integrated master's degree courses in Science, Humanities and Social Science subjects. The five-year Integrated M.A. (I.M.A.) and M.Sc. (I.M.Sc.) courses of the University of Hyderabad are trans-disciplinary programmes with core and elective subjects.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The University of Hyderabad's Study in India Programme (SIP) for foreign students began as a small experimental summer initiative where students from the University of Pittsburgh took nine credits over nine weeks in the summer of 1998. Since then, SIP has grown in leaps and bounds and has gone from hosting eight students in its debut year to nearly 200 in the most recent academic year. The University Grants Commission (UGC), a governmental organisation in India tasked with determining and maintaining standards for university education, has hailed the Study in India Programme as a model initiative and has encouraged other universities in India to emulate the program's approach. SIP's strength is its flexibility and willing to innovate to meet the needs of universities and study abroad consortia. SIP has created specialised, tailor-made programs for partners such as Dartmouth College, Duke University and the Nordic Centre in India—a consortium of 15 Nordic universities. Students can apply on their own, through their home schools, or through study abroad consortia that are SIP partners.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: In 2014 the SIP Programme has been selected for IIE Andrew Heiskell Award. Thirteen Campuses in the world have been recognised for their Outstanding International Initiatives. UoH is the only University from Asia to be recognised.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The University of Hyderabad started offering Post Graduate Diploma Programmes through distance mode since 1994. The target groups identified for these Programmes are (a) In service personnel looking forward to improve their skills and knowledge to enable to go up in the ladder in their own organisation or elsewhere and (b) Fresh graduate intending to improve their chances of employments on successful completion of these programmes.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Established in 1987 as a major initiative in augmenting quality in Higher Education, the UGC promoted 66 Academic Staff Colleges. The Academic Staff College of University of Hyderabad is a constituent unit of the university offering orientation, refresher and need-based courses for Assistant Professors / Associate Professors working in Universities and Colleges.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: It is an important academic wing of the university. Apart from the training programmes for teachers, the Academic Staff College conducts professional development programmes for principals and administrators. The faculty is also taking up the teaching assignments and research guidance in their respective departments.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) Peer Review Committee from Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) visited Academic Staff College during 19 – 21 January 2012 for peer reviewing of its activities and accredited this Academic Staff College, University of Hyderabad as ranked no. 4 in India.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university is a public research university with high research activity in every department, awarding about 300 doctorates each year. The university receives research funding from UGC, CSIR, DST, DBT, FIST and other funding agencies. The university is known for high quality research output from faculty and students in the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: National Institute of Animal Biotechnology (NIAB) is an autonomous institute under the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India established in the campus of University of Hyderabad.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The Institute of Life Sciences (ILS) also known as Dr. Reddy's Institute of Life Sciences is a research organisation founded through a public–private partnership initiative in the year 2004. The partners in the making of ILS are the Government of Telangana the University of Hyderabad and Dr. Reddy's Laboratories. Incorporated as a not-for-profit company, ILS has been accorded recognition as a Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation (SIRO) by the Ministry of Science & Technology.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The CR Rao Advanced Institute of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science (AIMSCS) has been set up with the objective of promoting research and advanced studies in mathematics, Statistics, Computer Science and allied subjects.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The Association of Management Development Institutions in South Asia (AMDISA) is a SAARC-recognised body. The association was established on the initiative of leading management Schools in the SAARC region and is located on the University of Hyderabad Campus in Gachibowli. AMDISA promotes management education and Management Development in the SAARC region and publishes the South Asian Journal of Management. The mission of AMDISA is to network management schools and management development centres; to promote partnerships between the schools, leading managers, and policy administrators; and to enhance the quality and effectiveness of management education and development in South Asia.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: There are 21 hostels for students to stay in (13 for men and 8 for women). The Tagore International House caters to international students. There are two shopping complexes: one on the North campus and one on the South Campus. Also, there are seven canteens: the Students Centre Canteen, Goodwill Canteen, SN school canteen, F canteen, School of Chemistry canteen, Admin canteen, and School of Life Sciences canteen.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: There are four multipurpose auditoriums within the campus. The DST Auditorium is the largest, with a capacity of 700. It is used mainly for cultural events, seminars, public talks, and screening of documentaries and movies. The CV Raman Auditorium, with a capacity of 200, is located inside the science complex, and serves as a conference and seminar hall. The BR Ambedkar Auditorium is mainly used for cultural events, public talks, debates, and other events. There is another auditorium located inside the humanities block.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Bol Hyderabad 90.4 FM is the University of Hyderabad's Campus Radio Station which began operations from 15 August 2011. The range of the radio broadcast is around 15 kilometer radius around the campus covering areas of Tolichowki, Gopanapally, Hi-Tech City and Gachibowli areas of Hyderabad.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: In connection with 'Gandhi Jayanti Week' Celebrations National Service Scheme (NSS) Cell, organises Peace March, Orientation Programmes, Tree plantation etc. during the first week of October every year.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Major student organisations on the campus include the All India students federation (AISF) Ambedkar Students' Association (ASA), Muslim Students Federation (msf), Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP, "All Indian Student Council"), National Students' Union of India (NSUI), Students' Federation of India (SFI), Bahujan Students' Front (BSF), Dalit Students' Union (DSU), Telangana Students' Association (TSA), Other Backward Classes Federation (OBCF), All India Students Association (AISA ), and the Telangana Vidyarthi Vedika (TVV, Telangana Student Forum).


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The Students' Union is elected annually, with elections being conducted by the students themselves, following the guidelines set by the Lyngdoh Committee. The Students' Union includes a president, vice-president, general secretary, joint secretary, sports secretary and cultural secretary. The elections are held during the month of September every year.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The elected Students' Union conducts various sports and cultural events for the students over the academic year.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The first of such event is the Nari's Cricket Knight Cup. The tournament is named in memory of an Ex-student Mr. Narayan Reddy (Nari) who met with an unfortunate death in the campus premises.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Initially, a few friends of Mr.Narayan Reddy started this 5-over a side tournament with 9 players per side. However, the Students' Union took over the responsibility of conducting the Knight Cup later. The tournament is conducted under floodlights at the Open-Air auditorium.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The Senthil Balraj Cricket Night cup was initiated in February, 2011 by the then Students' Union in memory of Senthil and Balraj. This cricket night cup is unique in the sense that it is open to only the registered students and employees of the university while the Nari's Knight Cup is open to Alumni's as well as the students of the university. However, the format of both the competitions remains the same.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The Football Night cup is the third in the series of Night cups conducted by the Students' Union. The tournament is usually conducted in the last week of February every year. This is a 7-a-side tournament with a total match duration of 30 mins.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: Sukoon (सुकून, meaning "peace") is the annual cultural festival of the university organised by the Students' Union during the month of March where students from colleges all over Hyderabad participate. The 3-day event includes various literary and other recreational events.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: The university has an ED Cell, located in the Management Block of the university, that has nurtured startups. Some of them include.


title: University of Hyderabad

text: On 22 March 2016, police arrested 25 students and 2 faculty members who were reportedly protesting against the Vice Chancellor Appa Rao Podile's return to campus following the suicide of Rohith Vemula. All of them were granted bail on 28 March by the Metropolitan Magistrate at Miyapur court.


title: Predappio

text: Predappio (; or ) is a town and "comune" in the province of Forlì-Cesena, in the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy, with a population of 6,135 as of 1 January 2021. The town is best known for being the birthplace of Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1943. Mussolini is buried at Predappio, and his mausoleum is a local tourist destination, as well as a site of pilgrimage for Italian fascists.


title: Predappio

text: From its origins (possibly Roman) until the 1920s, Predappio was a rural town of modest size, situated on the hills of Forlì. Augustus divided Italy into eleven provinces and Predappio was within the sixth province. It is believed that the town name derives from the installation in those locations of an ancient Roman family: the "Appi". The town was accordingly named "Praesidium Domini Appi", abbreviated to "Pre.DiAppi".


title: Predappio

text: Historically, the town developed around the medieval castle, looking down the valley. Along the valley, about from Predappio, the town was known as "Dovia" (probably a corruption of the local Roman road "Duo Via", Two-Way).


title: Predappio

text: Benito Mussolini was born in Predappio in 1883. After a landslide hit the town in the winter of 1923/24 and left many people homeless, the government decided to build a bigger, more prestigious township to celebrate the birthplace of Mussolini, following the architectural dictates of the emerging Fascist Italy. Along with the nearby town of Forlì, Predappio was given the title of "La Città del Duce" ("The City of the Leader"), after the title taken by Mussolini as Italian dictator.


title: Predappio

text: Predappio has become a site of pilgrimage for Italian and other neo-fascists, with this development drawing criticism and protests from anti-fascists.


title: Predappio

text: In April 2009, the town council banned the sale of fascist souvenirs. In 2014, Mayor Giorgio Frassineti announced plans to build in the town "a museum dedicated to the history of fascism". The mayor, who was standing for re-election as a member of the centre-left Democratic Party, stated that the aim of the council's decision was to have people remember a "fundamental piece of [Italian] history" so that "Predappio would become a place for reflection – cutting the town from the hands of those who want to misuse it." As of early 2016, the museum's construction was still pending, but sale of fascist souvenirs was again permitted in the town.


title: Predappio

text: In 2019, Brothers of Italy-backed Roberto Canali was elected as mayor of Predappio, ending the more than 70 years of left-wing rule in Predappio. On 24 July 2019, Canali announced plans to open Mussolini's crypt to the public all year round. Canali said that he wanted to promote the tomb as a tourist attraction to boost the local economy.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm is the third expansion set for the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) "World of Warcraft", following "". It was officially announced at BlizzCon on August 21, 2009, although dataminers and researchers discovered details before it was officially announced by Blizzard. The expansion was officially released on December 7, 2010.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: Shortly after the announcement of the release date, on October 12, 2010, Blizzard implemented patch 4.0.1, which included the overhaul of the game's playing systems.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: With the release of Cataclysm, the maximum player level was raised from 80 to 85. The game's two main continents, Kalimdor and Eastern Kingdoms were redesigned with a changed landscape, including flooded areas and lava canals, and some new areas. The quest system was refreshed with almost 3500 new quests along with new and streamlined low and mid-level quests to complement the redesigned areas of Azeroth. Ten new dungeons and five new raids were added as well as a new secondary skill, Archaeology. The glyph system saw an overhaul to have three types of glyph: prime, major, minor. Furthermore, glyphs became permanently learned and require a reagent to remove from a slot. Two new playable races were added, the Worgen for the Alliance and Goblins for the Horde. In addition, existing classes were expanded to be available to more races. The major cities of Orgrimmar and Stormwind experienced major changes. Lastly, the existing talent system was overhauled. Players were awarded their first talent point at level 10, the next at 11, and then once per two levels until level 80. Player that reached levels 81 through 85 received a talent point at each level bringing the total to 41 talent points. Talent points allow the player to choose new and/or improved abilities.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: Many of these changes were put into place as of patch 4.0.1, which added all the new systems (new talents, glyph system, spell changes, resource changes, pets at level one, removal of stats from items and from the game, mastery, and others). The changes to old zones were made in patch 4.0.3a, which was released to live servers on November 23, 2010.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: The central plot of the expansion is the return of the evil dragon aspect Deathwing the Destroyer (originally Neltharion the Earth Warder). Last seen in "", which took place more than two decades earlier, Deathwing has spent that time healing himself, and plotting his fiery return from the elemental plane of Deepholm. His return tears through the dimensional barrier within Azeroth, causing a sweeping cataclysm that reshapes much of the world's surface. In the midst of the worldwide disaster comes renewed conflict between the Alliance and the Horde, which is now under the rule of Garrosh Hellscream. With the elemental realms now open to the world, chaotic elemental spirits and their tyrannical lords emerged to help the Destroyer and the nihilistic Twilight's Hammer cult bring about the Hour of Twilight: the end of all life on Azeroth.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: The Cataclysm is responsible for a number of political changes within the Horde and Alliance. With the wake of the cataclysm, the Horde's leader, the orc shaman Thrall, stepped down from his duty as Warchief of the Horde to better help the world of Azeroth as a whole. This duty was relinquished to the former overlord of the Warsong Offensive, the Mag'har orc warrior Garrosh Hellscream. Looking for ways to gather more resources and new territory for his people, Hellscream has initiated several brutal strikes against the Alliance, using the cataclysm to the Horde's advantage. The human king Varian Wrynn deployed many of his forces to fight against Garrosh's aggression, storming the Southern Barrens and Stonetalon Mountains, while Garrosh, unlike Thrall, embraced war with the Alliance.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: There are several new areas that players can explore, along with new quests and end-scenes that players can participate in.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: Alarmed by the terrible losses of life among all trolls, the Zandalari tribe traveled around the world to reunite their race and rebuild their once-powerful empire. The Zandalari restored the fallen cities of Zul'Gurub and Zul'Aman, and begun to conduct bloody raids on territories that had once been "theirs." The burgeoning troll force hoped to lead a great war against the other races of Azeroth, but the honorable Vol'jin of the Darkspear tribe stood against their murderous agenda, and recruited champions from both the Horde and the Alliance to invade the ancient cities and stop the onslaught.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: After a ferocious series of battles, Azeroth's heroes banished Ragnaros the Firelord and his elemental minions from Mount Hyjal. Yet, threats to Hyjal persisted, including traitorous druids who had abandoned their allies and joined forces with the elementals. Fearing another elemental invasion, the defenders of Azeroth made a daring assault into Ragnaros' blazing realm: the Firelands. Among the seething flames of this elemental domain, Ragnaros was at his most powerful; only the greatest champions of the Horde and the Alliance, aided by druidic champions like Malfurion Stormrage, could dare hope to defeat the Firelord.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: At the peak of his insanity, Deathwing the Destroyer fought to drive the world into twilight—a devastated future bereft of all life. The Dragon Soul, a powerful artifact lost in the past, was the only weapon capable of truly stopping Deathwing, and so the guardians of Azeroth—the Dragon Aspects—sent a number of valiant heroes racing through time to retrieve it. Despite being attacked by the mysterious Infinite Dragonflight as they travelled the timeways, the champions returned the artifact to the present and delivered it to the wise shaman Thrall. With his aid, the Dragon Soul was deployed against the Destroyer during a brutal battle that began in Azeroth's skies and continued into the roiling heart of the Maelstrom at the center of the world. Through the combined efforts of the Aspects and their allies, the madness of Deathwing was finally brought to an end. However, the remaining Aspects are forced to sacrifice their powers to fuel the Dragon Soul, but feel that their time as guardians of Azeroth has passed and that the heroes of the Alliance and the Horde have proved themselves ready and capable of protecting Azeroth.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: One of the primary features of "Cataclysm" is the redesign of the continents of Eastern Kingdoms and Kalimdor introduced with the launch of "World of Warcraft" in 2004. While the initial game design did not allow for the use of flying mounts in 'old-world' zones, those zones have been completely redesigned with flight in mind for "Cataclysm". Flight is still unavailable for Burning Crusade starting zones for the blood elves and the draenei.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: Major changes were brought to these zones. Each faction has a smoother leveling process, as many of the old quests are scrapped and replaced with new ones that incorporate updated gameplay and mechanics that have been changed or redesigned since the game's initial release. Each zone has its own storyline which can be explored through a series of quests. Each of the zones that are faction specific, however, cater only to those of the faction that controls that zone. Neutral, or 'Contested' zones, feature a PvP (Player-versus-Player) based quest line, making the player compete against the opposing faction (Horde against Alliance, and vice versa) to achieve the desired goal of their faction. This feature makes heavy usage of phasing, which was first seen in the "Wrath of the Lich King" expansion.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: In February 2010, in an Activision Blizzard investor call, Blizzard assumed CEO Mike Morhaime revealed that "Cataclysm" was to be released in that same calendar year.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: On May 3, 2010, it was officially confirmed that the Family & Friends Alpha phase of the testing process for "Cataclysm" had begun, fueling further speculation that the open alpha would commence within the coming months. Despite the non-disclosure agreement (NDA), much of the beginnings of the game were leaked onto various sources after the client was distributed across the internet within a few days of the alpha testing phase commencing. On May 11, 2010, it emerged that Blizzard had requested that at least one of these sites remove any alpha content until the NDA was lifted.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: On June 30, 2010, "Cataclysm" entered closed beta testing, sending invitations to gamers who had signed up through their Battle.net account.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: Reporting their first quarter financial earnings in a webcast, Activision CEO Bobby Kotick all but confirmed that latest World of Warcraft expansion, Cataclysm, would be out on store shelves by the end of the year.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: In August 2010, Blizzard announced the "World of Warcraft: Cataclysm" Collector's Edition. Cataclysm was already said to be on track for release in the latter part of 2010 prior to this report; in addition, Blizzard CEO Mike Morhaime went on record saying, "Although an exact release date has not yet been announced, we are on track to launch the expansion by the end of the year. As with all Blizzard games though, we won't release until it's ready."


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: On September 7 (8 in Europe), the first pre-Cataclysm quest chains were released to live servers, and a few days later, Patch 4.0.1 was released to public test realms, indicating that a release date might be in the not too distant future.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: On September 30, news site MMO-Champion estimated that the game had a target release date of December 7, 2010 based on data-mining which revealed the start of the next arena season. GameSpot reported that Amazon.com customers who had pre-ordered the Collector's Edition of the game were sent notifications that they estimated the arrival date would be between January 4 to 18, 2011. Shortly after other websites such as Kotaku were emailed copies of the notifications sent to Amazon customers and posted it on their website marking the release date as January 5, 2011 Amazon.com for the past two expansions overestimated the game's release date in order to give their sales a safety buffer.


title: World of Warcraft: Cataclysm

text: On October 4, 2010 Blizzard officially announced the release of Cataclysm for December 7, 2010. The expansion was made available as Standard Edition, Collectors Edition and as a new digital download from the Blizzard Online Store. The digital version of the game has been made available for pre-purchase through Battle.net, and gives gamers the opportunity to play the new expansion pack the moment the servers go live (at 12:01am PST, December 7).