title: Derek Sherinian

text: Sherinian uses vintage instruments, primarily the Hammond organ, Moog, Rhodes, and Nord Lead 3 mixed in with some modern sounds. He endorses Korg, Clavia, and Dexibell keyboards. Sherinian was presented the G2 Modular synth serial number 001 by Clavia representative Bengt Lilja in January 2004. As a Korg endorsee, Sherinian was one of the first artists to adopt the Korg Trinity keyboard series in 1996. In collaboration with KORG sound designer Jack Hotop, they created Sherinian's signature "guitaristic" lead sound (the "Monster Lead", made famous on the Dream Theater album "Falling into Infinity") on the Trinity, as well as other, more "modern" and "aggressive" keyboard patches, owing to his fondness of guitar tones and technique.


title: Derek Sherinian

text: He also uses the Hammond B3 organ; he thinks that "every rock keyboardist should have a B3 and overdriven Leslie as part of their sound."


title: Derek Sherinian

text: Sherinian is also known for being one of the first keyboardists to use vertical keyboard stands, influencing a new generation of keyboardists.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Robert Earle Clarke (born August 13, 1949) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre who played his entire 15-year National Hockey League (NHL) career with the Philadelphia Flyers and is currently an executive with the team. Popularly known as Bobby Clarke during his playing career and as Bob Clarke since retiring as a player, Clarke is acknowledged by some as being one of the greatest hockey players and captains of all time. He was captain of the Flyers from 1973 to 1979, winning the Stanley Cup with them in both 1974 and 1975. He was again captain of the Flyers from 1982 to 1984 before retiring. A three-time Hart Trophy winner and 1987 Hockey Hall of Fame inductee, Clarke was rated number 24 on The Hockey News' list of "The Top 100 NHL Players of All-Time" in 1998. In 2017 Clarke was named one of the '100 Greatest NHL Players' in history.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke had three 100-point seasons, twice leading the league in assists, and was selected to play in nine NHL All-Star Games. He also won the Frank J. Selke Trophy in 1983, as the league's best defensive forward.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Upon retiring at the end of the 1983–84 season with 358 goals and 852 assists for a total of 1,210 points in 1,144 career games, he immediately became general manager of the Flyers. He spent 19 of the following 23 seasons as a general manager of the Flyers, also briefly serving as general manager of the Minnesota North Stars and Florida Panthers, and reached the Stanley Cup Finals three times with the Flyers and once with Minnesota. His time as an NHL general manager had its share of controversy, perhaps none greater than the rift between him and star player Eric Lindros during the late 1990s and early 2000s. He resigned from the general manager position less than a month into the 2006–07 season and is currently the Flyers' senior vice president.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: The image of Clarke, with a toothless grin, embracing the Stanley Cup and winking following the Flyers' victory in the 1975 Stanley Cup Finals is considered one of the most iconic and famous photos in the history of the sport of hockey.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Born in the small northern Manitoban mining town of Flin Flon, Clarke began playing organized hockey when he was eight years old. Around the time he was 12 or 13 years old, he learned he had type 1 diabetes. Even though he progressed into a highly touted prospect playing for the Flin Flon Bombers, leading the league in which the Bombers played in scoring in each of his last three years of junior hockey, NHL teams feared Clarke would never be able to play in the NHL because of his diabetes. Bombers coach Pat Ginnell took Clarke to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota following the 1967–68 season and the doctors concluded that as long as he took care of himself he could play professionally. Ginnell asked the doctors to write that statement down and when NHL scouts came to watch the Bombers play during the 1968–69 season, Ginnell showed them the doctor's verdict.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Even with such assurances Clarke fell to the second round of the 1969 NHL Amateur Draft and was finally selected by the Philadelphia Flyers 17th overall. After Gerry Melnyk, a scout and administrative assistant with the Flyers, tried to convince general manager Bud Poile to draft Clarke with their first-round pick and failed — Poile drafted Bob Currier instead, a player who retired five years later and, ironically, never played a game in the NHL — Melnyk called a diabetes specialist in Philadelphia who said Clarke would be fine if he looked after his health. Melnyk then successfully convinced Poile to draft Clarke when the Flyers second-round pick came around. The Detroit Red Wings and Montreal Canadiens immediately offered the Flyers a deal for Clarke, Detroit offering two veteran players and Montreal offering a deal "Flyers management could hardly refuse." The Flyers refused both offers and made it clear Clarke was not for sale.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Wearing #16, Clarke made his NHL debut on October 11, 1969, against the Minnesota North Stars. He recorded his first point on October 22 against the Toronto Maple Leafs, an assist on Lew Morrison's 3rd period goal, and he scored his first goal on October 30 against the New York Rangers, beating Rangers goaltender Ed Giacomin 16:36 into the 3rd period. Clarke played the entire 76-game schedule his rookie season and recorded 46 points (15 goals, 31 assists) while earning a trip to the NHL All-Star Game. He was also named NHL Rookie of the Year by The Sporting News, and finished fourth in voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy. Clarke led the Flyers in scoring during his sophomore season, 1970–71, with 27 goals and 36 assists for a total of 63 points in 77 games. His efforts helped the Flyers make the playoffs, but Clarke was held scoreless in his first playoff action and the Flyers lost in four games to the Chicago Black Hawks.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: A tooth abscess was the cause of a slow start to the 1971–72 season; 20 pounds underweight, Clarke only managed 5 goals and 11 assists 31 games into the season. He rebounded over the final 47 games, scoring 30 goals and 35 assists and bringing his totals to 35 goals and 46 assists. His dedication was rewarded when he became the first Flyer to win a major NHL award, the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, and the Flyers re-signed him to a five-year contract worth $100,000 per season, a raise of $75,000 per season.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: A few months following his strong play during the Summit Series for Team Canada, Clarke was named the Flyers' captain at age 23, the youngest to ever assume that role in NHL history at the time. As leader of the brawling Broad Street Bullies, Clarke became the first player from an expansion team to score more than 100 points in a season, 104 points (37 goals, 67 assists) total. Facing the Minnesota North Stars in the first round, the Flyers and Clarke received a scare, as he was hit in the eye with a stick which broke his contact lens and was rushed to the hospital. After removing parts of his broken contact from under the eye, Clarke returned to the lineup the next game despite having suffered a scratched cornea, and the Flyers won their first playoff series. The Flyers lost to the Montreal Canadiens during the next round, but Clarke was later awarded the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league's MVP and the Lester B. Pearson Award as the league's most outstanding player as voted by the league's players.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke's production fell to 87 points in 77 games during the 1973–74 regular season, but his leadership and Bernie Parent's stellar goaltending led the Flyers to the second-best record in the league and to the Stanley Cup Finals to play the team with the best record, the Boston Bruins. After losing Game 1, Clarke scored arguably the biggest goal of his career in overtime of Game 2, putting a rebound shot in over Bruins goaltender Gilles Gilbert. The Flyers won three of the next four games and became the first expansion team to win the Stanley Cup. Clarke played a key role in the Finals in countering Bruins' star players, winning 48 of the 66 face-offs against Phil Esposito, and neutralizing Bobby Orr by chasing him down. The Stanley Cup winning goal in game six was scored after a fight between Clarke and Orr that sent both players to the penalty box.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke set the NHL record, at the time, for most assists by a centreman with 89 during the 1974–75 season on his way to a 116-point season. He finished second in the league in plus-minus rating with a plus 79, which illustrates his strong two-way play. The Flyers returned to the Stanley Cup Finals and defeated the Buffalo Sabres in six games, repeating as Stanley Cup champions. In addition to the second championship, Clarke was awarded the Hart Trophy for the second time, while being voted to the league's First All-Star Team.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: 1975–76 was a record-breaking season for Clarke. Playing on the LCB line with Reggie Leach and Bill Barber, the trio set a record for most goals by a line with 141. He also tied his mark of the previous season with 89 assists and set a personal best and franchise record for most points in a single season with 119 (later broken by Mark Recchi in 1992–93). He also led the league in plus-minus rating with a plus 83. The Flyers, without Parent and Rick MacLeish, made their third straight Finals appearance. However, Montreal coach Scotty Bowman's strategy successfully prevented Clarke's line from scoring and the Flyers were swept in four straight games. Clarke was awarded his third Hart Trophy and named to the NHL First All-Star team. Clarke's production would drop off over the next few seasons; in fact, his point total fell six seasons in a row. But the Flyers remained contenders, reaching the semifinals and losing to Boston in 1976–77 and 1977–78.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: After a quarterfinal loss to the Rangers in 1978–79, Clarke was named an assistant coach. In order to become an assistant he had to give up the captaincy due to NHL rules, so Mel Bridgman was named the 4th captain in Flyers history. His first season as a playing assistant coach, 1979–80, saw the Flyers go on an undefeated streak of 35 games, not only the longest in NHL history, but the longest in North American professional sports history. The Flyers made it to the Stanley Cup Finals before losing to the New York Islanders in six games. During the playoffs, Clarke scored 8 goals and assisted on 12 others in 19 games, all 8 goals coming on the power play. Following the playoffs, Clarke was awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy along with Flyers owner Ed Snider and former Flyers coach Fred Shero.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke wore the number 16 throughout his entire NHL career except for two games during the season. Prior to a road game on February 27, 1981, Clarke's jersey was stolen. Clarke wore the only other jersey available, number 36, in the next two games. A month later, Clarke hit a personal milestone in memorable fashion. On March 19 during a game against the Boston Bruins, a Reggie Leach slapshot struck Clarke. After leaving the ice, he re-appeared moments later stitched up and with his jersey covered in blood. 31 seconds into the third period Clarke beat Bruins goalie Marco Baron for his 19th goal of the season and his 1000th career point.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Despite his diabetes and hard-nosed play, Clarke proved to be remarkably durable. A broken foot suffered during the 1981–82 season limited him to 62 games, the only time in his career he played fewer than 70 games in a season. No longer an assistant coach, Clarke reassumed the captaincy from Bill Barber during . He skated in his 1000th career game on October 23, 1982, against the Pittsburgh Penguins. Clarke had his best season since 1977–78, scoring 85 points in 80 games. He also won the Frank J. Selke Trophy, given annually to the league's best defensive forward. After the Flyers were eliminated from the playoffs in the first round for the third straight season in and the general manager position opened up after Bob McCammon resigned, Clarke retired on May 15, 1984, to become the general manager of the Flyers.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: On January 14, 2017, Clarke played in the Flyers' 50th anniversary alumni game against the alumni of the Pittsburgh Penguins, where he combined with his longtime linemates, Bill Barber and Reggie Leach, which ended in a 3–3 tie before a sold-out crowd of over 19,000 at the Wells Fargo Center. Prior to the game Clarke announced that it would be his last alumni game.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke played for Team Canada three times during his career. He played a major role in defeating the Soviet Union during the Summit Series in 1972, captained the Canadian team to gold at the 1976 Canada Cup, and won a bronze medal at the 1982 World Championships. In addition, he led the Flyers to the only outright victory over the Soviet Union's best team, Soviet Red Army, during the 1976 Super Series, and took part in the 1979 Challenge Cup with the NHL All-Stars. After his playing career, he served as one of Canada's four general managers during the 1987 and 1991 Canada Cups and served as Canada's lone general manager during the 1998 Winter Olympics.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Coming off his third NHL season, Clarke was the last player Team Canada selected to play in the Summit Series. His line with Ron Ellis and Paul Henderson turned out to be Canada's best during the series, Clarke tallying two goals and four assists in the eight-game series won by Canada as well as being awarded Team Canada MVP in game one of the series. Clarke's play earned the respect of many during the series, Henderson saying, "The best thing that could have happened to Ronnie (Ellis) and me was to get this young kid making plays for us. He was terrific!" Wayne Cashman would add, "There were guys on Team Canada who took their game to new heights in that series. A perfect example would be Bobby Clarke." The Soviet team's assistant coach, Boris Kulagin, thought Clarke was Canada's best player. Clarke's strong play was largely attributed to the fact that, unlike many of the Canadian players, Clarke reported to training camp in top physical condition, as he had always followed a strict off-season training regimen. Though he earned much praise due to his play, he was also criticized for an incident during the sixth game which is often referred to as, "The Slash."


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke's line played against the line of the Soviets' top player, Valeri Kharlamov, during the entire series. After being on the receiving end of some stick work from Kharlamov while going for the puck, Clarke caught up with Kharlamov and laid a two-handed slash across his ankle, breaking it in the process. Though Kharlamov finished the game, he missed the seventh game and was largely ineffective in the eighth. When asked about the slash years later, Clarke said, "If I hadn't learned to lay on a two-hander once in a while, I'd never have left Flin Flon." 30 years after the series, Henderson criticized Clarke, calling the slash, "the low point of the series." Clarke responded saying that he thought it was "improper to criticize a teammate thirty years later," and that he did not "understand why he would bring it up now." Henderson has since retracted his criticism. Kharlamov, prior to his death in 1981, said he thought Clarke was tasked with "taking me out of the game." John Ferguson, Sr., an assistant coach with Team Canada in 1972, said, "I called Clarke over to the bench, looked over at Kharlamov and said, 'I think he needs a tap on the ankle.' I didn't think twice about it. It was us versus them. And Kharlamov was killing us. I mean, somebody had to do it. And I sure wasn't going to ask Henderson." Clarke, however, does not recall Ferguson telling him this.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: On their trip home from the Summit Series, Team Canada played a friendly match in Prague against the team of Czechoslovakia. At the end of the second period, during which the Canadians lost their 2–0 lead, Clarke hit Czechoslovak defender František Pospíšil in the face with a butt-end of his stick almost striking Pospíšil's eye.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Named general manager of Team Canada on January 30, 1997, Clarke was tasked with picking which NHLers would compete for Canada at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, the first time NHLers would compete in the Olympics. A few of Clarke's choices were the source of some consternation, in particular omitting Mark Messier in favour of surprise selection Rob Zamuner and choosing 24-year-old Eric Lindros as the team's captain over the likes of Wayne Gretzky, Ray Bourque, and Steve Yzerman. Ranked number one going into the tournament, Team Canada played strongly until being stymied by Czech goaltender Dominik Hašek in the semifinals, losing in a shootout. They then lost 3–2 to Finland in the bronze medal match.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Following his retirement, Clarke's first stint as Flyers general manager lasted six seasons and included two trips to the Stanley Cup Final in 1985 and 1987. After making the playoffs in each of his first five seasons in the front office, the Flyers fell off during the 1989–90 season and missed the playoffs, resulting in his firing by Flyers President Jay Snider.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke moved on to the Minnesota North Stars and spent two seasons as the North Stars general manager, one of which saw a surprise run to the Final in 1991.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Leaving Minnesota, Clarke returned to Philadelphia to assume the role of Senior Vice President during the 1992–93 season, and served as a mentor for young phenom Eric Lindros during his first season. Clarke moved on shortly after and took the general manager position with the expansion Florida Panthers, a team that set the expansion team record for wins and points during a season in 1993–94. He returned to the role of Flyers general manager prior to the 1994–95 season (Florida was compensated with cash and Philadelphia's second-round draft pick in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft), and he rebuilt the team into a Cup contender. During his second tenure as general manager of the Flyers, the team made the playoffs 11 seasons in a row but reached the Finals once (1997). Following a poor start to the 2006–07 season, Clarke resigned citing a possible burnout and a lack of desire. Clarke returned to the franchise on December 4, 2006, and was named Senior Vice President.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke failed to win the Stanley Cup over the 22 seasons he was a general manager with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Florida. During his 19 seasons as Flyers manager over two stints, the Flyers reached the Stanley Cup finals three times and amassed a regular-season record of 714–443–199, but for one reason or another always came up short of a Cup title. Clarke's Flyers in 1985 and 1987 were considered underdogs to the powerhouse Edmonton Oilers, as were his North Stars to the Pittsburgh Penguins in 1991. In his second tenure as Flyers manager, the team lost in the postseason, frequently to lower-seeded teams. While goaltending was a strength during his first tenure with two Vezina Trophy winners between the pipes (Pelle Lindbergh and Ron Hextall), only Hextall in 1995, a combination of Hextall and Garth Snow in 1997, Brian Boucher in 2000, and Robert Esche in 2004 got the Flyers past the second round of the playoffs during his second stint. By contrast, the New Jersey Devils, their Atlantic Division rivals, were stable in net with Martin Brodeur and beat the Flyers in the Conference Finals en route to Stanley Cups in 1995 and 2000.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke received his harshest criticism after first-round playoff exits, including a string of four in five years from 1998 to 2002, and several coaching changes. After Terry Murray was fired following the team's sweep in the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals (some suggested that Murray lost the players' respect by describing the 6–1 loss in game three as a "choking situation"), five more coaching changes were made in the next five years. Wayne Cashman, Murray's replacement, was replaced three-quarters of the way through the 1997–98, by Roger Neilson due to inconsistent team play. Some suggested Clarke's handling of Neilson, who took a medical leave in February 2000 to undergo cancer treatment and was replaced by Craig Ramsay, was disrespectful. Clarke explained "The Neilson situation - Roger got cancer - that wasn't our fault. We didn't tell him to go get cancer. It's too bad that he did. We feel sorry for him, but then he went goofy on us." Ramsay guided the team to the Eastern Conference Finals in 2000, but he was fired after a subpar start in 2000–01, being replaced by Clarke's former linemate Bill Barber. Barber was named coach of the year for 2000–01; however, under his watch the Flyers suffered two consecutive first-round eliminations, as their 2001 playoffs ended with an 8–0 defeat to Buffalo in Game Six, and their offense was held to just two goals by Ottawa during the 2002 playoffs, and this led to calls for Clarke's dismissal after he fired Barber. Clarke hired Ken Hitchcock as head coach for the 2002–03 season and Hitchcock remained until Clarke's resignation four years later, guiding the team to the 2004 conference finals.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Following the 2004–05 NHL lockout, Clarke signed 6'5" defencemen Derian Hatcher and Mike Rathje to four-year and five-year contracts respectively. While the moves were initially praised and even led some to label the Flyers Cup favorites in 2005–06, some suggested Clarke could not compete in the new NHL after the team was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Buffalo, a smaller, quicker team that proved to be effective against such slower defencemen as Hatcher and Rathje. Such criticisms became louder after a poor start to the following season which led to his resignation.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Nothing was more controversial during Clarke's time as a general manager than his dispute with Eric Lindros and his parents, particularly his father Carl who was Eric's agent. The trouble started following the 1997–98 season while negotiating a new contract for Lindros. Clarke threatened to trade him, saying, "If you want to be the highest-paid player in the game or close to it, you've got to play that way." While Lindros was not traded and he played well during the 1998–99 season, his season was cut short after sustaining a collapsed lung during a game on April 1 against the Nashville Predators. Lindros' parents criticized team trainer John Worley and claimed Clarke tried to kill their son by trying to put him on a plane back to Philadelphia, which would have been fatal given his condition.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: After Lindros criticized Worley in March 2000 for failing to diagnose a concussion (his second of the season), Clarke stripped Lindros of the role of team captain. A few weeks after suffering a third concussion during practice, Lindros returned to the Flyers lineup for Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals and sustained his fourth concussion of the season (his sixth in 27 months) during Game 7. Afterwards, Clarke said he did not dislike Lindros, but he had a problem with his parents, saying, "If he's going to come back, he can't have his dad calling us and telling us who to trade for and who he wants to play with Eric and who can't play with Eric." Lindros never played for the Flyers again, as he rejected the Flyers qualifying offer in the off-season and sat out the 2000–01 season. Lindros pushed for a trade to Toronto but that move fell apart at the last minute when Clarke and Leafs manager Pat Quinn could not agree on terms. Clarke finally traded Lindros to the New York Rangers in August 2001. Following the trade, Clarke said, "I don't give a crap whether he ever plays again or if I ever see him again. All he ever did was cause aggravation to our team."


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Upon Lindros' retirement in November 2007, Clarke stated that Lindros belonged in the Hockey Hall of Fame. "Yes, based on his ability to play the game and based on his contributions as a player, I think you have to separate all the crap that went on. Particularly when he played for the Flyers, it was just outstanding, dominant hockey — the first of the huge, big men with small man's skill."


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Lindros and Clarke both played for the Philadelphia Flyers Alumni during the 2012 Winter Classic Alumni Game on December 31, 2011. The opposing team was the New York Rangers Alumni. Both men acknowledged the game as an opportunity to mend fences.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: "(T)his Alumni Game has provided an opportunity to rebuild ... once-burnt bridges. In recent years, Clarke has stated multiple times that he believes Lindros belongs in the Hall of Fame, and Lindros has acknowledged his many disagreements with Clarke and expressed a desire to move on."


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke and his family have been long-time residents of South Jersey. When first playing with the Flyers, Clarke lived in Mount Ephraim, New Jersey, later moving to Cherry Hill, New Jersey, then to Moorestown and in Haddonfield when he returned to the area after working in Minnesota and Florida.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Bobby Clarke remained close friends with NHLPA head Alan Eagleson even after Eagleson was indicted for (and subsequently found guilty of) fraud and embezzlement.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke and his wife, Sandy, have four children, sons Wade and Lucas and daughters Jody and Jakki. They live in Ocean City, New Jersey.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: On November 15, 1984, Bobby Clarke Night was held at the Spectrum. The Flyers retired Clarke's #16 jersey and unveiled the Bobby Clarke Trophy which is awarded annually to the Flyers' Most Valuable Player. Three years later Clarke was a first ballot inductee into the Hockey Hall of Fame. The Flyers created a team Hall of Fame in 1988, and the first two inductees were Clarke and Bernie Parent. He also played in the 2012 Winter Classic Alumni Game at Citizens Bank Park against the New York Rangers alumni.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: In addition to his NHL honors, Clarke was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada (O.C.). The trophy he won in 1968 and 1969 with the Bombers, given annually to the Western Hockey League's top scorer, was renamed the Bob Clarke Trophy. He was inducted into three more halls of fame, the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame in 2003 as a charter member, Canada's Sports Hall of Fame in 2005, and the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame.


title: Bobby Clarke

text: Clarke finished his career 4th all-time in assists and 11th all-time in points, but he has since fallen to and (). His career plus-minus of +507 is 5th all-time. His back-to-back 89 assist seasons in 1974–75 and 1975–76 is still the Flyers team record and he also owns several other Philadelphia Flyers records, including:


title: 2B1 Oka

text: An experimental model was ready in 1957. Its chassis (Object 273), was designed and built by the Kirov Plant. Its 20-meter barrel allowed it to fire 750 kg rounds up to 45 km. Due to its complexity of loading it had a relatively low rate of fire—one round every five minutes. Field tests showed various drawbacks of the entire design (the recoil was too strong for many components: it damaged drive sprockets, ripped the gear-box away from its mountings, etc.) and the sheer length rendered it incredibly difficult to transport.


title: 2B1 Oka

text: Its development continued until 1960, when the idea of such overpowered guns (along with the 2A3), was abandoned in favor of tactical ballistic missiles, such as the 2K6 Luna.


title: German Unity Day

text: German Unity Day () is the National Day of Germany, celebrated on 3 October as a public holiday. It commemorates German reunification in 1990 when the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), so that for the first time since 1945 there existed a single German state. German Unity Day on 3 October has been the German National Holiday since 1990, when the reunification was formally completed.


title: German Unity Day

text: An alternative choice to commemorate the reunification could have been the day the Berlin Wall came down: 9 November 1989, which coincided with the anniversary of the proclamation of the German Republic in 1918, and the defeat of Hitler's first coup in 1923. However, 9 November was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led pogroms against Jews in 1938 ("Kristallnacht"), so the day was considered inappropriate as a national holiday (see 9 November in German history). Therefore, 3 October 1990, the day of the formal reunification, was chosen instead. It replaced the "German Unity Day" on 17 June, the national holiday of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1954.


title: German Unity Day

text: Before 1871, in the area where the single state of Germany now exists, different kingdoms and principalities existed. After the unification of Germany, and the Founding of the Empire 1871, there was still no common national holiday. The Sedantag was, however, celebrated every year on 2 September, recalling the decisive victory in the Franco-Prussian War on 2 September 1870.


title: German Unity Day

text: Before the Empire was founded in 1872, there were calls for a national holiday, and there were three suggestions. No decision was made. Until 1873, the Sedantag was moved to 18 January or the day of the Frankfurt Treaty (10 May 1871). The Sedantag would soon also be celebrated at the universities and in many German cities. It never occurred to them to think about "Empire Parade" or "Emperor's Birthday". Some Culture Ministers of the states, especially in Prussia, decided that the Sedantag would be an official festival in schools. Upon many suggestions, the date of the Emperor's proclamation on 18 January would be established as day of remembrance. Emperor Wilhelm I declined this: "This was also the day of the first Prussian coronation of the king, which should not fall into the shadow of a united German holiday."


title: German Unity Day

text: On 31 July 1919, the Weimar Constitution would be accepted in its form by the Weimar National Congress. In memorial of this "Hour of birth of democracy", 11 August was created as Constitution Day, because the President of Germany Friedrich Ebert, signed the constitution on this day.


title: German Unity Day

text: Shortly after the Nazis took power in 1933 (the so-called "Machtergreifung"), May Day (1 May) was established as a national holiday in the "German Reich". It was already celebrated as a "Day of the Labor Movement" since 1890, and also was part of the tradition for the May dance commemorating the Walpurgis Night. Immediately after the establishment of the holiday in 1933, the Nazis banned trade unions on 2 May 1933 and occupied their buildings as offices for the Nazi Movement. On 1 March 1939, Hitler declared 9 November (the day of the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923) as the "Memorial Day for the movement" as the national holiday.


title: German Unity Day

text: From 1954 to 1990, 17 June was an official holiday in the Federal Republic of Germany to commemorate the East German uprising of 1953, even with the name "Day of the German Unity". Since 1963, it was proclaimed by the President of the Federal Republic as "National Day of Memorial of the German People". However, by the mid-1960s as hope faded that the two Germanies would ever be re-united, this date became more of a holiday and day of recreation than a day to consider national unity.


title: German Unity Day

text: In East Germany, the Founding Day in 1949 was celebrated on 7 October as Day of the Republic, until the 40th anniversary in 1989.


title: German Unity Day

text: The motive for setting the date of 3 October as the possible Day of Unity was decided by the Volkskammer (GDR Congress) on the impending economical and political collapse of the GDR. The Helsinki Conference was set for 2 October, at which the foreign ministers would be informed of the results of the Two-plus-Four talks.


title: German Unity Day

text: At the beginning of July, the governments of both German states decided on the schedule: elections in the GDR would be held on 14 October, and a common election for the entire country on 2 December.


title: German Unity Day

text: The decision on the date was finally made on 22 August by the GDR's Minister-President, Lothar de Maizière, at a special session of the Volkskammer, which began at 9 p.m. After a heated debate, the President of the Volkskammer, Sabine Bergmann-Pohl, announced the results at 2:30 a.m. on 23 August:


title: German Unity Day

text: Gregor Gysi, Chairman of the SED-PDS, was visibly moved and made a personal statement: "Madame President! The Parliament has no more and no less decided on the downfall of the German Democratic Republic as of 3 October 1990". (Jubilant cheers from the CDU/DA, DSU and SPD.)


title: German Unity Day

text: On 3 November 2004, the Federal Chancellor, Gerhard Schröder, suggested that the "Day of the German Unity" be celebrated on a Sunday, for economic reasons. Instead of 3 October, the National Reunification should be celebrated on the first Sunday of October. This suggestion received a lot of criticism from many sides, amongst them from Federal President Horst Köhler as well as the President of the Bundestag, Wolfgang Thierse. The demand worried a part of the population because of discontent for increased working hours would be seen as a provocation and devaluing the national holiday. In addition, fixing the Unity Day on the first Sunday of October would have meant that it would sometimes fall on 7 October, which happens to have been the national day of East Germany; this date would thus have been seen as commemorating the division of Germany rather than the reunification. The idea was dropped after a short but angry debate.


title: German Unity Day

text: The celebrations are hosted by a major city, usually the state capital, in the German state presiding over the Bundesrat in the respective year (a sequence determined by the Königstein Agreement). After Bonn in 2011, Frankfurt am Main was the second non-state capital to host the celebrations in 2015; however, both cities are significant in German political history (Bonn as former capital of West Germany and Frankfurt as the place of the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–49).


title: German Unity Day

text: In addition, various celebrations are held in the federal capital Berlin, mainly based on the Straße des 17. Juni and around the Brandenburg Gate. State capitals and also other cities often have additional festivities. Furthermore, the Oktoberfest beer festival in Munich, which traditionally runs until the first Sunday in October, now runs until 3 October, if the Sunday in question falls on the first or second day of October. The celebrations in the host city always includes a festival and fireworks show.


title: German Unity Day

text: At the 1999 Day of German Unity celebration in Wiesbaden the (Compass Confederation) was formalised. The Zipfelbund are the four communities at the cardinal compass points of Germany: North – List on the island of Sylt, West – Selfkant, South – Oberstdorf and East – Görlitz. Together, they always participate in the respective annual celebration to represent the modern borders of Germany.


title: Moriori genocide

text: The Moriori genocide was the mass murder and enslavement of the Moriori people, the indigenous ethnic group of the Chatham Islands, by members of the mainland New Zealand iwi (tribes) Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama from 1835 to the early 1860s. The invading tribes murdered around 300 Moriori and enslaved the remaining population, causing the population to drop from 1,700 in 1835 to only 100 in 1870.


title: Moriori genocide

text: The Moriori are the indigenous population of the Chatham Islands (Moriori: "Rēkohu"), specifically Chatham Island and Pitt Island. Moriori share the same Polynesian ancestry as Māori people. According to oral tradition the first Moriori came to New Zealand from Eastern Polynesia around 1500, a couple hundred years after Māori first arrived on the mainland, and formed their own unique culture adapted to their isolated island environment and its marine resources. Later migration came from mainland New Zealand. The Moriori population peaked at around 2,000 divided among nine tribes.


title: Moriori genocide

text: After bloody inter-tribal conflict on the islands, high-ranking Moriori chief Nunuku-whenua introduced a philosophy of non-violence in the 16th century, known as Nunuku's Law. This law became engrained in Moriori culture.


title: Moriori genocide

text: In November 1791, British ship the "Chatham" was blown off course and landed at what they named Chatham Island. In a misunderstanding with the ship's crew, Moriori man Tamakaroro was shot dead. Moriori elders believed Tamakaroro was partly at fault for the shooting and planned appropriate visitor greeting rituals.


title: Moriori genocide

text: The two invading Māori tribes were originally from Taranaki. They had lost their land during the Musket Wars against other iwi and had developed a diaspora around the Wellington harbour.


title: Moriori genocide

text: In 1835, with the forced assistance of Pākehā mariners, around 900 Māori people from Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama sailed to the Chatham Islands. They then were welcomed to the islands by the Moriori and enjoyed their hospitality. This group arrived in two waves. The first arrived on 19 November 1835 via the hijacked European ship "Lord Rodney" and carried 500 people along with guns, clubs and axes. This first group killed and hung up a 12-year-old Moriori girl. The second group arrived on 5 December 1835. With the arrival of the second group "parties of warriors armed with muskets, clubs and tomahawks, led by their chiefs, walked through Moriori tribal territories" and "curtly informed the inhabitants that their land had been taken and the Moriori living there were now vassals."


title: Moriori genocide

text: Due to the new arrivals' hostility, a hui (council) of 1,000 Moriori was convened at settlement called Te Awapatiki to debate possible responses. Younger members argued that the Moriori could fight back as they outnumbered Māori two-to-one. Elders, however, argued Nunuku's Law should not be broken. Despite knowing Māori were not pacifist, Moriori ultimately decided to stay pacifist against the invaders, describing Nunuku's Law as "a moral imperative".


title: Moriori genocide

text: Although the council decided in favour of peace, the invading Māori inferred that the decision was a prelude to war. Violence erupted and around 300 Moriori were killed, with hundreds more enslaved. The invaders killed around 10% of the population in a ritual that included staking out women and children on the beach and leaving them to die in great pain over several days.


title: Moriori genocide

text: During the period of enslavement the Māori invaders forbade the speaking of the Moriori language. They forced Moriori to desecrate sacred sites by urinating and defecating on them. Moriori were forbidden to marry Moriori or Māori or to have children. This was different from the customary form of slavery practised on mainland New Zealand.


title: Moriori genocide

text: A total of 1,561 Moriori died between the invasion in 1835 and the release of Moriori from slavery in 1863, and in 1862 only 101 Moriori remained. Causes of death include murder but also introduced Western diseases.


title: Moriori genocide

text: Moriori petitioned the Government from the 1850s for recognition of their status as the indigenous population of the islands and for restoration of their lands.


title: Moriori genocide

text: The release of Moriori from slavery in 1863 occurred via a proclamation by the resident magistrate of the Chatham Islands.


title: Moriori genocide

text: In 1870, a Native Land Court was established to adjudicate competing land claims; by this time most Māori had returned to Taranaki. The court ruled in favour of the Māori, awarding them 97% of the land. The judge ruled that since the Moriori had been conquered by Māori they did not have ownership rights of the land.


title: Moriori genocide

text: The last Moriori of unmixed ancestry, Tommy Solomon, died in 1933, though there remain just under a thousand people who identify as Moriori.


title: Moriori genocide

text: Moriori culture underwent a revival beginning with a 1980 documentary, which corrected lingering myths about Moriori. These myths include the claim that Moriori were extinct and that Moriori inhabited mainland New Zealand before Māori.


title: Moriori genocide

text: In 1994, Waitangi Tribunal hearings began on the recognition of Moriori as the original inhabitants of the Chatham Islands and compensation. Released in 2001 the tribunal sided with Moriori. In 2020 a treaty settlement requesting a correcting of history, a transfer of significant land to Moriori, and millions of dollars in compensation passed in Parliament.


title: Moriori genocide

text: The first Moriori marae on Chatham Island opened in January 2005, with the opening attended by Prime Minister Helen Clark.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: The was Japan's first jet aircraft. It was developed late in World War II and the first prototype had only flown once before the end of the conflict. It was also called .


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: After the Japanese military attaché in Germany witnessed trials of the Messerschmitt Me 262 in 1942, the Imperial Japanese Navy issued a request to Nakajima to develop a similar aircraft to be used as a fast attack bomber. Among the specifications for the design were the requirements that it should be able to be built largely by unskilled labor, and that the wings should be foldable. This latter feature was to enable the aircraft to be hidden in caves and tunnels around Japan as the navy began to prepare for the defense of the home islands. Nakajima designers Kazuo Ohno and Kenichi Matsumura laid out an aircraft that bore a strong but superficial resemblance to the Me 262.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: The "Kikka" was designed in preliminary form to use the Tsu-11, a rudimentary motorjet style jet engine that was essentially a ducted fan with an afterburner. Subsequent designs were planned around the Ne-10 (TR-10) centrifugal-flow turbojet, and the Ne-12, which added a four-stage axial compressor to the front of the Ne-10. Tests of this powerplant soon revealed that it would not produce anywhere near the power required to propel the aircraft, and the project was temporarily stalled. It was then decided to produce a new axial flow turbojet based on the German BMW 003.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: Development of the engine was troubled, based on little more than photographs and a single cut-away drawing of the BMW 003, a suitable unit, the Ishikawajima Ne-20, was finally built in 1945. By mid-1945, the "Kikka" project was making progress once again and at this stage, due to the deteriorating war situation, it is possible that the Navy considered employing the "Kikka" as a "kamikaze" weapon, although this prospect was questionable due to the high cost and complexity associated with manufacturing contemporary turbojet engines. Other more economical projects designed specifically for "kamikaze" attacks, such as the simpler Nakajima Tōka (designed to absorb Japanese stock of obsolete engines), the pulsejet-powered Kawanishi Baika, and the better-known Yokosuka Ohka, were either underway or already in mass production.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: Compared to the Me 262, the "Kikka" airframe was noticeably smaller and more conventional in design, with straight wings (lacking the slight sweepback of the Me 262) and tail surfaces. The triangular fuselage cross section characteristic of the German design was less pronounced, due to smaller fuel tanks. The main landing gear of the "Kikka" was taken from the A6M Zero and the nose wheel from the tail of a Yokosuka P1Y bomber.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: The "Kikka" is often identified as the Nakajima J9N1, or occasionally J9Y, which according to a researcher at the National Air and Space Museum is incorrect. The official name given to the aircraft was 橘花 "Kikka." Like other Japanese aircraft intended for use in suicide missions, it received only a name. Imperial Japanese Naval aircraft were designated similar to U.S. Naval aircraft of the time frame. A first letter, denoting the role/type of aircraft, separated by a number that denotes where in the series of aircraft of the same role the aircraft resides, followed by a second letter denoting the design and manufacturing firm, and finally, a second number denoting the aircraft subtype. The first three characters remain constant through all the sub-variants an aircraft might be built to.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: The first prototype commenced ground tests at the Nakajima factory on 30 June 1945. The following month it was dismantled and delivered to Kisarazu Naval Airfield where it was re-assembled and prepared for flight testing. The first flight took place on 7 August 1945 (the day after Hiroshima was bombed by atomic bomb), with Lieutenant Commander Susumu Takaoka at the controls. The aircraft performed well during a 20-minute test flight, with the only concern being the length of the takeoff run. For the second test flight, four days later (4 days prior to Japan's declaration of surrender), rocket assisted take off (RATO) units were fitted to the aircraft. The pilot had been uneasy about the angle at which the rocket tubes had been set, but with no time to correct them they decided to simply reduce the thrust of the rockets from 800 kg to only 400 kg. Four seconds into take off the RATO was actuated, immediately jolting the aircraft back onto its tail leaving the pilot with no effective tail control. After the nine-second burning time of the RATO ran out the nose came down and the nose wheel contacted the runway, resulting in a sudden deceleration, however both engines were still functioning normally. At this point the pilot opted to abort the take off, but fighting to brake the aircraft and perform a ground loop only put him in danger of running it into other installations. Eventually the aircraft ran over a drainage ditch which caught the tricycle landing gear, the aircraft continued to skid forward and stopped short of the water's edge. Before it could be repaired Japan had surrendered and the war was over.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: At this point, the second prototype was close to completion, and approximately 23 more airframes were under construction. One of these was a two-seat trainer. Other follow-on versions proposed had included a reconnaissance aircraft, and a fighter armed with two 30 mm Type 5 cannons with 50 rounds per gun. These were expected to be powered by more advanced developments of the Ne-20, known as "Ne-20-Kai" 5.59 kN (570 kgf) or "Ne-130" 8.826 kN (900 kgf) or "Ne-230" 8.679 kN (885 kgf) or "Ne-330" 13.043 kN (1330 kgf), which were planned to have approximately 15% to 140% better thrust than the Ne-20.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: After the war, airframes 3, 4, and 5 (and possibly other partial airframes) were brought to the U.S. for study. Today, two examples survive in the National Air and Space Museum: The first is a "Kikka" that was taken to the Patuxent River Naval Air Base, Maryland for analysis. This aircraft is very incomplete and is believed to have been patched together from a variety of semi-completed airframes. It is seen in the black and white photo in bare metal with two Ne-20 engines mounted under the wings. It is currently still in storage at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration and Storage Facility in Silver Hill, Maryland. The second Kikka is on display at the NASM Udvar-Hazy Center in the Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar. Correspondence in 2001 with Japanese propulsion specialist Kazuhiko Ishizawa theorized that Nakajima constructed the Museum’s Kikka airframe for load testing, not for flight tests. This may explain why the engine nacelles on the Museum’s Kikka airframe are too small to enclose the Ne-20 engines.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: Two Ne-20 jet engines had been taken to the US and sent for analysis to the Chrysler Corporation in 1946. This was only revealed in 2005 by W. I. Chapman, who was in charge of the project at the time. A working engine was assembled with the parts of the two Ne-20s, and tested for 11 hours and 46 minutes. A report was issued on 7 April 1947, titled "Japanese NE-20 turbo jet engine. Construction and performance". The document is now on display at the Tokyo National Science Museum.


title: Nakajima Kikka

text: "Nakajima "Kikka-kai" Prototype Turbojet Special Attacker". This differed in having a projected total weight of 4,080 kg and a maximum speed of 687 km/h at 6,000 m.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: The visa policy of Canada requires that any foreign national wishing to enter Canada must obtain a temporary resident visa from one of the Canadian diplomatic missions unless they hold a passport issued by one of the 54 eligible visa exempt countries and territories or proof of permanent residence in the United States.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: All visa-exempt travelers to Canada (except United States citizens and permanent residents) have been required to obtain an Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA) when arriving in Canada by air since 10 November 2016. Travelers were able to apply early as of 1 August 2015.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Applications of visitor visas, work permits, study permits and certain types of permanent residency can be submitted online. However, such applicants must provide their biometrics (photograph and fingerprints) as a part of their application process. Depending on the country by which the passport was issued, a visa application may have to be submitted at a visa application centre at a Canadian diplomatic mission.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Holders of passports issued by the following 54 countries and territories are able to visit Canada without obtaining a visa for a period of up to 6 months. They are required to obtain an eTA if they arrive by air, except for U.S. nationals and citizens of France residing in Saint Pierre and Miquelon arriving directly from the territory, who are exempt from the eTA requirement. Nationals of certain countries must arrive by air when not holding a Canadian visa.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Visitors are eligible if they are in good health, can convince an immigration officer that they have ties (job, home, financial assets or family) that will take them back to their home country and have enough money for their stay. In some cases a medical exam or a letter of invitation may be required. Immigration officials have the discretion to limit the duration that visitors may enter the country as well as impose additional conditions.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On entry, Canada Border Services Officer (BSO) stamp passports or travel documents and visitors are granted a stay of 6 months from the date of entry. If a specific date was written on the stamp, however, the visitor must leave Canada before that date. Visitors wishing to extend their status date must apply 30 days before it expires.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In order to be added to the visa waiver list a country has to fulfill about 40 conditions, grouped into seven categories:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: The decision is made by analyzing all of the criteria in an overall review instead of a checklist so there is a certain level of flexibility.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In December 2013, the Canadian government announced intention to introduce a system named Electronic Travel Authorization (eTA), similar to the U.S. Electronic System for Travel Authorization (ESTA), as part of an action plan to establish a common approach to screening visa-exempt foreign nationals. The Privacy Commissioner of Canada expressed concern over the plan. Travellers were able to apply as early as August 1, 2015 and the scheme went into full effect on 10 November 2016.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Visitors can apply through the website of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) and are required to pay a cost recovery fee of . Visitors have to provide biographic details, passport and background information which includes additional citizenship, available funds, employment information and contact details. Applicants also have to answer questions about their health, immigration history and on any convictions they may have. Unlike a visa application, there are fewer questions in general and no question on their detailed travel plan. Following a risk assessment of the applicant, an eTA valid for multiple entries to Canada over a period of up to five years or until the passport's expiration date, whichever is shorter, should be issued.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: An eTA is mandatory for all visa-exempt nationals when arriving by air (except for U.S. citizens and permanent residents). However, an eTA is not necessary for overland entry via one of the land border crossings with the U.S. or entry by sea. Following arrival at a port of entry, admission into Canada is given at the discretion of the Canada Border Services Agency.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Citizens of Brazil who hold a valid non-immigrant U.S. visa or who have held a Canadian visa in the past 10 years can apply for eTA when arriving by air. They may not enter Canada by land or sea unless holding a valid visa. Brazilian citizens who do not meet this criteria also must hold a valid Canadian visa.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In addition, persons on a flight that originates from or travels to the United States and stops in Canada for refuelling do not need an eTA, nor do those on a flight that has made an emergency landing in Canada.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: The following persons do not require an eTA to enter Canada by air, and are in fact barred from applying for the eTA:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: A Canadian citizen who also has citizenship or nationality of a visa-exempt country (except United States) and does not have a valid Canadian passport are barred from applying for an eTA and are required to enter Canada with a Canadian passport when arriving in Canada by air. However, those who have a flight to Canada in 10 days and meet the requirements can apply for a one-time special authorization online, which is valid for a maximum of 4 days from the applicants' travel starting date and a single entry to Canada. To be eligible, the person must meet one of the following requirements:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: The special authorization does not apply to Canadian citizens who do not meet the requirements, or those who are entering Canada by land or sea. As U.S. passport holders are not required to apply for an eTA under any circumstances, this measure also does not apply to them, and they can continue to travel to Canada with their U.S. passports by air even if they do not have a Canadian passport.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Permanent residents of Canada from visa-exempt countries are also barred from applying for an eTA and must travel with their valid PR card or a one-time permanent resident travel document (PRTD) when travelling to Canada by air unless holding a U.S. passport. Those without valid PR cards or PRTDs are not allowed to board a flight to Canada and, if they no longer wish to maintain their permanent resident status, must renounce it first in order to be eligible for an eTA. Alternatively, they may enter Canada by land or sea.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canadian citizens, travelling without Canadian or US passport, and permanent residents regularly have issues checking in for flights to Canada on-line as the airline systems cannot find the eTA confirmation. These travellers are thus forced to check in at the airport. In some cases travellers are denied boarding due to incorrect implementation of the eTA exemptions by airlines.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In general, a foreign national who needs to transit through Canada to reach his or her final destination needs a transit visa, unless they fulfill one of the conditions listed below.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: A plan was announced in 2015 to allow all passengers to transit without a visa through the Vancouver International Airport. It is unknown whether or when this plan will be implemented.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Nationals of visa-exempt countries and U.S. permanent residents are eligible to transit through Canada without a visa regardless of final destination and modes of transport, however all visa-exempt travellers except Americans are required to have an eTA for transit if arriving by air.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Brazilian citizens may transit through Canada without a visa only when holding a valid eTA and arriving by air if they meet the requirements for an eTA.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: The Transit Without Visa Program (TWOV) and the China Transit Program (CTP) allow certain non-visa-exempt nationals to transit through Canada on their way to and from the United States without a Canadian transit visa and without applying to obtain the eTA. To be eligible, they must fulfill the following criteria:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In addition, passengers must remain in the sterile international transit area when arriving from the U.S., or the post-preclearance area when arriving from a third country and have cleared U.S. immigration and customs. Leaving the designated area is not permitted.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: When travelling to the U.S., the passenger must hold a valid, unexpired U.S. visa in order to clear U.S. immigration and customs. However, an expired U.S. visa is acceptable for transit when travelling from the U.S. to a third country if the passenger has not overstayed the authorized period in the U.S. and is not under a removal or deportation order.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: For China Transit Program, the passenger must hold a passport from and leave from one of the following airports as the last point of embarkation when travelling to the U.S.: Beijing-Capital, Chengdu, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Harbin, Shanghai-Pudong, Shanghai-Hongqiao, Shenyang and Xiamen in Mainland China, as well as Hong Kong, Manila, Seoul-Incheon, Taipei-Taoyuan, Nagoya-Chubu, Osaka-Kansai, Tokyo-Haneda, and Tokyo-Narita outside Mainland China. There are no point of embarkation or disembarkation restrictions when the passenger is travelling from the U.S. to a third country.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Under Canadian government definitions, a temporary resident, as opposed to a permanent resident, is "a foreign national who is legally authorized to enter Canada for temporary purposes". Temporary residents are subjected to a number of conditions, such as the length of stay, and the ability to work or study while in Canada.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Except for visitors who may enter Canada with proof of citizenship, an eTA or a temporary resident visa depending on their nationality, all other temporary residents must hold valid permits while in Canada, which must be applied before arrival, on arrival or after arrival. They may also need an eTA or a temporary resident visa in order to re-enter Canada.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Persons with temporary resident status in Canada can apply to extend their stay by filling an application at least 30 days before their authorized periods of stay expire.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Holders of passports issued by Greenland and the United States, permanent residents of the United States, French citizens residing in St. Pierre and Miquelon and nationals of visa-exempt countries are eligible to apply for a study permit on arrival if holding sufficient documentations.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Nationals of Mexico and the United States whose professions are covered under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are able to apply for a work permit on arrival.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canada's working holiday scheme, International Experience Canada (IEC), provides non-Canadian citizens the opportunity to work in Canada as TFWs on an IEC work permit. IEC is divided into three tiers:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Depending on the agreements with the respective countries, non-Canadian citizens may be eligible to participate in all three tiers, or one or two tiers out of the three. To be eligible, they have to be a citizen of the following countries within the age limit:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Citizens of the majority of countries need a temporary resident visa to enter Canada. They need to apply either online, or on paper at one of the Visa Application Centres (VACs).


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canada has introduced a program known as CAN+ for visitors of some countries who have been to Canada in the last 10 years or who possess a valid U.S. visa. When applying through CAN+, the applicant only needs to submit his or her proof of travel to U.S. or Canada and can submit fewer proof of financial support. The program is only available at certain visa offices or for nationals of certain countries.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Parents and grandparents of Canadian citizens or permanent residents can apply for the parent and grandparent super visa which allows them to stay for up to two years in Canada without renewing their status. Citizens of a visa-exempt country and U.S. permanent residents may also apply and receive the same benefit, but will not be given a visa label in their passport. Instead, they must also apply for an eTA after their application is approved in order to travel to Canada.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canada expanded its biometrics (fingerprint and photograph) requirements in 2018 and 2019. Applicants for a visitor visa, a study permit, a work permit or permanent residence after the relevant dates must submit their biometrics at one of the VACs if outside Canada and the United States, at one of the Application Support Centers (ASCs) manned by the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) if in the United States, or at a designated Service Canada location if in Canada. For persons who are either eligible to receive a work permit or a study permit on arrival or seeking asylum, biometrics will be collected at a port of entry.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Biometrics are collected once every 10 years and will be shared with governments of other Five Eyes countries. Applicants must pay a fee as a part of their application.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canadian citizens and persons who have been granted permanent residency (unless they have formally lost their permanent residence) are exempt from biometrics collection. The following categories of persons are also exempt:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: The following persons are no longer required to have their biometrics recollected, providing that their biometrics have already been submitted as a part of their application:


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Before 31 July 2018, applicants from the following 30 countries had to continue to provide biometrics as a part of a pilot requirement from 2013. Those who applied for a visa before 31 July 2018 had to provide their biometrics every time they submit an application. However, those who submitted an application after the date will no longer need to give biometrics if they have given them in the past, and their biometrics would be valid for 10 years from the most recent time they gave them.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canada's visa policy has gone through a number of changes in the recent years. In 1984, citizens of 76 countries could travel to Canada without a visa. The number of countries has now dropped to 54.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 5 September 2002, visa restrictions were reintroduced for Saudi Arabian citizens travelling to Canada because "Saudi Arabia has not demonstrated the necessary will nor that it possesses the infrastructure to deny the use of its passports to terrorists, criminals or other inadmissible persons".


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 24 September 2002, visa restrictions were reintroduced for Malaysian citizens travelling to Canada because "the Malaysian passport and passport issuing system are vulnerable to abuse".


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 11 May 2004, visa restrictions were reintroduced for Costa Rican citizens travelling to Canada because the "number of Costa Rican nationals travelling to Canada to claim refugee protection or to enter the United States illegally, using Canada as a transit point, continues to grow" and also because there is "a growing incidence of Costa Rican document abuse by nationals of neighbouring countries".


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 26 March 2009, visa requirements were lifted for Croatian citizens travelling to Canada because "immigration violation and visa application refusal rates for Croatian nationals have steadily decreased over the past five years, while the number of refugee claims and removals has remained low".


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 13 July 2009, visa restrictions were reintroduced for Mexican citizens travelling to Canada because of three main factors: the number of refugee claims for Mexican nationals has substantially increased from less than 3,500 in 2005 to almost 9,500 in 2008, the immigration violation rate has steadily increased over the past three years and the risks related to travel documents, organised crime and corruption.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Canadian citizens enjoy visa-free access to the Schengen Area, which includes the Czech Republic. When the Czech Republic joined the European Union with 9 other countries in 2004, the European Union started a dialogue with the Canadian government to lift visa requirements for citizens of these countries to receive "visa reciprocity" between all Schengen countries and Canada. The result was the lifting of visa requirements for Czech citizens in October 2007. However, on 16 July 2009, Canada reintroduced visa requirements for Czech citizens as the overstay percentage was very high because many Roma filed for asylum. The EU urged Canada that "This highly regrettable situation should be brought to an end as soon as possible." In October 2013, following a contentious reform of the refugee determination system that significantly brought down the number of false asylum claims, Canada lifted visa requirement for Czech citizens effective immediately on November 14, 2013.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Starting from 22 November 2010, holders of an ordinary Taiwan passport with a personal identification number were able to enter Canada without a visa because "TRV refusal rates and the number of immigration violations, removals, and asylum claims by Taiwan passport holders are low".


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 13 September 2012, Botswana, Namibia, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Swaziland were removed from the list of exempted nations. As a result, citizens of these five countries were required to obtain visas in advance to travel to or transit through Canada. Botswana, Namibia, and Swaziland were removed primarily due to concerns relating to human trafficking (especially of minors) and the use of fraudulent documents. Also, Namibia had the highest immigration violation rate, with 81% of its citizens in Canada committing immigration violations, and 71% of Namibian travellers made asylum claims in 2011 in Canada. Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines were removed mainly because of unreliable travel documents, in particular because "criminals from these countries can legally change their names and acquire new passports". In certain cases, citizens of these two countries "who were removed from Canada as security risks later returned using different passports". In addition, the removal of Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines was prompted by the "unacceptably high number of asylum claims from St. Lucia and St. Vincent, with about one and a half percent and three percent of the population of these countries making asylum claims in Canada over the past five years".


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 12 May 2014, Canadian government sources announced a possible removal of visa requirements for Chilean citizens, following its participation as the 38th member of the Visa Waiver Program. Visa requirements were finally lifted on 22 November 2014.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In October 2014, it was reported that the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement with the European Union might not be ratified by Bulgaria and Romania unless the visa requirement was lifted for their citizens by Canada. Under Canadian legislation, for a country to be added to the visa waiver list there should be less than 3% immigration violations and visa refusal rate of less than 3% over 3 years. For Bulgarians the immigration violation rate was 4.4% in 2013 and the average 3 year visa refusal rate was 15.76%. For Romanians the immigration violation rate was 2.7% in 2013 and the average 3 year visa refusal rate was 15%. Even though the thresholds are not absolute, Canadian authorities notified the EU that political manoeuvre is not possible when the difference between the threshold and rates is too big.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: As of 22 November 2014, holders of Saint Kitts and Nevis passports need a visa to enter Canada due to national security concerns.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In December 2014, Canadian Foreign Minister John Baird announced changes in legislation that would allow a visa-free regime for all EU citizens.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: In April 2015, the previous Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, announced that Brazilian, Bulgarian, Mexican and Romanian citizens who had recently visited Canada or who had a valid U.S. non-immigrant visa would be able to visit Canada without a visa but with an electronic authorization from 2016.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: Incumbent Prime Minister of Canada, Justin Trudeau, committed to abolish visa requirements for Mexicans visiting Canada. On 28 June 2016, Trudeau announced that the visa requirements for Mexican nationals would be lifted on 1 December 2016, although many government officials were critical of the plan and advised against it. The risks identified include Mexico's weak passport controls, a potential rise in fake asylum claims, the increase of human and illegal drug trafficking, and the involvement of organized crime of some travellers. In addition, the U.S. can potentially tighten border controls which may slow the cross-border trades between the two countries and harm Canada's economy. Opposition parties criticized that the move was "a completely political quid pro quo" in exchange for the Mexican government to lift the ban on Canadian beef since 2003.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 31 October 2016, the Canadian government announced that Canada intended to lift visa requirement for Romanian and Bulgarian citizens on 1 December 2017.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: According to CBC News, sources confirmed that after Donald Trump had been elected to the U.S. presidency on 8 November 2016, high-level meetings took place between officials at IRCC and other departments in order to prepare for a potential surge of asylum seekers and overstayers from Mexico, although the visa requirements will still be dropped on 1 December as planned. Some officials did state that Canada will reintroduce visa requirements if the number of asylum seekers is too high.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 24 November 2016, the Canadian government announced that starting from 25 November 2016, Mexican nationals can apply for the eTA online. However, Mexicans entering Canada before 1 December would continue to need a visa. On the same day, Mexican nationals could no longer apply for a visa online and had to apply on paper through a visa application centre. The visa requirement was lifted on 1 December as planned and the issuance of visas to Mexican nationals ceased, although Statistics Canada predicts that the net cost of lifting the visa requirement is over in the next decade, which includes the additional immigration enforcement resources and the extra costs of processing asylum claims.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: From 1 May 2017, Brazilian, Bulgarian and Romanian citizens who have had a Canadian visa in the last 10 years or who hold a valid U.S. non-immigrant visa can fly to or transit through Canada without a Canadian visa.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: As of 27 June 2017, holders of Antigua and Barbuda passports need a visa to enter Canada due to concerns regarding the integrity of Antigua and Barbuda's travel documents.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 1 December 2017, visa requirements were lifted for Bulgarian and Romanian citizens travelling to Canada.


title: Visa policy of Canada

text: On 5 June 2018, the Canadian government announced that due to "a substantial increase in asylum claims and non-bona fide travel from Romania, with a concerning number of travellers using temporary and other non-electronic passports", Canada has immediately imposed visa restrictions on Romanian citizens who do not hold biometric passports and who did not obtain an eTA prior to 1 December 2017. These people's eTAs, if issued on or after 1 December 2017, are cancelled, and they must apply for a visa at their nearest Canadian visa application centres (VACs) or, if holding booking confirmation for travels booked prior to 5 June 2018 and depart before or on 18 June 2018, in person at a Canadian embassy in Bucharest, London, Rome or Vienna for same-day visa processing. Persons whose eTA was issued prior to 1 December 2017 or those who hold Romanian biometric passports are not affected by this restriction.


title: Gewehr 41

text: The Gewehr 41 (German for: rifle 41), commonly known as the G41(W) or G41(M), denoting the manufacturer (Walther or Mauser), are two distinct and different battle rifles manufactured and used by Nazi Germany during World War II. They were largely superseded by the Gewehr 43, which was derived from the G41(W), but with an improved gas system and other detail changes.


title: Gewehr 41

text: By 1940, it became apparent that some form of a semi-automatic rifle with a higher rate of fire than existing bolt-action rifle models were necessary to improve the infantry's combat efficiency. The Army issued a specification to various manufacturers, and Mauser and Walther submitted prototypes that were very similar. However, some restrictions were placed upon the design:


title: Gewehr 41

text: Both designs, used a mechanism known as the "Bang" system (after its Danish designer Søren H. Bang). In this system, propellant gases were captured by a cone-shaped gas trap at the muzzle, which in turn deflected them to operate a small piston which in turn pushed on a long piston rod that opened the breech and re-loaded the gun. This is as opposed to the more common type of gas-actuated system, in which gases are tapped off from the barrel, and pushed back on a piston to open the breech to the rear. Both also included fixed 10-round magazines that were loaded using two of the stripper clips from the Karabiner 98k, utilizing the same German-standard 7.92×57mm Mauser rounds. This in turn made reloading relatively slow (as compared to rifles that had magazines that could be reloaded from a single unit, such as the M1 Garand, although it was typical for its time, being identical to the reloading procedure of the 10-round Lee–Enfield).


title: Gewehr 41

text: The Mauser design, the G41(M), was the only one of the two that respected the criteria imposed. The end result was an overly complex, unreliable, clunky, and heavy rifle. It incorporated a familiar sighting and control arrangement to the standard Kar98k rifle. The G41(M) was striker-fired, rotating-bolt locking, and featured a traditional bolt handle/charging handle that automatically disconnected the bolt assembly from the recoil spring should the rifle be used in manual mode. The flag-type safety cams and blocks the striker. Only 6,673 were produced before production was halted, and of these, 1,673 were returned as unusable. Accuracy issues were noted since the front sight was mounted on the gas tube in front of the barrel, which would begin to drift out of alignment after prolonged fire. Most metal parts on this rifle were machined steel and some rifles, especially later examples, utilized the Bakelite type plastic hand guards.


title: Gewehr 41

text: The Walther design was more successful because the designers had simply ignored the last two restrictions listed above. Lacking the turn-bolt disconnector, the upper receiver was less exposed than the Mauser version. However, both the Walther and Mauser versions suffered from gas system fouling problems, since gasses at the muzzle cool down and deposit solid carbon fouling. These problems also seemed to stem from the muzzle trap system becoming excessively corroded from the use of corrosive salts in the ammunition primers. The muzzle assembly consisted of many tight-fitting parts and was difficult to keep clean, disassemble, and maintain in field conditions.


title: Gewehr 41

text: G41(W) rifles were produced at two factories, namely Walther at Zella Mehlis, and Berlin-Lübecker Maschinenfabrik. Walther guns bear the AC code, and WaA359 inspection proofs, while BLM guns bear the DUV code with WaA214 inspection proofs. These rifles are also relatively scarce, and quite valuable in collector grade. Varying sources put production figures between 40,000 and 145,000 units. Again, these rifles saw a high attrition rate on the Eastern front.


title: Gewehr 41

text: The Walther rifle was redesigned in 1943 into the Gewehr 43, utilizing a short-stroke piston copied from the SVT-40 rifle, and implementing a conventional detachable box magazine.


title: Erik Selvig

text: Erik Selvig is a fictional character portrayed by Stellan Skarsgård in Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Thor" (2011), "The Avengers" (2012), "" (2013), "" (2015), and "" (2022) as an astrophysicist who becomes involved with the Asgardian Thor and the government organization S.H.I.E.L.D. To tie into these appearances, the character is seen in several MCU tie-in comics. The character also appears in other media, including non-MCU comics published by Marvel Comics. He was also the main protagonist of the 2018 tie-in prose novel "The Cosmic Quest Volume Two: Aftermath".


title: Erik Selvig

text: In October 2009, Stellan Skarsgård joined the cast of "Thor", which was written by Ashley Edward Miller, Zack Stentz, and Don Payne; Skarsgård signed a five-film deal with Marvel. His character Erik Selvig appears in the post-credits scene at the end of "Thor", which was directed by "The Avengers" director Joss Whedon. This set up Selvig's role in that film. After also appearing in "Thor: The Dark World" and "Avengers: Age of Ultron", Skarsgård noted in February 2015 that he had one more Marvel film in his deal, that he would not be appearing in "", and that he possibly could appear in another "Avengers" film. Although his character didn't actually physically appear in "", his picture is shown as one of the victims who were killed by Thanos with his actions in "Avengers: Infinity War".


title: Erik Selvig

text: Erik Selvig was born in 1953. Being of Scandinavian origin, Selvig grew up hearing stories about the legends of Asgard, such as Thor and Bifrost. In adulthood, he became a professor of Theoretical Astrophysics at Culver University, where he met Bruce Banner. During his tenure as a university professor, he met Jane Foster, whose father was his colleague, and took her under his wing.


title: Erik Selvig

text: Selvig, Foster, and Darcy Lewis were travelling in New Mexico to study thermonuclear astrophysics. While researching in the desert, a storm hit them, with a powerless Thor suddenly appearing. The trio took him to a local hospital, but he escaped, although he was later captured by S.H.I.E.L.D. He went to S.H.I.E.L.D. and told them he was a man named Donald Blake, and they released him. However, Thor's brother Loki sent the Destroyer to Earth to kill Thor. After the brutal battle, Thor prevailed, and left for Asgard, saying goodbye to Selvig. After the incident, Nick Fury recruited him to study the Tesseract, while unknowingly being under Loki's control.


title: Erik Selvig

text: While researching the Tesseract, Loki opens a portal and arrives on Earth. Loki kills multiple S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, and takes Selvig and Clint Barton / Hawkeye under his control. In a secret location, Selvig worked to stabilize the Tesseract. Afterwards, he took the Tesseract to the highest point of the Stark Tower, and opened a portal, summoning the Chitauri, who began invading New York City. There he was confronted by Tony Stark, who knocked him out. Now freed from Loki's mind control, he told Natasha Romanoff that they could use Loki's scepter to disable the portal. Romanoff disables the portal while the other Avengers manage to stop the invasion. Afterwards, Selvig is comforted by Thor, to whom he give the Tesseract.


title: Erik Selvig

text: A year later, the effect's of Loki's mind control affected Selvig deeply, causing him to have a mental breakdown. Thor comes to ask for his help, as Malekith, a Dark Elf, was about to unleash a destruction event called "the Convergence". He worked with Foster and Lewis to develop teleportation devices to send Malekith and his army to their realm. Thor defeated the Elves and sent them back to their realm.


title: Erik Selvig

text: By 2015, Selvig had fully recovered from his breakdown. While leaving after giving a lecture, Thor asked for his help, to continue the vision given to him by Wanda Maximoff. Thor took him to the Water of Sights, where Thor had visions of the six Infinity Stones. When Thor lost control of his body, Selvig saves him and the two left from the location. After the Avengers stop Ultron's plan for world destruction, he joined the new Avengers Compound and began his work to assist the Avengers in keeping the world safe.


title: Erik Selvig

text: In 2018, Selvig is killed by Thanos' during The Blip but was brought back to life in 2023 by Banner. Sometime later, he hosted a "Nova" special dedicated to Einstein-Rosen bridges. Later, Jane consults him for her cancer treatment but he says that the treatment is ineffective.


title: Erik Selvig

text: Selvig appears in the MCU tie-in comics "The Avengers Prelude: Fury's Big Week" and "Thor: The Dark World Prelude" in the same capacity as he does in the films.


title: Isabella Leong

text: Luísa Isabella Nolasco da Silva Leong Lok-yau (born 23 June 1988), better known as Isabella Leong, is a Macanese actress and former singer.


title: Isabella Leong

text: Luísa Isabella Nolasco da Silva was born on 23 June 1988, in Macao to Luís Alberto Marques Nolasco da Silva (b. Sé, 8 August 1951; d. São Lourenço, 20 January 1989) and a croupier. She has a sister who is seven years older.


title: Isabella Leong

text: Leong's father was a descendant of one of the most prominent and long-established Macanese families, . Her father was a Eurasian born to Frederico Joao Moreira de Sousa Teles de Menezes, a Portuguese father and Terry Marques Nolasco, a Chinese woman living in Portugal. Frederico Joao is the sixth generation of the family and former President of the Macau Football Association. Leong's father has two elder brothers, Henrique and Frederico and one younger brother, Jose Manuel.


title: Isabella Leong

text: Leong's father suffered from a secret drug addiction and died from an overdose when she was only 6 months old. Leong had never received recognition from her paternal family, so she took her mother's surname. Leong's mother worked as a croupier in Casino Lisboa and Leong was responsible for contributing to the family's finances.


title: Isabella Leong

text: In 1993, she moved from Macau to Hong Kong and enrolled in Po Leung Kuk Camões Tan Siu Lin Primary School, after which she went to several schools in Hong Kong and Macao. She attended Macau Sam Yuk Middle School in 1999 but dropped out.


title: Isabella Leong

text: To help provide for her family, Leong abandoned school at age 12 to become a model for Emperor Entertainment Group.


title: Isabella Leong

text: She later began singing and released her debut album, "Isabella," when she was 16 years old. "Isabella" did not achieve the success hoped for and Leong subsequently debuted with acting. From 2005 to 2007, she made a string of films including "The Eye 10", "Bug Me Not!", "Isabella", "Diary", and "Spider Lilies".


title: Isabella Leong

text: Emperor Entertainment Group filed a lawsuit in the High Court on 3 April 2008, to seek damages from Leong for breaking a 10-year contract which Leong's mother signed for her when she was only 12 years old. Leong filed a writ against the company on 27 April. In November 2008, the legal battle between Leong and EEG ended in an out-of-court settlement, with the star "free to pursue her career".


title: Isabella Leong

text: In 2008, Leong met Hong Kong businessman Richard Li, son of billionaire Li Ka-shing, on a movie set, when she was 20 and he was 41. In April 2009, Leong gave birth to their first son Ethan Li Cheung Tsz. For this, Leong was allowed to use Li's family mansions in San Francisco. They also provided her with an entourage of caregivers, including five bodyguards, four full-time nannies and a personal attendant.


title: Isabella Leong

text: In March 2011, Leong announced that she and Li had ended their relationship. They both declared that the split was amicable and that they would both take care of their children.


title: Five Punishments

text: The Five Punishments () was the collective name for a series of physical penalties meted out by the legal system of pre-modern dynastic China. Over time, the nature of the Five Punishments varied. Before the time of Western Han dynasty Emperor Han Wendi (r. 180–157 BC) they involved tattooing, cutting off the nose, amputation of one or both feet, castration and death. Following the Sui and Tang dynasties (581–907 AD) these were changed to penal servitude, banishment, death, or corporal punishment in the form of whipping with bamboo strips or flogging with a stick. Although the Five Punishments were an important part of Dynastic China's penal system they were not the only methods of punishment used.


title: Five Punishments

text: The earliest users of the Five Punishments are believed by some to be the Sanmiao Clan (三苗氏). Other sources claim they originated with Chiyou, the legendary creator of metalwork and weapons and leader of the ancient Nine Li (九黎) ethnic group. During the subsequent Xia dynasty (c. 2070 BC – c. 1600 BC), Qi of Xia, son of Yu the Great, the dynasty's founder, adopted the Miao's punishments of amputation of one or both feet ("yuè" 刖), cutting off of the nose ("yì" 劓), chiseling ("zhuó" 琢), tattooing the face or forehead ("qíng" 黥) and other types of punishment. Tattooing, amputation of the nose or feet, removal of the reproductive organs and death became the main five forms of the punishment system during this period. From the Xia Dynasty onwards through the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC). The "Five Punishments for Slaves" were abolished during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han following a petition from a female subject Chunyu Tiying (淳于緹縈), and replaced by the "Five Punishments for Serfs".


title: Five Punishments

text: Apart from the death penalty, the remaining four Punishments for Slaves were designed to bring about damage to their bodies that would mark them for life. All ordinary citizens were subjected to these punishments. These punishments were for men. The number of crimes to which the punishment was applicable is listed next to each one.


title: Five Punishments

text: During the Western Han dynasty, tattooing and amputation were abolished as punishments and in subsequent dynasties, the five punishments underwent further modification. By the Sui dynasty, the five punishments had attained the basic form they would have until the end of the imperial era. This is a brief survey of the five punishments during the Qing dynasty:


title: Five Punishments

text: The scale of the remittance payments can be gauged from the fact that at the era of the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796), the average wage of a construction laborer in Zhili Province was 0.72 "wén" or 0.6 troy ounces of silver per day.


title: William S. Paley

text: William Samuel Paley (September 28, 1901 – October 26, 1990) was an American businessman, primarily involved in the media, and best known as the chief executive who built the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) from a small radio network into one of the foremost radio and television network operations in the United States.


title: William S. Paley

text: Paley was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Goldie (Drell) and Samuel Paley. His family was Jewish, and his father was an immigrant from Ukraine who ran a cigar company. As the company became increasingly successful, Paley became a millionaire, and moved his family to Philadelphia in the early 1920s. William Paley matriculated at Western Military Academy in Alton, Illinois and later received his college degree from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in expectation that he would take an increasingly active role running the family cigar business. While at the University of Pennsylvania, Paley joined the Theta chapter of Zeta Beta Tau fraternity.


title: William S. Paley

text: In 1927, Samuel Paley, Leon Levy (who was married to Paley's sister, Blanche), and some business partners bought a struggling Philadelphia-based radio network of 16 stations called the Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System. Samuel Paley's intention was to use his acquisition as an advertising medium for promoting the family's cigar business, which included the La Palina brand. Within a year, under William's leadership, cigar sales had more than doubled, and, in 1928, the Paley family secured majority ownership of the network from their partners. Within a decade, William S. Paley had expanded the network to 114 affiliate stations.


title: William S. Paley

text: Paley quickly grasped the earnings potential of radio and recognized that good programming was the key to selling advertising time and, in turn, bringing in profits to the network and to affiliate owners. Before Paley, most businessmen viewed stations as stand-alone local outlets, as the broadcast equivalent of local newspapers. Individual stations originally bought programming from the network and, thus, were considered the network's clients.


title: William S. Paley

text: Paley changed broadcasting's business model not only by developing successful and lucrative broadcast programming but also by viewing advertisers and sponsors as the most significant element of the broadcasting equation. Paley provided network programming to affiliate stations at a nominal cost, thereby ensuring the widest possible distribution for both the programming and the advertising. The advertisers then became the network's primary clients and, because of the wider distribution brought by the growing network, Paley was able to charge more for the ad time. Affiliates were required to carry programming offered by the network for part of the broadcast day, receiving a portion of the network's fees from advertising revenue. At other times in the broadcast day, affiliates were free to offer local programming and sell advertising time locally.


title: William S. Paley

text: Paley's recognition of how to harness the potential reach of broadcasting was the key to his growing CBS from a tiny chain of stations into what was eventually one of the world's dominant communication empires. During his prime, Paley was described as having an uncanny sense for popular taste and exploiting that insight to build the CBS network. As war clouds darkened over Europe in the late 1930s, Paley recognized Americans' desire for news coverage of the coming war and built the CBS news division into a dominant force just as he had previously built the network's entertainment division.


title: William S. Paley

text: As early as 1940 Paley envisioned the creation of a network division within CBS tasked with serving much of South America. In collaboration with his news director Paul White and his director of short wave operations Edmund Chester, Paley laid the foundation for a chain of sixty-four stations in eighteen countries which would subsequently be known as La Cadena de las Americas (The Network of the Americas). By 1942, Paley's innovative network was broadcasting both news and cultural programming live from CBS in New York City in cooperation with the government's Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs under the direction of a young Nelson Rockefeller. During World War II, these broadcasts played a central role in promoting cultural diplomacy and Pan Americanism as part of President Franklin Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy.


title: William S. Paley

text: During World War II, Paley served as director of radio operations of the Psychological Warfare branch in the Office of War Information at Allied Force Headquarters in London, where he held the rank of colonel. While based in England during the war, Paley came to know and befriend Edward R. Murrow, CBS's head of European news who expanded the news division's foreign coverage with a team of war correspondents later known as the Murrow Boys. In 1946, Paley promoted Frank Stanton to president of CBS. CBS expanded into TV and rode the postwar boom to surpass NBC, which had dominated radio.


title: William S. Paley

text: CBS has owned the Columbia Record Company and its associated CBS Laboratories since 1939. In June 1948, Columbia Records introduced the 33-1/3-rpm LP record, which could hold more than 20 minutes' worth of music on each side, and became a standard recording format through the 1970s. Also, CBS Laboratories and Peter Goldmark developed a method for color television. After lobbying by RCA President David Sarnoff and Paley in Washington, D.C., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the CBS system, but later reversed the decision based on the CBS system's incompatibility with black and white receivers. The new, compatible RCA color system was selected as the standard, and CBS sold the patents to its system to foreign broadcasters as PAL SECAM. CBS broadcast few color programs during this period, reluctant to supplement RCA revenue. They did, however, buy and license some RCA equipment and technology, taking the RCA markings off of the equipment, and later relying exclusively on Philips-Norelco for color equipment beginning in 1964, when color television sets became widespread. PAL or Phase Alternating Line, an analogue TV-encoding system, is today a television-broadcasting standard used in large parts of the world.


title: William S. Paley

text: "Bill Paley erected two towers of power: one for entertainment and one for news," "60 Minutes" creator Don Hewitt claimed in his autobiography, "Tell Me a Story". "And he decreed that there would be no bridge between them... In short, Paley was the guy who put Frank Sinatra and Edward R. Murrow on the radio and "60 Minutes" on television."


title: William S. Paley

text: Paley was not fond of one of the network's biggest stars. Arthur Godfrey had been working locally in Washington, DC and New York City hosting morning shows. Paley did not consider him worthy of CBS, being a mere local host. When Paley went into the Army and took up his assignment in London, and Frank Stanton assumed his duties, he decided to try Godfrey on the network. By the time Paley returned, Godfrey was a rising star on the network with his daily "Arthur Godfrey Time" program. Paley had to accept the entertainer, but the two were never friends. Godfrey would, on occasion, mock Paley and other CBS executives by name, on the air. Godfrey's massive revenues from advertising on the popular morning programs and his two prime-time shows "Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts" and "Arthur Godfrey and his Friends," protected him from any reprisals. In private, Paley and his colleagues despised Godfrey.


title: William S. Paley

text: The relationship between Paley and his news staff was not always smooth. His friendship with Edward R. Murrow, one of the leading lights in the CBS news division (and by then a vice president of CBS), suffered during the 1950s over the hard-hitting tone of the Murrow-hosted "See It Now" series. The implication was that the network's sponsors were uneasy about some of the controversial topics of the series, leading Paley to worry about lost revenue to the network as well as unwelcome scrutiny during the era of McCarthyism. In 1955, Alcoa withdrew its sponsorship of "See It Now", and eventually the program's weekly broadcast on Tuesdays was stopped, though it continued as a series of special segments until 1958.


title: William S. Paley

text: In 1959, James T. Aubrey Jr. became the president of CBS. Under Aubrey, the network became the most popular on television with shows like "The Beverly Hillbillies" and "Gilligan's Island". However, Paley's personal favorite was "Gunsmoke"; in fact, he was such a fan of "Gunsmoke" that, upon its threatened cancellation in 1967, he demanded that it be reinstated, a dictum that led to the abrupt demise of "Gilligan's Island", which had already been renewed for a fourth season.


title: William S. Paley

text: During the 1963–1964 television season, 14 of the top 15 shows on prime-time and the top 12 shows of daytime television were on CBS. Aubrey, however, fought constantly with Fred W. Friendly of CBS News, and Paley did not like Aubrey's taste in low-brow programming. Aubrey and Paley bickered to the point that Aubrey approached Frank Stanton to propose a take-over of CBS. The takeover never materialized and, when CBS's ratings began to slip, Paley fired Aubrey in 1965.