title: Kalenjin people

text: Far west, a community known as the Maliri occupied present-day Jie and Dodoth country in Uganda. The Karamojong would eject them from this region over the course of the century and their traditions describe these encounters with the Maliri. The arrival in the district of the latter community is thought by some to be in the region of six to eight centuries ago.


title: Kalenjin people

text: To the north of Chemngal were the Oropom (Orupoi), a late neolithic society whose expansive territory is said to have stretched across Turkana and the surrounding region as well as into Uganda and Sudan. Wilson (1970) who collected traditions relating to the Oropom observed that the corpus of oral literature suggested that, at its tail end, the society "had become effete, after enjoying for a long period the fruits of a highly developed culture". Bordering the Maliri in Uganda were the Karamojong, an Iron Age community that practiced a pastoral way of life.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Towards the end of 18th century and through the 19th century, a series of droughts, plagues of locusts, epidemics, and in the final decades of the 19th century, a rapid succession of sub-continental epizootics affected these communities. There is an early record of the great Laparanat drought c.1785 that affected the Karamajong. However, for communities then resident in what is present-day Kenya many disaster narratives relate the start with the Aoyate, an acute meteorological drought that affected much of East and Southern Africa. Nile records distinctly indicate a start about 1800 while oral narratives and the few written records indicate peak aridity during the 1830s resulting in a notable famine in 1836. This arid period, and the consequent series of events, have been referred to as Mutai.


title: Kalenjin people

text: A feature of the Mutai was increased conflict between neighboring communities, most noted of these has been the Iloikop wars.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Cultural changes, particularly the innovation of heavier and deadlier spears amongst the Loikop are seen to have led to significant changes in methods and scale of raiding during the 19th century. The change in methods introduced by the Loikop also consisted of fundamental differences of strategy, in fighting and defense, and also in organization of settlements and of political life.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The cultural changes played a part in significant southward expansion of Loikop territory from a base east of Lake Turkana. This expansion led to the development of three groupings within Loikop society. The Samburu who occupied the 'original' country east of Lake Turkana as well as the Laikipia plateau. The Uasin Gishu occupied the grass plateaus now known as the Uasin Gishu and Mau while the Maasai territory extended from Naivasha to Kilimanjaro. This expansion was subsequently followed by the Iloikop wars.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The expansion of Turkana and Loikop societies led to significant change within the Kalenjin-speaking society. Some communities were annihilated by the combined effects of the Mutai of the 19th century while others adapted to the new era.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Significant cultural change also occurred. Guarding cattle on the plateaus depended less on elaborate defenses and more on mobility and cooperation. Both of these requiring new grazing and herd-management strategies. The practice of the later Kalenjin – that is, after they had abandoned the Sirikwa pattern and had ceased in effect to be Sirikwa – illustrates this change vividly. On their reduced pastures, notably on the borders of the Uasin Gishu plateau, when bodies of raiders approached they would relay the alarm from ridge to ridge, so that the herds could be combined and rushed to the cover of the forests. There, the approaches to the glades would be defended by concealed archers, and the advantage would be turned against the spears of the plains warriors.


title: Kalenjin people

text: More than any of the other sections, the Nandi and Kipsigis, in response to Maasai expansion, borrowed from the Maasai some of the traits that would distinguish them from other Kalenjin: large-scale economic dependence on herding, military organization and aggressive cattle raiding, as well as centralized religious-political leadership. By the mid-nineteenth century, both these communities were expanding at the expense of the Maasai.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Iloikop wars ended in the 1870s with the defeat and dispersal of the Laikipiak. However, the new territory acquired by the Maasai was vast and left them overextended thus unable to occupy it effectively. This left them open to encroachment by other communities. By the early 1880s, Kamba, Kikuyu and Kalenjin raiders were making inroads into Maasai territory, and the Maasai were struggling to control their resources of cattle and grazing land.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Around this time, two instances of epizootics broke out in the Rift Valley region. In 1883, bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia spread from the north and lingered for several years. The effect of this was to cause the Loikop to regroup and to go out raiding more aggressively to replenish their herds. This was followed by a far more serious outbreak of Rinderpest which occurred in 1891.


title: Kalenjin people

text: This period – characterized by disasters, including a rinderpest epidemic, other stock diseases, drought, mass starvation, and smallpox was referred to as a Mutai.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The nineteenth century saw massive upheaval among the Sirikwa societies, old identities such as the Maliri and the Chok were annihilated or assimilated giving way to new identities such as the Pokot. Others like the Sengwer and Lumbwa acculturated to the new reality, merging and dropping their old identities to become Nandi and Kipsigis. These new societies retained many elements of their old way of life – like the iron-age Sirikwa societies they were primarily semi-nomadic pastoralists. Their economy revolved around raising livestock and cultivating sorghum and pearl millet on the western highlands of Kenya as it had since at least the last millennium B.C.


title: Kalenjin people

text: There appear to have been areas of specialization across different regions, communities living on the Elgeyo escarpment for instance traditionally focused on irrigated cultivation. A variety of crops had been borrowed from the neighboring Bantu communities and New World foods introduced following the arrival of the Portuguese on the Swahili coast during the fifteenth century. Of these, indigenous vegetables and herbs, beans, pumpkins, sweet potatoes and tobacco were grown widely while maize and bananas were also cultivated though in small quantities.


title: Kalenjin people

text: They traded locally for goods such as honey, pottery, tobacco pipes and weaponry as well as medical and magical services while connections to international markets supplied foreign goods such as iron wire and cloth in exchange for ivory. The long tradition of beadwork benefited from the introduction of a variety of beads from European markets.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Their territory was not as a whole recognized as a geographic locality. However, there was a standardized set of classifications for geographic localities across the respective territories. Of these geographic classifications, the "Kokwet" was the most significant political and judicial unit among the Kalenjin. The governing body of each kokwet was its "kokwet" council; the word "kokwet" was in fact variously used to mean the whole neighbourhood, its council and the place where the council met. The head of "kokwet" was "poyop kok" (village elder).


title: Kalenjin people

text: Social order was regulated by Kamuratanet and cultural life largely revolved around its teaching through folklore and observation of the various tumwek (rituals/customs), the important one's being Tumdo (Initiation) and the tumwek of marriage such as Koito. The Saget'ab eito ceremony was held every number of years to mark the change of 'ages' and the Kipsundet festivals celebrated every September (Kipsunde) and October (Kipsunde oeng) to mark the change in seasons.


title: Kalenjin people

text: To a significant extent however, the Maasai era fundamentally changed the character of the Sirikwa/Kalenjin-speaking communities, the magnitude of which still remains unclear.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The latter decades of the nineteenth century, saw the early European explorers start advancing into the interior of Kenya. By this time, the Kalenjin – more so the Nandi, had acquired a fearsome reputation. Thompson was warned in 1883 to avoid the country of the Nandi, who were known for attacks on strangers and caravans that would attempt to scale the great massif of the Mau.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Nonetheless, trade relations were established between the Kalenjin and incoming British. This was tempered on the Kalenjin side by the prophesies of various seers. Among the Nandi, Kimnyole had warned that contact with the Europeans would have a significant impact on the Nandi while Mongo was said to have warned against fighting the Europeans.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Matson, in his account of the resistance, shows 'how the irresponsible actions of two British traders, Dick and West, quickly upset the precarious modus vivendi between the Nandi and incoming British'. Conflict, led on the Nandi side by Koitalel Arap Samoei – Nandi Orkoiyot at the time, was triggered by West's killing in 1895.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The East Africa Protectorate, Foreign Office, and missionary societies administrations reacted to West's death by organizing invasions of Nandi in 1895 and 1897. Invading forces were able to inflict sporadic losses upon Nandi warriors, steal hundreds of livestock, and burn villages, but were not able to end Nandi resistance.


title: Kalenjin people

text: 1897 also saw the colonial government set up base in Eldama Ravine under the leadership of certain Messrs. Ternan and Grant, an intrusion that was not taken to kindly by the Lembus community. This triggered conflict between the Lembus and the British, the latter of whom fielded Maasai and Nubian soldiers and porters.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The British eventually overcame the Lembus following which Grant and Lembus elder's negotiated a peace agreement. During the negotiations, the Lembus were prevailed upon by Grant to state what they would not harm nor kill, to which the response was women. As such, they exchanged a girl from the Kimeito clan while Grant offered a white bull as a gesture of peace and friendship. This agreement was known as the Kerkwony Agreement. The negotiations were held where Kerkwony Stadium stands today.


title: Kalenjin people

text: On 19 October 1905, on the grounds of what is now Nandi Bears Club, Arap Samoei was asked to meet Col Richard Meinertzhagen for a truce. A grand-nephew of one of Arap Samoei's bodyguards later noted that "There were about 22 of them who went for a meeting with the (European) that day. Koitalel Arap Samoei had been advised not to shake hands because if he did, that would give him away as the leader. But he extended his hand and was shot immediately". Koitalel's death led to the end of the Nandi resistance.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Until the mid-20th century, the Kalenjin did not have a common name and were usually referred to as the 'Nandi-speaking tribes' by scholars and colonial administration officials.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Starting in the 1940s, individuals from the various 'Nandi-speaking tribes' who had been drafted to fight in World War II (1939–1945) began using the term Kale or Kore (a term that denoted scarification of a warrior who had killed an enemy in battle) to refer to themselves. At about the same time, a popular local radio broadcaster by the name of John Chemallan would introduce his wartime broadcasts show with the phrase Kalenjok meaning "I tell You" (when said to many people). This would influence a group of fourteen young 'Nandi-speaking' men attending Alliance School and who were trying to find a name for their peer group. They would call it Kalenjin meaning "I tell you" (when said to one person). The word Kalenjin was gaining currency as a term to denote all the 'Nandi-speaking' tribes. This identity would be consolidated with the founding of the Kalenjin Union in Eldoret in 1948 and the publication of a monthly magazine called Kalenjin in the 1950s.


title: Kalenjin people

text: In 1955 when Mzee Tameno, a Maasai and member of the Legislative Assembly (LEGCO) for Rift Valley, tendered his resignation, the Kalenjin presented one candidate to replace him; Daniel Toroitich arap Moi.


title: Kalenjin people

text: By 1960, concerned with the dominance of the Luo and Kikuyu, Arap Moi and Ronald Ngala formed KADU to defend the interests of the countries smaller ethnicities. They campaigned on a platform of majimboism (devolution) during the 1963 elections but lost to KANU. Shortly after independence in December 1963, Kenyatta convinced Moi to dissolve KADU. This was done in 1964 when KADU dissolved and joined KANU.


title: Kalenjin people

text: When Theodor Herzl began his quest to establish a homeland for the Jewish people, he sought out the support of the great powers to help achieve his goal. In 1903, Herzl turned to Great Britain and met with Joseph Chamberlain, the British colonial secretary and others high-ranking officials who agreed in principle to Jewish settlement in East Africa.


title: Kalenjin people

text: At the Sixth Zionist Congress at Basel on 26 August 1903, Herzl proposed the British Uganda Program as a temporary refuge for Jews in Russia in immediate danger. By a vote of 295-178 it was decided to send an expedition ("investigatory commission") to examine the territory proposed. Three days later the British government released an official document allocating a "Jewish territory" in East Africa "on conditions which will enable members to observe their national customs."


title: Kalenjin people

text: While Herzl made it clear that this program would not affect the ultimate aim of Zionism, a Jewish entity in the Land of Israel, the proposal aroused a storm at the Congress and nearly led to a split in the Zionist movement. The Jewish Territorialist Organization (ITO) was formed as a result of the unification of various groups who had supported Herzl's Uganda proposals during the period 1903–1905.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Uganda Program was finally rejected by the Zionist movement at the Seventh Zionist Congress in 1905, but Nahum Syrkin and Israel Zangwill called an alternative conference to continue the plan of the Uganda scheme.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The fortunes of the territorialist movement depended to no small degree on the seriousness of anti-Semitism on the one hand and the failure of the political dimension of Zionist activity on the other. So, for example, the movement's ranks swelled somewhat following the pogroms in 1905, but declined considerably after the securing of the Balfour Declaration.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Zangwill became the movement's undisputed leader. After the rejection of the Uganda scheme on the grounds of impracticability by the British, Zangwill turned his attention to settlement in Canada and Australia. But opposition from local residents led him to abandon the scheme. Expeditions were sent to Mesopotamia (Iraq), Cyrenaica (Libya) and Angola but little came of these expeditions.


title: Kalenjin people

text: A project that had some concrete success was the Galveston scheme which contemplated the settlement of Jews in the American Southwest, in particular in Texas. The project received the assistance of Jacob Schiff, the American Jewish banker, and some 9,300 Jews arrived in that area between 1907 and 1914, through the Emigration Bureau of the Territorialist organization.


title: Kalenjin people

text: With the publication of the Balfour Declaration, the ITO faced a severe crisis since many of its members came to the conclusion that Eretz-Israel was not so utopian after all. The organization's failure was due to its inability to secure a definite project, and its lack of sensitivity toward the historic and traditional sentiments of Jewish identity.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Traditional Kalenjin religion was based upon the belief in a supreme god, "Asis" or "Cheptalel," represented in the form of the sun (asista), although the sun itself was not considered to be God. Beneath "Asis" is "Elat," who controls thunder and lightning. Spirits of the dead, "oyik," were believed to intervene in the affairs of humans, and were placated with sacrifices of meat and/or beer, called "koros" . Diviners, called "orkoik" , were considered to have magical powers and assisted in appeals for rain or to end floods.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Christianity was introduced and rapidly spread through Kalenjin speaking areas during the colonial period. Traditional Kalenjin religion which was undergoing separate change saw a corresponding decline in this time.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Today, nearly everyone claims membership in an organized religion—either Christianity or Islam. Major Christian sects include the Africa Inland Church (AIC), the Church of the Province of Kenya (CPK), and the Roman Catholic Church. Muslims are relatively few in number among the Kalenjin. For the most part, only older people can recall details of traditional religious beliefs.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The colonial period saw the introduction of tea cultivation on a large scale in the Kericho and Nandi highlands. These regions have since played a significant role in establishing Kenya as the world's leading exporter of tea and also in establishing a tea-drinking culture among the Kalenjin. This period also saw the introduction of the mid-day meal as well as the addition of wheat based foods such as bread and less often pancakes and maandazi to the morning meal.


title: Kalenjin people

text: A significant cultural change of the colonial period was the introduction and adoption of the Latin script for transcribing first the Bible, and later Kalenjin lore and history.


title: Kalenjin people

text: According to Kenya's 2019 census, Kalenjin people number 6,358,113 individuals, making it the third-largest ethnic group in Kenya after the Kikuyu and the Luhya.<mapframe latitude="0.57128" longitude="35.546265" zoom="7" width="339" height="428" align="left">


title: Kalenjin people

text: There are several ethnic groups within the Kalenjin: They include the Keiyo, Endorois, Kipsigis, Marakwet, Nandi, Pokot, Terik, Tugen, Sengwer (Cherengany) and Sabaot.


title: Kalenjin people

text: A significant majority of Kalenjin speakers are primarily subsistence farmers, they cultivate grains such as maize and wheat and, to a lesser extent, sorghum and millet or practice a pastoralist lifestyle; rearing beef, goats and sheep for meat production. Equally large numbers practice a combination of both farming and livestock (often dairy cattle) rearing. The counties of Uasin Gishu, Trans Nzoia and to a lesser extent Nakuru are often referred to as Kenya's grain-basket counties and are responsible for supplying much of the country's grain requirements.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Meat products from the northern areas of West Pokot and Baringo are particularly appreciated for their flavor and are favored in the Rift for the preparation of nyama choma.


title: Kalenjin people

text: A significant number of Kalenjin have moved to Kenya's cities where large numbers are employed in the Kenyan Government, the Army, Police Force, the banking and finance industry as well as in business.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Since independence, Kenyan politics have largely been dominated by the 'big' five tribes (including Kikuyu, Luhya, Kalenjin, Luo and Kamba ) which constitute about 72% of Kenya population. Kenya's first vice president and Kenya's second president was Daniel Toroitich Araap Moi who was Tugen. Kenya's incumbent president, Dr. William Samoei Araap Ruto, is also Kalenjin, coming from the Nandi ethnicity.


title: Kalenjin people

text: In 2007 a disputed election in Kenya erupted into a two-month political crisis that led to the deaths of more than a thousand people and the displacement of almost seven hundred thousand. Much of the violence fell along ethnic lines, the principal perpetrators of which were the Kalenjin, who lashed out at other communities in the Rift Valley. What makes this episode remarkable compared to many other instances of ethnic violence is that the Kalenjin community is a recent construct: the group has only existed since the mid-twentieth century.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Contemporary Kalenjin culture is a product of its heritage, the suite of cultural adoptions of the British colonial period and modern Kenyan identity from which it borrows and adds to.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Kalenjin speak Kalenjin languages as mother tongues. The language grouping belongs to the Nilotic family. The majority of Kalenjin speakers are found in Kenya with smaller populations in Tanzania (e.g., Akie) and Uganda (e.g., Kupsabiny).


title: Kalenjin people

text: Kiswahili and English, both Kenyan national languages are widely spoken as second and third languages by most Kalenjin speakers and as first and second languages by some Kalenjin.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Kalenjin names are primarily used by the Kalenjin people of Kenya and Kalenjin language-speaking communities such as the Sebei of Uganda and the Akie of Tanzania.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Kalenjin traditionally had two primary names for the individual though in contemporary times a Christian or Arabic name is also given at birth such that most Kalenjin today have three names with the patronym Arap in some cases being acquired later in life e.g. Alfred Kirwa Yego and Daniel Toroitch arap Moi.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The initiation process is a key component of Kalenjin identity. Among males, the circumcision (yatitaet) and initiation (tumdo) process is seen as signifying one's transition from boyhood to manhood and is taken very seriously. On the whole, the process still occurs during a boys pre-teen/early teenage years though significant differences are emerging in practice. Much esotericism is still attended to in the traditional practice of initiation and there was great uproar amongst Kalenjin elders in 2013 when aspects of the tradition were openly inquired into at the International Court. Conversely a number of contemporary Kalenjin have the circumcision process carried out in hospital as a standard surgical procedure and various models of the learning process have emerged to complement the modern practice. For orthodox, urban and Christian traditions the use of ibinwek is in decline and the date has been moved from the traditional September/October festive season to December to coincide with the Kenyan school calendar.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The female circumcision process is perceived negatively in the modern world (see: FGM) and various campaigns are being carried out with the intention of eradicating the practice among the Kalenjin. A notable anti-FGM crusader is Hon. Linah Jebii Kilimo.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The contemporary Kalenjin wedding has fewer ceremonies than it did traditionally and they often, though not always, occur on different days;


title: Kalenjin people

text: During the first ceremony, the proposal/show-up (kaayaaet'ap koito), the young man who wants to marry, informs his parents of his intention and they in turn tell their relatives often as part of discussing suitability of the pairing. If they approve, they will go to the girls family for a show-up and to request for the girl's hand in marriage. The parents are usually accompanied by aunts, uncles or even grandparents and the request is often couched as an apology to the prospective brides parents for seeking to take their daughter away from them. If her family agrees to let them have their daughter, a date for a formal engagement is agreed upon. Other than initiating it, the intended groom and prospective bride play no part in this ceremony.


title: Kalenjin people

text: During the second ceremony, the formal engagement (koito), the bridegroom's family goes to the bride's home to officially meet her family. The groom's family which includes aunts, uncles, grandparents, etc. are invited into a room for extensive introductions and dowry negotiations. After the negotiations, a ceremony is held where the bridegroom and bride are given advice on family life by older relatives from both families. Usually, symbolic gifts and presents are given to the couple during this ceremony. The koito is usually quite colorful and sometimes bears resemblance to a wedding ceremony and it is indeed gaining prominence as the key event since the kaayaaet'ap koito is sometimes merged with it and at other times the tunisiet is foregone in favor of it.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The third ceremony, the wedding (tunisiet), is a big ceremony whereas many relations, neighbors, friends and business partners are invited. In modern iterations, this ceremony often follows the pattern of a regular Western wedding; it is usually held in church, where rings are exchanged, is officiated by a pastor and followed by a reception.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Almost all modern Kalenjin are members of an organised religion with the vast majority being Christian and a few identifying as Muslim.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Kalenjin have a council of elders composed of members of the various Kalenjin clans and sub-clans and known as the Myoot Council of Elders. This council was formed in the Kenyan post-independence period.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Like all oral societies, the Kalenjin developed a rich collection of folklore. Folk narratives were told to pass on a message and a number featured the Chemosit, known in Marakwet as Chebokeri, the dreaded monster that devoured the brains of disobedient children.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Legend of Cheptalel is fairly common among the Kipsigis and Nandi and the name was adopted from Kalenjin mythology into modern tradition. The fall of the Long’ole Clan is another popular tale based on a true story and is told to warn against pride. In the story, the Long’ole warriors believing they were the mightiest in the land goaded their distant rivals the Maasai into battle. The Maasai, though at first reluctant eventually attacked wiping out the Long’ole clan.


title: Kalenjin people

text: As with other East African communities, the colonial period Misri myth has over time become popular among the Kalenjin and aspects of it have influenced the direction of folkloric and academic studies.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The use of arts and crafts form part of Kalenjin culture with decorative bead-work being the most highly developed visual art. The Kalenjin are generally not well known for their handicraft's however, though women do make and locally sell decorated calabashes made from gourds. These gourd calabashes known as sotet are rubbed with oil and adorned with small colored beads and are essentially the same type of calabashes that are used for storing mursik.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Up until the early 21st century, vernacular radio and television stations were essentially banned in Kenya. The liberalization of the media sector in Kenya which began in the 1990s has seen the growth of Kalenjin language content across most modern mediums. This period has seen the establishment of Kalenjin language media companies such as Kass Media Group, a Kenyan radio and television company, as well as Kalenjin language stations within diverse media groups e.g. Chamgei FM (Royal Media Services) and Kitwek FM (Kenya Broadcasting Corporation). There has been a concurrent proliferation of Kalenjin music, television programs and more recently the premier of the first Kalenjin language film, Ngebe Gaa, at the 2019 Eldoret Film Festival.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Contemporary Kalenjin music has long been influenced by the Kipsigis leading to Kericho's perception as a cultural innovation center. Musical innovation and regional styles, however, abound across all Kalenjin speaking areas. Popular musicians include Pastor Joel Kimetto (father of Kalenjin Gospel), Mike Rotich, Emmy Kosgei, Maggy Cheruiyot, Josphat Koech Karanja, Lilian Rotich and Barbra Chepkoech. Msupa S and Kipsang represent an emerging generation of Kalenjin pop musicians. Notable stars who have passed on include Diana Chemutai Musila (Chelele), Junior Kotestes and Weldon Cheruiyot (Kenene).


title: Kalenjin people

text: A number of writers have documented Kalenjin history and culture, notably B. E. Kipkorir, Paul Kipchumba, and Ciarunji Chesaina.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Ugali, known in Kalenjin as kimnyet, served with cooked vegetables such as isageek (African cabbage) or sochot (African nightshade), and milk form the staples of the Kalenjin diet. Less often ugali, rice or chapati, is served with roast meat, usually beef or goat, and occasionally chicken. The traditional ugali is made of millet and sorghum and is known as psong'iot. It is considered healthier than ugali made of maize flour (similar to brown bread/white bread) and has seen a resurgence in popularity in tandem with global trends towards healthier eating. The traditional snack moriot (somewhat similar to corn tortillas) is obtained from the crust after cooking ugali and is still quite enjoyed. Similarly, the traditional drink mursik, and honey, both considered delicacies (karise/kariseyuek) for a long time remain quite popular.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Extensive use is made of dairy produce in traditional recipes such as socheek (a vegetable relish made with greens, milk and cream) as well as contemporary meals such as Mcheleng (rice with milk – a creamy smooth dish made as a delicacy for children but usually enjoyed by the entire family) and Bean stew with milk and cream.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Combination dishes/mixtures while not considered traditionally Kalenjin are encountered in more cosmopolitan areas. The most common of these is "kwankwaniek", a mixture of maize and beans boiled together (githeri).


title: Kalenjin people

text: Milk or tea may be drunk by adults and children with any meal or snack. Tea (chaiik) averages 40% milk by volume and is usually liberally sweetened. If no milk is available tea may be drunk black with sugar though taking tea without milk is considered genuine hardship.


title: Kalenjin people

text: In addition to bread, people routinely buy foodstuffs such as sugar, tea leaves, cooking fat, sodas, and other items that they do not produce themselves.


title: Kalenjin people

text: Traditional Kalenjin knowledge was fairly comprehensive in the study and usage of plants for medicinal purposes and a significant trend among some contemporary Kalenjin scientists is the study of this aspect of traditional knowledge. One of the more notable Kalenjin scientists is Prof Richard Mibey whose work on the Tami dye helped revive the textile industry in Eldoret and western Kenya in general.


title: Kalenjin people

text: The Kalenjin have been called by some "the running tribe." Since the mid-1960s, Kenyan men have earned the largest share of major honours in international athletics at distances from 800 meters to the marathon; the vast majority of these Kenyan running stars have been Kalenjin. From 1980 on, about 40% of the top honours available to men in international athletics at these distances (Olympic medals, World Championships medals, and World Cross Country Championships honours) have been earned by Kalenjin.


title: Kalenjin people

text: In 2008, Pamela Jelimo became the first Kenyan woman to win a gold medal at the Olympics; she also became the first Kenyan to win the Golden League jackpot in the same year. Since then, Kenyan women have become a major presence in international athletics at the distances; most of these women are Kalenjin. Amby Burfoot of "Runner's World" stated that the odds of Kenya achieving the success they did at the 1988 Olympics were below 1:160 billion. Kenya had an even more successful Olympics in 2008.


title: Kalenjin people

text: A number of theories explaining the unusual athletic prowess among people from the Kalenjin-speaking people have been proposed. These include many explanations that apply equally well to other Kenyans or people living elsewhere who are not disproportionately successful athletes, such as that they run to school every day, that they live at relatively high altitude, and that the prize money from races is large compared to typical yearly earnings. One theory is that the Kalenjin have relatively thin legs and therefore do not have to lift as much leg weight when running long distances.


title: Wienermobile

text: A fleet of motor vehicles shaped like a hot dog on a bun, called "Wienermobile", are used to promote and advertise Oscar Mayer products in the United States. The first Wienermobile was created by Oscar Mayer's nephew, Carl G. Mayer, in 1936.


title: Wienermobile

text: The Oscar Mayer Wienermobile has evolved from Carl Mayer's original 1936 vehicle to the vehicles seen on the road today. Although that first Wienermobile was scrapped for metal in the 1940s to aid the US Army during World War II, in the 1950s Oscar Mayer and the Gerstenslager Company created several new vehicles using a Dodge chassis or a Willys Jeep chassis. One of these models is on display at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. These Wienermobiles were piloted by "Little Oscar" (portrayed by George Molchan) who would visit stores, schools, orphanages, and children's hospitals and participate in parades and festivals.


title: Wienermobile

text: In 1969, new Wienermobiles were built on a Chevrolet motor home chassis and featured Ford Thunderbird taillights. The 1969 vehicle was the first Wienermobile to travel outside the United States.


title: Wienermobile

text: In 1976, Plastic Products, Inc., built a fiberglass and styrofoam model, again on a Chevrolet motor home chassis.


title: Wienermobile

text: In 1988, Oscar Mayer had a fleet of six Wienermobiles built by noted industrial designer Brooks Stevens using converted Chevrolet van chassis.


title: Wienermobile

text: In 1995, a new version increased the size of the Wienermobile to a length of and a height of . This version also included the upgraded large parallelogram windows which could now open, as designed by Sheldon Theis.


title: Wienermobile

text: In 2004, the Wienermobile included a voice-activated GPS navigation device, an audio center with a wireless microphone, a horn that plays the Wiener Jingle (in 21 different genres from Cajun to Rap to Bossa Nova), according to American Eats, and sports fourth generation Pontiac Firebird taillights.


title: Wienermobile

text: Following mechanical problems with the Isuzu Elf, Oscar Mayer decided to adopt a larger chassis to accommodate an increase in the size of the signature wiener running through the middle. While the Wienermobile was not as long as the 1995 version, it was considerably wider and taller. Craftsmen Industries went through numerous overhauls of the truck including a flipped axle and a leveling kit. This version held a record for numerous suspension problems, most leading to the chassis not being able to hold the large weight of the Oscar Mayer Wiener.


title: Wienermobile

text: In 2004, Oscar Mayer announced a contest whereby customers could win the right to use the Wienermobile for a day. Within a month, the contest had generated over 15,000 entries.


title: Wienermobile

text: In June 2017, the company introduced several new hot-dog-themed vehicles, including the WienerCycle, WienerRover, and WienerDrone.


title: Wienermobile

text: The driver of a Wienermobile is called "The Hotdogger". "The Hotdogger" job is to "meat" and greet people around the country. The duties of a "Hotdogger" include: "...sharing photos and videos on social media, answering questions about the brand and the vehicle (the most frequently asked question is if there’s a bathroom in the back, to which they respond: 'No, it's not a Weenie-bago'), and distributing swag."


title: Wienermobile

text: Only college seniors who are about to graduate are eligible to be "Hotdoggers". Applicants should have a BA or BS, preferably in public relations, journalism, communications, advertising, or marketing.


title: Wienermobile

text: A "Hotdogger's" assignment is for only one year. Recruiting for each year's new "Hotdogger" cadre involves current "Hotdoggers" and Oscar Mayer recruiters visiting college campuses across the country. In 2018, 7,000 people applied to be "Hotdoggers". As each Wienermobile carries two "Hotdoggers", only 12 "Hotdoggers" are selected each year.


title: Wienermobile

text: Toys and scale replicas of the Wienermobile have been made over the years, with Hot Wheels issuing die-cast versions of the vehicle.


title: Wienermobile

text: In June 2007, a Wienermobile with the Wisconsin license plate of YUMMY made headlines after being stopped by an Arizona Department of Public Safety officer for having an allegedly stolen license plate. Officer K. Lankow had observed the Wienermobile slowing traffic and checked the license plate to determine if the vehicle was street legal. The license plate came back as being stolen out of Columbia, Missouri, so the officer stopped the Wienermobile and detained the driver. Oscar Mayer had not notified police that they had obtained a replacement plate after the previous one was stolen, and that it should be considered stolen only if not on a Wienermobile. The Wienermobile was released soon after the error was discovered.


title: Wienermobile

text: On July 17, 2009, a Wienermobile on a cul-de-sac in Mount Pleasant, Wisconsin, was attempting to turn around in a residential driveway. The driver accidentally accelerated forward while thinking the vehicle was in reverse, which lodged the Wienermobile under a house and destroyed its deck.


title: Wienermobile

text: On Sunday, January 26, 2020, a Wienermobile was pulled over by a Waukesha, Wisconsin sheriff's deputy for violating the Move Over Law, which requires motorists to pull over one lane to pass an emergency vehicle with its warning lights on. The Hotdogger was issued a warning.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: Paragon was a free-to-play multiplayer online battle arena game developed and published by Epic Games. Powered by their own Unreal Engine 4, the game started buy-to-play early access in March 2016, and free-to-play access to its open beta started in August 2016. Epic Games shut down its servers in April 2018.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: "Paragon" was a third-person multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) video game. The maps featured in the game were symmetrical, and bases were located at the two opposite ends of a map. Players were tasked with defeating the enemy team by destroying the core in their base. They had the ability to reach their opponents' bases through the three lanes featured in each map. Each lane was protected by defensive towers that protected the bases by attacking any incoming enemies that stood within its range automatically. Lanes consisted of two towers and an inhibitor; destroying all of these allowed a team to spawn more powerful minions in that lane and directly attack the enemy core. Between lanes were jungles, inside which players could find additional resources for their teams. Jungles were separated from lanes by fog walls that players could not see other players through.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: In a match, ten players were divided into two teams. Each player assumed control of a "Hero." Each hero had their own basic attack and possessed a set of four abilities composed of active attacks or maneuvers or passive buffs that helped them or their teammates. Different heroes had different skills and weapons. For instance, TwinBlast, an offensive hero, primarily fires two pistols and throws grenades, while Muriel, a defensive hero, aids her allies with a shield. Heroes came in ranged and melee classes. Each hero had an ultimate ability; for example, ranged hero Murdock can fire a massive laser with infinite range. Both teams had minions, which jog toward their opponents' bases and support the heroes. Super Minions entered the lanes upon destroying the enemy inhibitors.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: When players killed an enemy hero or minion or destroy an enemy tower, they gained experience and gold. Experience allowed players to level up and unlock or upgrade abilities. Just before a match started, players could choose a deck of cards that allows players to use gold to purchase upgrades such as health boosts and strength-enhancing artifacts for their heroes. Players could use a default deck or build their own when not playing a match. Cards and decks were divided into five different affinities. Each deck had two affinities, and had to contain cards with either of those affinities. Chests (loot boxes), which contained cards, could be earned through rewards from completing matches. Players could also use real-world currency to boost their reputation points and experience points. According to Epic, the game was not pay-to-win. As a result, players may only purchase cosmetic items with real-world currency or coins found within loot chests. The game also featured a replay system, which allowed players to spectate matches. The game regularly added new heroes and edited the main battle map through updates.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: "Paragon" was in development at Epic Games. According to executive producer John Wasilczyk, the team was given the chance to "make anything" and had a lot of creative freedom when they started the project. One of the main goals for developing the game was to introduce action elements into the genre. To achieve this, the game features gameplay similar to a third-person shooter, and the in-game characters were designed to possess mobility skills. For example, characters like Khaimera have the ability to leap and strike while Kallari possesses the ability to do a double backflip. The team also focused on verticality while developing the game's maps, which allowed them to turn the moments shown in MOBA CGI's trailers into an actual gameplay experience. According to Steve Superville, the game's creative director, the maps were designed to "[shape] like a bowl" so that players can look across the map easily when they respawn, observe the battle situation and plan their attacks strategically. The card system was designed to make the game more accessible for new players, simplify the traditional item system, and create more strategic choices. According to Epic, it is a feature that can help the game to differentiate itself from its competitors. Epic also transferred some of the resources for making "Fortnite" to "Paragon"s development. Wasilczyk also stated that potentials for an esport series were being considered, depending on the demand of the community and the game's popularity.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: "Paragon" was set to be a non-boxed game released by Epic. According to Superville, the team were excited about the change as this format allows them to receive responses from the community and make adjustments immediately. The game was announced on November 3, 2015, and the first gameplay trailer debuted at PlayStation Experience 2015. The game entered early access on March 18, 2016, for PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows, with cross-platform play having been tested a month earlier. While the product was free-to-play, payment was required for early access to the game before the open beta release on August 16, 2016. The early access version of the game had three versions: "Founder's Pack", "Challenger Packs", and "Master Packs", all of which featured cosmetic items, additional boosts, and upgrades. At the start of the early access version, the game contained thirteen characters. Epic promised that new characters would be added to the game for free one by one every three weeks and that they did not fix the roster size. A retail PS4 version titled "Essentials Edition", which adds multiple in-game items, was also set to be released alongside the game's digital free-to-play version, and released on June 7, 2016.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: Upon release of Epic's "Fortnite"s "Battle Royale" mode in late 2017, Epic decided to reduce the development team supporting the game in favor of "Fortnite," as "Paragon's" limited growth did not meet expectations. Ultimately, in January 2018, Epic announced they would be closing down "Paragon" by April of that year, providing full refunds to all players.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: Following the cancellation of "Paragon" on March 19, 2018, developer Epic Games, and the owner of Unreal Engine, announced that it would release all $17,000,000 worth of game assets for free use by anyone working with the Unreal Engine 4, via the Unreal Engine Marketplace. The first wave of released content included 20 characters, with their respective skins, animations, VFX and dialogue, along with over 1,500 environment components.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: Despite the game itself never seeing the light of release, Epic Games' decision to convert the game assets for Paragon into free-to-use assets had inspired a handful of similar games in the coming years.


title: Paragon (video game)

text: Fault: Elder Orb is the first of these revival projects to enter early access, developed by Canada based Strange Matter Studios. It was live and fully playable on Steam since July 17, 2020 and on the Epic Games Store alongside their free-to-play launch on July 18, 2022. Servers for Fault: Elder Orb ended on November 1, 2022. On March 9, 2021, Omeda Studios announced they had raised $2.2 million to create a cross-platform third-person multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game called "Predecessor", using the assets from Paragon. Netmarble SoulEVE announced a PC third-person multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game called "Overprime", which also utilizes the assets from Paragon. In October 14, 2022, Netmarble Corp. was granted by Epic Games the rights to use all "Paragon" assets to craft "Overprime". In this case, Epic Games allow Netmarble to use all IP including "Paragon" trademark, and game title. As the result, Netmarble has decided to changed the game title to "Paragon: The Overprime" to respective for "Paragon".


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Alodía Almira Arraiza Gosiengfiao (born March 9, 1988) is a Filipina cosplayer, model, TV presenter, singer, vlogger, actress and co-founder of Tier One Entertainment. She is also known as "Senpai Alodia of the Philippines". As a celebrity endorser, she is one of the ambassadors and VJ for Animax Asia known as the "Ani-mates" and co-host of ABS-CBN's prank show "Laugh Out Loud". She has been featured in various magazines, newspapers and TV shows locally and abroad. She appeared on the Filipino "FHM" 100 Sexiest Women poll, ranking No. 1 in 2009, No. 2 in 2010 and No. 3 in 2012; she posed as the cover girl for that magazine on its July 2013 issue. She was named by "DOS Magazine" as one of the Most Influential Women in the Philippines.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Alodía became involved in cosplay after contacting other anime and video game enthusiasts in an internet fan forum called Animé Club. Encouraged by her friends from the forum, she started cosplaying in 2003 at the age of 15, joining various competitions in Metro Manila. Her first cosplayed character was a Priestess from "Ragnarok Online" at Ragnalaunch in Glorietta. She began to attract attention when she won 3rd place in the 2003 C3 Convention as Gun Mage Rikku of "Final Fantasy X-2". This led to her and her younger sister Ashley Gosiengfiao being featured on the cover of Issue 14 of "Culture Crash Magazine", a manga magazine in the Philippines. Since then, she cosplayed a series of characters from over 40 anime, movie and video game titles including: "Witchblade", "G.I. Joe", "K-On!", "Paradise Kiss", "Evangelion" and "Final Fantasy X-2". As a multi-awarded cosplayer, she is now being invited to appear at conventions or to judge competitions locally and abroad. She started judging at the age of 18.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Due to her constant contribution to the cosplay community in the Philippines, Alodía has been invited into various international cosplay conventions and events as a participant, performer, judge or simply to attend as a guest. In November 2009 at Suntec Convention Hall in Singapore, Alodía, together with her younger sister Ashley, represented the Philippines as one of the finalist for the Anime Festival Asia Regional Cosplay Championship. Alodía and Ashley cosplayed as Masane Amaha and Shiori Tsuzuki from the "Witchblade" anime.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On July 3, 2010, Singapore, Alodía and Ashley Gosiengfiao were invited by the Mascot Parade supported by the Singapore Government to judge the cosplay competition. They both cosplayed characters from the romantic anime series "Paradise Kiss". In addition to judging the cosplay competition, Alodía and Ashley also performed two songs on stage: "Lonely in Gorgeous" from "Paradise Kiss" and "Real Emotion" from the hit Japanese roleplaying game "Final Fantasy X-2". Animax also held "meet and greet" sessions with Alodía in Camp Pong for Singaporean anime and cosplay enthusiasts.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On July 21–24, 2010, Alodía attended the annual San Diego Comic-Con for a cosplay gathering at Kotobukiya booth. She landed a big role in the San Diego Comic-Con documentary directed by Morgan Spurlock and produced by Legendary Pictures. The documentary team followed 5 different people from around the world to document what they did at the San Diego Comic Convention in the United States – line up includes an artist, comic book enthusiast, cosplayer, etc. Part of the team was Stan Lee, the father of Marvel Comics. This led to a meeting with Legendary Pictures CEO/founder Thomas Tull and vice president Alex Garcia, regarding their upcoming film, "Warcraft". After this meeting, Gosiengfiao was featured in a very popular US-based website Kotaku. Blizzard Entertainment, maker of "Warcraft", got in touch with Alodía regarding business and an endorsement deal for their new game, "Star Craft 2". She also won the "Hall Costume Award" as an award given by the Costume Designers Guild to convention members who wear exceptional get-ups inside the venue.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On October 31, 2010, Alodía together with Animax and Hong Kong Tourism Board held an event "Hong Kong Halloween Treats Party". Hong Kong Halloween Treats Party is the culmination of a one-and-a-half-month-long campaign by Hong Kong Tourism Board and Animax to promote Hong Kong across South-East Asia as the dream Halloween destination. Cosplayers from all over Asia gathered to celebrate the event.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On November 13, 2010, Alodía was back again in Singapore for the Anime Festival Asia 2010 in Suntec Convention Hall, this time she was invited as a Celebrity Judge for the AFA Regional Cosplay Championship. The same event Alodía and Ashley attended as a finalist and representative of the Philippines way back 2009. Gosiengfiao graced the event along with the Japanese celebrity guests namely Ichirou Mizuki, May'n, SCANDAL, JAM Project, Angela, Kana Hanazawa, Milky Holmes and the Cosplayers Kaname and Aira.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On November 27, 2010, Gosiengfiao's "Rei Ayanami" Grimrock version cosplay made its first appearance at the 2010 Supanova Pop Culture Expo in Brisbane, Australia, she was invited to guest judge the Madman National Cosplay Championship as part of the Supanova Cosplay Festival.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Her achievements in the cosplay community led her way to be recognized by the mainstream media and various companies in the Philippines. Currently she is endorsing a whitening skin care product; a health food and beverage product; a Japanese sushi bar; a toy collector and figurine distributor in the Philippines; a large video game company based in Japan; a clothing line; and Japanese snack. She also became one of the brand ambassador of a Philippine telecommunication company, and in 2012 became a brand ambassador for Canon.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Past endorsements include many video game companies such as Level-Up Games, E-Games, Kelphil's Shade and SEGA's . She was part of the Official Muse Guild for the massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) "Mu Online". She was also a game moderator for another MMORPG called "Khan Online". Gosiengfiao was chosen as the Rose-It Girl during the Level Up Games' "ROSE Online" event and was given the title of "Community Manager" and a one-year contract with Level Up Games. As the official model and endorser of IPVG-EGames "Zhu Xian Online" game in 2009, Gosiengfiao, an avid gamer, hold her first Fans Day during the Domination 3 Event in April 2009.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Gosiengfiao is the Animax's first ever Levi's Kawaii girl winner in the last episode of "Mad Mad Fun", which was announced on air on October 27, 2007. In 2010, Alodia together with Ashley Gosiengfiao and model Steph Henares was chosen by Animax to be their Ambassador and VJ, known as the Ani-Mates. It was the first time Animax had chosen a cosplayer as one of its VJs. Gosiengfiao's cosplay and hosting stints in various events and Animax paved the way for her first project in ABS-CBN. She is now seen as a Host in ABS-CBN's prank show titled ""L.O.L"" ("Laugh Out Loud") with Luis Manzano every Saturday night.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: She has been featured in several magazines such as "Candy Magazine", "Meg Magazine", "Preview Magazine", "GAME! Magazine", "Digital Photographers Philippines Magazine" and newspapers like "Philippine Daily Inquirer", "Manila Bulletin" and "Manila Times". She was also invited to appear as guest on TV shows like MogTV, "QTV 11" now "GMA News TV", "Front Act", "Matanglawin", "Mel and Joey" and "Ang Pinaka". Other than local media, Gosiengfiao has also been featured in newspapers and magazines in different countries such as Japan, Singapore and United States. She was also part of the book called "OTACOOL: Worldwide Otaku Rooms" and "OTACOOL2: Worldwide Cosplayers" by Danny Choo.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: She was also featured on a TV show in Tokyo "Culture: Japan", featuring her costumes, artworks, comic books and figure collections which was also shown in Animax. Additionally, she was featured in Channel News Asia: "Primetime Morning" and "Straits Times Razor TV" in Singapore.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Gosiengfiao ranked No. 76 in the Philippine "FHM" 100 Sexiest Women poll for 2010 and ranked No. 87 in 2009. She was named by "UNO Magazine" as one of the Most Influential Women in the Philippines.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On 2016, Gosiengfiao appeared as one of the zombies along with her sister, Ashley Gosiengfiao, in "", which is a final installment of "Resident Evil" film series, which was released in the Philippines in the following year.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: As she continued her rise to international recognition in cosplay, Gosiengfiao branched out to her lifelong passion of gaming. In 2014, she started streaming video games on Twitch and quickly became a Twitch Partner by streaming various games such as "Dota 2" and "League of Legends". Through her streaming endeavors she was able to secure brand deals with various gaming sponsors such as Acer Predator, Sony PlayStation Asia and many others. On April 21, 2017, Gosiengfiao and veteran esports shout caster Tryke Gutierrez founded Tier One Entertainment, the Philippines' first gaming and esports agency, which also made its reach in some parts of Southeast Asia. On March 14, 2018, she announced her exclusive partnership with Facebook Gaming and transitioned her video game streams and content to her official Facebook Page. She was one of the first Facebook Gaming partners from Asia and paved the way for additional Asian streamers to join the platform including Suzzysaur, Yasumeow Gaming, Thinnd, Freya Fox and Amie Lynn.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On June 13, 2018, Gosiengfiao teamed up with Sony PlayStation to promote "Days Gone" and "Spiderman" at E3 2018. During E3 2018, she and fellow Facebook Gaming partners Stonemountain64 and other creators participated in the first Facebook Gaming Creator meet and greets.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On December 4, 2018, Gosiengfiao went viral on Italian news as her "" gaming stream interrupted Italian Prime Minister Matteo Salvini's Facebook stream. It is unclear how the interruption happened, but it resulted in over 12,000 of Salvini's viewers video chained to her gaming stream.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On February 21, 2020, Lyceum of The Philippines University announced its partnership with Gosiengfiao to develop Esports curriculum with Gosiengfiao's company, Tier One Entertainment.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Alodia Gosiengfiao lives in Quezon City, Philippines, and is fond of art, fashion, gadgets, video games, photography, collecting toys and figures such as BJDs, and plays the piano. Her mother found her name in a name book; 'Alodia' means "love" and 'Almira' means "princess". She is of Filipino and Chinese descent; her father, Ed Gosiengfiao, a businessman and mechanical engineer, is Chinese Filipino while her mother, Mariglor Arraiza, is a former customer service advisor. She has a younger sister, Ashley Gosiengfiao, who is also a cosplayer. She is the niece of former Filipino movie director Joey Gosiengfiao.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: Gosiengfiao attended Assumption College (Makati) from pre-school to grade 2, Miriam College from grade 3 to her fourth year of high school, and Ateneo de Manila University, where she graduated in 2009 with a BFA degree in Information Design. As a high school student, she was a member of the Miriam College High School pep squad. She also worked on art commissions for international clients, illustrating both digital and traditional artwork.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On February 14, 2018, Gosiengfiao and YouTube vlogger Wil Dasovich revealed that they were in a relationship. On November 14, 2021, Gosiengfiao confirmed through her Facebook page that she and Dasovich have broken up. In early 2022, Gosiengfiao is in relationship with the Calabria Company Ltd. President and General Manager, Christopher Quimbo. On July 23, 2022, Gosiengfiao and Quimbo announced their engagement through their social medias.


title: Alodia Gosiengfiao

text: On Valentine's Day of 2021, she and her sister Ashley Gosiengfiao launched their podcast named "The Raid with Alodia and Ashley" on Spotify as it tackles on gaming, anime, and pop culture.


title: Robert Clotworthy

text: Robert Clotworthy is an American narrator and voice actor. He may be best known as the narrator for the History Channel series "Ancient Aliens" and "The Curse of Oak Island" and his role as the voice of Jim Raynor in the "StarCraft" video game series.


title: Robert Clotworthy

text: Clotworthy's career as a voice actor began when he was fifteen. "My father was a producer of radio commercials and from an early age I would accompany him to recording sessions. I met some of the finest voice talent (Jerry Stiller, Anne Meara, Mel Blanc, June Foray etc.) and they inspired me."


title: Robert Clotworthy

text: Clotworthy starred as the voice of Jim Raynor in the "StarCraft" series of real-time strategy video games. Clotworthy first appeared as Raynor in "StarCraft", in which Raynor was a major character heavily involved in the game's storyline. He reprised his role in the expansion "". A reader's poll for GameSpot voted Raynor one of video gaming's top ten heroes, with GameSpot giving specific praise to the quality of Clotworthy's voice acting.


title: Robert Clotworthy

text: Twelve years after the release of "StarCraft", Clotworthy reprised his role as Raynor in "". The storyline of "Wings of Liberty" focuses primarily on the Terrans and Raynor in particular, with Raynor taking the role of main character. A review of "Wings of Liberty" on ITP.net stated that Raynor was "voiced to perfection" by Clotworthy and he was selected as the winner of "GotY Awards 2010 – Best Voice Acting" by reactiontime.co.uk. Clotworthy returned to the role with the expansions "" and "", as well as Blizzard's crossover video game "Heroes of the Storm".


title: Robert Clotworthy

text: Clotworthy has worked in over 100 feature films and television programs. He appeared as "Forensic Technician" in four episodes of the 1980s US TV series "Hunter". Clotworthy was the narrator on the Emmy nominated documentaries "Empire of Dreams: The Making of the Star Wars Trilogy" and "". Clotworthy even worked on "The Lego Movie Videogame". Clotworthy also narrated "Indiana Jones and the Ultimate Quest" and "Batman Unmasked: The Psychology of the Dark Knight". Clotworthy has guest starred on "The Big Bang Theory", "Two and a Half Men" and on "China, IL". In 2014, Clotworthy voiced the Espheni (referred to as "The Monk") in the TNT series "Falling Skies", and made an on-screen appearance in "American Sniper" as a Veteran Affairs doctor who consults with Chris Kyle. Clotworthy also voiced the and in Nintendo's mobile title, "Fire Emblem Heroes".


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Intelligence is generally defined as the process of acquiring, storing, retrieving, combining, comparing, and recontextualizing information and conceptual skills. Though these criteria are difficult to measure in nonhuman animals, cephalopods seem to be exceptionally intelligent invertebrates. The study of cephalopod intelligence also has an important comparative aspect in the broader understanding of animal cognition because it relies on a nervous system fundamentally different from that of vertebrates. In particular, the Coleoidea subclass (cuttlefish, squid, and octopuses) is thought to be the most intelligent invertebrates and an important example of advanced cognitive evolution in animals, though nautilus intelligence is also a subject of growing interest among zoologists.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: The scope of cephalopod intelligence and learning capability is controversial within the biological community, complicated by the inherent complexity of quantifying non-vertebrate intelligence. In spite of this, the existence of impressive spatial learning capacity, navigational abilities, and predatory techniques in cephalopods is widely acknowledged.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Cephalopods have large, well-developed brains, and their brain-to-body mass ratio is the largest among the invertebrates, falling between that of endothermic and ectothermic vertebrates.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: The nervous system of cephalopods is the most complex of all invertebrates. The giant nerve fibers of the cephalopod mantle have been widely used for many years as experimental material in neurophysiology; their large diameter (due to lack of myelination) makes them relatively easy to study compared with other animals.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Unlike most other molluscs, all cephalopods are active predators (with the possible exceptions of the bigfin squid and vampire squid). Their need to locate and capture their prey has likely been the driving evolutionary force behind the development of their intelligence.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Crabs, the staple food source of most octopus species, present significant challenges with their powerful pincers and their potential to exhaust the cephalopod's respiration system from a prolonged pursuit. In the face of these challenges, octopuses will instead seek out lobster traps and steal the bait inside. They are also known to climb aboard fishing boats and hide in the containers that hold dead or dying crabs.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Captive cephalopods have also been known to climb out of their tanks, maneuver a distance of the lab floor, enter another aquarium to feed on the crabs, and return to their own aquariums.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Although believed to not be the most social of animals, many cephalopods are in fact highly social creatures; when isolated from their own kind, some species have been observed shoaling with fish.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Cephalopods are able to communicate visually using a diverse range of signals. To produce these signals, cephalopods can vary four types of communication elements: chromatic (skin coloration), skin texture (e.g. rough or smooth), posture, and locomotion. Changes in body appearance such as these are sometimes called polyphenism. Some cephalopods are capable of rapid changes in skin colour and pattern through nervous control of chromatophores. This ability almost certainly evolved primarily for camouflage, but squid use color, patterns, and flashing to communicate with each other in various courtship rituals. Caribbean reef squid can even discriminate between recipients, sending one message using color patterns to a squid on their right, while they send another message to a squid on their left.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: The Humboldt squid shows extraordinary cooperation and communication in its hunting techniques. This is the first observation of cooperative hunting in invertebrates.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: It is believed that squids are slightly less intelligent than octopuses and cuttlefish; however, various species of squid are much more social and display greater social communications, etc., leading to some researchers concluding that squids are on par with dogs in terms of intelligence.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: In laboratory experiments, octopuses can be readily trained to distinguish between different shapes and patterns, and one study concluded that octopuses are capable of using observational learning; however, this is disputed.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Octopuses have also been observed in what has been described as play: repeatedly releasing bottles or toys into a circular current in their aquariums and then catching them.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Cephalopods can demonstrably benefit from environmental enrichment indicating behavioral and neuronal plasticity not exhibited by many other invertebrates.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: In a study on social learning, common octopuses (observers) were allowed to watch other octopuses (demonstrators) select one of two objects that differed only in color. Subsequently, the observers consistently selected the same object as did the demonstrators.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: At least four individuals of the veined octopus ("Amphioctopus marginatus") have been observed retrieving discarded coconut shells, manipulating them, transporting them some distance, and then reassembling them for use as shelter. It is surmised that the octopuses used bivalves for the same purpose before humans made coconut shells widely available on the sea floor. Other sea creatures construct homes in a similar manner; most hermit crabs use the discarded shells of other species for habitation, and some crabs place sea anemones on their carapaces to serve as camouflage. However, this behavior lacks the complexity of the octopus's fortress behavior, which involves picking up and carrying a tool for later use. (This argument remains contested by a number of biologists, who claim that the shells actually provide protection from bottom-dwelling predators in transport.) Octopuses have also been known to deliberately place stones, shells, and even bits of broken bottles to form walls that constrict their den openings.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: In laboratory studies, "Octopus mercatoris", a small pygmy species of octopus, has been observed to block its lair using plastic Lego bricks.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Smaller individuals of the common blanket octopus ("Tremoctopus violaceus") hold the tentacles of the Portuguese man o' war (whose venom they are immune to), both as means of protection and as a method of capturing prey.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: The highly sensitive suction cups and prehensile arms of octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish allow them to hold and manipulate objects. However, unlike vertebrates, the motor skills of octopuses do not seem to depend upon mapping their body within their brains, as the ability to organize complex movements is not thought to be linked to particular arms.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Cephalopods can solve complex puzzles requiring pushing or pulling actions, and can also unscrew the lids of containers and open the latches on acrylic boxes in order to obtain the food inside. They can also remember solutions to puzzles and learn to solve the same puzzle presented in different configurations.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Captive octopuses require stimulation or they will become lethargic; this typically takes the form of a variety of toys and puzzles. At an aquarium in Coburg, Germany, an octopus named Otto was known to juggle his fellow tank-mates around, as well as throw rocks to smash the aquarium glass. On more than one occasion, Otto even caused short circuits by crawling out of his tank and shooting a jet of water at the overhead lamp.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Additionally, cephalopods have been shown to have the capacity for future planning and reward processing after being tested with the Stanford marshmallow experiment.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Due to their intelligence, cephalopods are commonly protected by animal testing regulations that do not usually apply to invertebrates.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: In the UK from 1993 to 2012, the common octopus ("Octopus vulgaris") was the only invertebrate protected under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986.


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: Cephalopods are the only invertebrates protected under the 2010 European Union directive "on the protection of animals used for scientific purposes".


title: Cephalopod intelligence

text: In 2019, some scholars have argued for increased protections for cephalopods in the United States as well.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Estelle Winwood (born Estelle Ruth Goodwin, 24 January 1883 – 20 June 1984) was an English actress who moved to the United States in mid-career and became celebrated for her wit and longevity.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Born Estelle Ruth Goodwin in 1883 in Lee, Hundred of Blackheath, Kent, she decided at the age of five that she wanted to be an actress. With her mother's support, but her father's disapproval, she trained with the Lyric Stage Academy in London, before making her professional debut in Johannesburg at the age of 20. During the First World War, she joined the Liverpool Repertory Company before moving on to a career in London's West End.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: She moved to the U.S. in 1916 and made her Broadway début in New York City. Until the beginning of the 1930s, she divided her time between New York City and London. Throughout her career, her first love was the theater; and, as the years passed, she appeared less frequently in London and became a frequent performer on Broadway, appearing in such plays as "A Successful Calamity" (1917), "A Little Journey" (1918), "Spring Cleaning" (1923), "The Distaff Side" (1934), "The Importance of Being Earnest" (which she also directed, 1939), "When We Are Married" (1939), "Ladies in Retirement" (1940), "The Pirate" (1942), "Ten Little Indians" (1944), "Lady Windermere's Fan" (1947), and "The Madwoman of Chaillot" (1948).


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Like many stage actors of her era, Winwood expressed a distaste for films and resisted the offers she received during the 1920s. Finally, she relented and made her film début in "Night Angel" (1931), but her scenes were cut before the film's release. Her official film début came in "The House of Trent" (1933), and "Quality Street" (1937) was her first role of note. She made no cinematic films during the 1940s, but expressed a willingness to participate in the new medium of television, starring in a television production of "Blithe Spirit" in 1946. During the 1950s, she appeared more frequently in television than she did in film in such series as "Robert Montgomery Presents", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", and "The Donna Reed Show". She played the character Hortense in the episode "Where's There's a Will" (30 August 1960) on the ABC sitcom "The Real McCoys" starring Walter Brennan. Her few films from that period include "The Glass Slipper" (1955), "The Swan" (1956), and "23 Paces to Baker Street" (1956).


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Her other film credits include "Darby O'Gill and the Little People" (1959), "The Misfits" (1961), "The Magic Sword" (1962), "The Notorious Landlady" (1962), "Dead Ringer" (1964), "Camelot" (1967) and "The Producers" (1967). She later denigrated the last film, saying she could not imagine why she had done it except for the money.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Her other work for television included guest roles in "Dennis the Menace", "The Twilight Zone", "Thriller", "Dr. Kildare", "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "The Name of the Game", "Bewitched", "Batman", "Love, American Style", "Cannon", "Police Story", "The F.B.I.", and the last episode of "Perry Mason", titled "The Case of the Final Fade-Out", in which she plays an aging actress who ends up as a second defendant. Winwood also appeared in the "Barnaby Jones" episode "Murder in the Doll's House" (03/25/1973).


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Winwood's final film appearance, at age 92 in "Murder by Death" (1976), was as an ancient nursemaid to Jessica Marbles (a spoof of Miss Marple, played by Elsa Lanchester). In this film, she joined other veteran actors spoofing some of the most popular detective characters in murder mysteries on film and television (including Nick and Nora Charles and Hercule Poirot). When she took on her final major television role in a 1979 episode of "Quincy", she officially became, at age 96, the oldest actor working in the U.S., narrowly beating fellow British actress Ethel Griffies. She continued making appearances until she was 100 years old. When she died at age 101, she was the oldest member in the history of the Screen Actors Guild.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Winwood married four times, including to successful theater director, film director and producer Guthrie McClintic, character actor Arthur Chesney, a New Zealand rancher Francis Barlow Bradley, and American actor Robert Henderson in 1944 in NYC, a man many years her junior from whom Winwood lived apart in her later life, though he would visit her several times a year. Winwood and Henderson divorced in California in 1977. Winwood did not have children.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Winwood was good friends with Tallulah Bankhead, who died in 1968. Bankhead, actresses Eva Le Gallienne and Blyth Daly, and Winwood were dubbed "The Four Riders of the Algonquin" in the early silent film days, because of their appearances together at the Algonquin Round Table.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Winwood appeared as a character in "Answered Prayers", Truman Capote's final, unfinished, thinly veiled "roman à clef". In the novel, which uses her real name, she attends a drunken dinner party with Bankhead, Dorothy Parker, Montgomery Clift, and the novel's narrator, P.B. Jones.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: In a 1979 interview at age 95, Winwood remarked that she smoked three packs of cigarettes a day. On her 100th birthday, Winwood was asked how it felt to have lived so long, she replied "How rude of you to remind me!" Bette Davis, a co-star from "Dead Ringer", was photographed at Winwood's side on the occasion in Hollywood, California.


title: Estelle Winwood

text: Winwood died in her sleep in Woodland Hills, California, in 1984 at age 101. She was interred in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Seán Patrick Michael Sherrard (born 13 May 1954), better known by his stage name Johnny Logan, is an Irish singer and composer. He is known as being the only performer to have won the Eurovision Song Contest twice, in 1980 and 1987. He also composed the winning song in 1992.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan first won the Eurovision Song Contest in 1980, with the song "What's Another Year" written by Shay Healy. In 1984, Logan composed the song "Terminal 3" which placed second at Eurovision, performed by Linda Martin. He won the contest for a second time in 1987 with "Hold Me Now", which he also wrote himself. His third win came in 1992, as composer of Linda Martin's winning entry "Why Me?".


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Johnny Logan was born Seán Patrick Michael Sherrard on 13 May 1954 in Frankston, near Melbourne, Australia. Logan's father, Charles Alphonsus Sherrard, was a Derry-born Irish tenor known by the artistic name Patrick O'Hagan, and he was touring Australia at the time of Logan's birth. The family moved back to Ireland when Logan was three years old. He learnt the guitar and began composing his own songs by the age of thirteen. On leaving school he apprenticed as an electrician, while performing in pubs and cabaret. His earliest claim to fame was starring as "Adam" in the 1977 Irish musical "Adam and Eve" and Joseph in "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat".


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan adopted the stage name Johnny Logan after the main character of the film "Johnny Guitar" and released his first single in 1978. He first attempted to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1979, when he placed third in the Irish National Final with the song "Angie". Readers of "The Connaught Telegraph" in Ireland voted Logan as Best New Male Artist.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 1980, Logan again entered the Irish National selection for the Eurovision Song Contest with the Shay Healy song "What's Another Year", winning the Irish final on 9 March in Dublin. Representing Ireland in the Netherlands, Logan won the Eurovision Song Contest on 19 April. The song became a hit all over Europe and reached number one in the UK.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: "In London" was released in June and "Save Me" shortly after. With confusion by radio stations over which to play, both singles flopped. Another single released in late 1980, a cover of a recent Cliff Richard song, "Give A Little Bit More" was a more concerted effort and although it narrowly missed the chart. Logan blames his lack of success in the UK on poor management and his inexperience.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In early 1983, Logan attempted a comeback in the UK with the song "Becoming Electric" with a new sound and image and promotional push, but the song failed to chart. In 1985, Logan released his third studio album "Straight From The Heart" which failed to chart.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: He also collaborated on the chart topping charity single "You'll Never Walk Alone" in aid of the Bradford City Disaster Fund. In 1986, Logan rebranded himself as "Logan" with the song "Stab in the Back", which also failed to chart.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 1987, Logan made another attempt at Eurovision and with his self-penned song, "Hold Me Now", he represented Ireland at the Eurovision Song Contest in Belgium. The song won the contest and Logan became the first person to win the contest twice. "Hold Me Now" became a major European hit and reached number two in the UK. Logan released a cover of the 10cc song "I'm Not in Love", produced by Paul Hardcastle as a follow-up, and an album "Hold Me Now". In 1988, Logan released "Heartland" which became a hit in the Irish charts and from then on, concentrated on his career in Ireland and Europe.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 1990, Logan recorded a country version of "Miss You Nights" with Elvis Presley's backing band The Jordanaires. He also wrote and sung the theme song Angels Don't Hide for the German television show Blue Blood.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Having composed the Irish Eurovision Song Contest 1984 entry for Linda Martin, "Terminal 3" (which finished in second place), Logan repeated the collaboration in 1992 when he gave Martin another of his songs, "Why Me". The song became the Irish entry at the finals in Sweden. The song took the title and cemented Logan as the most successful artist in Eurovision history with three wins.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Author and historian John Kennedy O'Connor notes in his book "The Eurovision Song Contest – The Official History" that Logan is the only lead singer to have sung two winning entries and one of only five authors/composers (all men) to have written/composed two winning songs.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: On 16 April 1997 Logan left his handprints in concrete on the Walk of Fame in Rotterdam; The largest Star Boulevard in Europe.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan continues to perform and write songs. He is sometimes referred to as "Mister Eurovision" by fans of the contest and the media at large. He has continued his love of participating in musical theatre, having toured Norway with "Which Witch", an opera-musical originating in that country.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In October 2005, "Hold Me Now" was voted as the third most popular song in Eurovision history at the 50th anniversary concert in Copenhagen, Denmark. "What's Another Year" was also nominated amongst the 14 finalists. Logan has sold more than 3 million copies worldwide. "Hold Me Now" is also a global million-seller.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan has continued to have success, particularly in the Scandinavian countries. His 2007 album, "The Irish Connection" went platinum in Denmark, twice platinum in Norway and gold in Sweden.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan was one of the recording artists that appeared in the Irish TV series "The Hit" going against Duke Special. He shortlisted the song "Prayin'" by Alan Earls and Jamie Wilson's "Rain" from the pitching rooms. He chose to release "Prayin'" for the chart battle against Special who chose a song called "1969" by Aaron Hackett. Logan won the chart battle with his song charting at number three in the charts while Special's charted at number five. Logan returned for the final where he performed "Prayin" with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra and was runner-up to Finbar Furey.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 2002, he took part in the UK television quiz show "Never Mind the Buzzcocks" as a team panelist in a Eurovision-special.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: "Hold Me Now" has been adopted by fans of Bohemian F.C. (Bohemians) as their anthem and it is played in Dalymount and sung with gusto at both home and away matches.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 2007, Logan advertised McDonald's Eurosaver menu in Ireland. In 2007, he sang "A State of Happiness", advertising the Dutch Center Parcs.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 2011, Logan received some publicity over comments perceived as an attack on Jedward, that year's Irish Eurovision entry. When the identical twins appeared on "The Late Late Show", presenter Ryan Tubridy asked them how they felt about Logan calling them "an embarrassment to Ireland". Logan later clarified those comments: "What I said was that I find them embarrassing to watch. It's like watching two Frank Spencers in "Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em". It's like watching a train crash – you can't look away, but at the same time you don't want to see it". He subsequently refused an interview with RTÉ broadcaster Derek Mooney as, according to Mooney, "he thought we were going to stitch him up". Logan gave an interview to Today FM broadcaster Ray D'Arcy instead.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In May 2012, Anmary, the Latvian representative to 2012 Eurovision Song Contest held in Baku, Azerbaijan sang "Beautiful Song" where, in the opening lyrics, she sings: "I was born in distant 1980 / The year that Irish Johnny Logan won / Thirty years or more, they still remember / So dream away, today's the day I'm singing my song" referring to Logan's 1980 Eurovision win "What's Another Year".


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 2020, "The Sunday Times" revealed a movie about the life and career of Logan was in the works - called "Mr Eurovision".


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan performed "What's Another Year" during the "" programme, held on 16 May 2020 as a replacement for the cancelled Eurovision Song Contest 2020. He performed the song with the programme's presenters Chantal Janzen, Edsilia Rombley and Jan Smit, alongside a choir of Eurovision fans.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: In 2022, he was a contestant in the second season of "The Masked Singer" in Belgium, as 'the red deer'.


title: Johnny Logan (singer)

text: Logan lives in Ashbourne, County Meath, Ireland with his wife, Ailis and their three children, Adam, Fionn and Jack. He also has a daughter, Robyn (born in 1988) with Turkish dancer and actress Burçin Orhon. He rarely gives media interviews, claiming to have been frequently misquoted.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Pugachev's Rebellion (, "Vosstaniye Pugachyova"; also called the Peasants' War 1773–75 or Cossack Rebellion) of 1773-75 was the principal revolt in a series of popular rebellions that took place in the Russian Empire after Catherine II seized power in 1762. It began as an organized insurrection of Yaik Cossacks headed by Yemelyan Pugachev, a disaffected ex-lieutenant of the Imperial Russian Army, against a background of profound peasant unrest and war with the Ottoman Empire. After initial success, Pugachev assumed leadership of an alternative government in the name of the late Tsar Peter III and proclaimed an end to serfdom. This organized leadership presented a challenge to the imperial administration of Catherine II.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: The rebellion managed to consolidate support from various groups including the peasants, the Cossacks, and Old Believers priesthood. At one point, its administration claimed control over most of the territory between the Volga River and the Urals. One of the most significant events of the insurrection was the Battle of Kazan in July 1774.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Government forces failed to respond effectively to the insurrection at first, partly due to logistical difficulties and a failure to appreciate its scale. However, the revolt was crushed towards the end of 1774 by General Michelsohn at Tsaritsyn. Pugachev was captured soon after and executed in Moscow in January 1775. Further reprisals against rebel areas were carried out by General Peter Panin.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: The events have generated many stories in legend and literature, most notably Pushkin's historical novel "The Captain's Daughter" (1836). It was the largest peasant revolt in the history of the Russian Empire.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: As the Russian monarchy contributed to the degradation of the serfs, peasant anger ran high. Peter the Great ceded entire villages to favored nobles, while Catherine the Great confirmed the authority of the nobles over the serfs in return for the nobles' political cooperation. The unrest intensified as the 18th century wore on, with more than fifty peasant revolts occurring between 1762 and 1769. These culminated in Pugachev's Rebellion, when, between 1773 and 1775, Yemelyan Pugachev rallied the peasants and Cossacks and promised the serfs land of their own and freedom from their lords.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: There were various pressures on Russian serfs during the 18th century, which induced them to follow Pugachev. The peasantry in Russia were no longer bound to the land, but tied to their owner. The connecting links that had existed between the peasant community and the tsar, which had been diminishing, was broken by the interposition of the serf owners; these private lords or agents of the Church or state who owned the land blocked serfs' access to the political authority. Many nobles returned to their estates after 1762 and imposed harsher rules on their peasants. The relationship between peasant and ruler was cut off most dramatically in the decree of 1767, which completely prohibited direct petitions to the empress from the peasantry. The peasants were also subject to an increase in indirect taxes due to the increase in the state's requirements. In addition, a strong inflationary trend resulted in higher prices on all goods. The peasants felt abandoned by the "modern" state. They were living in desperate circumstances and had no way to change their situation, having lost all possibilities for political redress.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: There were natural disasters in Russia during the 18th century, which also added strain on the peasants. Frequent recurrence of crop failures, plagues and epidemics created economic and social instability. The most dramatic was the 1771 epidemic in Moscow, which brought to the surface all the unconscious and unfocused fears and panics of the populace.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Each ruler altered the position of the Church, which created more pressure. Peter the Great gave the Church new obligations, while its administration assimilated to a department of the secular state. The Church's resources, or the means of collection, could not meet the new obligations and as a consequence, they heavily exploited and poorly administered their serfs. The unrest spurred constant revolt among Church serfs.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Pugachev's image according to folk memory and contemporary legends was one of a pretender-liberator. As Peter III, he was seen as Christ-like and saintly because he had meekly accepted his dethronement by his evil wife Catherine II and her courtiers. He had not resisted his overthrow, but had left to wander the world. He had come to help the revolt, but he did not initiate it; according to popular myth, the Cossacks and the people did that.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: The popular mythology of Peter III linked Pugachev with the Emancipation Manifesto of 1862 and the serf's expectations of further liberalizations had he continued as ruler. Pugachev offered freedom from the poll tax and the recruit-levy, which made him appear to follow in the same vein as the emperor he was impersonating.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Pugachev attempted to reproduce the St. Petersburg bureaucracy. He established his own College of War with quite extensive powers and functions. It is important to emphasize that he did not promise complete freedom from taxation and recruitment for the peasants; he granted only temporary relief. His perception of the state was one where soldiers took the role of Cossacks, meaning they were free, permanent, military servicemen. Pugachev placed all other military personnel into this category as well, even the nobles and officers who joined his ranks. All peasants were seen as servants of the state, they were to become state peasants and serve as Cossacks in the militia. Pugachev envisioned the nobles returning to their previous status as the czar's servicemen on salary instead of estate and serf owners. He emphasized the peasants’ freedom from the nobility. Pugachev still expected the peasants to continue their labor, but he granted them the freedom to work and own the land. They would also enjoy religious freedoms and Pugachev promised to restore the bond between the ruler and the people, eradicating the role of the noble as the intermediary.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Under the guise of Peter III, Pugachev built up his own bureaucracy and army, which copied that of Catherine. Some of his top commanders took on the pseudonyms of dukes and courtiers. Zarubin Chaika, Pugachev's top commander, for example, took the guise of Zakhar Chernyshev. The army Pugachev established, at least at the very top levels of command, also mimicked Catherine's. The organizational structure Pugachev set up for his top command was extraordinary, considering Pugachev defected as an ensign from Catherine's army. He built up his own War College and a fairly sophisticated intelligence network of messengers and spies. Even though Pugachev was illiterate, he recruited the help of local priests, mullahs, and starshins to write and disseminate his "royal decrees" or "ukases" in Russian and Tatar languages. These "ukazy" were copied, sent to villages and read to the masses by the priests and mullahs. In these documents, he begged the masses to serve him faithfully. He promised to grant to those who followed his service land, salt, grain, and lowered taxes, and threatened punishment and death to those who didn't. For example, an excerpt from a "ukase" written in late 1773:


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: From the very beginning of the insurgency, Pugachev's generals carried out mass recruitment campaigns in Tatar and Bashkir settlements, with the instructions of recruiting one member from every or every other household and as many weapons as they could secure. He recruited not only Cossacks, but Russian peasants and factory workers, Tatars, Bashkirs, and Chuvash. Famous Bashkir hero Salawat Yulayev joined him. Pugachev's primary target for his campaign was not the people themselves, but their leaders. He recruited priests and mullahs to disseminate his decrees and read them to the masses as a way of lending them credence.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Priests in particular were instrumental figures in carrying out Pugachev's propaganda campaigns. Pugachev was known to stage “heroic welcomes” whenever he entered a Russian village, in which he would be greeted by the masses as their sovereign. A few days before his arrival to a given city or village, messengers would be sent out to inform the priests and deacons in that town of his impending arrival. These messengers would request that the priests bring out salt and water and ring the church bells to signify his coming. The priests would also be instructed to read Pugachev's manifestos during mass and sing prayers to the health of the Great Emperor Peter III. Most priests, although not all, complied with Pugachev's requests. One secret report of Catherine's War College, for example, tells of one such priest, Zubarev, who recruited for Pugachev in Church under such orders. “[Zubarev], believing in the slander-ridden decree of the villainous-imposter, brought by the villainous Ataman Loshkarev, read it publicly before the people in church. And when that ataman brought his band, consisting of 100 men, to their Baikalov village, then that Zubarev met them with a cross and with icons and chanted prayers in the Church; and then at the time of service, as well as after, evoked the name of the Emperor Peter III for suffrage.” ("Pugachevshchina" Vol. 2, Document 86. Author's translation)


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Pugachev's army was composed of a diverse mixture of disaffected peoples in southern Russian society, most notably Cossacks, Bashkirs, homesteaders, religious dissidents (such as Old Believers) and industrial serfs. Pugachev was very much in touch with the local population's needs and attitudes; he was a Don Cossack and encountered the same obstacles as his followers. It is noticeable that Pugachev's forces always took routes that reflected the very regional and local concerns of the people making up his armies. For example, after the very first attack on Yaitsk, he turned not towards the interior, but instead turned east towards Orenburg which for most Cossacks was the most direct symbol of Russian oppression.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: The heterogeneous population in Russia created special problems for the government, and it provided opportunities for those opposing the state and seeking support among the discontented, as yet unassimilated natives. Each group of people had problems with the state, which Pugachev focused on in order to gain their support.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Non-Russians, such as the Bashkirs, followed Pugachev because they were promised their traditional ways of life, freedom of their lands, water and woods, their faith and laws, food, clothing, salaries, weapons and freedom from enserfment. (Madariaga, 250) Cossacks were similarly promised their old ways of life, the rights to the river Iaik (now the Ural River) from source to sea, tax-free pasturage, free salt, twelve chetvi of corn and 12 roubles per Cossack per year.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: Pugachev found ready support among the odnodvortsy (single homesteaders). In the westernmost part of the region swept by the Pugachev rebellion, the right bank of the middle Volga, there were a number of odnodvortsy. These were descendants of petty military servicemen who had lost their military function and declined to the status of small, but free, peasants who tilled their own lands. Many of them were also Old Believers, and so felt particularly alienated from the state established by Peter the Great. They were hard-pressed by landowners from central provinces who were acquiring the land in their area and settling their serfs on it. These homesteaders pinned their hopes on the providential leader who promised to restore their former function and status.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: The network of Old Believer holy men and hermitages served to propagandize the appearance of Pugachev as Peter III and his successes, and they also helped him recruit his first followers among the Old Believer Cossack of the Iaik.


title: Pugachev's Rebellion

text: The Iaik Cossack host was most directly and completely involved in the Pugachev revolt. Most of its members were Old Believers who had settled among the Iaik River. The Cossacks opposed the tide of rational modernization and the institutionalization of political authority. They regarded their relationship to the ruler as a special and personal one, based on their voluntary service obligations. In return, they expected the czar's protection of their religion, traditional social organization, and administrative autonomy. They followed the promises of Pugachev and raised the standard of revolt in the hope of recapturing their previous special relationship and securing the government's respect for their social and religious traditions.