title: Bar Keepers Friend

text: In the 1950s the product became the base of a line of cleaning products made by Indianapolis-based SerVaas Laboratories, which started producing and carrying products under the Bar Keepers Friend brand name. Additional products manufactured and marketed under the Bar Keepers Friend brand name include liquid, cream and spray cleaners. SerVaas Laboratories had 40 employees in May 2011 and 54 in April 2016.


title: Bar Keepers Friend

text: Bar Keepers Friend products are mass-produced in a manufacturing environment that has significant automation in the process. The powdered and canned (original) product is formulated in separate two-ton batches during the production process. In September 2016, the canned powdered product was manufactured at a rate of approximately 60,000 cans per day, which are packaged in 12, 15 and 21 ounce cans.


title: Bar Keepers Friend

text: According to the 2015 material safety data sheet, the ingredients are feldspar, linear sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (DDBSA) and oxalic acid. Prolonged use and extended skin contact may cause irritation, peeling and contact dermatitis, which is avoided by wearing gloves. The product can also be an eye irritant.


title: Bar Keepers Friend

text: In 1994, "Consumer Reports" found Bar Keepers Friend to perform on a par with Mr. Clean for removing baked-on soil, tea stains and other pot stains, and that it was better at removing rust. While recommending Bar Keepers Friend for a variety of household cleaning uses, author Heather Solos warned that it should not be used to clean silverware, pewter or real marble.


title: Bar Keepers Friend

text: The product serves to make stainless steel resistant to oxidation via the process of passivation and can remove rust on stainless steel. The product can also remove small scratches from stainless steel, silver and plates.


title: Bar Keepers Friend

text: Uses of Bar Keepers Friend that are not noted on its label include removing hard water stains from glass and windows and removing the brown or yellow stains caused by sunscreen containing avobenzone. The product can also clean teak wood and serves to bleach it.


title: The Second Husband

text: The Second Husband () is a South Korean television series starring Cha Seo-won, Uhm Hyun-kyung and Oh Seung-ah. The series, directed by Kim Chil-bong and written by Seo Hyeon-joo for Pan Entertainment, is a passionate romance drama in which a woman who has lost her family unfairly ventures out for revenge amid mixed fate and love.


title: The Second Husband

text: The daily drama premiered on MBC on August 9, 2021 and aired every weekday at 19:10 (KST) till April 5, 2022. In view of the popularity of the series, it was extended for another 30 episodes from its original 120 episodes making a total of 150 episodes.


title: The Second Husband

text: "Second Husband" is a passionate romance story. It revolves around Bong Seon-hwa (Uhm Hyun-kyung) and her family surrounding a confectionery company. She underwent an unfortunate childhood, but due to her strong and positive personality, she rises up. Growing up in the same neighborhood she had a long relationship with Moon Sang-hyeok (Han Ki-woong). But, when she unjustly loses her family due to a tragedy born out of an unstoppable desire, she pledges revenge in the mixed fate and love. Bong Seon-Hwa transforms into 'Sharon' in order to restore what was hers.


title: The Second Husband

text: Initially, Seo Eun-woo was cast in the role of Yoon Jae-kyeong, but due to the production schedule she dropped out, and Oh Seung-ah took over.


title: The Second Husband

text: This daily drama marks Uhm Hyun-kyung's reappearance in a MBC production three years after the Saturday revenge drama "Hide and Seek" in 2018. Uhm Hyun-kyung and Cha Seo-won are also reuniting after playing the second leads in TVN's 2019 miniseries "Miss Lee". Oh Seung-ah and Kim Hee-jung are reunited after MBC's 2018 daily drama "Secrets and Lies".


title: The Second Husband

text: On December 7, 2021 one of the drama's staff tested positive for the COVID-19. On December 8, 2021 it was revealed that the main leads and director are negative.


title: The Second Husband

text: On January 6, 2022, it was reported that the series is confirmed to air for extended time than its initial planned 120 episodes.


title: Tuinal

text: Tuinal was the brand name of a discontinued combination drug composed of two barbiturate salts (secobarbital sodium and amobarbital sodium) in equal proportions.


title: Tuinal

text: Tuinal was introduced as a sedative-hypnotic (sleeping pill) medication in the late 1940s by Eli Lilly. It was also used in obstetrics for childbirth. It was produced in brightly colored half-reddish orange and half-turquoise blue gelatin capsule form (bullet-shaped Pulvules) for oral administration. Individual capsules contained 50 mg, 100 mg, or 200 mg of barbiturate salts. The combination of a short-acting barbiturate, Secobarbital, with an intermediate-acting barbiturate, Amobarbital, aimed to provide "a rapid yet prolonged hypnotic action".


title: Tuinal

text: Eli Lilly has discontinued the manufacture of Tuinal in the United States due to the diminishing use of barbiturates (replaced by the benzodiazepine family of drugs) in outpatient treatment, and its widespread abuse. Currently, Valleant Labs markets Secobarbital capsules only. Flynn Pharma of Ireland no longer manufactures Tuinal, Seconal or Amytal (amobarbital). Amytal has been discontinued, though sodium amytal injection form remains.


title: Tuinal

text: Tuinal saw widespread abuse as a recreational drug from the 1960s through the 1980s. The pill was known colloquially under the street names "tuies", "tumies", "double trouble", "blue tips", " F-66's" (which were the markings on Lilly's capsule), "rainbows", "beans", "nawls" and "jeebs". It came in the form of bullet-shaped capsules, half-reddish orange and half-turquoise blue. Like other barbiturate depressants, Tuinal promotes physical and psychological dependency beginning after one week of regular use and carries a high risk of overdose. It was reported in the 1980s as one of the most common ways of self-poisoning. Abuse of this particular drug tapered off after it was discontinued by manufacturers in the late 1990s.


title: Tuinal

text: Tuinal is classified as a Schedule II drug under the Controlled Substances Act in the United States, meaning it requires a prescription from a licensed practitioner.


title: Tuinal

text: Arthur Koestler and his wife Cynthia jointly committed suicide on March 1, 1983, by swallowing lethal quantities of Tuinal capsules at their London home.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Rozz Williams (born Roger Alan Painter; November 6, 1963 – April 1, 1998) was an American singer and songwriter known for his work with the bands Christian Death, Shadow Project (with musician Eva O), and the industrial project Premature Ejaculation. Christian Death is cited by some as a pioneer of the American gothic rock scene as well as deathrock, and is considered to be one of the most influential figures of the scene. However, Williams disliked the "goth" label and actively worked to shed it during the 1980s and 1990s by focusing on punk rock, hard rock, cabaret, and spoken word music. Williams was also involved with his groups Daucus Karota, Heltir, EXP, Bloodflag, and his own version of Christian Death (Christian Death featuring Rozz Williams), along with recording a handful of solo albums. In addition to music, Williams was also an avid painter, poet, and collage artist.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams committed suicide by hanging himself in his West Hollywood apartment on April 1, 1998. He was 34 years old.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Rozz Williams was born Roger Alan Painter on November 6, 1963, in Pomona, California, and was raised in a strict Southern Baptist family. His father Robert Norman Painter was an artist. Rozz had three older siblings (Janet, Bobby, and Larry). He went to the Claremont High School.


title: Rozz Williams

text: As a child, he was a fan of David Bowie, Lou Reed, Roxy Music, T. Rex, Alice Cooper, Iggy Pop and the New York Dolls. When he reached adolescence in the late 1970s, he became attracted to the punk rock music scene. He even became friends with late Darby Crash of The Germs.


title: Rozz Williams

text: By the age of 16 he began performing in bands. He took the name of Rozz Williams from a gravestone he found in a Pomona cemetery. His first bands were called The Crawlers, No, then later The Upsetters. He sang and played the guitar, although he never performed on stage. He then went on to form The Asexuals. ""I thought it was funny because considering we were kind of coming out of the closet to a degree and we were, and in my mind later in life, like even last year, why can't the asexuals – and I don't mean the band; I mean in general — be in the gay parade too? Why can't they be in the back of it? Like, they are people too, and they have their preference, but it's just funny. We were just kids. We weren't that straight edge."" later said Jill Emery in the interview with Nico B. In addition to being the lead vocalist, he played the organ and guitar, with Jill Emery also contributing vocals as well as playing bass, and Steve Darrow on drums. Their performances were limited to a few parties.


title: Rozz Williams

text: He then sang in a band called Daucus Karota with Mary Torcivia on percussion and Jay (John) Albert on guitar. Albert and Williams then went on to form Christian Death in October 1979 with James McGearty and George Belanger. The name "Christian Death" was a play on words of the fashion designer Christian Dior. The band broke up temporarily in 1981, and Williams formed Premature Ejaculation with performance artist Ron Athey, with whom he had been living and having romantic relationship. After only a few live performances, including one which involved Athey eating a crucified road-kill cat, clubs began refusing to book them. Williams then restarted Christian Death in the summer of 1981 with McGearty and Belanger, who also brought in guitarist Rikk Agnew who liked them after seeing them live and was later asked to join. He had previously been with The Adolescents.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Agnew, who was afraid to tour because of drugs that Rozz and Ron planned to bring with them and homophobia in southern states, and Belanger left the group in 1982. Guitarists Eva Ortiz and Johnnie Sage (Ammentorp) joined drummer Rod "China" Figueroa as replacements for live performances. By the end of the year the band had broken up once again due to drug problems.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In 1983, Williams formed a new band under the Christian Death name, this time with former members of Pompeii 99, with whom Christian Death had performed at a live show the previous year. The new lineup consisted of Williams as frontman, Valor Kand on guitars, Gitane Demone on keyboards and providing backing vocals, Constance Smith on bass and David Glass on drums. Towards the end of 1983 they were invited to appear on US music TV show "Media Blitz" where they mimed to "Cavity" and "Romeo's Distress" and gave a short interview. Their first European show was at Les Bains Douches, Paris on February 12, 1984, and they continued touring Europe until June.


title: Rozz Williams

text: "Catastrophe Ballet" was recorded at Rockfield studios in Monmouth, Wales, around the same time. It was a departure from the religious overtones of their debut LP and the lyrics reflected Williams’ newfound love of surrealism and the Dada movement; the album was even dedicated to André Breton. Williams was enjoying living in France, home of many of his artistic and literary heroes – Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, Jean Genet, Comte de Lautréamont, Marcel Duchamp and René Magritte, among others. Valor had kicked Constance Smith out of the band following the recording of the album and, in live shows, she was replaced by Dave Roberts of Sex Gang Children.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In autumn 1984 the band returned to America and recorded "Ashes", which was released the following year. Williams, Valor, Gitane and David Glass provided much of the music for the record; however, guest appearances were made by Randy Wilde on bass, Eric Westfall playing violin and accordion synth, an infant Sevan Kand crying, Bill Swain playing tuba, Richard Hurwitz on trumpet and Michael Andraes on clarinet.


title: Rozz Williams

text: The band performed shows in America to promote "Ashes", climaxing with The Path of Sorrows extravaganza at Los Angeles' Roxy Theatre on April 6, 1985. This multi-media extravaganza featured films, a banquet and a program. Kristina Fuller coordinated and supervised the visuals, film sections and Williams’ four costume changes. Their performance at Hollywood Berwin Entertainment Centre a few days before was recorded and released as "The Decomposition of Violets" cassette. These shows saw Williams, Valor, Demone and Glass joined by Jeff Williams and Barry Galvin.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Rozz Williams officially left Christian Death after the American shows in April 1985, citing loss of interest and a distaste for touring as reasons for his departure. Valor took the rest of the band to Italy as part of the European tour.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams had asked Demone not to continue under the name Christian Death and Valor had agreed to change the name of the band to Sin and Sacrifice. Instead of following through with his commitment to this agreement, Valor Kand decided instead to keep the Christian Death name, first changing the name to "The Sin and Sacrifice of Christian Death", and then dropping "Sin and Sacrifice", leaving the name as "Christian Death", a decision Williams disagreed with. Williams considered Christian Death to be his creation and felt personally responsible for it as it was directly associated with his name, image, art and poetry. He felt that it was his decision, not Valor's, whether the band continued or not. Gitane Demone expressed misgivings about this, and though she did not initially leave the group (likely at least in part due to her relationship at the time with Valor) she later publicly sided with Williams on the matter.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams recorded for Cleopatra Records in 1992. Williams had been the only original member of Christian Death left when he departed the group in 1985, yet the remaining members continued to perform earlier Christian Death material and released several albums under the original group name.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams had already recorded two more songs, "Haloes" and "Spectre (Love Is Dead)", with Eric Westfall, but these were not officially released for five years. The songs appeared on the "Heavens and Hells" cassettes, which also included live performances Williams selected from his own tapes. A third, unfinished song from the session with Eric Westfall was called "This Mirage". This was only completed many years after, with assistance from Erik Christides, and released for the first time in 1998.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams released various material under different project names following his departure from the band; the first was Premature Ejaculation with Ron Athey, and then Shadow Project with Eva O, whom he married in San Francisco in 1987. The band lineup included Johann Schumann (bass) and also Barry Galvin and David Glass, both of whom also recorded with post "Ashes"-era Christian Death. The name "Shadow Project" was taken from the tests in Hiroshima following the nuclear bomb which left impressions or "shadows", but no bodies.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Later on, Williams reformed Shadow Project with Eva O, Jill Emery (bass), Tom Morgan (drums) and Paris Sadonis (keyboards). At the time, Rozz was increasingly falling under the influence of the philosophy of Charles Manson. Jill Emery left the band early in 1992 to concentrate her duties on Hole, who would become an internationally successful act, and Aaron Schwartz was brought in to record "Dead Babies/Killer" for the "Welcome to Our Nightmare" compilation CD consisting of cover versions of Alice Cooper songs. Chuck Collison also contributed samples to these tracks.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams, Eva, Listo (bass) and David Melford (drums) started recording new versions of Christian Death songs for "The Iron Mask" album in February 1992. The album was made, in part, to finance the Shadow Project European tour of February and March 1992, when they were supported by Mephisto Walz. Peter Tomlinson had replaced Tom Morgan on drums for this tour.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams also occasionally took part in Christian Death reunions during the late 1980s and early 1990s with Rikk Agnew, the guitarist on the band's first album.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In 1992, with the help of Eva O, Paris Sadonis, William Faith, Sevan Kand (son of Valor Kand), Scat Elis, Stevyn Grey, Kris Kohls, Brian Virtue, Wayne James, Armon Christoff and Aaron Schwartz, Rozz Williams recorded two new Christian Death studio albums entitled "The Path of Sorrows" and "The Rage of Angels". Williams had been quoted as saying ""The Path of Sorrows" is probably my favorite Christian Death album".


title: Rozz Williams

text: For the last time in June 1993 at Los Angeles' Patriotic Hall, Christian Death regrouped for a one show, captured on the CD and live video "Iconologia". Williams was joined by Rikk Agnew, George Belanger and Casey (bass). Following his brother's decision not to come back on stage to play the encores, Frank Agnew was credited as additional guitarist on the recordings. During some live performances, Williams could be seen wearing a T-shirt which sported the words "Never Trust a Valor".


title: Rozz Williams

text: At this time, there were effectively two bands recording and performing material under the name "Christian Death". This eventually precipitated a heated legal battle between Williams and Valor Kand which was never satisfactorily resolved.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In 1993, Shadow Project toured America. The band consisted of Williams, Eva, Paris Sadonis, Mark Barone (bass) and Christian Omar Madrigal Izzo (drums). After this American tour, Eva O and Paris left the band to work on the Eva O Halo Experience CD "Demons Fall for an Angel's Kiss". Shadow Project had come to an end; however, a German tour for October had already been booked. Although all tickets, flyers and publicity for this tour were credited to Shadow Project, Williams had decided that the band name should change to Daucus Karota. He sang on the tour, Brian Butler was the guitarist, Mark Barone played bass and Christian Omar Madrigal Izzo was on drums. For one show, Demone drove from her home in Amsterdam to Germany to meet up with Williams backstage. The "Shrine" EP by Daucus Karota was recorded in January 1994 with Mark Barone (bass), Christian Omar Madrigal Izzo (drums) and Roxy (guitars). The EP was reviewed favourably by "Trouser Press". Daucus Karota returned to Europe for a month-long European tour in November 1994, with Demone filling the support slot. The tour had Todd Dixon on drums, Michael Saavedra on bass and Brian Hansen on guitar. Hansen had replaced Rolf Donath, who had been the guitarist for the band at shows in Los Angeles and Mexico during that summer.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Demone and Williams came together to release the album "Dream Home Heartache" in 1995. It was recorded by Williams and Demone in Gent, Belgium between March 28 and April 5, 1995, with help from Pieter Rekfelt. The producer was Ken Thomas who had previously worked with David Bowie on "Hunky Dory". Williams and Gitane played a few shows together in April 1995 and again in December 1995. They toured the UK in April 1996.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In 1995, following his return from Europe, Williams joined up with Paris Sadonis and Ryan Wildstar to work on the spoken word album, "The Whorse's Mouth". The lyrics, co-written with Ryan Wildstar, chronicle a period of heroin addiction from which the two eventually escaped. Shortly following the recording of "The Whorse's Mouth", Williams began playing bass for EXP, the musical troupe created by Paris and Ryan Wildstar. He went on to play bass on their self-titled debut album with bandmates Paris (keyboards), Ryan Wildstar (vocals), Doriandra (vocals), Ace Farren Ford (horns/violin), Justin Bennett (drums) and Ignacio Segovia (percussion).


title: Rozz Williams

text: In 1997, Williams again paired up with Eva O to record the final Shadow Project album, "From the Heart". He also recorded "Wound of Exit", his last solo CD as Premature Ejaculation.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In addition to his musical activities, Williams had a keen interest in painting, along with collaging, and several of his pieces have been exhibited at some dark art shows through Los Angeles and Atlanta through his friend Snow Elizabeth. He also co-directed and scored "Pig", a 1998 experimental psychological horror silent short film with underground film maker Nico B. The film stars Rozz Williams and James Hollan and was produced and directed by Nico B. "Pig" was the last work Williams did.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams did not like to discuss his sexual orientation publicly, and described his marriage with Eva O as more of a "partnership". In an interview with John Ellenberger of Golgotha Magazine in 1997, while discussing "The Whorse's Mouth" and how he was hesitant to have his family listen to the album, Williams stated, "There are certain things that I just feel don't need to be shared with them. It was really kind of a difficult thing for me to call and just say, you know, 'Well hey, guess what? I'm gay.' And my mother's response was, 'Well son, I'm not stupid.'"


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams was raised in a strict Southern Baptist family, but abandoned this as he formed Christian Death. As the years went on, as he stated in an interview with Ellenberger, he eventually became a Satanist and practiced magic in the privacy of his home. However, in the mid-1990s, he stated in another interview with Ellenberger that he had developed a "close relationship with God."


title: Rozz Williams

text: "And What About the Bells?", a collection of Williams' poetry compiled and edited by Ryan Wildstar, was released posthumously in 2010.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In the introduction for the book "And What About the Bells?", Ryan Wildstar (born Ryan Gaumer), Williams' friend and roommate of eight years, stated that on March 31, the night before Williams took his own life, they watched the film "Isadora" (1968), about dancer Isadora Duncan, during which Wildstar retired to bed despite Williams' protest, who said, "You don't even know how it ends!" Wildstar replied that he knew Isadora hangs to death at the end after her scarf gets caught on the spokes of her car's wheel, and went to bed. Williams made final phone calls to friends and family that night. Wildstar said that if he had not been distraught over the death of his boyfriend Erik Christides, who died of a heroin overdose on November 27, 1997 (Thanksgiving Day), he would have seen the warning signs to Williams' suicide more clearly.


title: Rozz Williams

text: On April 1, 1998, Williams hanged himself in his West Hollywood apartment, at the age of 34. His body was discovered by Wildstar, who heard worried messages on the answering machine and broke down the door to Williams' bedroom when he returned home that afternoon. Williams had left a rose on the coffee table in the living room, along with several items, including The Hanged Man tarot card. He left no note. A memorial was held at the El Rey Theatre shortly after his death, and a small gathering of family and friends scattered his ashes at Runyon Canyon Park in the Hollywood Hills.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Theories have arisen regarding the reason for Williams's suicide, including failing health, depression, bipolar disorder, financial instability, and his fascination with the number 1334, which can be found in the liner notes of his albums, in his signature, and also on his urn. It is also unknown as to why Williams committed suicide on April Fools' Day. In the introduction for "And What About the Bells?", Wildstar states that he views the details surrounding Williams' death as a form of art.


title: Rozz Williams

text: A memorial for Williams is located at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery. The cabinet in which he hanged himself as well as a few pieces of original artwork are on display at the LA Museum of Death.


title: Rozz Williams

text: Williams' creativity had a profound effect on the Goth subculture and was also influential in poetry and collage artwork. Annually, fans pay tribute to his life and work. In 2010, "Gothic Beauty Magazine" and a short film "Necessary Discomforts an Artistic Tribute to Rozz Williams" featured one such event at the Hyaena Gallery curated by A Raven Above Press.


title: Rozz Williams

text: The Mountain Goats' 2000 album, "The Coroner's Gambit", was dedicated to Williams, and several songs refer to singer John Darnielle's reaction to Williams' death.


title: Rozz Williams

text: On April 1, 2018, to commemorate twenty years since Williams's death, Cult Epics and Dark Vinyl Records released two albums: "In the Heart", recorded during the "Dream Home Heartache Tour", and "On the Altar", from Williams's last European tour.


title: Rozz Williams

text: In 2018, Nico B. released a box set to commemorate the 20th anniversary of his film "Pig", which starred Williams. Only twenty-five were made. Each included one of the few remaining VHS copies of the film (numbered up to 1334), an exclusive t-shirt, a postcard, lobby cards, a limited edition print of one of Williams' collages, a commemorative pin, and a portion of the original 8 mm film strip. Each box was signed and dated by Nico B., and each VHS tape was signed as well.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Abdur Rahman Khan GCSI (Pashto/Dari: ) (between 1840 and 1844 – 1 October 1901) was Emir of Afghanistan from 1880 to his death in 1901. He is known for uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Abdur Rahman Khan was the first child and only son of Mohammad Afzal Khan, and grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan, founder of the Barakzai dynasty. Abdur Rahman Khan re-established the writ of the Afghan government after the disarray that followed the second Anglo-Afghan war. He became known as "The Iron Amir" because his government was a military despotism. This despotism rested upon a well-appointed army and was administered through officials subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: The nickname, "The Iron Amir", is also associated due to his victory over a number of rebellions by various tribes who were led by his relatives. One source says that during his reign there were over 40 rebellions throughout his rule. Abdur Rahman Khan's rule was termed by one British official as a "reign of terror", as he was absolutely despotic and had up to 100,000 people judicially executed during his 21 years as Emir. Thousands more starved to death, caught deadly diseases and died, were massacred by his army, or were killed during his forceful migrations of tribes. However, he was perhaps the greatest military genius Afghanistan ever produced.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Abdul Rahman Khan was born in Kabul in 1844. He spent most of his youth in Balkh with his father, Mohammad Afzal Khan. Abdul Rahman learned conventional warfare tactics from the Anglo-Indian soldier William Campbell.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Before his death in Herat, on 9 June 1863, Abdur Rahman's grandfather, Dost Mohammad Khan, nominated his third son, Sher Ali Khan, as his successor, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzal Khan and Azam Khan. At first, the new Amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months, Afzal Khan raised an insurrection in the north of the country, where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce internecine conflict for power between Dost Mohammad's sons, which lasted for nearly five years. The Musahiban are descendants of Dost Mohammad Khan's older brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Described by the American scholar and explorer Eugene Schuyler as "a tall well-built man, with a large head, and a marked Afghan, almost Jewish, face", Abdur Rahman distinguished himself for his ability and energetic daring. Although his father, Afzal Khan came to terms with Amir Sher Ali, Abdur's behavior in the northern province soon excited Amir's suspicion and, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bukhara. Sher Ali threw Afzal Khan into prison, and a revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: The Amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny by troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azam Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866. The Amir Sher Ali marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10 May, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzal Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as Amir of Afghanistan. Notwithstanding the new Amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Sher Ali's forces and occupied Kandahar in 1867. When Afzal Khan died at the end of the year, Azam Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman installed as governor in the northern province. But towards the end of 1868, Sher Ali's return and a general rising in his favor resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azam Khan's defeat at "Tinah Khan" on 3 January 1869. Both sought refuge to the east in Central Asia, where Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand. Azam died in Kabul in October 1869.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Abdur Rahman lived in exile in Tashkent. He was one of the most powerful opponents of the British. He was being told to cross the Oxus and claim throne for Amir. In March 1880, a report reached India that Abdur Rahman was in northern Afghanistan; and the Governor-General, Lord Lytton, opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as Amir of Afghanistan, except Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it. After some negotiations, and an interview with Lepel Griffin, the diplomatic representative at Kabul of the Indian government. Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: At the "durbar" on 22 July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as Amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new "Amir".


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: However, Ayub Khan, one of Sher Ali Khan's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July 1880. This serious reverse roused the "Amir", who had not displayed much activity. Instead, Ayub Khan was defeated in Kandahar by the British General Frederick Roberts on 1 September 1880. Ayub Khan was forced to flee into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated firm on the throne at Kabul, thanks to the unwavering British protections in terms of giving large supplies of arms and money. In the course of the next few years, Abdul Rahman consolidated his grip over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrection by a relentless and brutal use of his despotic authority. The powerful Ghilzai revolted against the severity of his measures several times. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In 1885, at the moment when the "Amir" was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. He also published his autobiography in 1885, which served more as an advice guide for princes than anything else.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Government of India made ready for that contingency, the Amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. The Amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 1,850,000 rupees. He was allowed to import munitions of war. He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: He also built himself several summer and guest houses, including the Bagh-e Bala Palace and Chihil Sutun Palace in Kabul, and the Jahan Nama Palace in Kholm.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: The Amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan, the crown prince, went instead.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In 1893, Mortimer Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of British India for this purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan other pending questions. Abdur Rahman Khan showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In the agreement that followed relations between the British Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India. A Royal Commission was set up to determine the boundary between Afghanistan and British-governed India, and was tasked to negotiate terms for agreeing to the Durand Line, between the two parties camped at Parachinar, now part of FATA Pakistan, which is near Khost, Afghanistan. From the British side the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, British Political Agent in Khyber. Afghanistan was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and the Governor Sardar Shireendil Khan representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In 1893, Mortimer Durand negotiated with Abdur Rahman Khan the Durand Line Treaty for the demarcation of the frontier between Afghanistan, the FATA, North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, now provinces of Pakistan as a successor state of British India. In 1905, Amir Habibullah Khan signed a new agreement with the United Kingdom which confirmed the legality of the Durand Line. Similarly, the legality of the Durand Line was once again confirmed by King Amanullah Khan through the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: The Durand Line was once again recognised as international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan by Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan (former prime minister and later president of Afghanistan) during his visit to Pakistan in August 1976.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Abdur Rahman Khan's government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In the 1880s, the "Iron Emir" decided to strategically displace some members of different ethnic groups in order to bring better security. For example, he "uprooted troublesome Durrani and Ghilzai Pashtun tribes and transported them to Uzbek and Tajik populated areas in the north, where they could spy on local Dari-speaking, non-Pashtun ethnic groups and act as a screen against further Russian encroachments on Afghan territory." From the end of 1888, the Amir spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In 1895–1896, Abdur Rahman directed the invasion of Kafiristan and the conversion of its indigenous peoples to Islam. The region was subsequently renamed Nuristan. In 1896, he adopted the title of "Zia-ul-Millat-Wa-ud Din" ("Light of the nation and religion"), and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on "jihad".


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns of Abdul Rahman.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: In the early 1890s some Hazara tribes revolted against Abdur Rahman. As the Kabul Newsletters written by the British agents indicate, Abdur Rahman was an extremely ruthless man. He has been called 'The Dracula Amir' by some writers. Due to Abdur Rahman's depredations, Over sixty percent of the total Hazara population was massacred and numerous towers of Hazara heads were made from the defeated rebels. It caused some Hazaras to migrate to Quetta in Balochistan, and to Mashhad in northeastern Iran.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Abdur Rahman died on 1 October 1901, inside his summer palace, being succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan who is the father of Amanullah Khan.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Today, his descendants can be found in many places outside Afghanistan, such as in America, France, Germany, and even in Scandinavian countries such as Denmark. His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan, were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family. One of the Amir’s grandchildren, was the ambassador of Iran from 1930-1932, he was the son of Nasrullah Khan.


title: Abdur Rahman Khan

text: Afghan society has mixed feelings about his rule. A majority of Pashtuns (his native ethnics) remember him as a ruler who initiated many programs for modernization, and effectively prevented the country from being occupied by Russia by using the "financial and advisory" support of British Empire during the Great Game. The Emir was effectively dependent on British arms and money to stay in power.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: "Kuro no Kiseki" was released in Japan for the PlayStation 4 in September 2021, with ports for the PlayStation 5 and Windows released in Japan and other Asian regions in July 2022. The game is also expected to be released in English.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: The story follows a chapter format. In each chapter, the player spends a day in the city of Edith, where he is free to interact with characters and do side missions. When the story progresses, it sends the player to a different place where a new member joins the party. The game has no load times for entering or existing buildings, and generally has a larger overworld than seen in previous games in the series. A first for the series, "Kuro no Kiseki" features an alignment system based on law, chaos, and mix of the two. While the system does not affect the main story or ending, it unlocks options that allow the player to ally with certain factions at a particular point in the game, triggering unique events and dialogues.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: The game's combat system is divided into two modes: real-time action battles similar to Falcom's "Ys" series and traditional turn-based combat featured in the series' past. The game encourages the player to use both modes, which can be freely switched between outside of boss fights, which are exclusively turn-based.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: "Kuro no Kiseki" is set in the Calvard Republic in the year 1208. Thanks to postwar reparations, Calvard experiences unprecedented economic growth while continuously dealing with public unrest caused by immigration and new governmental reforms. In a corner of the city of Edith, a young man known as Van Arkride works as a Spriggan in his Arkride Solution Office, which is a mix of a bounty hunter and detective.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: One day, Van is approached by Agnes Claudel, a high school student and the daughter of Calvard's new president Roy Gramheart. She asks for his help to find a type of orbment called Oct-Genesis, the last creation of her late great grandfather Claude Epstein, one of the greatest scientists in history. Along the way they are joined by Feri Al-Fayed, a Jaeger of the Khruga clan; Aaron Wei, a performer in Langport; Risette Twinings, an employee of a private military company; Quatre Salision, a pupil of professor Hamilton who is one of professor Epstein's disciples; Judith Ranster, a famous actor who has a secret identity as the Phantom Thief Grimcats and Bergard Zeman (Gunther Barkhorn), Van's mentor and a knight of the Church who was presumed dead. Their search for the Oct-Genesis brings them into Conflict with the terrorist group Almata led by Gerard Dantes. The Arkride Solution Office align themselves with other factions such as the Bracers, the government and even criminal organizations like Ouroboros and Heiyue against Almata, Van also reunites with Elaine Auclair, a bracer who is his childhood friend and former lover and Rene Kincaid, a government secretary who is his and Elaine's childhood friend.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: It is revealed that Van has become the host of one of the five demon lords known as Vagrants-Zion when he was young (which allows him to take a monstrous form known as Grendel), as such he became a test subject of the D∴G cult in Crossbell under the supervision of Gerard Dantes who was a member at the time. Using his position in the cult, Gerard claimed the power for himself and escaped the cult's extermination, he then took over the leadership of Almata to spread fear and strengthen the demonic power. It is also revealed that Gerard is actually a descendant of the Eldarion family, Calvard's fallen monarchy.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: Van and his team face and kill Gerard, but he and other deceased members of Almata are revived by one of his subordinates named Melchior. The Spriggans face Gerard again who transforms into a demon, Van takes the demonic power back from him, killing him for good. Giving the last Oct-Genesis they found back to Agnes, Van becomes Vagrants-Zion and imprisons himself in another plain to save humanity, but his team, with the help of his orbment's artificial intelligence Mare, reach Van's prison realm, save him and together, defeat the demon lord.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: "Kuro no Kiseki" is considered to be the start of the second half of the series' narrative, starting the "Kuro no Kiseki" story arc that currently consists of itself and a sequel, "Kuro no Kiseki II – Crimson Sin". It features a new proprietary game engine by Falcom that replaced the PhyreEngine used in the "Trails of Cold Steel" series. "Kuro no Kiseki" was released for the PlayStation 4 in Japan on September 30, 2021. A port for the PlayStation 5 and Windows was released in Japan and other Asian regions on July 28, 2022.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: Nihon Falcom intends for the game to be localized in English. A fan translation group released a spreadsheet and overlay program for the game, but received a cease-and-desist removal order by NIS America in August 2022 after an unofficial patch that could directly insert the English text into the game was made.


title: The Legend of Heroes: Kuro no Kiseki

text: In Japan, the PlayStation 4 version of "Kuro no Kiseki" was the highest selling physical game of its release week, selling an estimated 50,100 copies. It remained on the weekly top 30 sales chart for another two weeks, reaching a total of 58,300 physical copies sold. The PlayStation 5 version debuted at the bottom of the chart, selling 2,400 copies.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The Catholic Church in France is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in communion with the Pope in Rome. Established in the 2nd century in unbroken communion with the bishop of Rome, it is sometimes called the "eldest daughter of the church" ().


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The first written records of Christians in France date from the 2nd century when Irenaeus detailed the deaths of ninety-year-old bishop Saint Pothinus of Lugdunum (Lyon) and other martyrs of the 177 AD persecution in Lyon. In 496 Remigius baptized King Clovis I, who therefore converted from paganism to Catholicism. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, forming the political and religious foundations of Christendom in Europe and establishing in earnest the French government's long historical association with the Catholic Church. In reaction, the French Revolution (1789–1790) was followed by heavy persecution of the Catholic Church. Since the beginning of the 20th century, "Laïcité", absolute neutrality of the state with respect to religious doctrine, is the official policy of the French Republic.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Estimates of the proportion of Catholics range between 41% and 88% of France's population, with the higher figure including lapsed Catholics and "Catholic atheists". The Catholic Church in France is organised into 98 dioceses, which in 2012 were served by 7,000 sub-75 priests. 80 to 90 priests are ordained every year, when the church would need eight times as many to compensate the number of priest deaths. Approximately 45,000 Catholic church buildings and chapels are spread out among 36,500 cities, towns, and villages in France, but a majority are no longer regularly used for mass. Notable churches of France include Notre Dame de Paris, Chartres Cathedral, Reims Cathedral, and Basilique du Sacre-Coeur, Eglise de la Madeleine, and Amiens Cathedral. Its national shrine, Lourdes, is visited by 5 million pilgrims yearly. The capital city, Paris, is a major pilgrimage site for Catholics as well.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: In recent decades, France has emerged as a stronghold for the small but growing Traditionalist Catholic movement, along with the United States, England and other Anglophone countries. The Society of Saint Pius X, a canonically irregular priestly society founded by French Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre has a large presence in the country, as do other traditionalist priestly societies in full communion with Rome such as the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter, Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest and others.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Some of the most famous French saints and blesseds include St. Denis, St. Thérèse of Lisieux, St. Irenaeus, St. Jean-Marie Vianney the Curé of Ars, St. Joan of Arc, St. Bernadette, St. Genevieve, Louis IX of France, St.Elizabeth of the Trinity, St. Vincent de Paul, St. Louise de Marillac, St. Catherine Labouré, St. Louis de Montfort, St.Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, St Francis de Sales, St. Margaret Mary Alacoque, Bl Nicholas Barré, and St. Bernard of Clairvaux.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: According to long-standing tradition, Mary, Martha, Lazarus (Marie, Marthe and Lazare in French) and some companions, who were expelled by persecutions from the Holy Land, traversed the Mediterranean in a frail boat with neither rudder nor mast and landed at "Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer" near Arles. Provençal tradition names Lazarus as the first bishop of Marseille, while Martha purportedly went on to tame a terrible beast in nearby Tarascon. Pilgrims visited their tombs at the abbey of Vézelay in Burgundy. In the Abbey of the Trinity at Vendôme, a phylactery was said to contain a tear shed by Jesus at the tomb of Lazarus. The cathedral of Autun, not far away, is dedicated to Lazarus as "Saint Lazaire".


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The first written records of Christians in France date from the 2nd century when Irenaeus detailed the deaths of ninety-year-old bishop Pothinus of Lugdunum (Lyon) and other martyrs of the 177 persecution in Lyon.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The emperor Theodosius I (r. 379-95) makes Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire in 380.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: In 496 Remigius baptized Clovis I, who was converted from paganism to Catholicism. Clovis I, considered the founder of France, made himself the ally and protector of the papacy and his predominantly Catholic subjects.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, forming the political and religious foundations of Christendom and establishing in earnest the French government's longstanding historical association with the Catholic Church.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The Council of Clermont, a mixed synod of ecclesiastics and laymen led by Pope Urban II in November 1095 at Clermont-Ferrand triggered the First Crusade.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The Kingdom of France and its aristocracy were prominent players in the Crusades in general. Following the Fourth Crusade, a period known as the "Frankokratia" existed where French Latin Catholics took over parts of the Byzantine Empire. A Crusade also took place on French territory in the County of Toulouse (contemporary Languedoc) with the Albigensian Crusade in the 13th century, called by Pope Innocent III. This played out on local level with fighting between the Catholic White Brotherhood and the Cathar Black Brotherhood. The Cathars lost and were subsequently exterminated. In 1312, the French monarch Philip IV of France was involved in the suppression of the Knights Templar by Pope Clement V; Philip was in deep financial dept to the Templars.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The Avignon Papacy was the period from 1309 to 1377 during which seven French popes, resided in Avignon.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Prior to the French Revolution, the Catholic Church had been the official state religion of France since the conversion to Christianity of Clovis I, leading to France being called "the eldest daughter of the Church". The King of France was known as "His Most Christian Majesty". Following the Protestant Reformation, France was riven by sectarian conflict as the Huguenots and Catholics strove for supremacy in the Wars of Religion until the 1598 Edict of Nantes established a measure of religious toleration.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: radically shifted power away from the Catholic Church. Church property was stolen, and the church crop tax and special clergy privileges were eliminated. With the 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the clergy became employees of the State, and the Catholic Church became a subordinate arm of the secular French government. During the Reign of Terror, traditional Christian holidays were abolished and Catholic priests were brutally suppressed, locally through mass imprisonment and executions by drowning.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Napoleon Bonaparte negotiated a reconciliation with the Church through the 1801 Concordat, whereby the State would subsidize Catholicism (recognized as the majority religion of the French), as well as Judaism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. After the 1814 Bourbon Restoration, the ultra-royalist government, headed by the comte de Villèle, passed the 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act, which made stealing of consecrated Hosts punishable by death. Never enforced, this law was repealed in the July Monarchy (1830–1848).


title: Catholic Church in France

text: On 5 October 2021, a report was published by the "Independent Commission on Sexual Abuse in the Church" (CIASE) which showed that 330,000 children had become victims of sexual abuse within the church in France over a period spanning 7 decades (1950-2020). This constitutes 6% of total sexual abuse in France, since the same report notes that there are a total of 5.5 million cases of sexual abuse of people under 18 in France. These crimes were committed by between 2900 and 3200 priests and community members.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State removed the privileged status of the state religion (Catholic Church) and of the three other state-recognised religions (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Judaism), but left to them the use without fee, and the maintenance at government expense, of the churches that they used prior to 1905.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: A notable exception is Alsace-Lorraine, which at the time of the separation was part of Germany, and where the pre-1905 status, including the Concordat, is still in force. This was negotiated in 1918 when Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France at the end of the first World War, and approved by both France and the Holy See with the Briand-Ceretti Agreement. As a consequence, and although France is one of the countries in the world where State and Church are most separated, the French Head of State is paradoxically the only temporal power in the world still nominating Catholic bishops, namely the Bishop of Metz and the Archbishop of Strasbourg. They are approved by the Pope and in practice selected by him, but formally nominated by the French President following diplomatic exchanges with the Holy See through the nunciature.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: During the application of the 1905 law, prime minister Emile Combes, a member of the Radical-Socialist Party, tried to strictly enforce measures which some Catholics considered humiliating or blasphematory, leading to clashes between the "" and the authorities. Anti-clericalism slowly declined among the French left-wing throughout France in the twentieth century, while the question of religion and of freedom of thought seemed to have been resolved. However, it is still present as a defining trait of the left-wing, while most right-wing Frenchmen describe themselves as Catholics (although not necessarily practicing). Thus, the draft laws presented by François Mitterrand's government in the early 1980s, concerning restrictions on the state funding of private (and in majority Catholic) schools, were countered by right-wing demonstrations headed by the then mayor of Paris, the Gaullist Jacques Chirac, who was to be his prime minister in 1986 and would succeed him in 1995 as president. In the same way, the 2004 law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools, revived the controversy twenty years later, although the dividing lines also passed through each political side due to the complexity of the subject. On this occasion, several Muslim associations have allied themselves with conservative Catholics to reject the law. One consequences of the law was that some Muslim college students who refused to remove their veils or "conspicuous religious symbols" withdrew from the public school system in favour of the private, but publicly funded, Catholic schools (where the law does not apply, being restricted to the public education system).


title: Catholic Church in France

text: In any case, since the 1905 law on the separation of the Church and State, the prevailing public doctrine on religion is "laïcité" – that is, neutrality of the state with respect to religious doctrine, and separation of the religious and the public spheres, except in Alsace-Lorraine and in some oversea territories. This state neutrality is conceived as a protection of religious minorities as well as the upholding of freedom of thought, which includes a right to agnosticism and atheism. Although many Catholics were at first opposed to this secular movement, most of them have since changed opinions, finding that this neutrality actually protects their faith from political interference. Only some minority traditionalist Catholic groups, such as the Society of St. Pius X, push for the return to the "Ancien Régime" or at least pre-separation situation, contending that France has forgotten its divine mission as a Christian country (an argument already upheld by the Ultras presenting the 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act).


title: Catholic Church in France

text: 74% of French Catholics support same-sex marriage and 24% oppose it. 87% of French Catholics believe society should accept homosexuality, while 10% believe society should not accept homosexuality.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Growing discontent with respect to the influence of the Catholic Church in education and politics led to a series of reforms during the Third Republic reducing this influence, under the protests of the Ultramontanists who supported the Vatican's influence.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Anti-clericalism was popular among Republicans, Radicals, and Socialists, in part because the Church had supported the Counterrevolutionaries throughout the 19th century. After the 16 May 1877 crisis and the fall of the "Ordre Moral" government led by Marshall MacMahon, the Republicans voted Jules Ferry's 1880 laws on free education (1881) and mandatory and secular education (1882), which Catholics felt was a gross violation of their rights.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State established state secularism in France, led to the closing of most Church-run schools.


title: Catholic Church in France

text: Since the Fifth Republic, most of the participating Catholics in France support Gaullist and Centrist Christian democratic parties.


title: Zarzuela

text: There are two main forms of "zarzuela": Baroque "zarzuela" (c. 1630–1750), the earliest style, and Romantic "zarzuela" (c. 1850–1950). Romantic zarzuelas can be further divided into two main subgenres, "género grande" and "género chico", although other sub-divisions exist.


title: Zarzuela

text: "Zarzuela" spread to the Spanish dominions, and many Spanish-speaking countries – notably Cuba – developed their own traditions. There is also a strong tradition in the Philippines where it is also known as . Other regional and linguistic variants in Spain include the Basque "" and the Catalan .


title: Zarzuela

text: A masque-like musical theatre had existed in Spain since the time of Juan del Encina. The "zarzuela" genre was innovative in giving a dramatic function to the musical numbers, which were integrated into the plot of the work. Dances and choruses were incorporated as well as solo and ensemble numbers, all to orchestral accompaniment.


title: Zarzuela

text: In 1657 at the Royal Palace of "El Prado", King Philip IV of Spain, Queen Mariana and their court attended the first performance of a new comedy by Pedro Calderón de la Barca, with music by Juan Hidalgo de Polanco titled "El Laurel de Apolo" (The Laurels of Apollo). "El Laurel de Apolo" traditionally symbolises the birth of a new musical genre that had become known as "La Zarzuela".


title: Zarzuela

text: Like Calderón de la Barca's earlier "El golfo de las sirenas" ("The Sirens' Gulf", 1657), "El Laurel de Apolo" mixed mythological verse drama with operatic solos, popular songs and dances. The characters in these early, baroque "zarzuelas" were a mixture of gods, mythological creatures and rustic or pastoral comedy characters; Antonio de Literes's popular "Acis y Galatea" (1708) is yet another example. Unlike some other operatic forms, there were spoken interludes, often in verse.


title: Zarzuela

text: In 18th-century Bourbon Spain, Italian artistic style dominated in the arts, including Italian opera. "Zarzuela", though still written to Spanish texts, changed to accommodate the Italian vogue. During the reign of King Charles III, political problems provoked a series of revolts against his Italian ministers; these were echoed in theatrical presentations. The older style "zarzuela" fell out of fashion, but popular Spanish tradition continued to manifest itself in shorter works, such as the single-scene "tonadilla" (or "intermezzo") of which the finest literary exponent was Ramón de la Cruz. Musicians such as Antonio Rodríguez de Hita were proficient in the shorter style of works, though he also wrote a full-scale "zarzuela" with de la Cruz entitled "Las segadoras de Vallecas" ("The Reapers of Vallecas", 1768). José Castel was one of several composers to write for the Teatro del Príncipe.


title: Zarzuela

text: In the 1850s and 1860s a group of patriotic writers and composers led by Francisco Barbieri and Joaquín Gaztambide revived the "zarzuela" form, seeing in it a possible release from French and Italian music hegemony. The elements of the work continue to be the same: sung solos and choruses, spiced with spoken scenes, and comedic songs, ensembles and dances. Costume dramas and regional variations abound, and the librettos (though often based on French originals) are rich in Spanish idioms and popular jargon.


title: Zarzuela

text: The "zarzuelas" of the day included in their librettos various regionalisms and popular slang, such as that of Madrid "castizos". Often, the success of a work was due to one or more songs that the public came to know and love. Despite some modifications the basic structure of the "zarzuela" remained the same: dialogue scenes, songs, choruses, and comic scenes generally performed by two actor-singers. The culminating masterpieces from this period


title: Zarzuela

text: were Barbieri's "Pan y toros" and Gaztambide's "El juramento". Another notable composer from this period was Emilio Arrieta.


title: Zarzuela

text: After the Glorious Revolution of 1868, the country entered a deep crisis (especially economically), which was reflected in theatre. The public could not afford high-priced theatre tickets for grandiose productions, which led to the rise of the Teatros Variedades ("variety theatres") in Madrid, with cheap tickets for one-act plays (sainetes). This "theatre of an hour" had great success and "zarzuela" composers took to the new formula with alacrity. Single-act "zarzuelas" were classified as "género chico" ("little genre") whilst the longer "zarzuelas" of three acts, lasting up to four hours, were called "género grande" ("grand genre"). "Zarzuela grande" battled on at the Teatro de la Zarzuela de Madrid, founded by Barbieri and his friends in the 1850s. A newer theatre, the Apolo, opened in 1873. At first it attempted to present the "género grande", but it soon yielded to the taste and economics of the time, and became the "temple" of the more populist "género chico" in the late 1870s.


title: Zarzuela

text: Musical content from this era ranges from full-scale operatic arias ("romanzas") through to popular songs, and dialogue from high poetic drama to lowlife comedy characters. There are also many types of "zarzuela" in between the two named genres, with a variety of musical and dramatic flavours.


title: Zarzuela

text: Many of the greatest "zarzuelas" were written in the 1880s and 1890s, but the form continued to adapt to new theatrical stimuli until well into the 20th century. With the onset of the Spanish Civil War, the form rapidly declined, and the last romantic "zarzuelas" to hold the stage were written in the 1950s.


title: Zarzuela

text: Whilst Barbieri produced the greatest "zarzuela grande" in "El barberillo de Lavapiés", the classic exponent of the "género chico" was his pupil Federico Chueca, whose "La gran vía" (composed with Joaquín Valverde Durán) was a cult success both in Spain and throughout Europe.


title: Zarzuela

text: The musical heir of Chueca was José Serrano, whose short, one act "género chico" "zarzuelas" - notably "La canción del olvido", "Alma de dios" and the much later "Los claveles" and "La dolorosa" - form a stylistic bridge to the more musically sophisticated "zarzuelas" of the 20th century.


title: Zarzuela

text: While the "zarzuela" featured (or even glorified) popular customs, festivals, and manners of speech, especially those of Madrid, something never found in a "zarzuela" is social criticism. They celebrated the established order of society; if a "zarzuela" advocated for anything, it would be for the slowing or elimination of social change.


title: Zarzuela

text: From about 1900, the term ("degraded" or "low genre") was coined to describe an emerging form of entertainment allied to the (revue) type of musical comedy: these were musical works similar to the zarzuela but lighter and bolder in their social criticism, with scenes portraying sexual themes and many verbal double entendres. One popular work from the "género ínfimo" years is "La corte de Faraón" (1910), by Vicente Lleó, which was based on the French operetta "Madame Putiphar".


title: Zarzuela

text: In the second decade of the century, the influences of Viennese operetta and the English followers of Sullivan such as Lionel Monckton made themselves felt, in works such as "Molinos de viento" and "El asombro de Damasco" (both by Pablo Luna), before the Spanish tradition of great acts was reasserted in Amadeu Vives's "Doña Francisquita" (1923). The zarzuela continued to flourish in the 1930s, thanks to composers of the stature of Pablo Sorozábal – who reinvigorated it as a vehicle for socio-political comment – Federico Moreno Torroba, and Francisco Alonso.


title: Zarzuela

text: However, the Spanish Civil War brought a decline of the genre, and after the Second World War, its extinction as a live genre was almost total. There were no new authors and the compositions are not renovated. There have been no significant new works created since the 1950s; the existing zarzuela repertoire is costly to produce, and many classics have been performed only sporadically in recent years, at least professionally.


title: Zarzuela

text: The genre has again found favour in Spain and elsewhere: younger people, in particular, have been drawn to its lyrical music and theatrical spectacle in the 1940s and 1950s. Spanish radio and television have dedicated time to zarzuela in 1978, not least in a popular series of programs produced by TVE and entitled "Antología de la zarzuela" ("Zarzuela Anthology"). These were based on lip syncs of the classic recordings of the 1940s and 1950s. Some years earlier, impresario José Tamayo worked a theatrical show of the same name which popularized pieces of zarzuela through several national and international tours.


title: Zarzuela

text: While the "zarzuela" tradition flourished in Madrid and other Spanish cities, Catalonia developed its own "zarzuela", with librettos in Catalan. The atmosphere, the plots, and the music were quite different from the model that triumphed in Madrid, as the Catalan "zarzuela" was looking to attract a different public, the bourgeois classes. Catalan "zarzuela" was turned little by little into what is called, in Catalan, "teatre líric català" ("Catalan lyric theater"), with a personality of its own, and with "modernista" lyricists and composers such as Enric Granados or Enric Morera.


title: Zarzuela

text: In the final years of the 19th century, as "modernisme" emerged, one of the notable "modernistas", and one of Felip Pedrell's pupils, Amadeu Vives came onto the Barcelona scene. He contributed to the creation of the Orfeó Català in 1891, along with Lluís Millet. In spite of a success sustained over many years, his musical ambition took him to Madrid, where "zarzuela" had a higher profile. Vives became one of the most important "zarzuela" composers, with such masterpieces as "Doña Francisquita".


title: Zarzuela

text: In Cuba the afrocubanismo "zarzuelas" of Ernesto Lecuona ("María la O"; "El cafetal"), Eliseo Grenet ("La virgen morena") and Gonzalo Roig ("Cecilia Valdés", based on Cirilo Villaverde's classic novel) represent a brief golden age of political and cultural importance. These and other works centred on the plight of the mulata woman and other black underclasses in Cuban society. The outstanding star of many of these productions was Rita Montaner.


title: Zarzuela

text: Mexico likewise had its own "zarzuela" traditions. One example is Carlo Curti's "La cuarta plana", starring Esperanza Iris.


title: Zarzuela

text: Due to Spanish colonization, the "Zarzuela Musical Theatre" has been widely adapted by Filipinos in their native cultures, notably in urban areas. The theatre was only introduced by the Spanish in 1878, despite having colonial rule since the middle of the 16th century. During this time, the plays were performed only by Spanish people. By 1880, majority of the performers and writers were Filipinos, notably Philippine national hero, José Rizal, who was fond of the play. Afterwards, local languages, instead of Spanish, were used to perform the complex theatre, with additions from multiple cultures throughout the archipelago. When the Philippines was colonized by the Americans in the early 20th century, the humor from the "moro-moro play" was added into the Philippine zarzuela, while moving away from the traditional Spanish zarzuela. The theatre afterwards was used by Filipinos to express freedom from discrimination and colonial rule, depicting the Filipino people triumphant against the Spanish and Americans by the end of each play. The revolutionary overtones of the play prompted the American colonialists to arrest various performers and writers of the Philippine zarzuela, to the extent of forcefully shutting down entire zarzuela companies in the Philippines. In the 1920s, due to the introduction of the cinema, the zarzuela became widely popular in the rural areas, disabling the Americans from stopping the plays from spreading. The Philippine zarzuela evolved into a kind of comedy of manners distinct to the Filipino taste. In 2011, the performing art was cited by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts as one of the intangible cultural heritage of the Philippines under the performing arts category that the government may nominate in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. In 2012, through a partnership with UNESCO, the Philippine government established the documents needed for the safeguarding of the Philippine zarzuela. UNESCO has cited the Philippine zarzuela as the national theatre and opera of the Philippines.


title: Zarzuela

text: From 1950 onwards, "zarzuela" prospered in a series of LP recordings from EMI, Hispavox and others, with worldwide distribution. A series produced by the Alhambra company of Madrid, the majority conducted by the leading Spanish conductor Ataulfo Argenta had particular success. Many featured singers soon to become world-famous, such as Teresa Berganza, Alfredo Kraus and Pilar Lorengar; and later, Montserrat Caballé and Plácido Domingo. Less known performers such as Ana María Iriarte, Inés Ribadeneira, Toñy Rosado, Carlos Munguía, Renato Cesari, and others frequently lent their voices to the recordings. The choirs of Orfeón Donostiarra and Singers' Choir of Madrid also contributed, rounding out the overall quality of the works. After Argenta's death others such as Indalecio Cisneros and Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos continued in his footsteps. There were also recordings made conducted by the composers themselves, such as Pablo Sorozábal and Federico Moreno Torroba. Many well-known singers, including Victoria de los Ángeles and Montserrat Caballé, have recorded albums of zarzuela songs and arias.


title: Zarzuela

text: Many zarzuela productions are now to be seen on DVD and Blu-ray disc. In March 2009, EuroArts released "Amor, Vida de Mi Vida", a recording on Blu-ray disc of an August 2007 zarzuela concert by Plácido Domingo and Ana María Martínez, with the Mozarteum Orchestra of Salzburg conducted by Jesús López-Cobos. In April 2009, BBC/Opus Arte released a Blu-ray disc of a July 2006 performance of Federico Moreno Torroba's "Luisa Fernanda" with Plácido Domingo and Nancy Herrera, recorded at the Teatro Real de Madrid with Jesús López-Cobos conducting.


title: Zarzuela

text: In the United States, the Jarvis Conservatory of Napa, California, between 1996 and 2005, mounted several full zarzuela productions, subsequently issued on DVD and online. The series includes "La dolorosa"; "La Gran Via"; "Luisa Fernanda"; "La verbena de la Paloma"; "La Rosa del Azafrán"; "La revoltosa"; "Agua, Azucarillos y Aguardiente"; "Doña Francisquita"; "Gigantes y Cabezudos"; "La alegría de la huerta"; "La chulapona"; "Luis Alonso" (Giménez, 1896); and "El barberillo de Lavapiés".


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish is a symmetric-key block cipher, designed in 1993 by Bruce Schneier and included in many cipher suites and encryption products. Blowfish provides a good encryption rate in software, and no effective cryptanalysis of it has been found to date. However, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) now receives more attention, and Schneier recommends Twofish for modern applications.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Schneier designed Blowfish as a general-purpose algorithm, intended as an alternative to the aging DES and free of the problems and constraints associated with other algorithms. At the time Blowfish was released, many other designs were proprietary, encumbered by patents, or were commercial or government secrets. Schneier has stated that "Blowfish is unpatented, and will remain so in all countries. The algorithm is hereby placed in the public domain, and can be freely used by anyone."


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish has a 64-bit block size and a variable key length from 32 bits up to 448 bits. It is a 16-round Feistel cipher and uses large key-dependent S-boxes. In structure it resembles CAST-128, which uses fixed S-boxes.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: The adjacent diagram shows Blowfish's encryption routine. Each line represents 32 bits. There are five subkey-arrays: one 18-entry P-array (denoted as K in the diagram, to avoid confusion with the Plaintext) and four 256-entry S-boxes (S0, S1, S2 and S3).


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: The F-function splits the 32-bit input into four 8-bit quarters and uses the quarters as input to the S-boxes. The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output. The outputs are added modulo 2 and XORed to produce the final 32-bit output (see image in the upper right corner).


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Decryption is exactly the same as encryption, except that P1, P2, ..., P18 are used in the reverse order. This is not so obvious because xor is commutative and associative. A common misconception is to use inverse order of encryption as decryption algorithm (i.e. first XORing P17 and P18 to the ciphertext block, then using the P-entries in reverse order).


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish's key schedule starts by initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from the hexadecimal digits of pi, which contain no obvious pattern (see nothing up my sleeve number). The secret key is then, byte by byte, cycling the key if necessary, XORed with all the P-entries in order. A 64-bit all-zero block is then encrypted with the algorithm as it stands. The resultant ciphertext replaces P and P. The same ciphertext is then encrypted again with the new subkeys, and the new ciphertext replaces P and P. This continues, replacing the entire P-array and all the S-box entries. In all, the Blowfish encryption algorithm will run 521 times to generate all the subkeys about 4 KB of data is processed.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Because the P-array is 576 bits long, and the key bytes are XORed through all these 576 bits during the initialization, many implementations support key sizes up to 576 bits. The reason for that is a discrepancy between the original Blowfish description, which uses 448-bit keys, and its reference implementation, which uses 576-bit keys. The test vectors for verifying third-party implementations were also produced with 576-bit keys. When asked which Blowfish version is the correct one, Bruce Schneier answered: "The test vectors should be used to determine the one true Blowfish".


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Another opinion is that the 448 bits limit is present to ensure that every bit of every subkey depends on every bit of the key, as the last four values of the P-array don't affect every bit of the ciphertext. This point should be taken in consideration for implementations with a different number of rounds, as even though it increases security against an exhaustive attack, it weakens the security guaranteed by the algorithm. And given the slow initialization of the cipher with each change of key, it is granted a natural protection against brute-force attacks, which doesn't really justify key sizes longer than 448 bits.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish is a fast block cipher, except when changing keys. Each new key requires the pre-processing equivalent of encrypting about 4 kilobytes of text, which is very slow compared to other block ciphers. This prevents its use in certain applications, but is not a problem in others.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: In one application Blowfish's slow key changing is actually a benefit: the password-hashing method (crypt $2, i.e. bcrypt) used in OpenBSD uses an algorithm derived from Blowfish that makes use of the slow key schedule; the idea is that the extra computational effort required gives protection against dictionary attacks. "See" key stretching.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish has a memory footprint of just over 4 kilobytes of RAM. This constraint is not a problem even for older desktop and laptop computers, though it does prevent use in the smallest embedded systems such as early smartcards.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish was one of the first secure block ciphers not subject to any patents and therefore freely available for anyone to use. This benefit has contributed to its popularity in cryptographic software.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: bcrypt is a password hashing function which, combined with a variable number of iterations (work "cost"), exploits the expensive key setup phase of Blowfish to increase the workload and duration of hash calculations, further reducing threats from brute force attacks.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: bcrypt is also the name of a cross-platform file encryption utility developed in 2002 that implements Blowfish.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: Blowfish's use of a 64-bit block size (as opposed to e.g. AES's 128-bit block size) makes it vulnerable to birthday attacks, particularly in contexts like HTTPS. In 2016, the SWEET32 attack demonstrated how to leverage birthday attacks to perform plaintext recovery (i.e. decrypting ciphertext) against ciphers with a 64-bit block size. The GnuPG project recommends that Blowfish not be used to encrypt files larger than 4 GB due to its small block size.


title: Blowfish (cipher)

text: A reduced-round variant of Blowfish is known to be susceptible to known-plaintext attacks on reflectively weak keys. Blowfish implementations use 16 rounds of encryption, and are not susceptible to this attack.


title: Tiananmen

text: The Tiananmen (also Tian'anmen (天安门), Tienanmen, T’ien-an Men; ), or the Gate of Heaven-Sent Pacification, is a monumental gate in the city center of Beijing, China, the front gate of the Imperial City of Beijing, located near the city's Central Business District, and widely used as a national symbol.


title: Tiananmen

text: First built during the Ming dynasty in 1420, Tiananmen was the entrance to the Imperial City, within which the Forbidden City was located. Tiananmen is located to the north of Tiananmen Square, and is separated from the plaza by Chang'an Avenue.


title: Tiananmen

text: The Chinese name of the gate (/), is made up of the Chinese characters for "heaven", "peace" and "gate" respectively, which is why the name is conventionally translated as "Gate of Heavenly Peace". However, this translation is somewhat misleading, since the Chinese name is derived from the much longer phrase "receiving the mandate from heaven, and pacifying the dynasty". (). The Manchu translation, "Abkai elhe obure duka", lies closer to the original meaning of the gate and can be literally translated as the "Gate of Heavenly Peacemaking". The gate had a counterpart in the northern end of the imperial city called the Di'anmen (, Dì'ānmén; Manchu: "Na i elhe obure duka"), which may be roughly translated as the "Gate of Earthly Peace".


title: Tiananmen

text: The gate was originally named "Chengtianmen" (), or "Gate of Accepting Heavenly Mandate" in the Ming Dynasty. It has subsequently been destroyed and rebuilt several times. The original building was first constructed in 1420, and was based on an eponymous gate of an imperial building in Nanking. The gate was completely burned down by lightning in July 1457. In 1465, the Chenghua Emperor ordered Zigui (), the Minister of Works, to rebuild the gate. Thus, the design was changed from the original paifang form to the gatehouse that is seen today. It suffered another blow in the war at the end of the Ming dynasty, when in 1644 the gate was burnt down by rebels led by Li Zicheng. Following the establishment of the Qing dynasty and the Manchu conquest of China proper, the gate was once again rebuilt, beginning in 1645, and was given its present name upon completion in 1651. The gate was reconstructed again between 1969 and 1970. The gate as it stood was by then 300 years old, and had badly deteriorated, partly due to heavy usage in the 1950s and 1960s. As the gate was a national symbol, Zhou Enlai ordered that the rebuilding was to be kept secret. The whole gate was covered in scaffolding, and the project was officially called a "renovation". The rebuilding aimed to leave the gate's external appearance unchanged while both making it more resistant to earthquakes and installing modern facilities such as an elevator, water supply, and heating system.


title: Tiananmen

text: The building is long, wide and high. Like other official buildings of the empire, the gate itself has unique imperial roof decorations.


title: Tiananmen

text: Two lions stand in front of the gate, and two more guard the bridges. In Chinese culture, lions are believed to protect humans from evil spirits.


title: Tiananmen

text: Two stone columns, called huabiao, each with an animal ("hou") on top of it, also stand in front of the gate. Originally, these installations were designed for commoners to address their grievances by either writing or sticking petitions on the columns. However, the examples in front of the Imperial City were purely decorative, and instead connoted the majesty of the imperial government.


title: Tiananmen

text: The western and eastern walls have giant placards; the left one reads "Long Live the People's Republic of China" (), while the right one reads "Long Live the Great Unity of the World's Peoples". The right placard used to read "Long Live the Central People's Government" () for the founding ceremony of the PRC, but after the ceremony it was changed to "Long Live the Great Unity of the World's Peoples" (). Both placards were changed to use simplified Chinese instead of traditional Chinese characters in 1964. The phrasing has significant symbolic meaning, as the phrase used for "long live", like the Imperial City itself, was traditionally reserved for Emperors of China, but is now available to the common people.


title: Tiananmen

text: The reviewing stands in the foreground are used on International Workers Day (May Day) and on the National Day (October 1) of the People's Republic of China.


title: Tiananmen

text: In front of the stands is the Imperial City's moat, still filled with water but now containing decorative illuminated fountains.


title: Tiananmen

text: In ancient times, the Tiananmen was among the most important gates encountered when entering Beijing's Imperial City along with the Yongdingmen, Qianmen, the Gate of China. Proceeding further inward, the next gate is the 'Upright Gate', identical in design to the Tian'anmen; behind it is the southern entrance of the Forbidden City itself, known as the Meridian Gate.


title: Tiananmen

text: Because of the gate's position at the front of the Imperial City, and the historical events that have taken place on Tiananmen Square, the gate has great political significance. In 1925, when China was ruled by the Nationalist government, a large portrait of Sun Yat-sen was hung at the gate after his death. In 1945, to celebrate the victory over Japan, Chiang Kai-shek's portrait was hung.


title: Tiananmen

text: On July 7, 1949, portraits of Zhu De and Mao Zedong were hung to commemorate the Second Sino-Japanese War. Since the founding date of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, a singular portrait of Mao has been hung on the gate. The portrait is replaced annually before National Day. On only one occasion, on March 9, 1953, it was temporarily replaced by a portrait of Joseph Stalin to commemorate his death.


title: Tiananmen

text: In 2011, Alexander Pann Han-tang, chairman of the Asia Pacific Taiwan Federation of Industry and Commerce, and a close friend of Taiwanese president Ma Ying-jeou, proposed that the picture of Sun Yat-sen be displayed at Tiananmen Square instead for the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of China. However, this proposal was rejected.


title: Tiananmen

text: The portrait weighs , and is replaced by a spare whenever it is vandalized. In 1989, three dissidents, including Yu Dongyue, attacked the portrait with eggs during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. Yu was sentenced to life imprisonment but was released on bail 17 years later in 2006. On May 12, 2007, the portrait of Mao caught fire. A 35-year-old unemployed man from Urumqi was arrested for the incident. About 15% of the portrait was damaged, and had to be repaired later. On April 5, 2010, a protester threw ink in a plastic bottle and hit a wall near the portrait. He was then arrested.


title: Tiananmen

text: Due to its historical significance, Tiananmen is featured on the National Emblem of the People's Republic of China. It has also been featured in the designs of stamps and coins issued by the People's Republic of China.


title: Tiananmen

text: Line 1 of the Beijing Subway has stops at Tiananmen West and Tiananmen East, on each side of Tiananmen.


title: Trinidad James

text: Nicholaus Joseph Williams (born September 24, 1987), better known by his stage name Trinidad James (often stylized as Trinidad Jame$), is a Trinidadian-American rapper. In 2012, he signed a recording contract with Def Jam Recordings. The label dropped him in 2014 when he failed to release an album, although he continues to release music as an independent artist and is signed to Artist Publishing Group for songwriting.


title: Trinidad James

text: Nicholaus Williams was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. His family moved to Canada and Florida before settling in the Bronx, New York City. As a child, he went to Catholic school. He has stated he cannot remember any parts of his life before the age of seven because of a head injury. In the eighth grade, he moved to Atlanta, where he began playing basketball. He began rapping in November 2011. He has listed Jay-Z, Cam'ron, T.I., and Young Jeezy as his influences.


title: Trinidad James

text: In 2012, James released his official debut single, called "All Gold Everything", which charted in the top 40 of the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The song was taken from his official debut mixtape, titled "Don't Be S.A.F.E. (Sensitive As Fuck Everyday)", which was released on July 31, 2012, and officially re-released with a music video on October 16, 2012. On December 13, 2012, it was announced James had signed a joint venture with Def Jam Records for approximately $2 million. In January, Def Jam re-released "Don't Be S.A.F.E" to iTunes, which included the remix to "All Gold Everything" featuring 2 Chainz, T.I., and Young Jeezy.


title: Trinidad James

text: On August 6, 2013, he announced that he would be releasing his second mixtape, titled "10 PC Mild", on August 13. After months of not releasing any new music, James announced that he had been dropped from Def Jam on August 1, 2014. He also indicated that instead of releasing his album through the label, he would make it available for free, and that the producers and rappers who contributed to the project should not expect any compensation because he had "no money." In April 2016, James released the single "Just a Lil' Thick (She Juicy)" featuring Mystikal and Lil Dicky. On December 31, 2016, James released a mixtape "The Wake Up 2" to streaming services such as Spotify and to mixtape websites alike.


title: Trinidad James

text: On June 9, 2018, James released a single titled "M.M.M. (Marilyn Maryland Marilyn)" to streaming services. The music video, directed by Mike Marasco was uploaded to YouTube on the same day.


title: Trinidad James

text: On November 27, 2019, in an interview with popular rap talk show "No Jumper", James stated that his current favorite rappers were "Doja Cat and Lil Nas X, I love those guys, partly because their flows remind me of myself" and later in the interview when asked about what his hopes for his current favorite rappers James proclaimed "I would hate to see them quit. You know. The last thing I'd want to see is for them to fall off just like I have."


title: Trinidad James

text: As of 2018, James is a host on a YouTube talk show, "Full Size Run". and he appeared in the Safdie Brothers' film "Uncut Gems".


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: "Mambo Italiano" is a popular song written by Bob Merrill in 1954 for the American singer Rosemary Clooney. The song became a hit for Clooney, reaching the Top Ten in record charts in the US and France and No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart early in 1955. The song has shown enduring popularity, with several cover versions and appearances in numerous films.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: Merrill reportedly wrote it under a recording deadline, scribbling hastily on a paper napkin in an Italian restaurant in New York City, and then using the wall pay-phone to dictate the melody, rhythm and lyrics to the studio pianist, under the aegis of the conductor Mitch Miller, who produced the original record. Alongside Merrill, 'Lidianni' and 'Gabba' are also listed as writers of the song, corresponding to the pseudonyms of the Italian lyricists Gian Carlo Testoni and Gaspare Abbate, respectively.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: Merrill's song provides an obvious parody of genuine mambo music, cashing in on the 1954 mambo craze in New York, while at the same time allowing Miller to set up a vehicle for Clooney's vocal talents. It is also a late example of an American novelty song in a tradition started during World War II by the Italian-American jazz singer Louis Prima, in which nonsense lyrics with an Italian-American sound are used in such a way as to present a stereotyped caricature of Italian-American people (who had been classed with "enemy alien" status and discouraged from speaking Italian) as likable, slightly brash, pleasure-loving folk. Although Clooney's own family background was Irish-American, she could perform such "Italianized" material with an entirely convincing accent, which she had readily picked up from Italian-American musicians and their families.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: The nonsense lyrics were originally couched in English, mixed together with a comic jumble of Italian, Spanish, Neapolitan and gibberish (invented) words, including:


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: The song reached No. 8 on the U.S. "Cash Box" Top 50 Best Selling Records chart, in a tandem ranking of Don Cornell, Nick Noble, Kay Armen, and Roy Rogers & Dale Evans's versions, with Don Cornell and Nick Noble's versions marked as bestsellers. The song also reached No. 7 on "Billboard"s Honor Roll of Hits, with Don Cornell and Nick Noble's versions listed as best sellers.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: In Australia, the song charted regionally. It entered the Brisbane charts in January 1956, and reached No. 3. In Sydney, it charted twice: in January, when it reached No. 10 (in a 10-song Hit Parade), and again in March 1956 when it went to No. 4.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: It was successfully covered in 1955 by the popular Italian-American star Dean Martin. In 2022, Martin's version is played briefly in a streaming commercial for Airbnb.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: In 2006, the German Nu jazz and Lounge music act Club des Belugas officially released a remix of the Dean Martin version on their album "Apricoo Soul", with official authorization on behalf of Capitol Records/EMI and Martin's estate.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: Mambo Italiano became popular in Italy when Carla Boni scored a major hit with her version of 1956. Also in 1956, Renato Carosone, a singer and band leader from Naples, recorded a successful version that weaves in several fragments of Neapolitan song, of which he was a leading exponent.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: British electronica duo Shaft covered the song and released it as a single in 2000. It was the follow-up to their 1999 hit, "(Mucho Mambo) Sway". This version reached number 12 on the UK Singles Chart and peaked within the top 40 in Australia, Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, and Sweden. It was later included on the duo's 2001 album, "Pick Up on This".


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: Cover versions of the song made in other languages include a French translation made by the Turkish polyglot singer Darío Moreno. Other covers in various genres from around the world include a salsa setting by the Italian musician Massimo Scalici; a V-pop version by the Vietnamese group Hồ Quang Hiếu; a Mandarin version by Hong Kong singer Paula Tsui; an instrumental by the Swedish electric guitarist Mattias Eklundh; a Latin ska number by Federico Fosati and Dinamo from Mallorca. Bette Midler remade "Mambo italiano" for her 2002 album "Bette Midler Sings the Rosemary Clooney Songbook". Patrizio Buanne released a cover on his album "Patrizio" in 2009. Dean Martin's daughter, Deana Martin released a cover on her 2006 album "Memories Are Made of This". The "Mambo Italiano" tune features at the start of Lady Gaga's 2011 song "Americano". Gaga later performed "Mambo Italiano" during her Jazz & Piano residency in Las Vegas. Iggy Azalea samples the song in her 2019 single "Lola".


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: In the 1955 Italian comedy film "Scandal in Sorrento" (), Sophia Loren dances to an instrumental arrangement of the tune, opposite Vittorio De Sica in a simplified imitation of mambo dancing.


title: Mambo Italiano (song)

text: The song was also used in the beginning credits of the 1988 mob comedy "Married to the Mob" starring Alec Baldwin, during a dancing scene in the 1996 film "Big Night", and in the 1999 comedy "Mickey Blue Eyes" starring Hugh Grant and James Caan.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: Olive Kitteridge is a 2008 novel by American author Elizabeth Strout. The novel provides a portrait of the title character and a number of recurring characters in the coastal town of Crosby, Maine. It takes the form of 13 short stories that are interrelated but discontinuous in terms of narrative.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: It won the 2009 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction and was a finalist for the 2008 National Book Critics Circle Award. HBO produced a four-part miniseries based on the novel featuring Frances McDormand in the title role, which aired on November 2 and 3, 2014. The series won eight awards at the 2015 Primetime Emmys. A sequel to the novel, titled "Olive, Again", was published on October 15, 2019 by Random House.


title: Olive Kitteridge

text: The first story centres on Henry Kitteridge, the pharmacist of the town of Crosby and husband of Olive, and his relationship with an employee, Denise Thibodeau. Henry daydreams of taking care of Denise after the death of her husband, though he still loves his cantankerous wife Olive. Jerry McCarthy, the delivery boy, eventually proposes to Denise and the couple move to Texas. Denise maintains contact with Henry through a yearly birthday letter.