title: Đại Việt

text: In 1054 Lý Thánh Tông changed his kingdom's name to Đại Việt and declared himself an emperor. He married an ordinary girl named Lady Ỷ Lan and she gave birth to the crown prince Lý Càn Đức. In 1072 the infant Lý Càn Đức became Emperor Lý Nhân Tông (r. 1072–1127), the longest-ruling monarch in Vietnamese history. During the early years of Lý Nhân Tông, his father's military leader Lý Thường Kiệt, uncle Lý Đạo Thành, and Queen Ỷ Lan became court regents. From the 1070s, border tensions between the Song Empire, local Tai principalities, and the Việt kingdom arose into open violence. In winter 1075, Lý Thường Kiệt led a naval invasion of southern China. Việt troops wreaked havoc on Chinese border towns, then laid siege to Nanning and captured it one month later. The Song emperor sent a large counter-invasion of Đại Việt in late 1076, but Lý Thường Kiệt was able to fend off and defeat the Song advance at the Battle of the Cầu River, where half of Song forces perished in combats and diseases. Lý Nhân Tông then offered peace with the Song, and later all hostilities were ended in 1084; the Song recognized the Việt polity as a sovereign kingdom. According to a fourteenth-century chronicle, the Đại Việt sử lược, the Khmer Empire sent three embassies to Đại Việt in 1086, 1088 and 1095. The matured Lý Nhân Tông came to rule in 1085. He defeated the Cham ruler Jaya Indravarman II in 1103, built the Dạm pagoda in Bắc Ninh in 1086, and constructed a Buddhist temple for his mother called Long Đọi pagoda in 1121. He died in 1127. One of his nephews, Lý Dương Hoán, succeeded him and became known as Emperor Lý Thần Tông (r. 1128–1138). This marked the downfall of Lý family's authority within the court.


title: Đại Việt

text: Lý Thần Tông was crowned under the supervision of Lê Bá Ngọc, a powerful eunuch. Lê Bá Ngọc adopted a son of the emperor's mother named Đỗ Anh Vũ. During the reign of Lý Thần Tông, Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire launched an attack on Đại Việt's southern territories in 1128. In 1132 he allied with Cham king Jaya Indravarman III and briefly seized Nghệ An and pillaged Thanh Hoá. In 1135 Duke Đỗ Anh Vũ raised an army and repelled the Khmer invaders. After the Chams refused to support in 1137, Suryavarman II abandoned his incursions on Đại Việt and launched the invasion of Champa. At the same time, Lý Thần Tông began suffering a fatal illness, according to an inscription, and he died in the next year, leaving the infant Lý Thiên Tộ who became Emperor Lý Anh Tông (r. 1138–1175) under Đỗ Anh Vũ's patronage. After Đõ Anh Vũ died in 1159, another powerful figure named Tô Hiến Thành stepped into the role of guarding the dynasty until 1179. In 1149, Javanese and Siamese ships arrived Vân Đồn to trade. The sixth son of Lý Anh Tông, Prince Lý Long Trát was crowned in 1175 as Lý Cao Tông (r. 1175–1210).


title: Đại Việt

text: By the 1190s, more outsider clans were able to penetrate and infiltrate the royal family, weakening further the Lý authority. Three powerful aristocratic families–Đoàn, Nguyễn, and Trần (descendants of Trần Emperors, a Chinese emigre from Fujian) emerged in the court and contested on behalf of the royals. In 1210, Lý Cao Tông's eldest son Lý Sảm became Emperor Lý Huệ Tông (r. 1210–1224) of Đại Việt. In 1224, Lý Sảm appointed his second princess Lý Phật Kim (Empress Lý Chiêu Hoàng) as successor while he abdicated and became a monk. Finally, in 1225 the Trần leader Trần Thủ Độ sponsored a marriage between his eight-year-old nephew Trần Cảnh with Lý Chiêu Hoàng, that means the Ly would give up power to the Trần, and Trần Cảnh became Emperor Trần Thái Tông of the new dynasty of Đại Việt.


title: Đại Việt

text: The young Trần Thái Tông centralized the monarchy, organized the civil examination on the Chinese model, built Royal Academy and Confucian Temple, constructed and repaired the delta dikes during his reign. In 1257, the Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan who was waging a war to conquer the Song Empire, sent envoys to Trần Thái Tông, demanded the Emperor of Đại Việt to present himself to the Mongol Khan in Peking. The envoys were imprisoned and the demand was rejected, about 25,000 Mongol–Dali troops led by general Uriyangqadaï to invade Đại Việt from Yunnan, and then to attack the Song from Đại Việt. Unprepared, Trần Thái Tông's army was overwhelmed at battle of Bình Lệ Nguyên on 17 January 1258. Five days later they captured and sacked Thăng Long. The Mongols retreated to Yunnan fourteen days later, as Trần Thái Tông had submitted and sent tribute to Möngke.


title: Đại Việt

text: Trần Thái Tông's successors Trần Thánh Tông (r. 1258–1278) and Trần Nhân Tông (r. 1278–1293) continued to send tribute to the new Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. In 1283, Yuan emperor Kublai Khan launched the invasion of Champa. In early 1285 he commissioned prince Toghon to led the second invasion of Đại Việt to punish the Vietnamese Emperor Trần Nhân Tông for not helping the Yuan campaign in Champa and refusing to send tribute. Kublai also appointed Trần Ích Tắc, a Trần prince dissent as the puppet Emperor of Đại Việt. Yuan forces though initially captured Thăng Long, however, were defeated by Cham–Vietnamese alliance in June. In 1288 they decided to launch the third and also the largest invasion of Đại Việt but were repelled. Prince Trần Hưng Đạo ended the Mongol yokes through a decisive naval victory in the battle of Bạch Đằng River in April 1288. Đại Việt continued to flourish under the reigns of Trẩn Nhân Tông and Trần Anh Tông (r. 1293–1314).


title: Đại Việt

text: By the 14th century, Đại Việt kingdom began experiencing a long decline. The transitional decade (1326–36) from the end of the Medieval Warm Period to the Mini-ice age period affected the climate of the Red River Delta into extremes. Weather phenomena such as drought, violent flooding, storms frequently occurred, weakened the irrigation system that damaged agriculture production, generating famines, together with widespread non-bubonic plagues, impoverished the peasantry, unleashing robbery and chaos. The estimated population could have been grown from 1.2 million in 1200 to perhaps 2.4 million in 1340.


title: Đại Việt

text: Trần Anh Tông seized northern Champa in 1307, intervening in Champa's politics through the marriage of Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III with Trần Anh Tông's sister Queen Paramecvariin. Trần Minh Tông (r. 1314–1329) went into conflict with Tai peoples in Laos and Sukhothai from the 1320s to 1330s. During the reign of the weak king Trần Dụ Tông (r. 1341–1369), internal rebellions led by serfs and peasants from the 1340s and 1360s weakened the royal power. In 1369, due to Trần Dụ Tông's lack of an heir to success, Dương Nhật Lễ, a man from the Dương clan, seized power. A short bloody civil war led by the royal Tran family against the Dương clan broke out in 1369–1370 that created turmoil. The Trần reclaimed the crown, enthroning Trần Nghệ Tông (r. 1370–1372) while Dương Nhật Lễ was deposed and executed. Duong's queen mother went into exile in Champa and begged Cham king Po Binasuor to help her get revenge.


title: Đại Việt

text: Took advantage, Champa Empire under Po Binasuor (Chế Bồng Nga) invaded Đại Việt and ransacked Thăng Long in 1371. Six years later, the Đại Việt army suffered a great defeat at Battle of Vijaya, and Trần Duệ Tông (r. 1373–1377) was killed. The Chams then continued to advance north, besieging, pillaging, and looting Hanoi four times, from 1378 to 1383. War with Champa ended in 1390 after the Cham king Che Bong Nga was killed during his northward offensive by Vietnamese forces led by prince Trần Khát Chân, who used firearms in battle.


title: Đại Việt

text: Hồ Quý Ly (1336–1407)-the minister of the Trần court who has desperately fought off the Cham invasions, now became the most powerful figure in the kingdom. He conducted a series of reforms, including replacing copper coins with banknotes, despite the kingdom still recovering after the devastating war. Time by time, he slowly eliminated the Trần dynasty and aristocracy. In 1400 he deposed the last Trần Emperor and became ruler of Đại Việt. Hồ Quý Ly became emperor, moved the capital to Tây Đô and briefly changed the kingdom's name to Đại Ngu (Great Joy/Peace) (大虞). In 1401 he stepped down and established his second son Hồ Hán Thương (r. 1401–1407) who had Trần blood as king. In 1406, Emperor Yongle of the Ming dynasty, in the name of restoring the Trần dynasty, invaded Đại Ngu. The ill-prepared Vietnamese resistance of Hồ Quý Ly, who failed to get support from his people, especially from the Thăng Long literati, was crumbled and defeated by a Chinese army of 215,000, armed with the newest technology at the time. Đại Ngu kingdom became the thirteenth province of the Ming empire.


title: Đại Việt

text: The short-lived Ming colonial rule had traumatic impacts on the kingdom and the Vietnamese. In pursuit of their mission civilisatrice (sinicization), the Ming built and opened Confucian schools and shines, prohibited old Vietnamese traditions such as tattooing, sent several thousand Vietnamese scholars to China where they were re-educated in Neo-Confucian classics. Some of these literati would dramatically change the Vietnamese state under the new Lê dynasty when they returned in the 1430s and served the new court, triggering a seismic shift from Mahayana Buddhism to Confucianism. Remains of pre-1400s Hanoi, Buddhist sanctuary and temples, were systematically demolished and reduced to ruins or nothing.


title: Đại Việt

text: Lê Lợi-son of a peasant from Thanh Hoá region, led an uprising against the Chinese occupation in spring 1418. He led a war of independence against Ming colonial rule that lasted for 9 years. Assisted by Nguyễn Trãi–a prominent anti-Ming scholar–and other Thanh Hoá families–the Trịnh and the Nguyễn, his rebel forces managed to capture and defeat several major Ming strongholds and counterattacks, eventually drove the Chinese back to the north in 1427. In April 1428, Lê Lợi was proclaimed as Emperor of a new Đại Việt. He established Hanoi as Đông Kinh or the eastern capital, while the dynasty's estate Lam Son became Tây Kinh or the western capital.


title: Đại Việt

text: Through his proclamation, Lê Lợi called upon educated men of ability to come forward to serve the new monarchy. The old Buddhist aristocrats were stripped during the Ming occupation and gave rise to the new emerging literati class. For the first time, a centralized authority based on proper laws was instituted. Literary examination now became crucial for the Việt state, scholars like Nguyễn Trãi played a large role in the court.


title: Đại Việt

text: Lê Lợi shifted his main affair focus to the Tai people and the Laotian Lan Xang kingdom in the west, due to their betrayal and becoming allies with the Ming during his rebellion in the 1420s. In 1431 and 1433, the Việt launched several campaigns on various Tai polities, subdued them, and incorporated the northwest region into Đại Việt.


title: Đại Việt

text: Lê Lợi died in 1433. He chose the younger prince Lê Nguyên Long (Lê Thái Tông, r. 1433–1442) as heir instead of the eldest Lê Tư Tề. Later Lê Tư Tề was expelled from the royal family and degraded status to a commoner. Lê Thái Tông was only ten years old when he was crowned in 1433. Lê Lợi's former comrades now fought politically with each other to control the court. Lê Sát used his power as the young emperor's regent to purge opposition factions. When Lê Thái Tông found out about Le Sat's abuses of power, he allied with Lê Sát's rival, Trịnh Khả. In 1437, Lê Sát was arrested and given a death sentence.


title: Đại Việt

text: In 1439 Lê Thái Tông launched a campaign against rebelling Tai vassals in the west and Chinese settlers in Đại Việt. He ordered the Chinese to cut their hair short and wear clothes of the Kinh people. One of his sisters raised in China was forced to commit suicide, being accused of endless conspiracies. Later he had four princes: The eldest son Lê Nghi Dân, the second Lê Khắc Xương, the third Lê Bang Cơ, and the youngest Lê Hạo. In 1442 the emperor died in suspicion after a visit to Nguyễn Trãi's family. Nguyễn Trãi and his clan, relatives were innocently condemned to death.


title: Đại Việt

text: One-year-old Lê Bang Cơ (Lê Nhân Tông, r. 1442–1459) assumed the throne a few days after his father's death. The emperor was too young and most political power of the court fell Lê Lợi's former comrades Trịnh Khả and Lê Thụ, who allied with the queen mother Nguyễn Thị Anh. During the dry season of 1445–1446, Trịnh Khả, Lê Thụ, and Trịnh Khắc Phục attacked Champa and took Vijaya, where the king of Champa Maha Vijaya (r. 1441–1446) was captured. Trịnh Khả installed Maha Kali (r. 1446–1449) as a puppet king, however, three years later Kali's elder brother murdered him and became king. Relations between the two kingdoms downfall into hostility. In 1451, amidst chaotic political struggles, Queen Nguyễn Thị Anh ordered Trịnh Khả to be executed for an accusation of conspiracy against the royal throne. Only two of Lê Lợi's former comrades, Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt were still alive.


title: Đại Việt

text: During a night in late 1459, Prince Lê Nghi Dân and followers stormed into the palace, stabbed his half-brother and the mother. Four days later he was proclaimed as emperor. Nghi Dân ruled the kingdom for 8 months, then the two former-Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt carried a coup against him. Two days after Nghi Dân's death, the youngest prince Lê Hạo was crowned, known as Emperor Lê Thánh Tông the Overflowing Virtue (r. 1460–1479).


title: Đại Việt

text: In the 1460s, Lê Thánh Tông carried out a series of reforms, from centralizing government, built the first extensive bureaucracy and strong fiscal system, institutionalizing education, trade, and laws. He greatly reduced the power of the traditional Buddhist aristocracy with a scholar-literati class, ushered a brief golden age. Classical scholarly, literature (in nom script), science, music, and culture flourished. Hanoi emerged as the centre of learning of Southeast Asia in the 15th century. Lê Thánh Tông's reforms helped heightened the power of the king and the bureaucratic system, allowing him to mobilize a more massive army and resources that overawed the local nobility and capable to expand the Việt territories.


title: Đại Việt

text: To expand the kingdom, Lê Thánh Tông launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 that brought destruction to the Cham civilization and made the rump state Panduranga a vassal of Đại Việt. Respond to disputes with Laos over Muang Phuan and the mistreatment of the Laotian envoy, Lê Thánh Tông led a strong army that invaded Laos in 1479, sacked Luang Phabang, occupied it for five years, and advanced far away as Upper Burma. Vietnamese products, particularly porcelains, were sold throughout Southeast Asia, China, and also in modern-day East African coast, Japan, Iran and Turkey.


title: Đại Việt

text: In the next few decades after Lê Thánh Tông's death in 1497, Đại Việt once again fell to civil unrest. Agricultural failures, rapid population growth, corruption, and factionalism all compounded to stress the kingdom, leading to a rapid decline. Eight weak Lê kings briefly held power. During the reign Lê Uy Mục–known as the "devil king" (r. 1505–1509), bloody fighting ignited between the two rival Thanh Hoá families in the cadet branch, the Trịnh and the Nguyễn on behalf of the ruling dynasty. Lê Tương Dực (r. 1509–1514) tried to restore stability, but chaotic political struggles and rebellions returned years later. In 1516 a Buddhist-peasant rebellion led by Trần Cảo stormed the capital, killed the emperor, plundered, and destroyed the royal palace along with its library. The Trịnh and Nguyễn clans briefly ceased hostility for a short time, suppressed Trần Cảo, and installed a young prince as Lê Chiêu Tông (r. 1517–1522), then they quickly turned against each other and forced the king to flee.


title: Đại Việt

text: The chaos prompted Mạc Đăng Dung, a military officer and well-educated in Confucian classics, to rise up and try to restore order. By 1522, he effectively subjugated the two warring clans and put down the rebellions while establishing his clan and supporters to the government. In 1527 he enforced the young Lê king to abdicate and proclaimed himself emperor and began the rule of the Mạc dynasty. Six years later, Nguyễn Kim–a Nguyễn noble and Lê loyalist-rebelled against the Mạc, enthroned Lê Duy Ninh–a descendant of Lê Lợi and began the monarchy-in-exile in Laos. In 1542 they reemerged from the south, known as the southern court, laid claim to the Vietnamese crown, and opposed the Mạc (the northern court). The Việt kingdom now fell into a long period of depressions, decentralization, chaos, and civil wars that lasted for three centuries.


title: Đại Việt

text: The Lê (assisted by Nguyễn Kim) and the Mạc loyalists fought on behalf of reclaiming the legitimate Vietnamese crown. When Nguyễn Kim died in 1545, the power of the Lê dynasty swiftly fell into the dictate of the lord Trịnh Kiểm of the Trịnh family. One of Nguyễn Kim's sons, Nguyễn Hoàng, was appointed as ruler of the southern part of the kingdom, thus began the Nguyễn family rule over Đàng Trong.


title: Đại Việt

text: The Lê-Trịnh loyalists expelled the Mạc from Hanoi in 1592, forcing them to flee into the mountainous hinterland, where their reign lasted until 1677.


title: Đại Việt

text: The Trịnh-controlled northern Đại Việt was known as Đàng Ngoài (Outer Realm), while the Nguyễn-controlled south became Đàng Trong (Inner Realm). They fought a fifty-year civil war (1627–1673), which ended inconclusively and the two lords signed a peace treaty. This stable division would last until 1771 when three Tây Sơn brothers Nguyễn Nhạc, Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ led a peasant revolution that would overrun and topple the Nguyễn, the Trịnh lords, and the Le dynasty. In 1789, the Tây Sơn defeated a Qing intervention that sought to restore the Lê dynasty. Nguyễn Nhạc established a monarchy in 1778 (Thái Đức), followed by his brother Nguyễn Huệ (Emperor Quang Trung, r. 1789–1792) and nephew Nguyễn Quang Toản (Emperor Cảnh Thịnh, r. 1792–1802), while a descendant of the Nguyễn lords, Nguyễn Ánh returned to the Mekong Delta, after several years exiled in Thailand and France. Ten years later Nguyễn loyalists defeated the Tây Sơn and conquered the whole kingdom. Nguyễn Anh became the emperor of the new unified Vietnamese state.


title: Đại Việt

text: In the early Đại Việt period (pre-1200), the Viet monarchy existed as a form of what historians describe as a "charter state" or a "mandala state." In 1973, Minoru Katakura used the term "centralized feudal system" to describe the Lý dynasty's Viet state. Yumio Sakurai reconstructed the Lý dynasty as a local dynasty, that the dynasty was only able to control several inner areas, while outer areas (phu) were autonomously governed by local clans of various ethnolinguistic backgrounds, who aligned to the royal clan through Buddhist alliances, such as temples. The Viet king "man of prowess" was the center of the mandala structure that has influences beyond the Red River Delta via Buddhist alliance with local lords, while a bureaucracy was still practically nonexistent. For examples, an inscription dating from 1107 in Hà Giang records the religious-political connection between the Nùng Hà clan with the dynasty, or another inscription dated 1100 commemorates Lý Thường Kiệt as the lord of Thanh Hoá. As a mandala realm, according to F. K. Lehman, its direct territories could not exceed more than 150 miles in diameter, however, the Đại Việt kingdom was able to maintain a large influence sphere due to active coastal trade and maritime activities with other Southeast Asian states.


title: Đại Việt

text: During the 13th and 14th century as the Trần dynasty ruled the kingdom, the Trần first move was preventing matrilineality clans to take over the royal family, by adopting the king–retired king relation, which the emperor usually abdicated in favor of his eldest son while retaining power behind the scenes, and practicing consanguine marriage. To prevent maternal families’ influences, Trần kings took only queens from their dynastic lineage. The state had been more centralized, taxes and bureaucracy appeared, chronicles were written down. Most power is concentrated in the hands of the emperor and the royal families. In the lowland, the Trần removed all non-Trần, autonomous aristocratic clans from the power, appointed Trần princes to rule these lands, tightened up relations between the state and locals. Working in Trần princely lands were serfs-poor peasants that own no land and slaves. Large hydraulic projects that mobilized more labors such as Red River Delta’s dyke system were constructed-one that maintained and increased its particularly wet-rice-based agricultural economy and its population by diverting rivers to aid in irrigation. Confucianism was ensured by the Trần monarchs as the second belief, gave rise to the literati class, which later became rivals to the established Buddhist clergies.


title: Đại Việt

text: The Việt monarchy during this period faced a series of massive Yuan and Cham invasions, political unrest, famines, disasters, and diseases, and was led to a nearly collapse in the late 1300s. Hồ Quý Ly as the minister had tried to fix the troubles by eliminating the Trần aristocrats, limiting monks, and promote Chinese classic learning, however, resulted in political catastrophe.


title: Đại Việt

text: From Lê Thánh Tông's 1463 reforms onward, the Vietnamese state's structure was modeled after the Ming dynasty of China. He established six Ministries and six Courts. The government had been centralized. By 1471, Đại Việt was divided into 12 provinces and one capital city (Thăng Long), each governed by a provincial government consisted of military commanders, civil administrators, and judicial officers. Lê Thánh Tông employed 5,300 officials into the bureaucracy. A new legal code called the Lê Code was published in 1462 and was practiced until 1803.


title: Đại Việt

text: As a Confucian king, Le Thanh Tong generally disliked cosmopolitanism and foreign trade. He banned slavery, which had been popular during previous centuries, limited trade and commercial. During his reign, power was based on institutional obligations that enforced loyalty to court and merits, rather a religious relationship between aristocracy and the royal court. Self-sufficient agriculture and state-monopolized crafting were encouraged.


title: Đại Việt

text: After the death of Le Thanh Tong in 1497, the social-political orders he had built gradually fell apart as Đại Việt was entering its chaotic disintegration period under the reigns of his weak successors. Social upheavals, ecological crisis, corruption, irreparable failing system, political rivalry, rebellions pushed the kingdom to a climatic burst of civil war between rival clans. The last Le king was overthrown by general Mạc Đăng Dung in 1527, who promised to restore "Le Thanh Tong's golden era and stability." For the next six decades, from 1533 to 1592, the raging civil war between the Le loyalists and the Mạc had ruined much of the polity. The Trịnh and Nguyễn clans both assisted the Le loyalists in their struggle against the Mạc.


title: Đại Việt

text: After the Le-Mac war ended in 1592 with the Mạc ousted from the Red River Delta, the two clans of Trịnh and Nguyễn who revived the Le dynasty emerged as the strongest powers, and resumed their own infighting, from 1627 to 1672. The northern Trịnh clan had installed themselves as regency for the Le dynasty by 1545, but in reality, they hold most power of the royal court and de facto rulers of the northern half of Đại Việt, and began using the title "Chúa" (lord), which is outside of the classical hierarchy of nobility. The Le king was reduced to a figurehead, he ruled in earnest, while the Trịnh lord had total power to select and enthrone or remove any king the lord favors. The southern Nguyễn leader also began to proclaim as "Chúa" lord in 1558. Initially, they were considered subjects of the Le court, which was controlled by the Trịnh lord. But later, by the early 1600s, they ruled southern Đại Việt like an independent kingdom and became the main rival to the Trịnh domain. Le Thanh Tong's legacy such as his 1463 Code and bureaucratic institutions, was revived in the north and somehow continued to persist and lasted until French Indochina period.


title: Đại Việt

text: Before and after the war, the two Thanh Hoá clans divided the kingdom into two simultaneously coexist but rival regimes: the northern Đàng Ngoài or Tonkin ruled by the Trịnh family while the southern Đàng Trong or Cochinchina ruled by the Nguyễn family; their natural border is the city of Đồng Hới (18th parallel north). Each polity had its own independent court, however, the Nguyễn lord still sought to subordinate himself with the Lê dynasty, which also stayed under Trịnh supervision, trying to pretend an imaginary unity. Paying homage and respect to the Le king remained a source of both lords' legitimacy and of adherence to the idea of a unified Vietnamese state, even if such a thing no longer existed or was loosely emptied.


title: Đại Việt

text: The Tay Son rebellion of the late 18th century Đại Việt was an extraordinary movement of Đại Việt's chaotic period when the three Tay Son brothers divided the kingdom into three subordinating but independently realms ruled by them who all declared kings: Nguyen Hue controlled the north, Nguyen Nhac controlled the central, and Nguyen Lu controlled the Mekong Delta.


title: Đại Việt

text: Fan Chengda (1126–1193), a Chinese statesman and geographer, wrote an account in 1176 that described the medieval Vietnamese economy:


title: Đại Việt

text: Unlike southern neighbor Champa, medieval (900-1500 AD) Đại Việt was mostly an agricultural kingdom, centered around the Red River Delta. Most stelae epigraphs discussing the economy from this period concerned land reclamation, maintaining irrigation system of the Red River, culminating fields, harvesting, and the king's land donation to Buddhist clergies. Trade was not primarily important in Đại Việt, although Đại Việt's ceramic exports blossomed for several decades during the 15th century. Le Thanh Tong-the greatest king of the 15th century who had conquered Champa, once said "Do not cast aside the roots (agriculture) and pursue the insignificant trade/(commerce)", showcasing his unfavorable views toward trade and merchandising.


title: Đại Việt

text: Đại Việt's only single port located at the mouth of the Red River–a town called Van Don–near Ha Long Bay, was considered too far away from the main sea route. Similarly, Marco Polo also made his description of Đại Việt where he did not visit but gathered information from the Mongols: "They find in this country a good deal of gold, and they also have a great abundance of spices. But they are such a long way from the sea that the products are of little value, and thus their price is low." Most Southeast Asian and Indian merchant ships sailing along the Vietnamese coast of the South China Sea often stopped at Champa's port-cities, then bypassed Đại Việt and the Gulf of Tonkin, and headed on to southeast China.


title: Đại Việt

text: Compared to a more well-known Champa, Đại Việt was little known to the faraway world until the 16th century with the arrival of Spanish and Portuguese explorers. Medieval sources such as Ibn al-Nadim's "The Book Catalogue" (c. 988 AD) mention that the king of Luqin or Lukin (Đại Việt) invaded the state of Sanf (Champa) in 982. Đại Việt was included in the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi's world atlas–the "Tabula Rogeriana". In the early 1300s, Đại Việt was briefly chronicled by Persian historian Rashid al-Din in his Ilkhanid annals as "Kafje-Guh", which was the rendition of a Mongol/Chinese toponym for Đại Việt, "Jiaozhiquo."


title: Đại Việt

text: Buddhism had penetrated to modern-day Vietnam around the first century AD, during the Han occupation. By the 8th century, Mahayana Buddhism had become the dominant faith of the Red River Delta Region. The development of Mahayana faiths there undoubtly gave the rise for several Buddhist dynasties that would rule Đại Việt. The epigraphy of Thanh Mai inscription (c. 798) indicates that a Chinese-influenced Buddhist sect was widely practiced among the Red River dwellers during the Tang period. Buddhist scriptures claim that in 580, an Indian monk named Vinītaruci arrived northern Vietnam and founded the "Thiền" patriarch (Vietnamese Zen Buddhism). In 820, a Chinese monk named Wu Yantong arrived northern Vietnam and found the second Thiền sect, which lasted to the 13th century. In 1293, Trần Nhân Tông personally opened a new Thiền patriarch called Trúc Lâm, which is still operating today.


title: Đại Việt

text: Vietnamese Buddhism gained an apex during the medieval period. The king, the court, and society were deeply Buddhist. According to Đinh Liễn's Ratnaketu Dhāraṇī inscriptions (c. 973), Mahayana Buddhism and some elements of Tantric Buddhism were promoted by the emperor and the royals, who devoutly Buddhists. Mahayana sutras were inscribed along with the Prince's speech on these pillars. The inscription of Lê Đại Hành (c. 995) however mentioned Thiền Buddhism as the royal religion. By the early 11th century, Mahayana, Hinduism, folk beliefs, and spiritual worship was fused and formed into a new religion by Ly royals, who frequently performed Buddhist rituals, blood oaths, and prayed for spiritual deities. This syncretic religion, dubbed as "Ly dynasty religion" by Taylor, embraces the amalgamating worship of Buddhism, Indian Buddhist deities Indra and Brahma, and Cham folk legend Lady Po Nagar. The Lý dynasty religion later was absorbed into Vietnamese folk religion. The emperors built temples and statues delicate for Indra and Brahma in 1016, 1057, and 1134, along with temples for Vietnamese legends. At the funeral, the emperor's body was put on a pyre to be burned, according to Buddhist tradition. The main characteristics of Vietnamese Buddhists were largely influenced by Chinese Chan Buddhists. A temple inscription dated from 1226 in Hanoi describes a Vietnamese Buddhist altar: "the Buddha statue was flanked by an Apsara, one of the Hindu water and cloud nymphs, and a Bodhisattva with a clenched fist. Before the altar stood statues of a Guardian of the Dharma flanked by Mỹ Âm, king of the Gandharvas, mythical musician husbands of the Apsaras, and Kauṇḍinya, the Buddha's leading early disciple."


title: Đại Việt

text: The Buddhist sangha sponsored by the royals, owned the majority of farmlands and the kingdom's wealth. A stele erected in 1209 records that the royal family had donated 126 acres of land to a pagoda. A Vietnamese Buddhist temple often consists of a temple built by timber, and pagoda/stupas made of bricks or granite rocks. Việt Buddhist art notably shares similarities with Cham art, especially at sculptures. The dragon bodhi leaf sculpture symbolizes the emperor, while the phoenix bodhi leaf stands for the queen. Buddhism shaped the society and the laws during the Ly dynasty Đại Việt. Princes and royals were raised in Buddhist monasteries and monkhood. A Buddhist Arhat Assembly was instituted to legislate monastic and temple affairs generated relatively tolerant laws.


title: Đại Việt

text: Vietnamese Buddhism declined in the 15th century due to the Ming Chinese Neo-Confucianism anti-Buddhist agenda and later Le monarchs downplaying of Buddhism, but was revived in the 16th–18th century when the royal family's efforts to restore Buddhism's role in society, which resulted in today Vietnam's majority Buddhist country. In the south, thanked the effort of Chinese monk Shilian Dashan in 1694–1695, the whole Nguyễn family converted themselves from secularism to Buddhism. The Nguyễn also incorporated local Cham deities into Southern Vietnamese Buddhism. The "Đình"–village temples–persisted from the 15th century are the centre of village administration and prohibited Buddhist-based cults and local deities.


title: Pokémon Origins

text: Pokémon Origins, known in Japan as , is a Japanese anime television mini series based on Nintendo's "Pokémon" franchise which follows the plot of "Pokemon Red" and "Blue". Like the television series, it was not owned by Media Factory (brand company of Kadokawa Corporation). Animation is handled by Production I.G, Xebec, and OLM, Inc., and the film is split into four parts, each directed by a different director from these studios. It was broadcast on TV Tokyo on October 2, 2013, ten days before the release of the "X" and "Y" video games, and began streaming internationally on Nintendo's Pokémon TV service from November 15, 2013 to December 2, 2013. On September 14, 2016, the first episode of the series was released for free on the official Pokémon YouTube channel and was later removed in 2017.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: Arkham Horror: The Card Game is a cooperative living card game produced by Fantasy Flight Games. It is set in the universe of Chaosium's "Call of Cthulhu" roleplaying game which is itself based on the Cthulhu Mythos of H.P. Lovecraft and other cosmic horror writers. The title refers to Lovecraft's fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts which is mentioned in many Mythos stories.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: News of the game was originally leaked in May 2016, before being officially announced in August of that same year. It made its first limited public release at Arkham Nights 2016 to a sold-out crowd.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: As a game in Fantasy Flight Games Living Card Game line, there is a regular release of non-random Deluxe expansions that start a story or campaign, followed by multiple smaller expansions (known as Mythos packs) that continue and conclude it.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: With the announcement of the "Edge of the Earth" campaign in 2021, Fantasy Flight stated future expansions would simply be released in two larger boxes, each containing either all of the campaign's story or player cards. During a Gen Con livestream in September 2021, Fantasy Flight Head of Studio Chris Gerber announced all previous expansions would be re-released in the new format, too.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: As of the release of the "Scarlet Keys" expansion in 2022, the lead designer MJ Newman has stepped back from her role as the lead developer of the game to become a senior designer at FFG. Designer Josiah "Duke" Harrist was announced as lead designer with Nick Kory, previously of the MythosBusters Podcast, also joining the design team.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: Campaign play is the default mode of the game, allowing a player to progress through a series of scenarios. In campaign play, choices made in scenarios have lasting effects, altering the story and how later scenarios play out. Each scenario has multiple paths of divergence offering multiple playthroughs with differing experiences each time.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: When players prepare to play, they first choose an investigator of a particular class (Guardian, Survivor, Rogue, Seeker, Mystic or Neutral). Each investigator deck receives cards that represent weaknesses of their investigator, one specific to each investigator, and one "basic" - drawn at random from a general pool. Investigators will also possess one or more unique cards that represent that individual's specific advantages or abilities, often complimenting the backstory of that investigator. Each investigator also has different starting statistics (Willpower, Intellect, Combat and Agility) which will be tested throughout the game. Players then build their decks from cards in their collection, conforming to the deckbuilding limits outlined by their investigator.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: During the game, the investigators work together to progress their investigation towards a positive outcome by fulfilling the requirements set out by the Act deck. However, there are forces working against the investigators, represented by the Agenda deck and encounter deck. Each turn, a doom counter is added to the Agenda deck, acting as a timer for the investigators to complete their objectives. When the total number of doom in play reaches the doom threshold of the agenda card, the agenda will advance, often to negative consequences.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: During the Investigation phase, the investigators each take up to three actions. Among other options, actions include playing cards from hand or activating those already in play, moving to or investigating locations and fighting or evading enemies. Depending on the card, cards played from hand during the investigation phase may enter an investigator's play area as an ongoing bonus (an "asset") or simply provide a powerful one-time effect and be discarded upon use (an "event"). Many cards have a resource cost which must be paid to play the card. While cards generally require an action to play, some are "fast" and do not require an action to be played.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: The Investigation phase is followed by the Enemy, Upkeep and the Mythos Phase, representing the forces working against the investigators each round. Investigators may have to deal with effects or enemies that attack their sanity, health or simply their progression towards their main goal (the Act deck).


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: Investigators will be eliminated from a scenario if they receive horror or damage equal to their sanity or health respectively. Investigators eliminated in this way will receive permanent mental or physical trauma. This means investigators repeatedly defeated in scenarios can become progressively weaker as the campaign progresses. Investigators will, however, receive experience from scenarios (even after defeat), which can be spent to improve each investigator's deck. At certain points in a campaign, failure may lead to investigators being killed or driven insane.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: The main story expansions are grouped into "cycles" that each constitute a complete player campaign. The first six cycles (Dunwich through Innsmouth) consist of one deluxe expansion followed by six mythos packs. Deluxe expansions contain new investigators, about 60 new player cards and the first two scenarios of a campaign, while mythos packs contain about 24 new player cards and a single scenario of a campaign. These are listed below in order of release date, which is also the order in which they are meant to be played. Later cycles, starting with Edge of the Earth, have abandoned the deluxe/mythos format and are instead split into two releases, a "campaign expansion" (featuring all scenarios of the campaign) and an "investigator expansion" (featuring all of the new player cards). This new format release has since been retroactively adopted for the previous cycles.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: Standalone scenarios are scenarios that exist outside of a campaign/cycle and are self-contained. As such, a player doesn't need any other expansions to play them or encounter cards from the core box—only the player cards. Stand-alone scenarios are at times printed in house at Fantasy Flight Games and are referred to as Print on Demand (POD). This means the card quality in that case is lower than the packs shipped from overseas but Fantasy Flight Games can push these packs faster out to players at conventions or (in the case of "Curse of the Rougarou" and "Carnevale of Horrors") for general release.


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: Upgrade expansions (the "Return to" boxes) are akin to the "Nightmare Packs" from the "Lord of the Rings" LCG. However, instead of just increasing the difficulty, these expansions provide an alternate way to play through the campaign with alternate story effects. They also include a small selection of new player cards (e.g., the first box includes 20 player cards).


title: Arkham Horror: The Card Game

text: "Arkham Horror: The Card Game" also has novellas where each novella is focused around a specific investigator. Each novella comes with 5 promo cards: 1 alternate art investigator card, 1 alternate art mini investigator card, 1 replacement signature card, 1 replacement signature weakness, and 1 card with instructions for using the replacement cards in the game.


title: The Dungeon of Black Company

text: Kinji Ninomiya is a NEET who has amassed enough money through real-estate investment to fund a penthouse lifestyle without ever having to work. This changes when a portal suddenly transports him to a fantasy world where he quickly ends up enslaved to a mining company extracting crystals from a dungeon. Desperate for a way out of this new poverty, Kinji tries to regain financial stability by any means necessary, gathering himself an unusual adventuring party - the titular "black company" - in the process.


title: The Dungeon of Black Company

text: It is written and illustrated by Yōhei Yasumura. It has been serialized in Mag Garden's Mag Comi website since December 2016 and has been collected in nine "tankōbon" volumes. The manga is licensed in North America by Seven Seas Entertainment. It was announced that the manga would enter its climax on June 5, 2020.


title: The Dungeon of Black Company

text: An anime television series adaptation produced by Silver Link was announced, and aired from July 9 to September 24, 2021 on Tokyo MX, TV Aichi, ABC, AT-X, and BS-NTV. The series is directed by Mirai Minato, with scripts overseen by Deko Akao, and characters designed by Yuki Sawairi. Taku Inoue is composing the series' music. The opening theme song "Shimi" (Stain) is performed by Howl Be Quiet, while the ending theme song "World is Mine" is performed by Humbreaders. Funimation licensed the series. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll.


title: 6th century

text: The 6th century is the period from 501 through 600 in line with the Julian calendar. In the West, the century marks the end of Classical Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire late in the previous century left Europe fractured into many small Germanic kingdoms competing fiercely for land and wealth. From the upheaval the Franks rose to prominence and carved out a sizeable domain covering much of modern France and Germany. Meanwhile, the surviving Eastern Roman Empire began to expand under Emperor Justinian, who recaptured North Africa from the Vandals and attempted fully to recover Italy as well, in the hope of reinstating Roman control over the lands once ruled by the Western Roman Empire.


title: 6th century

text: In its second Golden Age, the Sassanid Empire reached the peak of its power under Khosrau I in the 6th century. The classical Gupta Empire of Northern India, largely overrun by the Huna, ended in the mid-6th century. In Japan, the Kofun period gave way to the Asuka period. After being divided for more than 150 years among the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was reunited under the Sui dynasty toward the end of the 6th century. The Three Kingdoms of Korea persisted throughout the century. The Göktürks became a major power in Central Asia after defeating the Rouran.


title: 6th century

text: In the Americas, Teotihuacan began to decline in the 6th century after having reached its zenith between AD 150 and 450. Classic Period of the Maya civilization in Central America.


title: Dense set

text: In topology and related areas of mathematics, a subset "A" of a topological space "X" is said to be dense in "X" if every point of "X" either belongs to "A" or else is arbitrarily "close" to a member of "A" — for instance, the rational numbers are a dense subset of the real numbers because every real number either is a rational number or has a rational number arbitrarily close to it (see Diophantine approximation).


title: Dense set

text: Formally, formula_1 is dense in formula_2 if the smallest closed subset of formula_2 containing formula_1 is formula_2 itself.


title: Dense set

text: A subset formula_1 of a topological space formula_2 is said to be a of formula_2 if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied:


title: Dense set

text: and if formula_11 is a basis of open sets for the topology on formula_2 then this list can be extended to include:


title: Dense set

text: An alternative definition of dense set in the case of metric spaces is the following. When the topology of formula_2 is given by a metric, the closure formula_14 of formula_1 in formula_2 is the union of formula_1 and the set of all limits of sequences of elements in formula_1 (its "limit points"),


title: Dense set

text: If formula_23 is a sequence of dense open sets in a complete metric space, formula_24 then formula_25 is also dense in formula_7 This fact is one of the equivalent forms of the Baire category theorem.


title: Dense set

text: The real numbers with the usual topology have the rational numbers as a countable dense subset which shows that the cardinality of a dense subset of a topological space may be strictly smaller than the cardinality of the space itself. The irrational numbers are another dense subset which shows that a topological space may have several disjoint dense subsets (in particular, two dense subsets may be each other's complements), and they need not even be of the same cardinality. Perhaps even more surprisingly, both the rationals and the irrationals have empty interiors, showing that dense sets need not contain any non-empty open set. The intersection of two dense open subsets of a topological space is again dense and open.


title: Dense set

text: The empty set is a dense subset of itself. But every dense subset of a non-empty space must also be non-empty.


title: Dense set

text: By the Weierstrass approximation theorem, any given complex-valued continuous function defined on a closed interval formula_27 can be uniformly approximated as closely as desired by a polynomial function. In other words, the polynomial functions are dense in the space formula_28 of continuous complex-valued functions on the interval formula_29 equipped with the supremum norm.


title: Dense set

text: Every topological space is a dense subset of itself. For a set formula_2 equipped with the discrete topology, the whole space is the only dense subset. Every non-empty subset of a set formula_2 equipped with the trivial topology is dense, and every topology for which every non-empty subset is dense must be trivial.


title: Dense set

text: Denseness is transitive: Given three subsets formula_32 and formula_33 of a topological space formula_2 with formula_35 such that formula_1 is dense in formula_37 and formula_37 is dense in formula_33 (in the respective subspace topology) then formula_1 is also dense in formula_41


title: Dense set

text: The image of a dense subset under a surjective continuous function is again dense. The density of a topological space (the least of the cardinalities of its dense subsets) is a topological invariant.


title: Dense set

text: Continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets: if two continuous functions formula_42 into a Hausdorff space formula_43 agree on a dense subset of formula_2 then they agree on all of formula_7


title: Dense set

text: For metric spaces there are universal spaces, into which all spaces of given density can be embedded: a metric space of density formula_46 is isometric to a subspace of formula_47 the space of real continuous functions on the product of formula_46 copies of the unit interval.


title: Dense set

text: A point formula_49 of a subset formula_1 of a topological space formula_2 is called a limit point of formula_1 (in formula_2) if every neighbourhood of formula_49 also contains a point of formula_1 other than formula_49 itself, and an isolated point of formula_1 otherwise. A subset without isolated points is said to be dense-in-itself.


title: Dense set

text: A subset formula_1 of a topological space formula_2 is called nowhere dense (in formula_2) if there is no neighborhood in formula_2 on which formula_1 is dense. Equivalently, a subset of a topological space is nowhere dense if and only if the interior of its closure is empty. The interior of the complement of a nowhere dense set is always dense. The complement of a closed nowhere dense set is a dense open set. Given a topological space formula_24 a subset formula_1 of formula_2 that can be expressed as the union of countably many nowhere dense subsets of formula_2 is called meagre. The rational numbers, while dense in the real numbers, are meagre as a subset of the reals.


title: Dense set

text: A topological space with a countable dense subset is called separable. A topological space is a Baire space if and only if the intersection of countably many dense open sets is always dense. A topological space is called resolvable if it is the union of two disjoint dense subsets. More generally, a topological space is called κ-resolvable for a cardinal κ if it contains κ pairwise disjoint dense sets.


title: Dense set

text: An embedding of a topological space formula_2 as a dense subset of a compact space is called a compactification of formula_7


title: Dense set

text: A linear operator between topological vector spaces formula_2 and formula_43 is said to be densely defined if its domain is a dense subset of formula_2 and if its range is contained within formula_72 See also Continuous linear extension.


title: Dense set

text: A topological space formula_2 is hyperconnected if and only if every nonempty open set is dense in formula_7 A topological space is submaximal if and only if every dense subset is open.


title: Dense set

text: If formula_75 is a metric space, then a non-empty subset formula_43 is said to be formula_77-dense if


title: Dense set

text: One can then show that formula_79 is dense in formula_75 if and only if it is ε-dense for every formula_81


title: Linda Chung

text: Linda Chung Ka-yan (; born on 9 April 1984) is a Chinese-Canadian actress, singer and songwriter. She signed a long-term contract with TVB in 2004 after winning the Miss Chinese International. Chung was always Non-official Best Actress during the years in TVB. Chung ended her contract with TVB in early 2018.


title: Linda Chung

text: As a singer, Chung has released four studio albums, "Dinner for One, World for Two" (2008), "My Love Story" (2009), "My Private Selection" (2011), and "Love Love Love" (2012).


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung was born in Maple Ridge and raised in Vancouver, British Columbia with an older brother and sister. After graduation from Vancouver's Templeton Secondary School, Chung studied education at the University of British Columbia for two years.


title: Linda Chung

text: Beginning her public life in 2002, Chung won the title of Miss Crystal Cover Girl, a beauty-talent contest organised and hosted annually by Crystal Mall, an Asian-themed shopping centre located in the Metrotown area of Burnaby, British Columbia.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2003, Chung won the title of Miss Chinese Vancouver, along with three other awards at the same event, earning her the chance to participate, and eventually winning Miss Chinese International at the Miss Chinese International Pageant 2004, hosted in Hong Kong. She was praised by Kelly Chen for her sweet face and voice the day before this pageant. Chung became the third contestant from Vancouver in four years to win the title of this annually-held event.


title: Linda Chung

text: After winning the Miss Chinese International Pageant, Chung was signed under TVB. Chung made her acting debut in the series "Virtues of Harmony II", the modern spin-off of the sitcom, "Virtues of Harmony". Her performance was somewhat popular in the year, garnering positive reviews from the public. She was nominated for the Most Improved Female Actress award at the 2004's TVB Anniversary Awards for the first time. Chung also participated in several advertisements and music videos within her first year in the industry. This initial success led TVB to name her as one of the "Twelve New Stars."


title: Linda Chung

text: Other industry professionals also gave praise to Chung during this initial period such as Nancy Sit, Frankie Lam, Kara Hui, Shawn Yue, Chen Kun, Kent Cheng, Sammy Leung, Wong He, Joey Leung and Erica Yuen.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2006, after starring in "Always Ready", "The Biter Bitten" and "Forensic Heroes", Chung won her first major award "Most Improved Female Actress.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung's breakthrough role came in 2007, where she played a character named Sheung Joy Sum (lit. meaning: always at heart) in a popular series of that year, "Heart of Greed". Chung received much praise from audiences and several famous people. A couple of scenes involving her character generated the highest peaks for the drama's ratings, one was when her character exposed that Alfred Ching Leung deceived her, garnering a 39-point rating; another was when Tong Chi On proposed marriage to her, garnering a 48-point rating. This role gave her a nomination for Best Actress and My Most Favourite Female Character Role for the second year in a row.


title: Linda Chung

text: During the shooting of "A Journey Called Life", Chung received much praise from co-star Steven Ma, for her beauty, good manner, and ripe acting. The two have worked together in a previous collaboration of "Virtues of Harmony II".


title: Linda Chung

text: Among the five series that were released in 2008, Chung received most recognition for her acting in "A Journey Called Life". She received praises from Sheren Tang as well as the public. At the 41st TVB Anniversary Awards (2008), Chung was nominated in the top 5 of the Best Actress award for her role in this series. She was also nominated for the top 5 Most Favorite Female Character Award for Legend of the Demigods, her first leading role in a period drama. Chung then acted as Yu So Sum in "Moonlight Resonance" and received some recognitions for this role. A scene in the drama, telling her fierce exchange with Yan Hung, garnered a 50-point rating, making it the most-watched scene in all TVB series to-date. Chung also received praises from Ha Yu, Michelle Yim and Lee Heung-kam when she was acting this role.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2009, Chung performed in "Ghost Writer", "A Watchdog's Tale", "Twilight Investigation", as well as "Can't Buy Me Love". At the 42nd TVB Anniversary Awards (2009), Chung was nominated top 5 in the Best Supporting Actress for her role in "The Gem of Life" and this role received praise from Ada Choi, Lee San San and Maggie Shiu.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2010, Chung had four series, A Watchdog's Tale released in 2009 actually, but the series got the highest audience rating in the first season in 2010 and top five series in audience rating in the whole year. In "A Watchdog's Tale", Chung got another breakthrough while she was acting a likeness of the masculine role. At the 2010 TVB Anniversary Awards, Chung was nominated top 5 in the Best Actress award for her role in "Ghost Writer" and also nominated top 5 in the Most Favourite Female Character Role award for her role in "Can't Buy Me Love". "Twilight Investigation" was another series in the year, her acting has got approbated yet.


title: Linda Chung

text: While Chung was filming the ancient costume drama "River of Wine" in December 2010, she received praise from Bowie Lam as for her weeping scene. Chung was also captured by media to be the "successor of fa-dan" and one of the "Best new-coming fa-dan" with Myolie Wu, Kate Tsui and Fala Chen as the first-class performance of Chung in several series before the day.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2011, Chung was the second female lead in "Yes, Sir. Sorry, Sir!." She had just played her character Miss Koo from the 8th episode till the end. Although she only had unrequited love for one of the male lead in the series (Moses Chan), she became the focus for the audience and internet users by the three sections of Miss Koo. First, she appeared as a cool bowling coach initially. Next, Miss Koo seems to be a melting glacier as she was affected by Law Sir (Moses Chan's character), this made the audience pay enthusiastic attention on their sweet and emotional scenes. When it was nearly came to an end, Law Sir's undercover identity was finally revealed, Miss Koo was collapsed since she has been deceived by Law Sir and her sister (Queenie Chu's character). This also left a deep impression in the audiences' mind. The audiences had massive praises for her performance and agreed that she was perfectly capable of competing in Best Actress category for this role at the year-end awards ceremony, despite being second female lead. It was rare that the major newspapers also reported the above matter at the same time. She was not only supported by Chan and Yeung, but she also supported by Queenie Chu, Cilla Kung and Lau Ka Ho. On the whole, Chung received full of praise and Miss Koo is one of the representative work for Linda Chung.


title: Linda Chung

text: With Chung's amazing performances till mid 2011, TVB Anniversary Awards "Best Actress" Charmaine Sheh, Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director Gordon Chan, Hong Kong Film director Patrick Kong, Hong Kong CR1 DJ, Tvb actress Helen Ma, Kate Tsui and Myolie Wu praised support for her either to be the next "Best Actress" or to get an award in TVB Anniversary Awards, or to be the first-actress.


title: Linda Chung

text: Finally, she was nominated for Top 5 Best Actress and Most Favourite Female Character Role award for her role in "Yes, Sir. Sorry, Sir!." She got the My Most Supportive Performance award from "Ming Pao Anniversary Awards" in 2011 for Miss Koo in "Yes Sir, Sorry Sir" according to voting from audience. However, Miss Koo lost out the Most Favourite Female Character Role award at the 2011 TVB Anniversary Awards, and TVB was criticised as later the actual results of the online voting actually proved her the rightful winner of the Most Favourite Female Character Role award, instead of Myolie Wu. Fans were also outraged that she left the 2011 TVB Anniversary Awards empty handed. Chung started to be the Non-official Best Actress.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung filmed "L'Escargot" in 2010 and it was finally aired in 2012. Her character was involved in a complicated love triangle with Michael Tse and Ron Ng's characters. She herself spoke about the many new challenges she faced while portraying her character. In addition, her relation line with Tse has gained her more public exposure and was the topic of popular discussion. Her show was praised by Gem Tang, Felix Wong and Hinson Chou. On 19 March 2012, her new series Daddy Good Deeds aired and her character Ko Yu-chu spread fun to the public. Her professional attitude and acting were praised by Cilla Kung, Xia Yu and Steven Ma, especially Ma mentioned she was still maintaining the purity of heart and having progress in her acting continually. She and Steven Ma collaborated five times in TVB, was a terrific couple on screen. Her third series House of Harmony and Vengeance was aired on TVB from 30 Apr to 8 June 2012, portraying her as an ancient version of Ms. Cool. Bobby Au Yeung wondered Chung do not know dancing as he had watched she played hula hoop, he mentioned Chung was so hard-working and serious in practising dancing. Bobby said Chung was only alike a little girl in their first starring "Forensic Heroes", however, she is completely changed and honed during these years, either acting or in life. He stated her purity have not changed over the years. Myolie Wu also mentioned the purity of Chung.


title: Linda Chung

text: Her fourth series "Witness Insecurity" was aired from 2 to 27 July 2012, making her the actress with the highest exposure rate for the first half of the year, having four series already out and probably nothing left for the rest of the year. Many viewers criticised about the way TVB was showing her series too close to one another. However, Witness Insecurity garnered high TVB viewership ratings, which turned out to be unexpected by TVB. On the ending note, the sad ending for this series also received a huge outcry from viewers, most reflected they preferred a good ending and requested for a re-make of the ending. Not only Chung's acting was praised by public, but she and her co-star Bosco Wong were gaining high popularity to be the new screen couple. She was praised by Paul Chun, co-star Bosco Wong and film director Patrick Kong Chung was again owning great support from public will by Witness Insecurity this year. Jason Chan, Michael Dao, Charmaine Li support Chung to gain an "Best Actress" Award for the year. However, she lost the nomination of My favorite female character role in TVB Awards Anniversary Ceremony 2012 without any reason. The award was given to Kate Tsui at last. Although Chung can gain the nomination and get into top 5 of Best Actress, TVB still received a lot of complaints about Chung not having a nomination of My favorite female character role and it was the second time caused Chung to be the Non-official Best Actress. Moreover, the public voting also proved Chung and Charmaine Sheh as the rightful winner of the actress awards.


title: Linda Chung

text: In the series Missing You, Chung was leading other new actors and actresses such as Jason Chan, Cilla Kung, Lin Xia Wei, and Calvin Chan. Ram Chiang was the only senior actor there.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2013, Chung won the champion of "Ten TV entertainer" by public voting in the Next TV Publishing Ceremony 2013. She has already gained top ten of the TV entertainer for six years consecutively, which proofing her popularity and outstanding performance in the past years. Chung also won the Most Popular Actress in the largest film forum "Vietnam DMA awards ceremony" of the Year Award in two consecutive years in Vietnam.


title: Linda Chung

text: In May, Chung participated in the variety show "Office of Practical Jokes", which presided by Johnson Lee, acting a plot to treat the world top magician. Her outstanding performance from intimidating by hamsters to injuring magician and Lee, gained much appreciated by the public, and again having widespread media coverage and discussion of internet forums. Not only presided Lee, but many professionals also praised her acting in the plot, such that Gem Tang, Patrick Kong, Sharon Chan, Kitty Yuen, Bob Lam, Ding Tze Ko, Yoyo Mung, Albert Au,


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung was labelled as the "Best Actress" by the public audiences again and this is the third time for Chung to be the Non-official Best Actress.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung starred in 2013 TVB's grand productions 30 episodes "Brother's Keeper", co-starring with Ruco Chan. She acted as a fashion designer Rachel Cheuk. The series spans from 1991 to 2013. Chung and her co-star Ruco Chan became a screen couple as their co-operation gaining high popularity in the public. Chung gained support by co-star Ruco Chan, Joe Ma, Fala Chen, Joey Man, Tavia Yeung, Niki Chow, Kate Tsui, Myolie Wu, and so on, to get the "Best Actress" that year. On 1 December 2013, Chung finally got her first Best Actress in "TVB Awards Ceremony 2013 Malaysia Star Ceremony", as the award is 100% by public voting. Chung was not only gained the "Best Actress", but she also gained the My Favorite TV Role, became the first 1980s artist to win the "Best Actress" title.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2014, Chung filmed TVB Gold New Year 2014 micro film "A Time of Love", starring with South Korea actor Yeon Jung-hoon. Their segment was the most popular episode in the whole set although broadcast on Saturday, gained up to 28 points in rating.


title: Linda Chung

text: On 26 March, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology invited Chung to a one-hour lecture of "Meet the Professional Series III: Road to Leading Actress – Linda Chung" as the theme for sharing with students about the choice of life, transformation, and practice the ideal. Chung is the first Hong Kong TV actress to be a lecturer who was invited to the university.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung's only series for 2015 is Limelight Years, co-starred with Damian Lau, Liza Wang, Alex Fong among others, while she was busy with work in the music industry. Damian Lau and Liza Wang had highly praised towards Chung about her attitude and performance in Limelight Years.


title: Linda Chung

text: David Siu mentioned Chung has potential on acting in an interview. He likes Chung acted from basic til qualified right now, sometimes provided new elements in her performance as well. Chow Yun-fat also mentioned Chung acting well, especially in the variety show Office of Practical Jokes, Chow informed Chung continue to maintain these standards in her acting. Gloria Tang mentioned she wish to depend on the target of Chung, about her standard of acting and her attitude. In addition, Chung was supported by Wayne Lai, Liza Wang and Gloria Tang to earn "Best Actress" in TVB Anniversary Ceremony. Chung won Mainland China's Favourite TVB Actress as the result was 100% totally vote by mainland netizens in TVB Anniversary Ceremony. She got the fourth time to be the Non-official Best Actress in 2015 due to the online voting for "Best Actress" in oncc.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2016, Chung starred in the drama " K9 Cop" alongside Bosco Wong, and made a brief appearance in the sequel of her 2013 series "Brother's Keeper", "Brother's Keeper II". Several juniors mentioned Chung acts well and is a good role model in TV and entertainment industry, such as Gloria Tang Pui Yee, Hana Kuk, Adrien Yau,Jackson Wang, Carlos Chan, Kayan Yau, and Malaysian Singer Melody Tan.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2018, she made a guest appearance in "Another Era", starring opposite Frankie Lam, Lam said Chung became mature than Forensic Heroes 12 years before.


title: Linda Chung

text: On 7 March 2018, her pregnancy wasn't the only thing that Chung announced on social media recently, as she also revealed that she would no longer be a part of TVB. She shared the news in the same post that was published last weekend, stated that she has decided to leave TVB after 13 years with the company. She wrote, "I remember being only 19 when I joined Miss Chinese International and not understanding anything, no self-confidence, and was very shy. TVB was my shelter. They taught me many things and gave me the opportunity to grow and develop myself, help me discover who I am, my talent, and my mission. They gave me the courage to show my true self to the public." Linda also mentioned several names that she is in gratitude for, including TVB Executive Virginia Lok whom she described as a mother figure who protected her, and Catherine Tsang, who gave Linda her first break. She also thanked Voice Entertainment's Herman Ho, for helping her achieve her dream of becoming a singer, and TVB Executive Sandy Yue, who gave her the opportunity to gain more experience from doing variety shows."Finally, thank you very much for all the other executives of TVB's top management. Without your hard work and support, I will not be at where I am today. I am forever grateful! We may be saying goodbye now, but I do feel like we are going to meet again soon," she added.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2020, Chung returned to TVB and filmed the medical drama Kids' Lives Matter. The drama was broadcast in 2021. Florence Kwok stated Chung was a hardworking girl when they starred in "Forensic Heroes", they had a lot more chemistry after these years. Again, she received attention and was highly praised by netizens for her performance, for which she became the strongest contender for the "Best Actress" award. With her role in this drama, she won the Best TVB Actress in Malaysia award, and is placed among the top 5 nominees for both the Best Actress and Most Popular Female Character. Many netizens, including Hong Kong, Malaysia and Mainland, complained the final result in "TVB anniversary award 2021", especially mentioned Best Actress should return to Chung. She also nominates Best Actress in non-official TV awards and as the champion for long, but she became the first runner-up by 24.92% and 14,576 votes at the last minute. The year caused Chung the fifth time to be the Non-official Best Actress.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2022, Chung mentioned she won't return to TVB in the future on the stage of "TVB anniversary award 2021", she also added her feelings in YouTube channel. However, Chung mentioned she loves ViuTV newcomers Mirror consecutively in public instead of TVB newcomers, especially Anson Lo and Keung To. She also stated she may accept any offers in future years at public event, including ViuTV.


title: Linda Chung

text: When Chung filmed her first film, "Love Is Not All Around", alongside Alex Fong, Stephy Tang and Sammy Leung in 2007, she was praised by its director Patrick Kong. She was nominated for "Best New Performer" for her role Ching Ching and won the Silver Award. Chung has already succeeded in entering the films industry, the same year as Kate Tsui.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung first became the leading actress in the film "Playboy Cops" in 2008. She received praises in the last scenes. She acted as a guest star in the similar movie of "Love Is Not All Around", "L for Love, L for Lies", where she also got praise from the performance.


title: Linda Chung

text: Her latest film in 2010 is "72 Tenants of Prosperity". Chung received praise from Eric Tsang for her hard work and purity, and also especially receive praises from Hong Kong Film Awards "Best Actress" Anita Yuen for her effort, positive personality, hard work and improvement in this movie.


title: Linda Chung

text: As Chung charmingly interprets in TVB series, Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director Gordon Chan commended Chung calling her the best young actress who come from TV station and one of the best actress in Hong Kong.


title: Linda Chung

text: In addition to acting, Chung used to receive praise in some live show for her singing. Chung has sung the theme songs for some of the series that she has starred in then, including her first personal song "Swear" for Legends of Demigods, Best Bet, A Journey Called Life, A Watchdog's Tale and the subtheme for Heart of Greed. Chung has also sung the children's songs, which were welcomed by children. In May 2008, Chung signed a deal with Star Entertainment which launched her into a successful music career. Her first album was released on 20 August. Her album "Dinner for One, World for Two" achieved Gold Status in Hong Kong based on the number of sales and she earned the title of "The Best Selling Female Bewcomer" in the year. This album garnered her several awards at the end of 2008, including "Gold Newcomer Awards" and "Most liked Female Newcomer." Her first plugged song was "World for Two." Her second plugged song "I'm actually unhappy" got a high click rating in YouTube. Due to its success, Star Entertainment released a second version of her album, "Dinner for One, World for Two Reloaded", which included more songs and more bonus material.


title: Linda Chung

text: Her second album, "My Love Story", was released on 12 November 2009 and has since been classified gold. The songs of "Thinking of you day and night", "One Day" and "Life and Death for Love" were all owe to her works on melody. Among these three songs, "Thinking of you day and night" was the first plugged song and was much more conspicuous. Chung won awards in different music platforms based on this song. "Fighting in the light and shadows" was the second plugged song. She has since collaborated with another Star Entertainment singer, Stephanie Cheng. "Ngoi Dak Hei (Ai De Qi)" is the product of their co-operation. This song reached the champion on TVB's JSG Solid Gold programme.


title: Linda Chung

text: Her new song "If You Want Me" has just released in January 2011. Chung was praised by CR2 DJ Vani Wong, Alton Yu and Wasabi for her outstanding performance. Apart from the above, she received much praises from three DJ who are in the CR2 "The Playtoy Mansion" program and she was also praised by Sammy Leung and Siu Yi in the CR2 "Good Morning King" program in February, for her "Jade Girl" image which is not only an image in the entertainment industry, but she also behaves in reality.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2011, her third album, "My Private Selection", was released on 25 March. The album was qualitatively new songs plus choiceness. It was not only recorded her first plugged song "If you want me", but it also recorded another four new recording songs "Luo Suo", "De Xian Zhao Ni", "I'll Be Waiting For You", "Ngoi Dak Hei (Ai De Qi) solo version" and her thirteen choiceness songs from "Dinner for One, World for Two" debut album and "My Love Story".


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2012, Chung released her 4th studio album "Love Love Love". This album has been certified Gold and sold out quickly. The album reached the #1 in sales chart and entered the sales chart of the LP Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong for more than 5 weeks, gaining #2 for 2 weeks. Her first plug "Vaccine" reached #1 of JSG chart and her second plug "You are my other half" reached #1 of 3 musical chart, including RTHK, MRHNA and JSG. She is the first and only TVB Canadian pop singer who got three No. 1 in the four major musical charts in the nearest 12 years. Stars Shine, Chung's music company, compiled and released a second edition of the album, removing one song and including the theme song of her currently airing series "Missing You". Chung gained her first "Female Singer Award" in MRHNA Musical Ceremony 2012, which continued gained the same award in 2013.


title: Linda Chung

text: In August 2013, Chung held her first solo concert dated 22 and 23 August. It was held at Kowloon Bay Trade & Exhibition Centre. Her concert gained a full house. During the concert she received massive warmth and support from her fans. She invited 3 guests such as Janice M. Vidal, newcomer Ally Tse, and especially top female singer Kelly Chen. When Kelly Chen sang with Chung, it gained a climax of the whole concert. When Chung sang "Friendship is just that simple" and played with her piano, the concert was going to another climax.


title: Linda Chung

text: In December 2014, Chung held "Most Blessing" Live Concert in Malaysia 2014 on 20 December at Arena of Stars. She invited Kristal Tin and Alex Fong as guest performers. The concert achieved a great success.


title: Linda Chung

text: In 2014, Chung was invited to speak at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. She spoke about her battle with depression after joining the entertainment industry. At the start of her career, Linda faced severe pressure from a heavy workload and suffered loneliness from being far away from home. She said: "I didn’t know anything so I had a lot of pressure. I was also afraid to talk to someone about it, especially those close to me. During that time, I would cry as soon as I returned home." She eventually worked through the hard times and gained her emotional strength.


title: Linda Chung

text: As part of TVB, Chung was "the youngest A-grade actress, and the highest paid TVB actress, earning around HK$120,000 per event, until 2015. Chung is also a devoted Christian and Philip Ng is her ex-boyfriend.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung married chiropractor Jeremy Leung in fall 2015. Despite the age gap, Chung stated that their relationship developed due to similar interests and understanding of one another. When paparazzi asked Chung's parents if they approve of their son in law, Chung's parents responded confidently with an approval.


title: Linda Chung

text: Chung announced her pregnancy on Mother's Day 2016. She revealed on 27 August 2016 that she had given birth to a daughter named Kelly Leung. She announced the birth of her second child, Jared Leung, on 6 September 2018. On 10 April 2022, Chung announced on Instagram that she was pregnant with the couple’s third child.


title: The Gleaners

text: It depicts three peasant women gleaning a field of stray stalks of wheat after the harvest. The painting is famous for featuring in a sympathetic way what were then the lowest ranks of rural society; it was received poorly by the French upper classes.


title: The Gleaners

text: Millet's "The Gleaners" was preceded by a vertical painting of the image in 1854 and an etching in 1855. Millet unveiled "The Gleaners" at the Salon in 1857. It immediately drew negative criticism from the middle and upper classes, who viewed the topic with suspicion: one art critic, speaking for other Parisians, perceived in it an alarming intimation of "the scaffolds of 1793."


title: The Gleaners

text: Having recently come out of the French Revolution of 1848, these prosperous classes saw the painting as glorifying the lower-class worker. To them, it was a reminder that French society was built upon the labor of the working masses, and landowners linked this working class with the growing movement of socialism. The depiction of the working class in "The Gleaners" made the upper classes feel uneasy about their status. The masses of workers greatly outnumbered the members of the upper class. This disparity in numbers meant that if the lower class were to revolt, the upper class would be overturned. With the French Revolution still fresh in the minds of the upper classes, this painting was not perceived well.


title: The Gleaners

text: Millet's "The Gleaners" was also not perceived well due to its large size, 33 inches by 44 inches, or 84 by 112 centimetres. This was large for a painting depicting labor. Normally this size of a canvas was reserved for religious or mythological style paintings. Millet's work did not depict anything religiously affiliated, nor was there any reference to any mythological beliefs. The painting illustrated a realistic view of poverty and the working class. One critic commented that "his three gleaners have gigantic pretensions, they pose as the Three Fates of Poverty...their ugliness and their grossness unrelieved."


title: The Gleaners

text: While the act of gleaning was not a new topic—representations of Ruth had existed in art—this new work was a statement on rural poverty and not biblical piety: there is no touch of the biblical sense of community and compassion in the contrasting embodiments of grinding poverty in the foreground and the rich harvest in the sunlit distance beyond. The implicit irony was unsettling.


title: The Gleaners

text: After the Salon, Millet, short on money, sold his piece for 3,000 francs—below his asking price of 4,000—after haggling with an Englishman named Binder who would not budge for his meagre counter-offer; Millet tried to keep the miserable price a secret.


title: The Gleaners

text: While "The Gleaners" garnered little but notoriety during his life, after his death in 1875, public appreciation of his work steadily broadened. In 1889, the painting, then owned by banker Ferdinand Bischoffsheim, sold for 300,000 francs at auction. The buyer remained anonymous, but rumours were that the painting was coveted by an American buyer. It was announced less than a week later that Champagne maker Jeanne-Alexandrine Louise Pommery had acquired the piece, which silenced gossip on her supposed financial issues after leaving her grapes on the vines weeks longer than her competitors.


title: The Gleaners

text: At Madame Pommery's death in 1891, and following the conditions of her will, the painting was donated to the Louvre. It now resides in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.


title: The Gleaners

text: "The Gleaners" is one of Millet's best known works. Its imagery of bending peasant women gleaning was paraphrased frequently in works by younger artists such as Pissarro, Renoir, Seurat, and van Gogh. Art historian Robert Rosenblum says Millet's painting introduced "imposing new presences in the repertory of mid-century art, with endless progeny in city and country. Daumier's and Degas's laundresses, and even more so Caillebotte's floor-scrapers, are almost unthinkable without Millet's epic hymn to labor."


title: The Gleaners

text: "The Gleaners" provides evidence of Millet's role as a contemporary social critic. His brutal depiction of three hunched, female paupers segregated from the laborers and the abundant crop in the distance demonstrates his attention to, if not necessarily sympathy for, the plight of the poorest members of the community around Barbizon and its larger neighbor, Chailly, as the area experienced the growing pains of French modernization. Only about thirty-five miles from the French capital (whose population doubled between 1831 and 1851), the rich, broad plain bordering the forest of Fontainebleau was among the earliest with a rail link to Paris, readily lending itself to feeding the burgeoning city.


title: The Gleaners

text: Studies tracing the transformation of rural France in the nineteenth century note that little change in peasant life occurred beyond northern France and the Paris basin until the last quarter of the century. Millet's representation of class strife on a large-scale farm was thus uniquely modern in the 1850s.


title: The Gleaners

text: The painting inspired the name of the Gleaner Manufacturing Company. The painting also inspired, and is discussed in the 2000 film by Agnès Varda, "The Gleaners and I". The film itself inspired a 2019 studio album by American jazz bassist Larry Grenadier. "The Gleaners" was included in the Nintendo Switch game "" as a piece of art that can be donated to the museum.


title: John R. Dilworth

text: John Russell Dilworth (born February 14, 1963) is an American animator, actor, writer, director, storyboard artist, producer and the creator of the animated television series "Courage the Cowardly Dog". His work has mainly appeared on PBS, CBS, Showtime, HBO, Fox, ABC, NBC, Arte, CBC Television, YTV, Teletoon, BBC Two, Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, Comedy Central and MTV, among others.


title: John R. Dilworth

text: After graduation, Dilworth became an art director at Baldi, Bloom and Whelan Advertising, but continued to work on his own films in his spare time, providing much of his own funding. His animated short, "The Chicken from Outer Space", was nominated for an Academy Award in 1996. Cartoon Network later commissioned Dilworth to turn the short into a series, which eventually became "Courage the Cowardly Dog". Dilworth is the president of Stretch Films, a New York-based design and animation studio, which he founded in 1991. He also worked on the original opening for Nicktoons and for shows such as "Doug", "Rugrats", and "My Life as a Teenage Robot", as well as the Disney animated series "PB&J Otter". Dilworth created the series of nine animated shorts for Sesame Street based on his independent film, "Noodles & Nedd". "Nedd" is named after the author Nedd Willard, a mentor.


title: John R. Dilworth

text: Dilworth's short "Angry Cabaret" was also featured in MTV's 1994 "Animation Weekend". His breakout film was "The Dirdy Birdy", which aired on MTV's Cartoon Sushi and on Comedy Central. He was animation consultant of "", and was also one of the directors of "Drew Carey's Green Screen Show".


title: John R. Dilworth

text: Dilworth appears in pixilation sequences in the 2013 animated short "Subconscious Password" by Chris Landreth.


title: John R. Dilworth

text: In 2017, Dilworth completed his latest animation, "Goose in High Heels". The 22-minute animated short could be previously be viewed on his YouTube channel, Stretch Films; however, it currently is not available online for viewing.


title: John R. Dilworth

text: Stretch Films, Inc. is a production company that was founded in 1991 by John R. Dilworth. It is best known for "Courage the Cowardly Dog" on Cartoon Network as well as the many short films screened all over the world.


title: Lei (garland)

text: A lei () is a garland or wreath common in Hawaii, across Polynesia, and the Philippines. More loosely defined, a lei is any series of objects strung together with the intent to be worn. Lei of various styles are given as gifts to honour people throughout the Pacific, being presented, for example, to visiting dignitaries, graduates, or to loved ones who are departing.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Lei gained popularity in the United States due to the common practice of presenting one to arriving or leaving tourists in Hawaii. Sampaguita leis are also used in the Philippines for religious reason, typically worn to their Anito or religious statues.


title: Lei (garland)

text: A lei can be given to someone for a variety of reasons. Most commonly, these reasons include peace, love, honor, or friendship. Common events during which leis may be distributed include graduations, weddings, and school dances. Often the composition of a lei determines its significance. A lei made using a hala fruit, for instance, is said to be connected to love, desire, transition, and change.


title: Lei (garland)

text: A "lei" may be composed of a pattern or series of just about anything, but most commonly consists of fresh natural foliage such as flowers, leaves, vines, fern fronds, and seeds. The most commonly used flowers are those of plumerias, tuberose, carnations, orchids, and "pikake", though "maile" leaves, ferns, and "tī" leaves are extremely popular as well as traditional among "hula" dancers. Other types of "lei" may include sea or land shells, fish teeth, bones, feathers, plastic flowers, fabric, paper (including origami and monetary bills), candy, or anything that can be strung together in a series or pattern and worn as a wreath or a necklace. The Hawaiian Island of Niʻihau is famous for its lei made of tiny gem-like shells ("pūpū").


title: Lei (garland)

text: Haku: three-ply braid incorporating additional materials. A method of making a lei by using a base material, such as softened tree bark or long leaves, and braiding it while adding the decorative plant material into each wrap of the braid. Normally used for flowers and foliage with long pliable petioles or stems.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Hili: braid or plait with only one kind of material. Most commonly made from three or more strands of supple vine or fern braided together.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Hilo: twist, double helix, intertwine. A method of making a lei by twisting two strands together to form a "rope". The popular and simple "lei lāī" ("tī" leaf lei) is made using this method.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Hipuu / nipuu: a method of making a "lei" by knotting the stems of the decorative plant material and stringing the next stem through the knot. It requires a very long stem on the decorative material. Similar to a daisy chain.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Humu / humuhumu: sew to a backing, usually using a basting stitch. A method of making a "lei" by sewing the decorative material to a backing such as "hala", "lai", paper, or felt. Each successive row of lei material is overlapped on the previous to create a scale-like effect. Bougainvillea "lei" and feather hat "lei" often are made with this method.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Kui: pierce, piercing stitch. A method of making a "lei" by sewing or piercing the decorative material with a needle and stringing it onto a thread. This is probably the style with which most Westerners are familiar. This method is commonly used to string flowers such as plumeria, rose, carnation, etc.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Wili: wind, twist, crank, coil. A corkscrew-type twist, as found in a pig's tail and the seed pod of the "wiliwili" tree. A method of making a "lei" by winding fiber around successive short lengths of the decorative material. Sometimes base materials such as "hala", "lai", strands of raffia, or even strips of paper are used to make wrapping easier.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Haku mele: to braid a song. A song composed out of affection for an individual is considered a "lei".


title: Lei (garland)

text: Leis were originally worn by ancient Polynesians and some Asian people as part of custom. They were often used by Native Hawaiians to signify their ranks and royalty. They are also worn as a form of honor to each other and their gods. The religion of the Native Hawaiians as well as the hula custom is tied into the leis that they wore.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Native Hawaiians, who are Polynesian, brought the tradition of lei making and wearing with them to the Hawaiian islands when they arrived. On the first of every May, an event called Lei Day is celebrated to honor the act of lei making and the custom surrounding it.


title: Lei (garland)

text: There are many customs and protocols associated with the giving, receiving, wearing, storing, and disposing of lei. A story that originated during World War II tells of a hula dancer who dared to give a lei to a US soldier along with a kiss, leading it to become a tradition of lei distribution in modern times. To this day, leis remain a notable aspect of Hawaiian culture. Traditionalists give a lei by bowing slightly and raising it above the heart, allowing the recipient to take it, as raising the hands above another's head, or touching the face or head, is considered disrespectful.


title: Lei (garland)

text: By tradition, only open lei are given to a pregnant or nursing woman. If due to allergies or other reasons a person cannot wear a lei which has just been given (for instance a musician who would tangle the lei in their guitar strap), the lei is displayed in a place of honor, such as the musician's music stand or microphone stand. Lei should never be thrown away casually, or tossed into the trash.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Traditionally they should be returned to the place they were gathered, or if that is not possible, they should be returned to the earth by hanging in a tree, burying, or burning. A lei represents love, and to throw one away represents throwing away the love of the giver. Many types of lei can be left in a window to dry, allowing the natural fragrance to fill the room. This technique is often used in cars as well.


title: Lei (garland)

text: In Polynesian cultures, a lei is something that is created by someone and given to another with the intent to decorate that person for an emotional reason—usually as a sign of affection. Common reasons include greeting, farewell, affection or love, friendship, appreciation, congratulation, recognition, or to otherwise draw attention to the recipient. In Samoa, similar garlands fashioned of entire flowers, buds, seeds, nuts, plant fibers, leaves, ferns, seashells, or flower petals are called "asoa" or "ula", while single flowers or clusters worn in the hair or on the ear are called "sei". In Tahiti such garlands are referred to as "hei" and in the Cook Islands they are called an "ei".


title: Lei (garland)

text: Tongans are known for creating unique "kahoa" leis made of chains of flat, crescent or triangular arrangements made of flower petals and leaves sewn onto a leaf or cloth backing. In Niue the iconic lei is the kahoa hihi which made from strings of tiny, distinctively yellow snail (hihi) shells. Many modern Polynesian celebrations include the giving and receiving of leis in various forms, including recent adaptations of the flower/plant lei in which candy, folded currency bills, rolls of coinage, and even spam musubi are tied into garlands. "Non-traditional" materials such as cloth ribbon, sequins, cellophane wrap, curling ribbon, and yarn are often used to fashion leis in various forms today.


title: Lei (garland)

text: Among residents of Hawaii, the most popular occasions at which nā lei can be found are birthdays, graduations, weddings, funerals, retirement parties, and bridal showers. It is not uncommon for a high school or college graduate to be seen wearing so many nā lei that they reach their ears or higher.


title: Lei (garland)

text: On May 1 each year, Hawaiians celebrate "Lei Day", first conceived in 1927 by poet Don Blanding. At the time, Blanding was employed by the "Honolulu Star Bulletin", and he shared his idea with columnist Grace Tower Warren, who came up with the phrase, "May Day is Lei Day". The Hawaiian song, "May Day is Lei Day in Hawaii" was composed in 1927 by Ruth and Leonard "Red" Hawk.


title: Lei (garland)

text: At the 81st Annual Mayor's Lei Day Celebration at Kapiolani Park in 2008, Honolulu set the record for the World's Longest Lei. Unofficially, the lei measured in length, more than a mile.


title: Lei (garland)

text: All of the major islands celebrate Lei Day, and each island is symbolized in pageantry by a specific type of lei and a color.


title: Lei (garland)

text: The old custom for welcoming guests in the Philippines is by giving a flower necklace made of sampaguita, the country's national flower. However, in the recent years, more affordable options has emerged. This became popular over time as fresh flowers are hard to maintain especially during long events. One of the popular modern option are rosette leis, it's made of Brocade cut into necklace of various designs and a center piece flower petals made of satin ribbon.


title: Joint List

text: The Joint List (, "al-Qa'imah al-Mushtarakah", , "HaReshima HaMeshutefet") was a political alliance of four of the Arab-majority political parties in Israel: Hadash, Balad, Ra'am and Ta'al. Ra'am left the alliance on 28 January 2021. With Balad wanting to leave the coalition, it was subsequently dissolved in 2022.


title: Joint List

text: The alliance was the third-largest faction in the Knesset after the 2015 election, estimated to have received 82% of the Arab vote. In January 2019, Ta'al split from the alliance, and the remaining coalition was dissolved on 21 February 2019. The Joint List was reestablished on 28 July for the September 2019 election, in which it was again the third-largest faction. In the 2020 elections, the Joint List increased its seats from 13 to 15, described by "Haaretz" as "an unprecedented showing". In the buildup to the 2021 elections, the Islamic conservative-leaning United Arab List or Ra'am left the Joint List due to ideological disagreements and ran on its own, gaining four seats, while the seats held by the Joint List fell to six.


title: Joint List

text: The Joint List was formed in the build-up to the 2015 elections as an alliance of Balad, Hadash, Ta'al, and the United Arab List (the southern branch of the Islamic Movement). The northern branch of the Islamic Movement denounced the entire electoral project. When formed, the alliance was temporarily known as Wamab.


title: Joint List

text: The agreement between the parties was signed on 22 January, marking the first time the major Arab parties had run as a single list. Balad, Hadash, and the United Arab List had run separately for elections since the 1990s (Balad and Hadash ran together in 1996), whilst Ta'al had run in alliance with all three during the 1990s and 2000s. However, the raising of the electoral threshold from 2% to 3.25% led to the parties creating an alliance to increase their chances of crossing the threshold, as both Hadash and Balad received less than 3% of the vote in the 2013 elections. Initially, the parties mulled running as two blocs (Hadash with Ta'al, and Balad with the Islamic Movement), but party representatives said pressure from the Arab public pushed them to join forces.


title: Joint List

text: The alliance's list for the 2015 elections was headed by Ayman Odeh, the newly-elected leader of Hadash, followed by Masud Ghnaim (United Arab List), Jamal Zahalka (Balad), and Ahmad Tibi (Ta'al), with the following places alternating between Hadash, the Islamic Movement, and Balad. The 12th to 14th places were subject to rotation agreements between the parties.


title: Joint List

text: Before the April 2019 election, Ta'al left the alliance, which led to the formation of two lists, Balad-Ra'am and Hadash-Ta'al.


title: Joint List

text: On 22 September 2019, following the September 2019 election, Odeh and the Joint List endorsed Benny Gantz for prime minister, the first time that an Arab party endorsed anyone for prime minister since Yitzhak Rabin in 1992. However, Israeli President Reuven Rivlin announced on 23 September that the Joint List's three Balad MKs had abstained from endorsing a candidate, thus putting Gantz behind incumbent Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in total MK recommendations, though the Joint List's endorsement of Gantz did account for 10 of the political bloc's 13 MKs. After the 2020 election, the Joint List unanimously supported Gantz. However, after the formation of a unity government, it remained in the opposition.


title: Joint List

text: After new elections were pending, tensions arose in the alliance, whereupon Ra'am and Ta'al left the joint list (the latter rejoined this shortly afterwards). During the election campaign and after party lists had been submitted, the Ma'an party withdrew its candidacy and endorsed the Joint List, becoming a new member of the alliance.


title: Joint List

text: The list is ideologically diverse, and includes communists, socialists, feminists, Islamists, and Arab nationalists. After having united parties with various political agendas, Odeh met with Jewish Hadash activists and former Knesset speaker Avraham Burg (who had endorsed Hadash), in an attempt to allay concerns that the new alliance would dilute the party's principles, such as gender equality.


title: Joint List

text: The alliance's 2015 election campaign focused on preventing Benjamin Netanyahu from forming a government and helping the Labor Party–led Zionist Union do so instead.


title: Joint List

text: The Joint List is not united in terms of support for Jewish–Arab co-operation, supported mainly by Hadash. In March 2015 (after the Zionist Union had signed a vote-sharing agreement with Meretz, and Kulanu with Israel Beytenu), officials from the Zionist Union, Meretz, and Yesh Atid explored the idea that the Zionist Union and Meretz revoke their agreement so that the Zionist Union could share surplus votes with Yesh Atid, and Meretz with the Joint List, to potentially strengthen the dovish bloc in the Knesset. However, the offer caused intra-list tension; Hadash (including Dov Khenin and Joint List chief Odeh) and the United Arab List supported the partnership with Meretz, but the Islamic Movement and especially Balad opposed it. According to Nahum Barnea, most of the List, including Jamal Zahalka of Balad, supported the agreement, but Qatar, which reportedly funds Balad, sided with the extremist elements within Balad and had the party come out against it. After the Joint List announced it would not share votes with any party, Meretz officials declared that the List had chosen nationalism and separatism over Jewish–Arab solidarity. A post-election analysis showed that no agreement between these left-of-center parties would have made a difference to the final result.