title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: The disease is of particular interest to forest managers, as the species is highly pathogenic to a number of commercial softwoods, notably Douglas-fir ("Pseudotsuga menziesii"), true firs ("Abies" spp.), pine trees ("Pinus"), and Western Hemlock ("Tsuga heterophylla"). A commonly prescribed treatment is the clear cutting of an infected stand followed by planting with more resistant species such as Western redcedar ("Thuja plicata") or deciduous seedlings.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: Pathogenicity is seen to differ among trees of varying age and location. Younger conifer trees at age 10 and below are more susceptible to infection leading to mortality, with an increased chance of survival against the fungus where mortality can become rare by age 20. While mortality among older conifers is less likely to occur, this does happen, however, in forests with dryer climates.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: The pathogenicity of "Armillaria ostoyae" appears to be more common in interior stands, but its virulence is seen to be greater in coastal conifers. Although conifers along the coastal regions show a lower rate of mortality against the root disease, infections can be much worse. Despite differences in how infections occur between these two regions, infections are generally established by rhizomorph strands, and pathogenicity is correlated to rhizomorph production.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: "Armillaria ostoyae" is mostly common in the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. In North America, this fungus is found on host coniferous trees in the forests of British Columbia and the Pacific Northwest. It also grows in parts of Asia. While "Armillaria ostoyae" is distributed throughout the different biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia, the root disease causes the greatest problem in the interior parts of the region in the "Interior Cedar Hemlock" biogeoclimatic zone. It is both present in the interior where it is more common as well as along the coast.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: A mushroom of this type in the Malheur National Forest in the Strawberry Mountains of eastern Oregon, was found to be the largest fungal colony in the world, spanning an area of . This organism is estimated to be some 8,000 years old and may weigh as much as 35,000 tons. If this colony is considered a single organism, it is one of the largest known organisms in the world by area, only knowingly rivalled by a colony of Posidonia australis on the Australian seabed that measures , and rivals the aspen grove "Pando" as the known organism with the highest living biomass. Another "humongous fungus" – a specimen of "Armillaria gallica" found at a site near Crystal Falls, Michigan – covers , was found to have originated from a parent fungus in Ontario, Canada.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: "A. ostoyae" may be confused with Mottled rot ("Pholiota limonella"). It has similar mushrooms, but only if mycelial fans are not present.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: Dead and diseased trees usually occur in disease centers, which appear as openings in the canopy. GPS tracking can aid in the monitoring of these areas. However, sometimes distinct centers will be absent and diseased trees are scattered throughout the stand.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: "Armillaria" can remain viable in stumps for 50 years. Chemical treatments do not eradicate the fungus entirely, and they are not cost-effective. The most frequent and effective approach to managing root disease problems is to attempt to control them at final harvest by replanting site-suited tree species that are disease tolerant. In eastern Washington that typically means replacing Douglas-fir or true fir stands with ponderosa pine, western larch, western white pine, lodgepole pine, western red cedar, alder, or spruce. Species susceptibility varies somewhat from location to location. All trees in the disease center as well as uninfected trees within should be cut. No tree from a highly susceptible species should be planted within of a disease center.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: The use of another fungus, "Hypholoma fasciculare" has been shown in early experiments to competitively exclude "Armillaria ostoyae" in both field and laboratory conditions, but further experimentation is required to establish the efficacy of this treatment.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: Another more expensive alternative to changing species is to remove diseased stumps and trees from the site by pushing them out with a bulldozer. The air will dry and kill the fungus. Any small roots left underground will decay before they can reinfect the new seedlings, so it is not necessary to burn the stumps. After stump removal, any species may be planted. The removal of stumps (stumping) has been used to prevent contact between infected stumps and newer growth resulting in lower infection rates. It is unknown if the lower infection rates will persist as roots of young trees extend closer to the original inoculate from the preceding stand.


title: Armillaria ostoyae

text: The most important control measure after planting is to manage for reduced tree stress. This includes regulating species composition, maintaining biological diversity, and reducing the chances for insect pest buildup. Mixed-species forests are more resistant to insect defoliation, and also slow the spread of species-specific pests such as dwarf mistletoe, which are both predisposing agents for "Armillaria".


title: 57th Baeksang Arts Awards

text: The 57th Baeksang Arts Awards () ceremony, organised by "Ilgan Sports" and JTBC Plus, was held on May 13, 2021, at KINTEX, Ilsanseo-gu, Gyeonggi Province, beginning at 9:00 p.m. KST. It was hosted by Shin Dong-yup and Bae Suzy, and was broadcast live in South Korea by JTBC and internationally by TikTok. The event was held with no on-site audience, due to COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea. The annual awards ceremony is one of South Korea's most prestigious award shows, recognizing excellence in film, television, and theatre.


title: 57th Baeksang Arts Awards

text: The nominees for the 57th Baeksang Arts Awards were announced on April 12, 2021, through its official website. All works released between May 1, 2020, and April 11, 2021, were eligible for nominations. The final candidates for Grand Prize – Television were variety performer Yoo Jae-suk and drama series "Beyond Evil".


title: 57th Baeksang Arts Awards

text: The highest honors of the night, Grand Prize (Daesang), were awarded to director Lee Joon-ik of "The Book of Fish" in the film division and variety performer Yoo Jae-suk in the television division. With three wins, "Beyond Evil" won the most awards at the ceremony, including the Best Drama, while, "It's Okay to Not Be Okay" won two awards. In the film division, "Voice of Silence" and "" won two awards each, while with one win, "Samjin Company English Class" was awarded as the Best Film.


title: 57th Baeksang Arts Awards

text: The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Richard Nathan Haass (born July 28, 1951) is an American diplomat. He has been president of the Council on Foreign Relations since July 2003, prior to which he was Director of Policy Planning for the United States Department of State and a close advisor to Secretary of State Colin Powell in the George W. Bush administration.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: The Senate approved Haass as a candidate for the position of ambassador and he has been U.S. Coordinator for the Future of Afghanistan. He succeeded George J. Mitchell as the United States Special Envoy for Northern Ireland to help the peace process in Northern Ireland, for which he received the State Department's Distinguished Service Award.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: At the end of 2003, Mitchell Reiss succeeded him as special envoy. In late 2013, Haass returned to Northern Ireland to chair inter-party talks aimed at addressing some of the unresolved issues from the peace process such as parades, flags and "the past", (now known as "the Troubles").


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Haass was born to a Jewish family in Brooklyn, the son of Marcella (née Rosenthal) and Irving B. Haass. Haass graduated from Roslyn High School in 1969. His father was a securities analyst and partner at investment manager "David J. Greene & Co." He completed a bachelor's degree at Oberlin College in 1973, and was a Rhodes scholar at Oxford University, where he completed a master's degree and doctoral degree in 1978.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Haass served at the Department of Defense from 1979 to 1980, and at the Department of State from 1981 to 1985. From 1989 to 1993, he was Special Assistant to United States President George H. W. Bush and National Security Council Senior Director for Near East and South Asian Affairs. In 1991, Haass received the Presidential Citizens Medal for helping to develop and explain U.S. policy during Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Richard Haass worked for Secretary of State Colin Powell in the Bush administration and was Director of Policy Planning for the US State Department from 2001 to 2003 during the lead-up to the Iraq war. Haass has said he was 60 percent against the Iraq war.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Haass's other postings include Vice President and Director of Foreign Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution, the Sol M. Linowitz Visiting Professor of International Studies at Hamilton College, a senior associate at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, a Lecturer in Public Policy at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government, and a research associate at the International Institute for Strategic Studies.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Throughout the 2008 presidential campaign, Haass advised several members of both the Republican Party and Democratic Party on issues regarding foreign policy, but did not publicly endorse a candidate due to the Council on Foreign Relations' non-partisan stance.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: In September 2013, Haass returned to Northern Ireland, with Professor Meghan O'Sullivan, to chair all party talks on flags, parades and the legacy of The Troubles, after violence flared over the removal of the union flag at Belfast City Hall. The talks broke down on December 31, 2013.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: In a May 2015 interview with BBC's "HARDtalk", speaking as President of the Council on Foreign Relations, Haass predicted a new era in world history, in part due to the muting of U.S. dominance by the more diffuse power wielded by states and non-state entities as a result of the proliferation of nuclear arms and cyberterrorism, and several policy failures, which may bring about an "era of disorder" in the absence of any clear superpower.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: In December 2021, Haass criticized the Biden administration's withdrawal from Afghanistan as “America-first unilateralism in practice," indicating that Biden “did so in a Trumpian way, consulting minimally with others and leaving NATO allies to scramble.”


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Haass is the author or editor of thirteen books on American foreign policy and one book on management.


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Haass has appeared as himself on dozens of TV shows and documentaries since 1996. He has served as consultant on NBC News and hosted the online international affairs forum of the "New York Times".


title: Richard N. Haass

text: Following the publication of "A World in Disarray" in 2017, the book was adapted into a feature-length documentary by VICE for release the same year on July 21. Through interviews with Haass and other policymakers academics associated with the Council, the film explores the themes and concepts laid out in the book: the disorder in today’s international landscape, how it arose, and how it plays out in Syria, Ukraine, the South China Sea, and North Korea. In addition to providing commentary throughout the film, Haass served as a consulting producer.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: Worzel Gummidge is a British television fantasy series, produced by Southern Television for ITV, based on the "Worzel Gummidge" books by English author Barbara Euphan Todd. The programme starred Jon Pertwee as the titular scarecrow and Una Stubbs as Aunt Sally. It ran for four series in the UK from 1979 to 1981. On a countdown of the greatest British children's programmes, this series was number 50 in the "50 Greatest Kids TV Shows" on Channel 5 on 8 November 2013. Channel 4 reprised the show in 1987 as "Worzel Gummidge Down Under", which was set in New Zealand.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: In 1979, a television adaptation of "Worzel Gummidge" was produced by ITV station Southern Television for transmission on the ITV network. It was written by Keith Waterhouse and Willis Hall, and starred former "Doctor Who" actor Jon Pertwee as Worzel and Una Stubbs as Aunt Sally, a life-size fairground doll and Worzel's femme fatale. This was a significant change from the original books, where Aunt Sally is Worzel's aunt, and Worzel is married to Earthy Mangold, a character who does not appear in the series. The Crowman, who made Worzel and some of his other scarecrow friends, is played by Geoffrey Bayldon, who had played the title role in "Catweazle". Regular and occasional guest appearances were made by well-known TV actors of the time, including Barbara Windsor, Billy Connolly, Bill Maynard, Joan Sims, Lorraine Chase, Bernard Cribbins, Connie Booth, David Lodge and Mike Reid.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: According to Jon Pertwee's memoirs, the idea for the series began as a proposed film about the Worzel Gummidge character by Waterhouse and Hall which would have been "about the scarecrow equivalent" of the Peasants' Revolt, with the scarecrows rising up against farmers who were going to burn them when the farming season had finished. Pertwee was approached to play the lead character by producer Gareth Wigan. When this project was unable to secure the funds it needed for a distribution deal, Pertwee encouraged the writers to create a television pilot instead, and via his agent pitched the idea to Shaun Sutton, then Head of Drama at the BBC. Sutton turned down the project, which he felt was "too way out", as did Philip Jones at Thames Television. Pertwee later recalled that at this point he "began to lose faith in the project", but Southern Television's Lewis Rudd heard about it and enthusiastically agreed that his company would make the series.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: A total of four series with 30 episodes and an extended Christmas special were made between 1979 and 1981. When Southern lost its contract to broadcast on ITV, the new contract-holder, TVS, did not renew the show, despite a press campaign led by the "Daily Star". Attempts were made to continue the series: for it to be produced independently by Southern for the BBC and then for it to be produced in Ireland, but these failed. HTV continued with their plans to produce the show in Ireland but these fell through because of trade union problems, as did attempts by the same company to make further episodes in England; the scripts that Waterhouse & Hall had written for the Irish episodes were, however, published in book form. Pertwee and Stubbs starred in the musical "Worzel Gummidge" in 1981 at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre which also starred Lucy Benjamin (then Lucy Jane Baker) as Sue. Jon Pertwee's final TV appearance as Worzel was in 1995, to celebrate 40 years of ITV.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: The main locations for filming were the villages of Stockbridge, King's Somborne and Braishfield, along with Broughton for the fourth series, all of which are near Romsey in Hampshire. The Scatterbrook Farm scenes were filmed at Pucknall in Braishfield; Michelmersh was used for the scenes in the Scatterbrook barn. Worzel's scarecrow stand was filmed near Fishpond's Farm between Braishfield and King's Somborne at OS grid location SU378274.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: The programme remained in limbo until Channel 4, along with Television New Zealand commissioned "Worzel Gummidge Down Under" in 1986, which was shot on location in New Zealand; It ran for two series totaling 22 episodes. Only Pertwee and Stubbs remained from the original cast, with Bruce Phillips joining the cast as the Crowman (Geoffrey Bayldon declined to reprise the role) and Olivia Ihimaera-Smiler, daughter of prominent Māori author Witi Ihimaera joining as one of the children. "The Lord of the Rings" director Peter Jackson received an early credit for his work providing special effects for the series.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: Michael Grade, the newly appointed head of Channel 4, cancelled the series when the New Zealand version drew low audience figures.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: In the series, Worzel Gummidge was a scarecrow that could come to life. Living in Ten Acre Field, he would often visit the nearby village of Scatterbrook. He befriended two children, brother and sister John and Sue Peters, who often tried to clear up the messes he created. Worzel had a collection of interchangeable turnip, mangelwurzel, and swede heads; each suiting a particular occasion or allowing him to perform a certain task. He also had his own language, Worzelese. Worzel's catchphrases were: "A cup o' tea an' a slice o' cake", "I'll be bum-swizzled" and "Bozzy MCoo". He was madly in love with Aunt Sally, a vain, cruel-hearted fairground coconut-shy doll who considered herself a lady and far too good for a common scarecrow such as Worzel. Aunt Sally often exploits Worzel for her own ends (in one episode, she promises to marry him if he frees her from a junkshop washing machine, but she never has any intention of going through with it). The Crowman says there are good and bad Aunt Sallys (S04E05). The one Worzel likes has delusions of grandeur and is evil, in her constant nastiness to him.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: The rationale for the move to New Zealand in "Down Under" was that Aunt Sally is purchased by a visiting museum curator from New Zealand, and Worzel follows her into the luggage chute.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: Worzel and the other scarecrows sometimes spoke in their own "language", which was simply English spelled out letter-by-letter with "wor" appended to each. Words with three letters or less had "dip" appended, while longer words ended with "zel". Children who spoke Worzelese as a language game therefore gained practice with their spelling. However, Worzelese is far harder to speak than other play languages like Pig Latin and never really caught on.


title: Worzel Gummidge (TV series)

text: A stage musical adaptation, titled "Worzel Gummidge - The Musical," was created by the TV series creators Keith Waterhouse and Willis Hall with music by Denis King and featuring the original TV principal cast Jon Pertwee, Una Stubbs and Geoffrey Bayldon. The musical first premiered at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre for the 1980 Christmas season before receiving rave reviews and transferring to the Cambridge Theatre in London's West End from 22 December 1981 and extending to 27 February 1982. The Original London 1981 Cast Album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios; It featured 15 songs and 4 bonus tracks titled "The Worzel Gummidge Christmas Maxi Single".


title: Sallah

text: Sallah Mohammed Faisel el-Kahir () is a fictional character played by Welsh actor John Rhys-Davies in three of the "Indiana Jones" films: "Raiders of the Lost Ark" and "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade", as well as the upcoming "Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny", the final film of the series. He also appears in various comics and novels, and is featured in the Disney theme park attractions, the Indiana Jones Adventure and The Great Movie Ride.


title: Sallah

text: Sallah is a hefty, bearded Egyptian excavator. He lives in Cairo and is a close friend of Indiana Jones. He is a dedicated family man with a wife named Fayah and nine children, all of whom seem to have a fondness for Indiana (at one point they all surround him to save him from a group of Egyptian collaborators and SD agents who have their guns drawn on him).


title: Sallah

text: Sallah is portrayed in "Raiders of the Lost Ark" as being jovial, good-natured, and occasionally cowardly (when seeing numerous snakes inside the Well of souls, the room that houses the Ark of the Covenant, he suggests to Indiana, "You go first."), although unlike Indy, Sallah is not afraid of snakes. His "original" self often sings, as depicted when the old imam indirectly reveals that the Nazis are digging in the wrong spot or when Indy and Marion leave Egypt on the "Bantu Wind". Like Marcus Brody, Sallah's portrayal in "The Last Crusade" has changed into a bumbling stereotype who for example, calls a tank a "steel beast".


title: Sallah

text: He seems to be extremely strong, although he is apparently unaware of his enormous strength (at one point, he gives Indiana a bear hug, causing him a great deal of discomfort, probably because Indy had just been shot in the arm). He has a strong baritone voice and he seems to have an affinity for Gilbert and Sullivan. He is often seen singing tunes from "H.M.S. Pinafore" when he is in a good mood. In "Raiders", he is mostly seen wearing a turban (perhaps to blend in with the other diggers working for the Nazis), and in "Last Crusade", he is seen wearing a fez.


title: Sallah

text: The character was also a favorite role of Rhys-Davies, who spoke of trying to convince Spielberg to include the character in another film by citing it as the "common factor" driving the success of the first and third films. Nonetheless, he declined an offer to reprise the role in a cameo in "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull", feeling that the character deserved better than to be filmed on a green screen to be cut into a single scene of the film.


title: Sallah

text: Sallah appears in "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981), where he helps Jones decipher the inscription on the back of Marion Ravenwood's medallion by taking him to an old wise man (identified as "Old Imam") who is also a friend of his. They learn that the Nazis are digging in the wrong location for the Ark of the Covenant—due to them only having access to one side of the medallion—so Sallah and Jones infiltrate the Nazi dig and they discover the real location of the Well of Souls where the Ark is kept. He reluctantly joins Jones in the snake-infested tomb, and they move the Ark to the surface. However, the Nazis discover the secret dig and capture the Ark and Sallah. They also throw Marion into the tomb with Jones, and seal it shut. Jones and Marion escape, however, and he tells Sallah to secure some transportation back to the United States. He makes a deal with the captain of the "Bantu Wind", a tramp steamer, for bringing Jones, Marion, and the Ark back to the States, referring to the two of them as his family.


title: Sallah

text: He reappeared in "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade" (1989), where he fails in stopping Marcus Brody from being captured by the Nazis at İskenderun. Sallah later takes Jones and his father, Henry to the Nazi convoy near the location of the Holy Grail. He borrows his brother-in-law's car, which is destroyed in the ensuing battle between the Nazis and the Grail's guardians. Indy tells Sallah "no camels" and Sallah takes horses from the killed guardians for the return trip, as well as camels to compensate for his brother-in-law's loss. At the film's end, Sallah inquires what "Junior" means, and Henry Jones, Sr. explains that it is his name: "Henry Jones, Jr.". Indiana (who apparently does not like his given name) reveals that he nicknamed himself "Indiana" after his dog, leaving Sallah roaring with laughter.


title: Sallah

text: Sallah appeared in Marvel Comics's "The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones", where he helps Indiana recover the Chachapoyan Fertility Idol in Marrakech (that Rene Belloq stole in the "Raiders" opening sequence). The 1990 novel "Young Indiana Jones and the Tomb of Terror" details his first encounter with Indiana in 1913, and his full name is given as Sallah Mohammed Faisel el-Kahir. Sallah reappeared in the ninth and twelfth Bantam Books novels set before the films: in 1933 Sallah helped Indiana find the philosopher's stone, and the following year he provides sanctuary for Jones on his way to the Great Sphinx of Giza. Rhys-Davies expressed interest in reprising the role for a planned fifth "Indiana Jones" film. Sallah's appearance in the film was confirmed at the D23 Expo in September 2022, with Rhys-Davies reprising the role.


title: Sallah

text: The script specified Sallah as a thin 5'2" Bedouin, while Steven Spielberg envisioned him as "a small creature from the "Star Wars" cantina in an earthbound adventure film". He offered the role to Danny DeVito, who passed because of his commitment to "Taxi". Spielberg saw John Rhys-Davies in "Shōgun", and changed the role accordingly, advising the actor portray Sallah as a cross between his role in "Shōgun" and Falstaff. Kevork Malikyan, who played Kazim in "Last Crusade", also expressed interest in the role, but a traffic jam caused him to miss his audition. Rhys-Davies described having substantial creative freedom to improvise lines and other aspects of the character in the first film, but with opportunities for improvisation reduced in the second film due to the sharper focus of the story on the father-son dynamic between the main characters, and Spielberg's increasing maturity as a filmmaker.


title: Sallah

text: When Davies reprised his role for "Last Crusade", he imagined Sallah had become richer since "Raiders", leaving excavation in favor of selling antiques. He wanted to convey that Sallah "has gotten older and a little fatter. This time, we see him without the appurtenances of his wife and children. He's a little more resolute now, and he's more ready to have a physical go at the Germans himself. But other than that, he's still the same old Sallah".


title: Sallah

text: There are two scenes deleted during filming of "Raiders of the Lost Ark" featuring Sallah. One is an extension of the scene where Sallah loses the rope into the map room, after two Nazi soldiers demand help from him in freeing their truck from the sand. The entire scene also involved several Nazi soldiers demanding to be served water, while Sallah panics and spills water on their uniforms. The scene was supposed to have smoke in the background, but tires used in the scene made it too dark. Spielberg cut the scene to avoid spending half a day reshooting. The other scene depicted Sallah's fate after Jones and Marion's entrapment with the asps. The Germans decide to execute Sallah, but a young soldier put in charge of the operation has second thoughts.


title: Sallah

text: There were also two scenes featuring Sallah cut from the finished cut of "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". During the scene where Sallah fends off the German kidnappers, he hits a camel which spits mucus over the Nazis, and another shot with Sallah fighting the Nazis. The other depicts Indy and his father meeting Sallah at the İskenderun train station. It was deleted because of showing a minor transitional plot element.


title: Sallah

text: Sallah ranks at number 47 on "Entertainment Weekly"'s list of the best sidekicks. They recalled his line, "Asps, very dangerous – you go first", citing it as "not the words of a coward, but rather, of a faithful (and perfectly honest) companion". "Empire" named him their thirtieth favorite element of the films, citing "his indomitable spirit", a "lovely singing voice" and "a roguish streak to match Indy’s own".


title: Sallah

text: Kenner released a 3.75" action figure in 1983. He was included in a TSR, Inc. collection of metal miniatures the following year. In 2008, Hasbro released a 3 " Sallah figure that included shovel and a torch accessories. An Adventure Heroes figurine, which comes with a cobra and a mummy, was also released.


title: Very low frequency

text: Very low frequency or VLF is the ITU designation for radio frequencies (RF) in the range of 3–30 kHz, corresponding to wavelengths from 100 to 10 km, respectively. The band is also known as the myriameter band or myriameter wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten myriameters (an obsolete metric unit equal to 10 kilometers). Due to its limited bandwidth, audio (voice) transmission is highly impractical in this band, and therefore only low data rate coded signals are used. The VLF band is used for a few radio navigation services, government time radio stations (broadcasting time signals to set radio clocks) and for secure military communication. Since VLF waves can penetrate at least 40 meters (131 ft) into saltwater, they are used for military communication with submarines.


title: Very low frequency

text: Because of their long wavelengths, VLF radio waves can diffract around large obstacles and so are not blocked by mountain ranges, and can propagate as ground waves following the curvature of the Earth and so are not limited by the horizon. Ground waves are less important beyond several hundred to a thousand miles, and the main mode of long-distance propagation is an Earth-ionosphere waveguide mechanism. The Earth is surrounded by a conductive layer of electrons and ions in the upper atmosphere at the bottom of the ionosphere called the D layer at 60–90 km (37–56 miles) altitude, which reflects VLF radio waves. The conductive ionosphere and the conductive Earth form a horizontal "duct" a few VLF wavelengths high, which acts as a waveguide confining the waves so they don't escape into space. The waves travel in a zig-zag path around the Earth, reflected alternately by the Earth and the ionosphere, in transverse magnetic (TM) mode.


title: Very low frequency

text: VLF waves have very low path attenuation, 2–3 dB per 1,000 km, with little of the "fading" experienced at higher frequencies. This is because VLF waves are reflected from the bottom of the ionosphere, while higher frequency shortwave signals are returned to Earth from higher layers in the ionosphere, the F1 and F2 layers, by a refraction process, and spend most of their journey in the ionosphere, so they are much more affected by ionization gradients and turbulence. Therefore, VLF transmissions are very stable and reliable, and are used for long-distance communication. Propagation distances of 5,000–20,000 km have been realized. However, atmospheric noise ("sferics") is high in the band, including such phenomena as "whistlers", caused by lightning.


title: Very low frequency

text: A major practical drawback to the VLF band is that because of the length of the waves, full size resonant antennas (half wave dipole or quarter wave monopole antennas) cannot be built because of their physical height. Vertical antennas must be used because VLF waves propagate in vertical polarization, but a quarter-wave vertical antenna at 30 kHz (10 km wavelength) would be high. So practical transmitting antennas are electrically short, a small fraction of the length at which they would be self-resonant. Due to their low radiation resistance (often less than one ohm) they are inefficient, radiating only 10% to 50% of the transmitter power at most, with the rest of the power dissipated in the antenna/ground system resistances. Very high power transmitters (~1 megawatt) are required for long-distance communication, so the efficiency of the antenna is an important factor.


title: Very low frequency

text: High power VLF transmitting stations use capacitively-loaded monopole antennas. These are very large wire antennas, up to several kilometers long. They consist of a series of steel radio masts, linked at the top with a network of cables, often shaped like an umbrella or clotheslines. Either the towers themselves or vertical wires serve as monopole radiators, and the horizontal cables form a "capacitive top-load" to increase the current in the vertical wires, increasing the radiated power and efficiency of the antenna. High-power stations use variations on the umbrella antenna such as the "delta" and "trideco" antennas, or multiwire flattop (triatic) antennas. For low-power transmitters, inverted-L and T antennas are used.


title: Very low frequency

text: Due to the low radiation resistance, to minimize power dissipated in the ground these antennas require extremely low resistance ground (Earthing) systems, consisting of radial networks of buried copper wires under the antenna. To minimize dielectric losses in the soil, the ground conductors are buried shallowly, only a few inches in the ground, and the ground surface near the antenna is protected by copper ground screens. Counterpoise systems have also been used, consisting of radial networks of copper cables supported several feet above the ground under the antenna.


title: Very low frequency

text: A large loading coil is required at the antenna feed point to cancel the capacitive reactance of the antenna to make it resonant. At VLF the design of this coil is challenging; it must have low resistance at the operating RF frequency, high, and must withstand the extremely high voltage on the antenna. The RF resistance is usually reduced by using litz wire.


title: Very low frequency

text: The high capacitance and inductance and low resistance of the antenna-loading coil combination makes it act electrically like a high tuned circuit. VLF antennas have very narrow bandwidth and to change the transmitting frequency requires a variable inductor (variometer) to tune the antenna. The large VLF antennas used for high-power transmitters usually have bandwidths of only 50–100 hertz, and when transmitting frequency-shift keying (FSK), the usual mode, the resonant frequency of the antenna must sometimes be dynamically shifted with the modulation, between the two FSK frequencies. The high results in very high voltages (up to 200 kV) on the antenna and very good insulation is required. Large VLF antennas usually operate in 'voltage limited' mode: the maximum power of the transmitter is limited by the voltage the antenna can accept without air breakdown, corona, and arcing from the antenna.


title: Very low frequency

text: The bandwidth of large capacitively loaded VLF antennas is so narrow (50–100 Hz) that even the small frequency shifts of FSK and MSK modulation may exceed it, throwing the antenna out of resonance, causing the antenna to reflect some power back down the feedline. The traditional solution is to use a "bandwidth resistor" in the antenna which reduces the , increasing the bandwidth; however this also reduces the power output. A recent alternative used in some military VLF transmitters is a circuit which dynamically shifts the antenna's resonant frequency between the two output frequencies with the modulation. This is accomplished with a saturable reactor in series with the antenna loading coil. This is a ferromagnetic core inductor with a second control winding through which a DC current flows, which controls the inductance by magnetizing the core, changing its permeability. The keying datastream is applied to the control winding. So when the frequency of the transmitter is shifted between the '1' and '0' frequencies, the saturable reactor changes the inductance in the antenna resonant circuit to shift the antenna resonant frequency to follow the transmitter's frequency.


title: Very low frequency

text: The requirements for receiving antennas are less stringent, because of the high level of natural atmospheric noise in the band. At VLF frequencies atmospheric radio noise is far above the receiver noise introduced by the receiver circuit and determines the receiver signal-to-noise ratio. So small inefficient receiving antennas can be used, and the low voltage signal from the antenna can simply be amplified by the receiver without introducing significant noise. Ferrite loop antennas are usually used for reception.


title: Very low frequency

text: Because of the small bandwidth of the band, and the extremely narrow bandwidth of the antennas used, it is impractical to transmit audio signals (AM or FM radiotelephony). A typical AM radio signal with a bandwidth of 10 kHz would occupy one third of the VLF band. More significantly, it would be difficult to transmit any distance because it would require an antenna with 100 times the bandwidth of current VLF antennas, which due to the Chu-Harrington limit would be enormous in size. Therefore, only text data can be transmitted, at low bit rates. In military networks frequency-shift keying (FSK) modulation is used to transmit radioteletype data using 5 bit ITA2 or 8 bit ASCII character codes. A small frequency shift of 30–50 hertz is used due to the small bandwidth of the antenna.


title: Very low frequency

text: In high power VLF transmitters, to increase the allowable data rate, a special form of FSK called minimum-shift keying (MSK) is used. This is required due to the high of the antenna. The huge capacitively-loaded antenna and loading coil form a high tuned circuit, which stores oscillating electrical energy. The of large VLF antennas is typically over 200; this means the antenna stores far more energy (200 times as much) than is supplied or radiated in any single cycle of the transmitter current. The energy is stored alternately as electrostatic energy in the topload and ground system, and magnetic energy in the vertical wires and loading coil. VLF antennas typically operate "voltage-limited", with the voltage on the antenna close to the limit that the insulation will stand, so they will not tolerate any abrupt change in the voltage or current from the transmitter without arcing or other insulation problems. As described below, MSK is able to modulate the transmitted wave at higher data rates without causing voltage spikes on the antenna.


title: Very low frequency

text: Historically, this band was used for long distance transoceanic radio communication during the wireless telegraphy era between about 1905 and 1925. Nations built networks of high-power LF and VLF radiotelegraphy stations that transmitted text information by Morse code, to communicate with other countries, their colonies, and naval fleets. Early attempts were made to use radiotelephone using amplitude modulation and single-sideband modulation within the band starting from 20 kHz, but the result was unsatisfactory because the available bandwidth was insufficient to contain the sidebands.


title: Very low frequency

text: In the 1920s the discovery of the skywave (skip) radio propagation method allowed lower power transmitters operating at high frequency to communicate at similar distances by reflecting their radio waves off a layer of ionized atoms in the ionosphere, and long-distance radio communication stations switched to the shortwave frequencies. The Grimeton VLF transmitter at Grimeton near Varberg in Sweden, one of the few remaining transmitters from that era that has been preserved as a historical monument, can be visited by the public at certain times, such as on Alexanderson Day.


title: Very low frequency

text: Due to its long propagation distances and stable phase characteristics, during the 20th century the VLF band was used for long range hyperbolic radio navigation systems which allowed ships and aircraft to determine their geographical position by comparing the phase of radio waves received from fixed VLF navigation beacon transmitters.


title: Very low frequency

text: VLF was also used for standard time and frequency broadcasts. In the US, the time signal station WWVL began transmitting a 500 W signal on 20 kHz in August 1963. It used frequency-shift keying (FSK) to send data, shifting between 20 kHz and 26 kHz. The WWVL service was discontinued in July 1972.


title: Very low frequency

text: Naturally occurring signals in the VLF band are used by geophysicists for long range lightning location and for research into atmospheric phenomena such as the aurora. Measurements of whistlers are employed to infer the physical properties of the magnetosphere.


title: Very low frequency

text: Geophysicists use VLF-electromagnetic receivers to measure conductivity in the near surface of the Earth.


title: Very low frequency

text: VLF signals can be measured as a geophysical electromagnetic survey that relies on transmitted currents inducing secondary responses in conductive geologic units. A VLF anomaly represents a change in the attitude of the electromagnetic vector overlying conductive materials in the subsurface.


title: Very low frequency

text: Powerful VLF transmitters are used by the military to communicate with their forces worldwide. The advantage of VLF frequencies is their long range, high reliability, and the prediction that in a nuclear war VLF communications will be less disrupted by nuclear explosions than higher frequencies. Since it can penetrate seawater VLF is used by the military to communicate with submarines near the surface, while ELF frequencies are used for deeply submerged subs.


title: Very low frequency

text: Since 2004 the US Navy has stopped using ELF transmissions, with the statement that improvements in VLF communication has made them unnecessary, so it may have developed technology to allow submarines to receive VLF transmissions while at operating depth.


title: Very low frequency

text: High power land-based and aircraft transmitters in countries that operate submarines send signals that can be received thousands of miles away. Transmitter sites typically cover great areas (many acres or square kilometers), with transmitted power anywhere from 20 kW to 2,000 kW. Submarines receive signals from land based and aircraft transmitters using some form of towed antenna that floats just under the surface of the water – for example a Buoyant Cable Array Antenna (BCAA).


title: Very low frequency

text: Modern receivers use sophisticated digital signal processing techniques to remove the effects of atmospheric noise (largely caused by lightning strikes around the world) and adjacent channel signals, extending the useful reception range. Strategic nuclear bombers of the United States Air Force receive VLF signals as part of hardened nuclear resilient operations.


title: Very low frequency

text: Two alternative character sets may be used: 5 bit ITA2 or 8 bit ASCII. Because these are military transmissions they are almost always encrypted for security reasons. Although it is relatively easy to receive the transmissions and convert them into a string of characters, enemies cannot decode the encrypted messages; military communications usually use unbreakable one-time pad ciphers since the amount of text is so small.


title: Very low frequency

text: VLF can also penetrate soil and rock for some distance, so these frequencies are also used for through-the-earth mine communications systems.


title: Very low frequency

text: The frequency range below 8.3 kHz is not allocated by the International Telecommunication Union and in some nations may be used license-free.


title: Very low frequency

text: Radio amateurs in some countries have been granted permission (or have assumed permission) to operate at frequencies below 8.3 kHz.


title: Very low frequency

text: Operations tend to congregate around the frequencies 8.27 kHz, 6.47 kHz, 5.17 kHz, and 2.97 kHz. Transmissions typically last from one hour up to several days and both receiver and transmitter must have their frequency locked to a stable reference such as a GPS disciplined oscillator or a rubidium standard in order to support such long duration coherent detection and decoding.


title: Very low frequency

text: Radiated power from amateur stations is very small, ranging from 1 μW to 100 μW for fixed base station antennas, and up to 10 mW from kite or balloon antennas. Despite the low power, stable propagation with low attenuation in the earth-ionosphere cavity enable very narrow bandwidths to be used to reach distances up to several thousand kilometers. The modes used are QRSS, MFSK, and coherent BPSK.


title: Very low frequency

text: The transmitter generally consists of an audio amplifier of a few hundred watts, an impedance matching transformer, a loading coil and a large wire antenna. Receivers employ an electric field probe or magnetic loop antenna, a sensitive audio preamplifier, isolating transformers, and a PC sound card to digitise the signal. Extensive digital signal processing is required to retrieve the weak signals from beneath interference from power line harmonics and VLF radio atmospherics. Useful received signal strengths are as low as  volts/meter (electric field) and  tesla (magnetic field), with signaling rates typically between 1 and 100 bits per hour.


title: Very low frequency

text: VLF signals are often monitored by radio amateurs using simple homemade VLF radio receivers based on personal computers (PCs). An aerial in the form of a coil of insulated wire is connected to the input of the soundcard of the PC (via a jack plug) and placed a few meters away from it. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) software in combination with a sound card allows reception of all frequencies below the Nyquist frequency simultaneously in the form of spectrogrammes.


title: Very low frequency

text: Because CRT monitors are strong sources of noise in the VLF range, it is recommended to record the spectrograms with any PC CRT monitors turned off. These spectrograms show many signals, which may include VLF transmitters and the horizontal electron beam deflection of TV sets. The strength of the signal received can vary with a sudden ionospheric disturbance. These cause the ionization level to increase in the ionosphere producing a rapid change to the amplitude and phase of the received VLF signal.


title: MIFARE

text: MIFARE is the NXP Semiconductors-owned trademark of a series of integrated circuit (IC) chips used in contactless smart cards and proximity cards.


title: MIFARE

text: The brand name covers proprietary solutions based upon various levels of the ISO/IEC 14443 Type A 13.56 MHz contactless smart card standard. It uses AES and DES/Triple-DES encryption standards, as well as an older proprietary encryption algorithm, Crypto-1. According to NXP, 10 billion of their smart card chips and over 150 million reader modules have been sold. MIFARE is owned by NXP Semiconductors, which was spun off from Philips Electronics in 2006.


title: MIFARE

text: MIFARE products are embedded in contactless and contact smart cards, smart paper tickets, wearables and phones.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE brand name (derived from the term MIKRON FARE Collection and created by the company Mikron) covers four families of contactless cards:


title: MIFARE

text: Subtypes: MIFARE Ultralight C, MIFARE Ultralight EV1, MIFARE Ultralight Nano and MIFARE Ultralight AES.


title: MIFARE

text: There is also the MIFARE SAM AV2 contact smart card. This can be used to handle the encryption in communicating with the contactless cards. The SAM (Secure Access Module) provides the secure storage of cryptographic keys and cryptographic functions.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE Classic IC is just a memory storage device, where the memory is divided into segments and blocks with simple security mechanisms for access control. They are ASIC-based and have limited computational power. Due to their reliability and low cost, those cards are widely used for electronic wallets, access control, corporate ID cards, transportation or stadium ticketing. It uses an NXP proprietary security protocol (Crypto-1) for authentication and ciphering.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE Classic with 1K memory offers 1,024 bytes of data storage, split into 16 "sectors"; each sector is protected by two different keys, called "A" and "B". Each key can be programmed to allow operations such as reading, writing, increasing value blocks, etc. MIFARE Classic with 4K memory offers 4,096 bytes split into forty sectors, of which 32 are the same size as in the 1K with eight more that are quadruple size sectors. MIFARE Classic Mini offers 320 bytes split into five sectors. For each of these IC types, 16 bytes per sector are reserved for the keys and access conditions and can not normally be used for user data. Also, the very first 16 bytes contain the serial number of the card and certain other manufacturer data and are read-only. That brings the net storage capacity of these cards down to 752 bytes for MIFARE Classic with 1K memory, 3,440 bytes for MIFARE Classic with 4K memory, and 224 bytes for MIFARE Mini.


title: MIFARE

text: The Samsung TecTile NFC tag stickers use MIFARE Classic chips. This means only devices with an NXP NFC controller chip can read or write these tags. At the moment BlackBerry phones, the Nokia Lumia 610 (August 2012), the Google Nexus 4, Google Nexus 7 LTE and Nexus 10 (October 2013) can't read/write TecTile stickers.


title: MIFARE

text: MIFARE Plus, when used in older transportation systems that do not yet support AES on the reader side, still leaves an open door to attacks. Though it helps to mitigate threats from attacks that broke the Crypto-1 cipher through the weak random number generator, it does not help against brute force attacks and cryptoanalytic attacks.


title: MIFARE

text: During the transition period from MIFARE Classic to MIFARE Plus where only a few readers might support AES in the first place, it offers an optional AES authentication in Security Level 1 (which is in fact MIFARE Classic operation). This does not prevent the attacks mentioned above but enables a secure mutual authentication between the reader and the card to prove that the card belongs to the system and is not fake.


title: MIFARE

text: In its highest security level SL3, using 128-bit AES encryption, MIFARE Plus is secured from attacks.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE Plus EV2 was introduced to the market on 23 June 2020. It comes with an enhanced read performance and transaction speed compared to MIFARE Plus EV1.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE Ultralight has only 512 bits of memory (i.e. 64 bytes), without cryptographic security. The memory is provided in 16 "pages" of 4 bytes.


title: MIFARE

text: Cards based on these chips are so inexpensive that they are often used for disposable tickets for events such as the Football World Cup 2006.


title: MIFARE

text: It provides only basic security features such as one-time-programmable (OTP) bits and a write-lock feature to prevent re-writing of memory pages but does not include cryptography as applied in other MIFARE product-based cards.


title: MIFARE

text: MIFARE Ultralight EV1 introduced in November 2012 the next generation of paper ticketing smart card ICs for limited-use applications for ticketing schemes and additional security options. It comes with several enhancements above the original MIFARE Ultralight:


title: MIFARE

text: Introduced at the Cartes industry trade show in 2008, the MIFARE Ultralight C IC is part of NXP's low-cost MIFARE product offering (disposable ticket). With Triple DES, MIFARE Ultralight C uses a widely adopted standard, enabling easy integration in existing infrastructures. The integrated Triple DES authentication provides an effective countermeasure against cloning.


title: MIFARE

text: Key applications for MIFARE Ultralight C are public transportation, event ticketing, loyalty and NFC Forum tag type 2.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE DESFire (MF3ICD40) was introduced in 2002 and is based on a core similar to SmartMX, with more hardware and software security features than MIFARE Classic. It comes pre-programmed with the general-purpose MIFARE DESFire operating system which offers a simple directory structure and files. They are sold in four variants: One with Triple-DES only and 4 kiB of storage, and three with AES (2, 4, or 8 kiB; see MIFARE DESFire EV1). The AES variants have additional security features; e.g., CMAC. MIFARE DESFire uses a protocol compliant with ISO/IEC 14443-4. The contactless IC is based on an 8051 processor with 3DES/AES cryptographic accelerator, making very fast transactions possible.


title: MIFARE

text: The maximal read/write distance between card and reader is , but the actual distance depends on the field power generated by the reader and its antenna size.


title: MIFARE

text: In 2010, NXP announced the discontinuation of the MIFARE DESFire (MF3ICD40) after it had introduced its successor MIFARE DESFire EV1 (MF3ICD41) in late 2008. In October 2011 researchers of Ruhr University Bochum announced that they had broken the security of MIFARE DESFire (MF3ICD40), which was acknowledged by NXP (see MIFARE DESFire security).


title: MIFARE

text: First evolution of MIFARE DESFire contactless IC, broadly backwards compatible. Available with 2 kiB, 4 kiB, and 8 kiB non-volatile memory. Other features include:


title: MIFARE

text: MIFARE SAMs are not contactless smart cards. They are secure access modules designed to provide the secure storage of cryptographic keys and cryptographic functions for terminals to access the MIFARE products securely and to enable secure communication between terminals and host (backend). MIFARE SAMs are available from NXP in the contact-only module (PCM 1.1) as defined in ISO/IEC 7816-2 and the HVQFN32 format.


title: MIFARE

text: Integrating a MIFARE SAM AV2 in a contactless smart card reader enables a design that integrates high-end cryptography features and the support of cryptographic authentication and data encryption/decryption. Like any SAM, it offers functionality to store keys securely and perform authentication and encryption of data between the contactless card and the SAM and the SAM towards the backend. Next to a classical SAM architecture, the MIFARE SAM AV2 supports the X-mode which allows a fast and convenient contactless terminal development by connecting the SAM to the microcontroller and reader IC simultaneously.


title: MIFARE

text: MIFARE SAM AV2 offers AV1 mode and AV2 mode where in comparison to the SAM AV1 the AV2 version includes public key infrastructure (PKI), hash functions like SHA-1, SHA-224, and SHA-256. It supports MIFARE Plus and secure host communication. Both modes provide the same communication interfaces, cryptographic algorithms (Triple-DES 112-bit and 168-bit key, MIFARE products using Crypto1, AES-128 and AES-192, RSA with up to 2048-bit keys), and X-mode functionalities. The MIFARE SAM AV3 is the third generation of NXP’s Secure Access Module, and it supports MIFARE ICs as well as NXP’s UCODE DNA, ICODE DNA and NTAG DNA ICs.


title: MIFARE

text: A cloud-based platform that digitizes MIFARE product-based smart cards and makes them available on NFC-enabled smartphones and wearables. With this, new Smart City use cases such as mobile transit ticketing, mobile access and mobile micropayments are being enabled.


title: MIFARE

text: Formerly most access systems used MIFARE Classic, but today these systems have switched to MIFARE DESFire because this product has more security than MIFARE Classic.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE product portfolio was originally developed by Mikron in Gratkorn, Austria. Mikron was acquired by Philips in 1995. Mikron sourced silicon from Atmel in the US, Philips in the Netherlands, and Siemens in Germany.


title: MIFARE

text: Infineon Technologies (then Siemens) licensed MIFARE Classic from Mikron in 1994 and developed both stand alone and integrated designs with MIFARE product functions. Infineon currently produces various derivatives based on MIFARE Classic including 1K memory (SLE66R35) and various microcontrollers (8 bit (SLE66 series), 16 bit (SLE7x series), and 32 bit (SLE97 series) with MIFARE implementations, including devices for use in USIM with Near Field Communication.


title: MIFARE

text: Motorola tried to develop MIFARE product-like chips for the wired-logic version but finally gave up. The project expected one million cards per month for start, but that fell to 100,000 per month just before they gave up the project.


title: MIFARE

text: In 1998 Philips licensed MIFARE Classic to Hitachi Hitachi licensed MIFARE products for the development of the contactless smart card solution for NTT's IC telephone card which started in 1999 and finished in 2006. In the NTT contactless IC telephone card project, three parties joined: Tokin-Tamura-Siemens, Hitachi (Philips-contract for technical support), and Denso (Motorola-only production). NTT asked for two versions of chip, i.e. wired-logic chip (like MIFARE Classic) with small memory and big memory capacity. Hitachi developed only big memory version and cut part of the memory to fit for the small memory version.


title: MIFARE

text: The deal with Hitachi was upgraded in 2008 by NXP (by then no longer part of Philips) to include MIFARE Plus and MIFARE DESFire to the renamed semiconductor division of Hitachi Renesas Technology.


title: MIFARE

text: In 2010 NXP licensed MIFARE products to Gemalto. In 2011 NXP licensed Oberthur to use MIFARE products on SIM cards. In 2012 NXP signed an agreement with Giesecke & Devrient to integrate MIFARE product-based applications on their secure SIM products. These licensees are developing Near Field Communication products


title: MIFARE

text: A presentation by Henryk Plötz and Karsten Nohl at the Chaos Communication Congress in December 2007 described a partial reverse-engineering of the algorithm used in the MIFARE Classic chip. Abstract and slides are available online. A paper that describes the process of reverse engineering this chip was published at the August 2008 USENIX security conference.


title: MIFARE

text: In March 2008 the Digital Security research group of the Radboud University Nijmegen made public that they performed a complete reverse-engineering and were able to clone and manipulate the contents of an OV-Chipkaart which is using MIFARE Classic chip. For demonstration they used the Proxmark3 device, a 125 kHz / 13.56 MHz research instrument. The schematics and software are released under the free GNU General Public License by Jonathan Westhues in 2007. They demonstrate it is even possible to perform card-only attacks using just an ordinary stock-commercial NFC reader in combination with the libnfc library.


title: MIFARE

text: The Radboud University published four scientific papers concerning the security of the MIFARE Classic:


title: MIFARE

text: In response to these attacks, the Dutch Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations stated that they would investigate whether the introduction of the Dutch Rijkspas could be brought forward from Q4 of 2008.


title: MIFARE

text: NXP tried to stop the publication of the second article by requesting a preliminary injunction. However, the injunction was denied, with the court noting that, "It should be considered that the publication of scientific studies carries a lot of weight in a democratic society, as does inform society about serious issues in the chip because it allows for mitigating of the risks."


title: MIFARE

text: Both independent research results are confirmed by the manufacturer NXP. These attacks on the cards didn't stop the further introduction of the card as the only accepted card for all Dutch public transport the OV-chipkaart continued as nothing happened but in October 2011 the company TLS, responsible for the OV-Chipkaart announced that the new version of the card will be better protected against fraud.


title: MIFARE

text: The MIFARE Classic encryption Crypto-1 can be broken in about 200 seconds on a laptop from 2008, if approx. 50 bits of known (or chosen) keystream are available. This attack reveals the key from sniffed transactions under certain (common) circumstances and/or allows an attacker to learn the key by challenging the reader device.


title: MIFARE

text: The attack proposed in recovers the secret key in about 40 ms on a laptop. This attack requires just one (partial) authentication attempt with a legitimate reader.


title: MIFARE

text: Additionally, there are a number of attacks that work directly on a card and without the help of a valid reader device. These attacks have been acknowledged by NXP.


title: MIFARE

text: In April 2009 new and better card-only attack on MIFARE Classic has been found. It was first announced at the rump session of Eurocrypt 2009.


title: MIFARE

text: The full description of this latest and fastest attack to date can also be found in the IACR preprint archive.


title: MIFARE

text: The new attack improves by a factor of more than 10 all previous card-only attacks on MIFARE Classic, has instant running time, and does not require a costly precomputation. The new attack allows recovering the secret key of any sector of the MIFARE Classic card via wireless interaction, within about 300 queries to the card. It can then be combined with the nested authentication attack in the Nijmegen Oakland paper to recover subsequent keys almost instantly. Both attacks combined and with the right hardware equipment such as Proxmark3, one should be able to clone any MIFARE Classic card in 10 seconds or less. This is much faster than previously thought.


title: MIFARE

text: In an attempt to counter these card-only attacks, new "hardened" cards have been released in and around 2011, such as the MIFARE Classic EV1. These variants are insusceptible for all card-only attacks publicly known until then, while remaining backward compatible with the original MIFARE Classic. In 2015, a new card-only attack was discovered that is also able to recover the secret keys from such hardened variants.


title: MIFARE

text: Since the discovery of this attack, NXP is officially recommending to migrate from MIFARE Classic product-based systems to higher security products.


title: MIFARE

text: In November 2010, security researchers from the Ruhr University released a paper detailing a side-channel attack against MIFARE product-based cards. The paper demonstrated that MIFARE DESFire product-based cards could be easily emulated at a cost of approximately $25 in "off the shelf" hardware. The authors asserted that this side-channel attack allowed cards to be cloned in approximately 100 ms. Furthermore, the paper's authors included hardware schematics for their original cloning device, and have since made corresponding software, firmware and improved hardware schematics publicly available on GitHub.


title: MIFARE

text: In October 2011 David Oswald and Christof Paar of Ruhr-University in Bochum, Germany, detailed how they were able to conduct a successful "side-channel" attack against the card using equipment that can be built for nearly $3,000. Called "Breaking MIFARE DESFire MF3ICD40: Power Analysis and Templates in the Real World", they stated that system integrators should be aware of the new security risks that arise from the presented attacks and can no longer rely on the mathematical security of the used 3DES cipher. Hence, to avoid, e.g. manipulation or cloning of smart cards used in payment or access control solutions, proper actions have to be taken: on the one hand, multi-level countermeasures in the back end allow to minimize the threat even if the underlying RFID platform is insecure," In a statement NXP said that the attack would be difficult to replicate and that they had already planned to discontinue the product at the end of 2011. NXP also stated "Also, the impact of a successful attack depends on the end-to-end system security design of each individual infrastructure and whether diversified keys – recommended by NXP – are being used. If this is the case, a stolen or lost card can be disabled simply by the operator detecting the fraud and blacklisting the card, however, this operation assumes that the operator has those mechanisms implemented. This will make it even harder to replicate the attack with a commercial purpose."


title: MIFARE

text: In September 2012 a security consultancy Intrepidus demonstrated at the EU SecWest event in Amsterdam, that MIFARE Ultralight product-based fare cards in the New Jersey and San Francisco transit systems can be manipulated using an Android application, enabling travelers to reset their card balance and travel for free in a talk entitled "NFC For Free Rides and Rooms (on your phone)". Although not a direct attack on the chip but rather the reloading of an unprotected register on the device, it allows hackers to replace value and show that the card is valid for use. This can be overcome by having a copy of the register online so that values can be analysed and suspect cards hot-listed. NXP has responded by pointing out that they had introduced the MIFARE Ultralight C in 2008 with 3DES protection and in November 2012 introduced the MIFARE Ultralight EV1 with three decrement only counters to foil such reloading attacks.


title: MIFARE

text: For systems based on contactless smartcards (e.g. public transportation), security against fraud relies on many components, of which the card is just one. Typically, to minimize costs, systems integrators will choose a relatively cheap card such as a MIFARE Classic and concentrate security efforts in the back office. Additional encryption on the card, transaction counters, and other methods known in cryptography are then employed to make cloned cards useless, or at least to enable the back office to detect a fraudulent card, and put it on a blacklist. Systems that work with online readers only (i.e., readers with a permanent link to the back office) are easier to protect than systems that have offline readers as well, for which real-time checks are not possible and blacklists cannot be updated as frequently.


title: MIFARE

text: Another aspect of fraud prevention and compatibility guarantee is to obtain certification called to live in 1998 ensuring the compatibility of several certified MIFARE product-based cards with multiple readers. With this certification, the main focus was placed on the contactless communication of the wireless interface, as well as to ensure proper implementation of all the commands of MIFARE product-based cards. The certification process was developed and carried out by the Austrian laboratory called Arsenal Research. Today, independent test houses such as Arsenal Testhouse, UL and LSI-TEC, perform the certification tests and provide the certified products in an online database.


title: Gender-neutral language

text: Gender-neutral language or gender-inclusive language is language that avoids bias towards a particular sex or gender. In English, this includes use of nouns that are not gender-specific to refer to roles or professions, formation of phrases in a coequal manner, and discontinuing the blanket use of male or female terms. For example, the words "policeman" and "stewardess" are gender-specific job titles; the corresponding gender-neutral terms are "police officer" and "flight attendant". Other gender-specific terms, such as "actor" and "actress", may be replaced by the originally male term; for example, "actor" used regardless of gender. Some terms, such as "chairman", that contain the component "-man" but have traditionally been used to refer to persons regardless of sex are now seen by some as gender-specific. An example of forming phrases in a coequal manner would be using "husband and wife" instead of "man and wife". Examples of discontinuing the blanket use of male terms in English are referring to those with unknown or indeterminate gender as singular "they", and using "humans", "people", or "humankind", instead of "man" or "mankind."


title: Gender-neutral language

text: The notion that parts of the English language were sexist was brought to mainstream attention in Western English cultures by feminists in the 1970s. Simultaneously, the link between language and ideologies (including traditional gender ideologies) was becoming apparent in the academic field of linguistics. In 1975, the National Council of Teachers of English published a set of guidelines on the use of "non-sexist" language. Backlash ensued, as did the debate on whether gender-neutral language ought to be enforced. In Britain, feminist Maija Blaubergs' countered eight commonly used oppositional arguments in 1980. In 1983, New South Wales, Australia required the use of "they" in place of "he" and "she" in subsequent laws. In 1985, the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion passed a motion for all its ensuing publications to include "non-sexist" language. By 1995, academic institutions in Canada and Britain had implemented "non-sexist" language policies. More recently, revisions to the Women's Press publications of "The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing" and "The A–Z of Non-Sexist Language" were made to de-radicalize the original works. In 2006, "non-sexist" was challenged: the term refers solely to the absence of sexism. In 2018, the State of New York enacted policy to formally use the gender-neutral terms "police officer" and "firefighter".


title: Gender-neutral language

text: Historically, the use of masculine pronouns in place of generic was regarded as non-sexist, but various forms of gender-neutral language became a common feature in written and spoken versions of many languages in the late twentieth century. Feminists argue that previously the practice of assigning masculine gender to generic antecedents stemmed from language reflecting "the prejudices of the society in which it evolved, and English evolved through most of its history in a male-centered, patriarchal society." During the 1970s, feminists Casey Miller and Kate Swift created a manual, "The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing", on gender neutral language that was set to reform the existing sexist language that was said to exclude and dehumanize women. In 1995, the Women's Press published "The A–Z of Non-Sexist Language", by Margaret Doyle. Both publications were written by American authors, originally without the consideration of the British-English dialect. Many feminist efforts were made to reform the androcentric language. It has become common in some academic and governmental settings to rely on gender-neutral language to convey inclusion of all sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language).


title: Gender-neutral language

text: University of Toronto psychology professor Jordan Peterson uploaded a video to YouTube expressing his opposition to Bill C-16 – "An Act to amend the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code", a bill introduced by Justin Trudeau's government, in October 2016. The proposed piece of legislation was to add the terms "gender identity" and "gender expression" to the "Canadian Human Rights Act" and to the "Criminal Code"'s hate crimes provisions. In the video, Peterson argued that legal protection of gender pronouns results in "compelled speech", which would violate the right to freedom of expression outlined in the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms". In the view of Peterson, legal pronoun protects would force an individual to say something with which one has an opposition to. The bill passed in the House of Commons and in the Senate, becoming law once it received Royal Assent on 19 June 2017. In response to the passing of the bill, Peterson has stated he will not use gender-neutral pronouns if asked in the classroom by a student.


title: Gender-neutral language

text: In 2021, controversy spiked in France when the dictionary "Petit Robert" included the gender neutral term – composed of ('he') and ('she'). The dictionary's director, Charles Bimbenet, stated it was added as researchers noted "an increasing usage" of the neutral pronoun in "a large body of texts drawn from various sources." However, a number of French politicians have opposed the new addition.


title: Gender-neutral language

text: Jean-Michel Blanquer, the French Minister of Education, publicly tweeted: "inclusive writing is not the future of the French language." Similarly, François Jolivet, a French politician, accused the dictionary of pushing a "woke" ideology that "undermines [their] common language and its influence", in a letter addressed to the Académie Française. The controversy weighs into the ongoing debate regarding masculine dominance in the French language.


title: Gender-neutral language

text: The American English language contains gendered connotations that make it challenging for gender-neutral language to achieve the desired linguistic equality. "Male default" is especially prominent in the United States and often when gender-neutral language is used around traditionally male institutions, the neutrality doesn't prevent people from automatically translating "they" to the default "he." A study conducted in June 2021 at UCLA School of Law Williams Institute found that 1.2 Million LGBTQ adults identify as nonbinary.


title: Gender-neutral language

text: Argentina's capital, Buenos Aires, implemented a policy in June 2022 that forbade public educational institutions from using gender-neutral language on the basis gender-neutral language is grammatically incorrect and causes developmental learning issues for students. In the Spanish language nouns are either feminine (usually ending in "a") or masculine (usually ending in "o"), but in recent years gender-neutral endings like "x" and "e" have gained popularity; For example, "Latinx" has become the gender-neutral option for the previously binary "Latino" or "Latina." Buenos Aires' objection to gender-neutral language in the classroom stems from concerns about linguistic correctness and preservation of the Spanish language. Those who support the development of gender-neutral language have expressed frustration with the male-dominance of the Spanish language: a group of students who are all female is "compañeras," but if one male student enters the group, the grammatically correct term for the students becomes "compañeros" with the masculine "o" ending.


title: Gender-neutral language

text: The Italian language contains grammatical gender where nouns are either male or female with corresponding gendered pronouns, which differs from English in that nouns are typically neutral. For example, "la tavola" in Italian has a feminine prefix and ending, while "the table" in English is neutral. Developing a gender-neutral option in Italian is linguistically challenging because the Italian language contains only male or female: "friends" in Italian is either "amici" or "amiche" where the male "i" pluralized ending is used as an all-encompassing term, and "amiche" with the feminine "e" pluralized ending refers specifically to a group of female friends. Italian linguistically derived from Latin, which does contain a third "neuter" or neutral option. Use of the schwa has been suggested to create an Italian gender-neutral language option. Some Italian linguists have signed a petition opposing the use of the schwa on the basis it's not linguistically correct.


The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985, commonly referred to as the NDPS Act, is an Act of the Parliament of India that prohibits a person the production/manufacturing/cultivation, possession, sale, purchasing, transport, storage, and/or consumption of any narcotic drug or psychotropic substance. The bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 23 August 1985. It was passed by both the Houses of Parliament, received assent from then President Giani Zail Singh on 16 September 1985, and came into force on 14 November 1985. The NDPS Act has since been amended four times — in 1988, 2001, 2014 and 2021. The Act extends to the whole of India and it applies also to all Indian citizens outside India and to all persons on ships and aircraft registered in India.


title: Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985

text: The Narcotics Control Bureau was set up under the act with effect from March 1986. The Act is designed to fulfill India's treaty obligations under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.There are 6 Chapters and 83 Sections in NDPS act 1985.


text: India had no legislation regarding narcotics until 1985. Cannabis smoking in India has been known since at least 2000 BC and is first mentioned in the "Atharvaveda", which dates back a few hundred years BC. The Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, an Indo-British study of cannabis usage in India appointed in 1893, found that the "moderate" use of hemp drugs was "practically attended by no evil results at all", "produces no injurious effects on the mind" and "no moral injury whatever". Regarding "excessive" use of the drug, the Commission concluded that it "may certainly be accepted as very injurious, though it must be admitted that in many excessive consumers the injury is not clearly marked". The report the Commission produced was at least 3,281 pages long, with testimony from almost 1,200 "doctors, coolies, yogis, fakirs, heads of lunatic asylums, bhang peasants, tax gatherers, smugglers, army officers, hemp dealers, ganja palace operators and the clergy."


text: Cannabis and its derivatives (marijuana, hashish/charas and bhang) were legally sold in India until 1985, and their recreational use was commonplace. Consumption of cannabis was not seen as socially deviant behaviour, and was viewed as being similar to the consumption of alcohol. Ganja and charas were considered by upper class Indians as the poor man's intoxicant, although the rich consumed bhang during Holi. The United States began to campaign for a worldwide law against all drugs, following the adoption of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs in 1961. However, India opposed the move, and withstood American pressure to make cannabis illegal for nearly 25 years. American pressure increased in the 1980s, and in 1985, the Rajiv Gandhi government succumbed and enacted the NDPS Act, banning all narcotic drugs in India.


text: Anyone who contravenes the NDPS Act will face punishment based on the quantity of the banned substance.


text: The table below lists the current definition of a "small quantity" and a "commercial quantity" for some popular drugs.


text: Critics of the NDPS Act say that the restriction that the act is "draconian" and that it imposes on the grant of bail amount to "amount to virtual denial and ensure years of incarceration". Critics say that the conditions of bail under this act are needlessly harsh and are similar to provisions of the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987 and Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 which result in long periods of imprisonment and that the NDPS act places the burden-of-proof entirely on the accused to establish innocence. Furthermore, some critics point out that under this act, there is a presumption of “culpable mental state”, that is, the court will presume that there was an intention to commit a crime. They claim that this goes against the general principle of the law where people accused of a crime are assumed to be innocent until proven guilty.


text: There is a higher threshold for bail in serious cases under the Act. Under Section 37 of the NDPS Act, if a person is accused of an offence involving “commercial quantities”, that is, more than 1 kg in case of hashish, and serious offences such as financing illicit traffic and harbouring offenders, then bail can only be granted if “the court is satisfied that there are reasonable grounds for believing that he is not guilty of such offence and that he is not likely to commit any offence while on bail”.


text: During the discussion of the Bill in Parliament, several members opposed it for treating hard and soft drugs as the same. However, the Rajiv Gandhi administration claimed that soft drugs were gateway drugs.


text: The NDPS Act was criticized in "The Times of India". The paper described the law as "ill-conceived" and "poorly thought-out" due to the law providing the same punishment for all drugs, which meant that dealers shifted their focus to harder drugs, where profits are far higher. The paper also argued that the Act had "actually created a drugs problem where there was none." "The Times of India" recommended that some of the softer drugs should be legalized, as this might reduce the level of heroin addiction.


text: In 2015, Lok Sabha MP Tathagata Satpathy criticized the ban on cannabis as "elitist", and labeling cannabis the "intoxicant" of the poor. He also felt that the ban was "an overreaction to a scare created by the United States". Sathpathy has also advocated the legalisation of cannabis. On 2 November 2015, Lok Sabha MP Dharamvir Gandhi announced that he had received clearance from Parliament to table a Private Member's Bill seeking to amend the NDPS Act to allow for the legalised, regulated, and medically supervised supply of "non-synthetic" intoxicants including cannabis and opium.


text: In November 2016, former commissioner of the Central Bureau of Narcotics Romesh Bhattacharji said of the law, "This needs to be debated in the face of such stiff ignorance which often takes root in the moral high grounds people take after being influenced by the UN conventions. This law [NDPS Act] has been victimising people since 1985".


text: The "Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Amendment) Act, 1988" (Act No. 2 of 1989) received assent from then President Ramaswamy Venkataraman on 8 January 1989.


text: The "Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Amendment) Act, 2001" (Act No. 9 of 2001) received assent from then President K. R. Narayanan on 9 May 2001.


text: The "Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Amendment) Act, 2014" (Act No. 16 of 2014) amended the NDPS Act to relax restrictions placed by the Act on Essential Narcotic Drugs (Morphine, Fentanyl and Methadone), making them more accessible for use in pain relief and palliative care. The Amendment also contained measures to improve treatment and care for people dependent on drugs, opened up the processing of opium and concentrated poppy straw to the private sector, and strengthened provisions related to the forfeiture of property of persons arraigned on charges of drug trafficking. The Amendment also removed the NDPS Act's imposition of a mandatory death sentence in case of a repeat conviction for trafficking large quantities of drugs, giving courts the discretion to use the alternative sentence of 30 years imprisonment for repeat offences. However, the Amendment increased the punishment for "small quantity" offences from a maximum of 6 months to 1 year imprisonment.


text: The "Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Amendment) Bill, 2011" (Bill No. 78 of 2011) was introduced in the Lok Sabha on 8 September 2011 by then Minister of Finance Pranab Mukherjee. The Bill was referred to the Standing Committee on Finance, chaired by Yashwant Sinha, on 13 September. The Committee was scheduled to submit its report within three months, but actually submitted it on 21 March 2012. The Bill was passed by the Lok Sabha on 20 February 2014, and by the Rajya Sabha the next day. It received the assent of then President Pranab Mukherjee on 7 March 2014, and was published in "The Gazette of India" on 10 March.


text: Currently, under Section 27 of the NDPS Act, possession of small quantities for personal consumption of drugs is a punishable offence, and can attract a fine of ₹10,000 and imprisonment of six months or both. The Union Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has recommended decriminalizing of possession of small quantities of drugs for personal use. The ministry suggested that the NDPS Act be amended to treat the consumer of drugs as victims who ought to be referred for rehabilitation and de-addiction, and not as criminals to be sentenced to jail.


text: On 10 November 2021, a high-level meeting of all key stakeholders was held where a consensus was reached to do away with imprisonment and fines for personal consumption of drugs and amend Section 27 of the NDPS Act, and the possibility of rehabilitation and deaddiction programs of 30 days for drug users was discussed. The proposal under discussion sought to replaced the word "consumption" with “other than personal consumption (in small quantity)” and also sought to replace the word “addict” with “person with substance use disorder”. The reason for this change was to help the courts take a more lenient view on people caught with small quantities, and to more strongly emphasize the difference between possession of drugs for personal consumption and possession of drugs for commercial use. Advocates of the proposal state that drug decriminalization is an important step towards achieving a rational drug policy that puts science and public health before punishment and incarceration. The proposal also suggests that mandatory treatment for de-addiction for 30 days for any person who has been found to have consumed or be in possession to consume drugs.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: Enid is a fictional character in the television series "The Walking Dead". She was portrayed by Katelyn Nacon for five seasons, and was promoted to series regular in season 8.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: Enid is an Alexandria resident. She is first introduced to Carl sitting on a bed with a book while Ron and Mikey show Carl their video games. When Enid leaves the community, Carl pursues her and they form a connection.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: She often sneaks out of the safe zone. Eventually, Carl follows her out, but she sneaks back in away from him. Ron explains to Carl that she arrived alone and that it took her a while to speak to the other kids. Carl continues to follow her outside, which she quickly realizes. Despite her uneasiness with him stalking her, she lets him accompany her as she keeps up the survival skills she used to travel before she arrived in Alexandria. Carl also seems to have developed a crush on Enid, but appears too timid to pursue it, given his resistance to even hold her hand for more than one second. Enid finally tells Carl that she is the last survivor of her family; they were attacked and only she came out safe, traveling alone until she came across Alexandria. The sentimental bond of Enid to Carl is developed, when Enid pleads with Carl to join the group on his journey to take Maggie to the Hilltop Colony for medical treatment. Carl refuses and locks her in the armory. Enid screams at Carl, asking what will happen if Carl and the others do not return. "Just survive somehow," he says, echoing her personal mantra.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: She helps Maggie during her pregnancy and wanted to go on the trip to the Hilltop Colony, but Carl traps her in a cupboard in fear of losing her. After learning of the deaths of Glenn and Abraham, Enid travels to the Hilltop with Carl. She and Carl share their first kiss and Enid begs Carl to not travel to the Sanctuary, but he doesn't give in. When at the Oceanside, Enid asks Carl what it's like to kill somebody, anticipating she will have to do it soon. In the Season 7 finale, Enid arrives at Alexandria with Maggie, Jesus, and the other Hilltop residents to join the battle against the Scavengers and the Saviors.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: Enid joins the others from Alexandria, Hilltop, and the Kingdom at the first assault on the Saviors at the Sanctuary. She accompanies Maggie back to Hilltop afterward. After Aaron arrives at the Hilltop with news of Eric's death, he decides they need to convince the Oceanside to join the fight against the Saviors. Enid convinces Aaron to let her go with him on the mission. Before entering Oceanside, Enid tells Aaron they need to bring them something they can use, and she finds a truck full of alcohol. They arrive at night so they decide to sleep in the car and meet with Natania and Cyndie in the morning. While they are sleeping they hear a noise and they get out of the car to investigate. Aaron is then attacked by Natania, but Enid shoots and kills her before she stabs him. Cyndie and the other women of Oceanside take Aaron and Enid prisoner. Cyndie decides to execute the two, but Enid talks her out of it and Cyndie lets them leave, but warns them to never come back. Aaron and Enid leave Oceanside. Aaron tells Enid he needs to stay and try to convince Cyndie to join the fight but she should leave and get back to Maggie and the Hilltop. Enid reluctantly leaves. After Enid returns to Hilltop, Daryl, Rosita, Tara, and the other Alexandrians tell Enid, Maggie, Carol, and Morgan of Carl's death. Enid collapses in tears and Maggie holds her. Enid is with Michonne, Maggie, and Rosita when they meet Georgie for the first time. Enid, still angry about Carl's death, argues with Michonne about what they should do with Georgie. Enid wants to take their stuff and kick the newcomer out. Michonne takes her gun and tells her to step back. In the finale of Season 8, Enid stays with Tara at the Hilltop to protect it if the Saviors attack. When Saviors do show up at Hilltop, Enid carries Judith to safety outside the walls. Aaron and the Oceanside show up and help defend the Hilltop.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: During the year and a half that passed since the end of the war, Enid had become interested in medicine and has been learning under Siddiq. Enid and the group go to the Smithsonian in Washington D.C, to search for a covered wagon and farming equipment and during Gregory's plot to kill Maggie, Enid intervenes to defend her but her attempt was in vain when struck by Earl Sutton the blacksmith from Hilltop. Shortly after, Earl is imprisoned and Enid witnesses how Gregory is executed by hanging, in front of the entire Hilltop community. When Aaron injures his arm by a trunk that crushes him, Enid is shocked and horrified when Daryl rushes Aaron to the infirmary. She examines his injury and quickly decides they need to amputate. Aaron reluctantly agrees as Daryl ties the tourniquet. Enid gains confidence and amputates his arm. At night, when Rick visits Aaron, he thanks Enid for her help. Six years later, Enid becomes the Hilltop doctor and enters into a relationship with Alden.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: In the episode "The Calm Before", Enid is murdered by Alpha, leader of the Whisperers group, alongside Tara and several others. Her undead severed head is found on a pike by Daryl, Yumiko, Michonne, and Carol after they discover a wounded Siddiq. In flashbacks, Enid is seen fighting the Whisperers with a knife and killing at least one as Siddiq recounts Enid's last moments.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: Katelyn Nacon portrays Enid on "The Walking Dead". Katelyn Nacon was promoted to main star billing status for season 9.


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: Enid's character development in season 9 received praise from critics, "Fansided" said of her: "Enid has always been such a great character on the show so it’s nice to see her finally getting more screen time and a bigger role in the show."


title: Enid (The Walking Dead)

text: Her last appearance as a regular character on the show was in the season 9 episode "The Calm Before".


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: After Abraham Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, a three-week series of events was held to mourn the death and memorialize the life of the 16th president of the United States. Funeral services, a procession, and a lying in state were first held in Washington, D.C., then a funeral train transported Lincoln's remains through seven states for burial in Springfield, Illinois. Never exceeding 20 mph, the train made several stops in principal cities and state capitals for processions, orations, and additional lyings in state. Millions of Americans viewed the train along the route and participated in associated ceremonies.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: The train left Washington, on April 21 at 12:30pm. It bore Lincoln's eldest son Robert Todd and the remains of Lincoln's younger son, William Wallace Lincoln (1850–1862), but not Lincoln's wife Mary Todd Lincoln, who was too distraught to make the trip. The train largely retraced the route Lincoln had traveled to Washington as the president-elect on his way to his first inauguration, more than four years earlier. The train arrived at Springfield on May 3. Lincoln was interred on May 4, at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield. Every town the train passed or stopped in there was always a crowd to pay their respects to one of the greatest men in history.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: By 1874, several features had been added to the Lincoln Tomb, including a -tall granite obelisk surrounded with several bronze statues of Lincoln and soldiers and sailors. Mary Todd Lincoln and three of their four sons—Willie, Eddie, and Tad—are also buried there. Today, it is owned and managed as a state historic site.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: After the assassination of Abraham Lincoln by John Wilkes Booth, Lincoln's body was carried by an honor guard to the White House on Saturday April 15, 1865. He lay in state in the East Room of the White House which was open to the public on Tuesday, April 18. On April 19, a funeral service was held and then the coffin, attended by large crowds, was transported in a procession down Pennsylvania Avenue to the Capitol Rotunda, where a ceremonial burial service was held. The body again lay in state on the 20th and on the early morning of the following day a prayer service was held for the Lincoln cabinet officials.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: At 7a.m. on Friday, April 21, the Lincoln coffin was taken by honor guard to the depot. Cabinet secretaries Edwin M. Stanton, Gideon Welles, Hugh McCulloch, and John Palmer Usher, as well as, generals Ulysses S. Grant, and Montgomery C. Meigs left the escort at the depot, and at 8a.m. the train departed. At least 10,000 people witnessed the train's departure from Washington.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: The funeral train had nine cars, including a baggage car, hearse car, and the President's car, built for use by the president and other officials and containing a parlor, sitting room, and sleeping apartment. The President's car was draped in mourning and carried the coffins of Lincoln and his son. New locomotives were substituted at several points.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: The Department of War designated the route and declared the railroads used as military roads. Only persons authorized by the State Department were allowed to travel on the train, which was limited to an hour for safety. A pilot train preceded it to ensure the track was clear.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: Five relatives and family friends were appointed to accompany the funeral train: David Davis, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States; Lincoln's brothers-in-law, Ninian Wirt Edwards and C. M. Smith; Brigadier General John Blair Smith Todd, a cousin of Mary Todd Lincoln; and Charles Alexander Smith, the brother of C. M. Smith. An honor guard accompanied the train; this consisted of Union Army Major General David Hunter; brevet Major General John G. Barnard; Brigadier Generals Edward D. Townsend, Charles Thomas Campbell, Amos Beebe Eaton, John C. Caldwell, Alfred Terry, George D. Ramsey, and Daniel McCallum; Union Navy Rear Admiral Charles Henry Davis and Captain William Rogers Taylor; and Marine Corps Major Thomas H. Field.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: Four accompanied the train in a logistics capacity: Captain Charles Penrose, as quartermaster and commissary of subsistence; Ward Hill Lamon, Lincoln's longtime bodyguard and friend and U.S. Marshal for the District of Columbia; and Dr. Charles B. Brown and Frank T. Sands, embalmer and undertaker, respectively.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: Governor Oliver P. Morton of Indiana; Governor John Brough of Ohio; and Governor William M. Stone of Iowa accompanied the train with their aides.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln's funeral train was the first national commemoration of a president's death by rail. Lincoln was observed, mourned, and honored by the citizens and visitors of Washington, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois in the following cities:


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: The train passed 444 communities in 7 states (Lincoln was not viewed in state in New Jersey). Two future presidents viewed the train, Theodore Roosevelt in New York and Grover Cleveland in Buffalo.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: There is an immersive laying in state exhibit in the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum in Springfield, IL. The exhibit is a full scale recreation of the Representative's Hall in the Old State Capital Building in Springfield. It is based on period photographs and etchings, as well as reporter's descriptions. The hall depicts the moment Lincoln was laid in state there, with lavish, elaborate, and sometimes odd decorations, including a replica black casket.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: Shortly after Lincoln's death, a delegation of Illinois citizens (later forming the National Lincoln Monument Association) asked Mrs. Lincoln to return her husband's remains to Springfield for burial. She agreed, and the group then researched various sites in and around Springfield, selecting a centrally located, hilltop site known as Mather Block, and a temporary receiving vault was built there. However, Mrs. Lincoln selected Oak Ridge Cemetery for her husband's burial. Despite repeated attempts by the association to change the location of the burial to Mather Block, she remained firm in her decision.


title: Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln

text: A large number of Illinois politicians were in Washington when Lincoln was assassinated, including the Governor, Richard J. Oglesby, a close friend of Lincoln. A few hours after Lincoln's death they met in Sen. Richard Yates' room at the National Hotel, to arrange a burial in Springfield, Illinois. Governor Oglesby was selected to confer with the Lincoln family on a burial place. Informal conferences were held on April 16. Mary Lincoln was not receiving visitors, but she preferred Chicago or the empty crypt in the U.S. Capitol that had been prepared for George Washington. She finally relented when her son Robert Todd Lincoln was able to persuade her to allow a Springfield burial, by promising to take Willie Lincoln's body along.