title: Small talk

text: Also, small talk rules and topics can differ widely between cultures. Weather is a common topic in regions where the climate has great variation and can be unpredictable. Questions about the family are usual in some Asian and Arab countries. In cultures or contexts that are status-oriented, such as China, Latin America and Japan, small talk between new acquaintances may feature exchange of questions that enable social categorization of each other.


title: Small talk

text: Differences among members of various cultural groups in aspects of their attitudes to small talk and ways of dealing with small talk situations are considered to be rooted in their socioculturally ingrained perception of interpersonal relationships. In many European cultures it is common to discuss the weather, politics or the economy, although in some countries personal finance issues such as salary are considered taboo.


title: Small talk

text: Finland and Sweden have been cited as countries where there is little culture of small talk and people are more comfortable with silence.


title: Park Se-young

text: Park Se-young (; born July 30, 1988) is a South Korean actress. She rose to fame in 2012 with supporting roles in the television dramas "Faith" and "School 2013". Park has since played leading roles in "Sincerity Moves Heaven" (2013) and "Glorious Day" (2014), as well as the film "The Cat Funeral" (2015).


title: Park Se-young

text: Park Se-young made her acting debut in a TV drama in 2002 when she was still a child, but left show business to concentrate on her studies. She returned to acting in 2011, and first drew attention after appearing in Jay Park's "Know Your Name (Acoustic)" music video. She then played supporting roles in family drama "If Tomorrow Comes", revenge thriller "Man from the Equator", melodrama "Love Rain", period epic "Faith", and teen drama "School 2013".


title: Park Se-young

text: In 2013, Park was cast in her first leading role in the daily drama "Sincerity Moves Heaven" (also known as "A Tale of Two Sisters"). She was also designated as one of the MCs on "Music Bank".


title: Park Se-young

text: Park appeared on the fourth season of "We Got Married" in 2014, a variety/reality show that paired celebrities into fake wedded couples (Park's partner was Jang Wooyoung from boyband 2PM). Another leading role followed in weekend drama "Glorious Day". Park then starred in two webtoon film adaptations – "Fashion King" (2014) and "The Cat Funeral" (2015).


title: Park Se-young

text: After ending a contract dispute with S.A.L.T Entertainment, Park signed with new agency Hunus Entertainment in 2015. The same year Park was cast in her villainous role in the daily drama "My Daughter, Geum Sa-wol" and she won Excellence Award, Actress in 9th Korea Drama Awards for her performance.


title: Park Se-young

text: After a supporting role in the 2017 legal thriller "Whisper", Park played the leading role in melodrama "Money Flower".


title: Park Se-young

text: In 2019, Park was cast in the comedy drama "Special Labor Inspector" as a judo athlete turned civil servant.


title: Park Se-young

text: In 2022, Park is confirmed to make her small screen comeback after three years through tvN drama "Mental Coach Jegal", for which she was cast along with Jung Woo, Lee Yoo-mi and Kwon Yul.


title: Park Se-young

text: On January 24, 2022, Park’s agency confirmed that she and Kwak Jung-wook are getting married in mid-February, and the wedding ceremony will be held privately in Seoul. They were met while appeared together in the drama "School 2013", and developed into a couple a few years ago.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: The Thin Red Line was an episode in the Battle of Balaclava on 25 October 1854, during the Crimean War. In the incident, around 500 men of the 93rd (Sutherland Highlanders), aided by a small force of 100 walking wounded, 40 detached Guardsmen, and supported by a substantial force of Turkish infantrymen, led by Sir Colin Campbell, fired at the Russian cavalry. Previously, Campbell's Highland Brigade had taken part in actions at the Battle of Alma and the Siege of Sevastopol. There were more Victoria Crosses presented to the Highland soldiers at that time than at any other. The event was lionised in the British press and became an icon of the qualities of the British soldier in a war that was arguably poorly managed and increasingly unpopular.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: A Russian cavalry force of 2,500, commanded by General Ryzhov, was advancing on the camp of the British cavalry. About 400 of them were involved in the incident. It was early morning, and the only troops that lay between the oncoming cavalry and Balaklava was the 93rd Regiment.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde is said to have told his men, "There is no retreat from here, men. You must die where you stand." Sir Colin's aide John Scott is said to have replied, "Aye, Sir Colin. If needs be, we'll do that." Campbell formed the 93rd into a line two deep—the "thin red line". Convention dictated that the line should be four deep. However, Campbell felt he had insufficiently trained men to form square, and met the charge head on with the two-deep firing line. As the Russian cavalry approached, the Turks on the flanks broke and fled. The 93rd discharged two volleys: at 800 and 500 yards respectively. They did not get a chance to discharge one at point-blank range as the Russians turned away. Accounts of the Highlanders state that they started forward for a counter-charge before the final volley, but Sir Colin stopped them with a cry of "93rd, damn you Highlanders for all that eagerness!"


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: Canadian historian George T. Denison, in his book "A History of Cavalry from the Earliest Times, With Lessons for the Future", wrote "... the Russian squadrons had no intention whatever of charging, but were simply at the time making demonstrations to oblige the allied troops to display their arrangements, and that when the 93rd showed their line upon the hill, the object was gained, and the cavalry withdrew.".


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: "The Times" correspondent, William H. Russell, wrote that he could see nothing between the charging Russians and the British regiment's base of operations at Balaklava but the "thin red streak tipped with a line of steel" of the 93rd. Popularly condensed into "the thin red line", the phrase became a symbol of British composure in battle.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: The battle is represented in Robert Gibb's 1881 oil painting "The Thin Red Line", which is displayed in the Scottish National War Museum in Edinburgh Castle. It is also commemorated in the assembly hall of Campbell's former school, High School of Glasgow, where there is a painting of the action hung in the grand position, a tribute to one of the school's two generals, the other being Sir John Moore, who was killed at Corunna during the Peninsular War.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: "The Thin Red Line" has become an English language figure of speech for any thinly spread military unit holding firm against attack. The phrase has also taken on the metaphorical meaning of the barrier which the relatively limited armed forces of a country present to potential attackers.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: The term "the thin red line" later referred to the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders and their job to defend the British Empire and the United Kingdom after the incorporation of the Argylls and Sutherlands into a single regiment now known as the Argyll and Sutherland battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland.


title: The Thin Red Line (Battle of Balaclava)

text: The derived term 'the Thin Blue Line' refers colloquially to the police, which soon gave birth to the equal term of the "Thin Red Line" which refers colloquially to the fire brigade. Such uses are common in the US on bumper stickers expressing membership or support of police and fire departments.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The decolonization of the Americas occurred over several centuries as most of the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule. The American Revolution was the first in the Americas, and the British defeat in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) was a victory against a great power, aided by France and Spain, Britain's enemies. The French Revolution in Europe followed, and collectively these events had profound effects on the British, Spanish, Portuguese, and French colonies in the Americas. A revolutionary wave followed, resulting in the creation of several independent countries in Latin America. The Haitian Revolution lasted from 1791 to 1804 and resulted in the independence of the French slave colony. The Peninsular War with France, which resulted from the Napoleonic occupation of Spain, caused Spanish Creoles in Spanish America to question their allegiance to Spain, stoking independence movements that culminated in various Spanish American wars of independence (1808–33), which were primarily fought between opposing groups of colonists and only secondarily against Spanish forces. At the same time, the Portuguese monarchy fled to Brazil during the French invasion of Portugal. After the royal court returned to Lisbon, the prince regent, Pedro, remained in Brazil and in 1822 successfully declared himself emperor of a newly independent Brazilian Empire.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Spain would lose all three of its remaining Caribbean colonies by the end of the 1800s. Santo Domingo declared independence in 1821 as the Republic of Spanish Haiti. After unification and then split from the former French colony of Haiti, the President of the Dominican Republic signed an agreement that reverted the country to a Spanish colony in 1861. This triggered the Dominican Restoration War, which resulted in the Dominican Republic's second independence from Spain in 1865. Cuba fought for independence from Spain in the Ten Years' War (1868–78) and Little War (1879-80) and finally the Cuban War of Independence (1895–98). American intervention in 1898 became the Spanish–American War and resulted in the United States gaining Puerto Rico, Guam (which are still U.S. territories), and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Under military occupation, Cuba became a U.S. protectorate until its independence in 1902.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Peaceful independence by the voluntary withdrawal of colonial powers then became the norm in the second half of the 20th century. However, there are still many British and Dutch colonies in North America (mostly Caribbean islands), and France has fully integrated most of its former colonies in the Americas (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Martinique) as fully constituent departments.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: During the 18th century, Spain recovered much of the strength it had lost in the 17th century but the country's resources were under strain because of the incessant warfare in Europe from 1793. This led to increased local participation in the financing of defense and increased participation in militias by the locally born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized absolute monarchy. The Spanish also made formal concessions to strengthen defense; In Chiloé, Spanish authorities promised freedom from the Encomienda for indigenous locals who settled near the new stronghold of Ancud (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine the metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars fought between France (led by Napoleon Bonaparte) and alliances involving Britain, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Russia, and Austria at different times, from 1799 to 1815.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: In the case of Spain and its colonies, in May 1808, Napoleon captured Carlos IV and King Fernando VII and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as Spanish monarch because he did not want anyone outside of his bloodline to rule Spain. This event disrupted the political stability of Spain and broke the link with some of the colonies which were loyal to the Bourbon Dynasty. The local elites, the creoles, took matters into their own hands organizing themselves into "juntas" to take "in absence of the king, Fernando VII, their sovereignty devolved temporarily back to the community". The juntas swore loyalty to the captive Fernando VII and each ruled different and diverse parts of the colony. Most of Fernando's subjects were loyal to him in 1808, but after he was restored to the Spanish crown in 1814, his policy of restoring absolute power alienated both the juntas and his subjects. He abrogated the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 and punished those who had supported it. The violence used by royalist forces and the prospect of being ruled by Fernando shifted the majority of the colonist population in favor of separation from Spain. The local elites reacted to absolutism in much the same way that the British colonial elites, Tory and Whig alike, had reacted to London's interference before 1775.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The colonial army of the Spanish Empire in the Americas was made up of local American and European supporters of King Ferdinand. The Royalists were made up of a cross-section of society loyal to the crown with Americans composing the majority of the royalist forces on all fronts. There were two types of military units: from the regular Spanish army which were sent out or formed with local Europeans and called Expidicionarios and units called veterans or militias created in the Americas. The militias included some veteran units and were called the disciplined militia. Only 11% of the personnel in the militias were European or American whites. After Rafael del Riego's revolution in 1820, no more Spanish soldiers were sent to the wars in the Americas. In 1820 there were only 10,000 soldiers in Royal Army in Colombia and Venezuela, and Spaniards formed only 10% of all the royalist armies, and only half of the soldiers of the expeditionary units were European. By the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, less than 1% of the soldiers were European.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout the Americas and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Independence movements in South America can be traced back to slave revolts in plantations in the northernmost part of the continent and the Caribbean. In 1791, a massive slave revolt sparked a general insurrection against the plantation system and French colonial power. These events were followed by a violent uprising led by José Leonardo Chirino and José Caridad González that sprung up in 1795 Venezuela, allegedly inspired by the revolution in Haiti.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Toussaint L'Ouverture was born a slave in Saint-Domingue where he developed labor skills that would give him higher privileges than other slaves. He intellectually and physically advanced resulting in promotion, land of his own, and owning slaves. In 1791, slaves in Haiti formed a revolution to seek independence from their French owners. L'Ouverture joined the rebellion as a top military official to abolish slavery without complete independence. However, through a series of letters written by Toussaint, it became clear that he grew open to equal human rights for all that live in Haiti. Similar to how the United States Constitution was ratified, the enlightenment ideas of equality and representation of the people created an impact of change against the status quo that sparked the revolution. The letter details the great concerns he felt due to a conservative shift in France's legislature after the revolution in 1797. The greatest fear was that these conservative values could give ideas to the French Government to bring back slavery. The enlightenment has proven to forever change the way a captive society thinks after L'Ouverture refuses to let the French send him and his people back into slavery. "[W]hen finally the rule of law took the place of anarchy under which the unfortunate colony had too long suffered, what fatality can have led the greatest enemy of its prosperity and our happiness still to dare to threaten us with the return of slavery?" Ultimately, slavery was abolished from French colonies in 1794 and Haiti declared Independence from France in 1804.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The United States of America declared independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776, thus becoming the first independent, foreign-recognized nation in the Americas and the first European colonial entity to break from its mother country. Britain formally acknowledged American independence in 1783 after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War. The U.S. victory encouraged independent movements in other parts of the Americas.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Although initially occupying only the land east of the Mississippi between Canada and Florida, the United States would later eventually acquire various other North American territories from the British, French, Spanish, and Russians in succeeding years under the mantle of Manifest Destiny. While ending European control over the region, these events resulted in the expansion of settler colonialism against Native nations, especially following the discovery of gold in regions such as the Dakotas and California, as well as opportunities for American settlers to claim farmland in the Great Plains.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The American and French Revolutions had profound effects on the Spanish, Portuguese and French colonies in the Americas. Haiti, a French slave colony, was the first to follow the United States to independence, during the Haitian Revolution, which lasted from 1791 to 1804. Thwarted in his attempt to rebuild a French empire in North America, Napoleon Bonaparte sold Louisiana to the United States and from then on focused on the European theater, marking the end of France's ambitions of building a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Spanish colonies in the Americas won their independence during the first quarter of the 19th century.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: During the Peninsular War, Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish throne and captured the King Fernando VII. The crisis of political legitimacy sparked a reaction in Spain's overseas empire. Several assemblies were established after 1810 by the "Criollos" (Latin Americans who are of full or near full Spanish descent) to recover sovereignty and self-government based on the Castilian law and to rule American lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: This experience of self-government, along with the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence, led by the "Libertadores". The territories freed themselves, often with help from foreign mercenaries and privateers. The United States and Europe were neutral, yet aimed to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led the final phase of the independence struggle. Although Bolívar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: A related process took place in what is now Mexico, Central America, and parts of North America between 1810 and 1821 with the Mexican War of Independence. Independence was achieved in 1821 by a coalition uniting under Agustín de Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees. Unity was maintained for a short period under the First Mexican Empire, but within a decade the region fought against the United States over the borderlands (losing the bordering lands of California and Texas). Most of the heat was during the official Mexican-American War from 1846 to 1848.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: In 1898, in the Greater Antilles, the United States won the Spanish–American War and occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish territorial control in the Americas.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: After the defeat of Spain in the Peninsular War and the abdication King Ferdinand VII, the Spanish colonial government of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, present-day Argentina, majority of Bolivia, parts of Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, became greatly weakened. Without a rightful king on the Spanish throne to render the office of the Viceroy legitimate, the right of Viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros to govern came under fire. The local elites, tired of the Spanish trade restrictions and taxes, seized the opportunity and during the May Revolution of 1810, removed Cisneros and created the first local government, the Primera Junta.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Following half a decade of battles and skirmishes with provincial royalist forces within the former Vice-royalty along with military expeditions across the Andes to Chile, Peru and Bolivia led by General José de San Martín to finally end Spanish rule in America, a formal declaration was signed on July 9, 1816, by an assembly in San Miguel de Tucumán, declaring full independence with provisions for a national constitution. The Argentine Constitution was signed in 1853, declaring the creation of the Argentine Republic.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Following upheaval caused by the May Revolution, along with the independence movements in Chile and Venezuela, a local struggle for independence kicked off with two failed revolutions. Over sixteen years of struggle followed before the first steps toward the establishment of a republic were taken.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Formally, it is considered that the fight for independence culminated in the Battle of Ayacucho, on December 9, 1824.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The Chilean Independence campaign was led by Liberator General Jose de San Martin with the support of Chilean exiles such as Bernardo O'Higgins. The local independence movement was composed of Chilean-born criollos, who sought political and economic independence from Spain. The independence movement was far from gaining unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists. What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages: Patria Vieja, Reconquista, and Patria Nueva.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The first uprising against Spanish rule took place in 1809, and criollos in Ecuador set up a junta on September 22, 1810, to rule in the name of the Bourbon monarch; but as elsewhere, it allowed assertion of their power. Only in 1822 did Ecuador fully gain independence and became part of Gran Colombia, from which it withdrew in 1830. At the Battle of Pichincha, near present-day Quito, Ecuador on May 24, 1822, General Antonio José de Sucre's forces defeated a Spanish force defending Quito. The Spanish defeat guaranteed the liberation of Ecuador.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: When Mexico achieved its independence in 1821 with the Treaty of Córdoba, the Captaincy General of Guatemala that had ruled Central America became politically independent as well, without the necessity of violent struggle. Guatemala declared its independence on September 15, 1821, likely to prevent the Mexican Army of the Three Guarantees from "liberating" Guatemala and overriding nascent local autonomy. However, Guatemala chose to be annexed to the First Mexican Empire, led by royalist-turned-insurgent military leader Agustín de Iturbide, who was proclaimed emperor of Mexico in 1822. When Iturbide abdicated from the monarchy and Mexico took steps to be a republic, Central America claimed its independence on 1 July 1823.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Independence in Mexico was a protracted struggle from 1808 until the fall of the royal government in 1821 and the establishment of independent Mexico. In the Viceroyalty of New Spain, as elsewhere in Spanish America in 1808, reacted to the unexpected French invasion of the Iberian peninsula and the ouster of the Bourbon king, replaced by Joseph Bonaparte. Local American-born Spaniards saw the opportunity to seize control from Viceroy José de Iturrigaray who may well have been sympathetic to creole's aspirations. Iturrigaray was ousted by pro-royalists. A few from among the creole elites sought independence, including Juan Aldama, Ignacio Allende, and the secular parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Hidalgo made a proclamation in his home parish of Dolores, which was not recorded in writing at the time, but denounced the bad government and "gachupines" (pejorative for peninsular-born Spaniards), and declared independence. The unorganized hordes following Hidalgo wrought destruction on the property and the lives of whites in the region of the Bajío. Hidalgo was caught, defrocked, and executed in 1811, along with Allende. Their heads remained on display until 1821. His former student José María Morelos continued the rebellion and was himself caught and killed in 1815. The struggle of Mexican insurgents continued under the leadership of Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. From 1815 to 1820 there was a stalemate in New Spain, with royalist forces unable to defeat the insurgents and the insurgents unable to expand beyond their narrow territory in the southern region. Again, events in Spain intervened, with an uprising of military men against Ferdinand VII and the restoration of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, which mandated a constitutional monarchy and curtailed the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The monarch repudiated the constitution once the Spanish monarchy was restored in 1814. For conservatives in New Spain, these changed political circumstances threatened the institutions of church and state. Royal military officer Agustín de Iturbide seized the opportunity to lead, allying with his former enemy Guerrero. Iturbide proclaimed the Plan de Iguala, which called for independence, equality of peninsular and American-born Spaniards, and a monarchy with a prince from Spain as king. He persuaded the insurgent Guerrero to ally with him and create the Army of the Three Guarantees. Crown rule in New Spain collapsed when the incoming Viceroy Juan O'Donojú signed the Treaty of Córdoba recognizing Mexico's sovereignty. With no European monarch presenting himself for the crown of Mexico, Iturbide himself was proclaimed emperor Agustín I in 1822. He was overthrown in 1823 and Mexico was established as a republic. Decades of political and economic instability ensued which resulted in a population decline.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Paraguay gained its independence on the night of May 14 and the morning of May 15, 1811, after a plan organized by various pro-independence nationalists including Fulgencio Yegros and José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Spain initially had the support of the Lima oligarchs because of their opposition to the commercial interests of Buenos Aires and Chile. Therefore, the Viceroyalty of Peru became the last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America. Nevertheless, a Creole rebellion arose in 1812 in Huánuco and another in Cusco between 1814 and 1816. Both were suppressed. These rebellions were supported by the armies of Buenos Aires.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Peru finally succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of José de San Martín (1820–1823) and Simón Bolívar (1824). While San Martin was in charge of the land campaign, a newly built Chilean Navy led by Lord Cochrane transported the fighting troops and launched a sea campaign against the Spanish fleet in the Pacific. San Martín, who had displaced the royalists of Chile after the Battle of Maipú, and who had disembarked in Paracas in 1820, proclaimed the independence of Peru in Lima on July 28, 1821. Four years later, the Spanish Monarchy was defeated definitively at the Battle of Ayacucho in late 1824.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: After independence, the conflicts of interests that faced different sectors of Creole Peruvian society and the particular ambitions of the caudillos, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three civilians—Manuel Pardo, Nicolás de Piérola, and Francisco García Calderón—acceded to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of Peru's independence. The Republic of Bolivia was created in Upper Peru. In 1837 a Peru-Bolivian Confederation was also created but was dissolved two years later due to Chilean military intervention.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Following the events of the May Revolution, in 1811 José Gervasio Artigas, led a successful revolt against the Spanish forces in the Provincia Oriental, now Uruguay, joining the independentist movement that was taking place in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the time. In 1821, the Provincia Oriental was invaded by Portugal, trying to annex it into Brazil under the name of Província Cisplatina.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The former Vice-royalty of the Río de la Plata, United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, fought back against Brazil in a war that lasted over 2 years, eventually turning into a stalemate. The Brazilian forces withdrew with the United Provinces keeping them at bay but failing to win any decisive victory. With neither side gaining the upper hand and the economic burden of the war crippling the United Provinces economy, the Treaty of Montevideo was signed in 1828, fostered by Britain, declaring Uruguay as an independent state.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: According to the "Encyclopedia Americana" of 1865, General Francisco de Miranda, already a hero to the French, Prussians, English, and Americans had garnered a series of successes against the Spanish between 1808 and 1812. He had effectively negated their access to all the ports in the Caribbean, thus preventing them from receiving reinforcements and supplies, and was essentially conducting mopping-up operations throughout the country. At that point, he convinced Simon Bolívar to join the struggle and put him in charge of the fort at Puerto Cabello. This was all at once a supply and arms depot, a strategic port, and the central holding facility for Spanish prisoners. Through what amounts to a gross dereliction of duty, Simon Bolívar neglected to enforce the customary security dispositions before departing to a social event. During the night there was an uprising of the Spanish prisoners and they managed to subdue the Independentist garrison and gain control of the supplies, arms and ammunition, and the port. The Loyalist forces progressively regained control of the country and eventually, Monteverde's successes forced the newly formed congress of the republic to ask Miranda that he sign a capitulation at La Victoria in Aragua, on July 12, 1812, thus ending the first phase of the revolutionary war.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: After the capitulation of 1812, Simón Bolívar turned over Francisco de Miranda to the Spanish authorities, secured a safe passage for himself and his closest officers, and fled to New Granada. He later returned with a new army, while the war had entered a tremendously violent phase. After much of the local aristocracy had abandoned the cause of independence, blacks and mulattoes carried on the struggle. Elites reacted with open distrust and opposition to the efforts of these common people. Bolívar's forces invaded Venezuela from New Granada in 1813, waging a campaign with a ferocity captured perfectly by their motto of "war to the death". Bolívar's forces defeated Domingo Monteverde's Spanish army in a series of battles, taking Caracas on August 6, 1813, and besieging Monteverde at Puerto Cabello in September 1813.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: With loyalists displaying the same passion and violence, the rebels achieved only short-lived victories. The army led by the loyalist José Tomás Boves demonstrated the key military role that the "Llaneros" came to play in the region's struggle. Turning the tide against independence, these highly mobile, ferocious fighters made up a formidable military force that pushed Bolívar out of his home country once more. In 1814, heavily reinforced Spanish forces in Venezuela lost a series of battles to Bolívar's forces but then decisively defeated Bolivar at La Puerta on June 15, took Caracas on July 16, and again defeated his army at Aragua on August 18, for 2,000 Spanish casualties out of 10,000 soldiers as well as most of the 3,000 in the rebel army. Bolívar and other leaders then returned to New Granada. Later that year the largest expeditionary force ever sent by Spain to America arrived under the command of Pablo Morillo. This force effectively replaced the improvised llanero units, who were disbanded by Morillo.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Bolívar and other republican leaders returned to Venezuela in December 1816, leading a largely unsuccessful insurrection against Spain from 1816 to 1818 from bases in the Llanos and Ciudad Bolívar in the Orinoco River area.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: In 1819 Bolívar successfully invaded New Granada, and returned to Venezuela in April 1821, leading a large army of 7,000. At Carabobo on June 24, his forces decisively defeated Spanish and colonial forces, winning Venezuelan independence, although hostilities continued.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in the Americas. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. Therefore, it is not common to refer to "Portuguese America" (like Spanish America, Dutch America, etc.), but rather to Brazil, as a unified colony since its very beginnings.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: As a result, Brazil did not split into several states by the time of independence (1822), as happened to its Spanish-speaking neighbors. The adoption of a monarchy instead of a federal republic in the first six decades of Brazilian political sovereignty also contributed to the nation's unity.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: After several failed revolts, in the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This began when Napoleon Bonaparte forced the Portuguese court out of their capital city of Lisbon and into exile in Brazil. Over the next eight years, the capital of the Portuguese empire would be located in Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, after Lisbon was reclaimed from the French by the Portuguese, King Dom João VI declared that Rio and Lisbon would become equal centers of the empire. King João VI was forced back to Lisbon in 1821 by the Portuguese Cortes but left his son Dom Pedro behind to run Rio. A year later, Dom Pedro declared independence for Brazil and officially became emperor Pedro I. Brazil's independence was met with little resistance from Portugal, and they were officially recognized by their former colonial overlords in 1825.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Canada's transition from colonial rule to independence occurred gradually over many decades and was achieved mostly through political means, as opposed to the violent revolutions that marked the end of colonialism in other North and South American countries. Attempts at revolting against the British, such as the Rebellions of 1837–1838, were brief and quickly put down. Canada was declared a dominion within the British Empire in 1867. Originally, the Canadian Confederation included just a few of what are now Canada's eastern provinces; other British colonies in modern-day Canada, such as British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, would join later (the last only in 1949). Additionally, Britain's and Norway's claims to Arctic lands were ceded to Canada in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By 1931, the United Kingdom had relinquished its control over Canada's foreign policy. What few political links that remained between Canada and the UK were formally severed in 1982 with the "Canada Act".


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Some of the remaining non-sovereign territories of the Americas have retained this status by choice, and enjoy a significant degree of self-government. (Some have nevertheless been placed on the U.N. list of non-self-governing territories, an ongoing subject of controversy.) Aruba, for example, seceded from the Netherlands Antilles on January 1, 1986, and became a separate, self-governing member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. A movement toward full independence by 1996 was halted at Aruba's request in 1990. French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique are not considered dependent territories of France, but have been "incorporated" into France itself, as overseas "départements" ("départements d'outre-mer, or DOM"). Other regions however have had or currently have movements to change their political status, for example, different movements to change the political status of Puerto Rico and intermittent calls for independence in other non-sovereign territories such as Martinique and others, with differing amounts of support.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Great Britain and the United States were rivals for influence in the newly independent sovereign nations. As a result of the successful revolutions which established so many newly independent nations, United States President James Monroe and the Secretary of State John Quincy Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine. It stated that the United States would not tolerate any European interference in the Western Hemisphere. This measure ostensibly was taken to safeguard the newfound liberties of these new countries, but it was also taken as a precautionary measure against the intrusion of European states. Since the United States was a newly founded nation, it could not prevent other European powers from interfering, for that the United States looked for Britain's help and support to execute the Monroe Doctrine into action.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Great Britain's trade with Latin America greatly expanded during the revolutionary period, which until then was restricted due to Spanish mercantilist trade policies. British pressure was sufficient to prevent Spain from attempting any serious reassertion of its control over its lost colonies.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: The notion of closer Spanish American cooperation and unity was first put forward by the Liberator Simón Bolívar who, in 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed the creation of a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica), and Mexico. Nevertheless, the great distances and geographical barriers, not to mention the different national and regional interests, made union impossible.


title: Decolonization of the Americas

text: Sixty-three years later the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics was established. It was renamed the International Commercial Bureau at the Second International Conference of 1901–1902. These two bodies, in existence as of 14 April 1890, represent the point of inception of today's Organization of American States.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Katana () is a superheroine appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. First appearing in 1983, Katana is a samurai warrior whose skill with a sword allows her to fight for justice as a superheroine. Her tragic backstory includes the death of her husband, Maseo, whose soul becomes trapped in her blade, the Soultaker. Katana has been featured in various DC Comics superhero teams, including the Justice League and the Birds of Prey, but is most commonly associated with the team known as the Outsiders, a team of heroes hand-picked by Batman to act as his personal black ops team, handling riskier missions.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: In the 2010s, DC began to feature the character much more extensively in media adaptations of its comic books, including a recurring role in the animated series "" and then a starring role in the series "Beware the Batman". The character was adapted for live action in 2014, portrayed by Rila Fukushima during the third and fourth seasons of the Arrowverse series "Arrow", and returned in the final season. The character made her feature film debut in the 2016 film "Suicide Squad", portrayed by actress Karen Fukuhara, which is part of the DC Extended Universe. The character has also been featured in direct-to-video animated movies and a number of DC Comics video games.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Katana first appeared in "The Brave and the Bold" #200 (cover-dated July 1983) and was created by writer Mike W. Barr and artist Jim Aparo. She is frequently a member of "team" publications such as "Batman and the Outsiders", "Birds of Prey" (during the New 52 era), or even "Suicide Squad" (during the DC Rebirth era).


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: In February 2013, Katana received her own series written by Ann Nocenti and with art by Alex Sanchez. This book is considered by DC as part of the "Fourth Wave" of New 52 titles. "Katana" lasted for ten issues. The final issue was released on December 11, 2013.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: is an average Japanese girl, save for her proficiency in the martial arts, a trait encouraged by her parents. Two brothers—Maseo and Takeo Yamashiro—both proclaim their love for her. While she likes both, she chooses Maseo as her husband. Enraged, Takeo refuses to attend the couple's wedding. Maseo disowns his brother, who joined the Yakuza and took their mark of a dragon tattoo across his chest. Tatsu and Maseo, mourning the deaths of Tatsu's parents, start a family of their own. Tatsu gives birth to twins, Yuki and Reiko. Meanwhile, Takeo rises through the Yakuza's ranks and indulges his "exotic tastes" for ancient weapons. He is presented with a pair of matching swords by General Karnz (later henchman to Baron Bedlam), one of which Takeo favors for its mystical properties.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Takeo spends days preparing himself before taking both swords to the Yamashiro residence, demanding his brother to duel for the "prize" of Tatsu. During the course of the struggle, a fire is started, and—while Maseo is distracted by his children—Takeo kills his brother with the sword that later becomes known as "Soultaker". Tatsu arises just in time to see her husband die and engage Takeo, gaining the upper hand and disarming him. Attempting to save her children, she hears her husband's voice coming from the sword, telling her they are already lost. Escaping with her life, Tatsu begins training as a samurai under a master called Tadashi. After much time, she graduates from his tutorship and leaves for America where she intends to use her talents to fight for justice. She takes the codename Katana after the sword that she wields, possessed for some time by the soul of her husband.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Eventually Tatsu journeys to Markovia, a small Baltic state, where she tracked down Karnz, and is successful in killing him, inadvertently implicating Black Lightning (coincidentally there with Batman) in her crime. Attempting to rectify the misunderstanding by freeing Black Lightning, she encounters a young girl named Halo. The two join up to rescue Black Lightning, Batman (himself captured due to a blunder by Halo), and Bruce Wayne's employee Lucius Fox from their captor, Baron Bedlam.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Batman is himself in Markovia to rescue Lucius Fox, and having sought—and failed to gain—the help of the Justice League of America, resigned his membership in the Justice League. Inspired by the teamwork he encounters between Black Lightning, Katana, Halo, Geo-Force (Prince Brion of Markovia), and Metamorpho (also coincidentally present), Batman decides to form the Outsiders. The team manages to end the Baron's tyranny in Markovia and moves to Gotham City, where they set up their headquarters (a former penthouse of Bruce Wayne, secretly the Batman). Tatsu becomes Halo's guardian and the two move into the penthouse.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: At the same time, Takeo is still at large and follows Tatsu to Gotham City. He attacks her and Halo at their home, overpowers Tatsu and switchs swords with her. He leaves for Tokyo with Tatsu on his tail. The Outsiders follow Tatsu and offer their help, despite her desire to leave them out of it. Takeo takes the sword to his master Oyabun, the godfather of the Yakuza. Performing a specific ritual, the Oyabun and Takeo call forth the souls that inhabit the sword and give them corporeal form. Among them are legendary mercenaries and assassins, but also Maseo, who is now a slave to the Oyabun. Katana— and the Outsiders— have to fight them all, but she is ultimately able to reclaim the Soultaker from Maseo. She is forced to kill her husband, and then take the opportunity to kill Takeo, finally putting some of her ghosts to rest. Maseo and those killed a second time by the Soultaker pass on to their eternal rewards, leaving Takeo trapped in the sword in his place.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: At one point the Outsiders split from Batman's leadership and take up residence in Markovia where they are funded by the Markovian crown (Geo-Force is a prince of the royal family). They become the official agents of Markovia and move to the city of Los Angeles and make their headquarters in the Markovian embassy, while retaining another secret HQ just off the shore. Although Tatsu left her past behind, the Oyabun return and send a tengu after her, with which he captures her. This mischievous spirit possesses her, and the Obayun is able to use her as an assassin. Her teammates Halo and Looker are able to save her using other tengu and the tengu leader, who aids them in battle.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: After various tragic events surrounding Geo-Force's parents and Markovia, the team disbands. Nonetheless the Outsiders are forced to defend Markovia against the Manhunters. During the fight, Halo is knocked into a coma, saving Katana's life. Bounded by "giri-ninjo" (a debt of honor even unto death), Tatsu leaves the team to tend to Halo's wounds. During that time, however, she is approached by a family member of her husband, who wishes her to accompany the Suicide Squad on a mission to destroy a large hoard of weapons that is about to be sold to the Yakuza. She declines on the basis of her "giri-ninjo", but is willing to help if the need is truly desperate. That family member is later killed, and she goes after the killer, the Daichi-Doku's Oyabun (of which her relative is a member), who does not wish to see the weapons destroyed and tries to stop the Suicide Squad. During that adventure, she saves the life of Bronze Tiger and Manhunter (Mark Shaw), making them honor-bound to her by "giri-ninjo". Mark Shaw then assists her in taking down the Daichi-Doku's Oyabun. The Oyabun commits ritual suicide and Katana stands by as his "second", ready to help with a blade strike so he can keep his honor.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Eventually, the Outsiders re-form and return to Markovia. Instead of a peaceful reunion, however, the team becomes trapped in a web of public relations that brand them outlaws. Although the charges are dropped eventually, the team is fractured. Halo dies from an assassin's blast but is reborn in a new body. This puts an immense strain on Tatsu's relationship with Halo. Katana joins a team with Geo-Force and Technocrat, taking the lead. She develops a mild romantic relationship with Joey Hong, an Asian associate of Guy Gardner. During a lone mission, her old mentor Tadashi sends Lady Shiva to claim Katana's Soultaker sword. Shiva confronts Katana, who is battling a gang of drug dealers. Katana slays many of them, but refuses to kill the youngest member, something Shiva insults her for. Shiva, renowned as the world's greatest assassin and fighter, kills Katana with her own sword. Katana returns to life after a trial by combat within her sword, which includes confronting many of the souls of the people she killed. Afterwards, she finds her old mentor and takes his life. The two splinter teams eventually reunite to take on more supernatural threats focused around the new team member Sebastian Faust. Katana and her friends suffer through the mental and physical tortures that Faust's father, Felix, put them through. Halo eventually frees them by destroying several of Felix's items of power. Soon after, the group breaks apart. After disbanding, Tatsu keeps her association with her old allies among the Outsiders (such as Black Lightning, Geo-Force, and Halo), and although they do not operate as an official team, they are always together during major crises. Her close ties to Batman also see her fighting by his side, several times, notably during the Imperiex crisis and the Day of Judgment incident when Hell invaded Earth. The main battle against the villain, the rogue angel Asmodel, with the power of the Spectre, takes place in New York. Katana personally protects Madame Xanadu who guards the rest of Asmodel's power with a mystical shield. Katana's protection of Xanadu is assisted by Doctor Occult, Phantom Stranger, and Alan Scott. Later, Katana assists Batman when he and Superman are declared outlaws. Katana is also called upon by Black Canary, together with other female mercenaries, in order to rescue Oracle from Senator Pullman. After Oracle is saved, Katana receives a card, together with the promise of a favor if required. Katana later returns to aid Oracle in issue #108 alongside dozens of other agents.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Later Katana joins a new team of Outsiders after assisting them in defeating a more powerful Sabbac. That team consists of all new members, with the exception of Metamorpho who rejoins the team after Shift's demise. In "Outsiders" (vol. 3) #42, Katana dons a new costume, as she feels it inappropriate to wear a costume based on Japan's flag, since the country revoked her citizenship due to her membership with the controversial team. Later, Katana summons Sabbac to destroy Dr. Sivana's base with his Hellfire. Katana remains an active member of the Outsiders following the 2006 "One Year Later" continuity jump. Initially, the team is led by Nightwing, but later leadership transfers to Batman. Batman decides to 'test' Katana and the rest of the initial team, in order to design a better team. Katana is Batman's first official recruit.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: While escorting Killer Croc to incarceration, the Outsiders' vehicle is demolished by Maseo, Yuki, and Reiko, who have all been revived as Black Lanterns. Katana, believing that she has been reunited with her lost family, lets her guard down, but is saved from death by her teammates. Realising the truth, she draws her sword, preparing to fight her undead husband. When Katana stabs Maseo, Soultaker reveals to her the Black Lanterns' full intentions. Her attacks soon prove to be completely ineffectual against Maseo, who is instead destroyed by an outpouring of light from Halo, who also destroyed Katana's undead children.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: The events of the 2011 "Flashpoint" storyline led to The New 52, a relaunch of all of DC Comics' monthly books, and a reboot to the DC Universe in-story continuity. In this new continuity, a newly healed Barbara Gordon returns to the Batgirl identity and takes a leave of absence from the Birds of Prey and suggests that Katana take her place full-time on the team.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Katana joins Black Canary and Starling as the third member of the Birds of Prey. Katana is described as a lethal fighter who has spent the last year waging war on the Yakuza clan that is responsible for the death of her husband. She is rumored to be mentally unstable due to her belief that her husband's soul, whom she often converses with in Japanese, resides in her sword.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: After a number of adventures with the Birds of Prey, Katana leaves the group in order to keep an eye on a cult of assassins known as the Daggers. She later accepts membership in Amanda Waller's new Justice League of America in exchange for information on her husband's murderers. When DC launched "Justice League of America", they also launched the solo series "Katana", focusing on Tatsu's abiding mission to track down her husband's killer. The series lasted 10 issues. After this, Katana made an appearance in "Green Arrow" (vol. 5) #27 (2014), where she is told by the mysterious blind man Magus that the death of her husband relates to the Outsiders, the society formed of various weapon clans and connected to Green Arrow's new origin story. The Soultaker is worked into the Green Arrow mythology as the totem of the Sword Clan, which has parallels in the Fist, Mask, Shield, Axe, Arrow, and Spear Clans. Representatives from each of these clans make up the Outsiders, a secret society dedicated towards ending global corruption, but which is itself largely corrupt. Katana joins the Outsiders. In "Green Arrow: Futures End" #1 (2014), set five years later in , Tatsu is shown to still be a member of the Outsiders, which has developed a grudging relationship with Green Arrow, who rejected leadership of the Arrow Clan in the main "Green Arrow" series five years before.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Amanda Waller recruits Katana to be a co-captain of the Suicide Squad. Later, she joins the latest iteration of The Outsiders.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Katana is a highly proficient hand-to-hand combatant and swordswoman, having studied martial arts as a child and later being trained by the samurai Tadashi. From her time with the Outsiders and Batman, she develops strong tactical skills.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: Katana's Soultaker sword, along with its non-powered twin, is forged in the 14th century by Muramasa, whose swords are said to be cursed and make those who are evil commit evil acts. It sometimes takes the souls of those it kills, storing them inside the sword, where they can engage in limited communication with whoever wields it.


title: Katana (DC Comics)

text: These souls and spirits can be freely reborn/reincarnated by the means of a sacred ritual, under which they serve their summoner, even if it is against their will. Its cutting edge is sharp enough to rend the Dilustel skin of Captain Atom and Major Force. In The New 52, the Soultaker is established as being the 'Sword Totem' of the Outsiders, meaning like the other totems, it supposedly bestows immortality and enlightenment upon its wielder, although some like Green Arrow are skeptical of the literal truths of these statements.


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: "Stage 5" is the 79th episode of the HBO television series "The Sopranos", the second episode of the second half of the show's sixth season, and the 14th episode of the season overall. It was written by Terence Winter and directed by Alan Taylor, and originally aired on April 15, 2007.


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: Johnny Sack is transferred to a prison hospital after being diagnosed with small-cell lung cancer. He dies with his wife and two daughters at his bedside. In New York, Phil Leotardo forgoes leadership of the Lupertazzi family in favor of his protégé, Gerry Torciano. However, at dinner in a restaurant with Silvio, Gerry is killed on the orders of Faustino "Doc" Santoro. Tony, furious that Sil was put in danger, urges Little Carmine to vie again for control of the Lupertazzis. Carmine declines; his wife has said, "I don't want to be the wealthiest widow on Long Island."


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: On what would have been Billy's 47th birthday, Phil bitterly speaks to Butch about his "weakness", in particular after Billy was killed; he says there will be no more compromise.


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: Meadow has broken up with Finn, while Blanca is getting fed up with A.J. Tony is approached by FBI agents Harris and Goddard, who ask him to pass on anything he notices at the Newark docks that might concern terrorism. Tony turns his back on them.


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: Christopher finishes his Mafia-themed slasher film, "Cleaver". Following the film's premiere in New York City, Tony congratulates Christopher and mingles with the Lupertazzis and the cast at the after-party. Tony does not see it at first, but Carmela notes a similarity between the film's love triangle and Chris, Tony and Adriana, seeing the violent murder of the antagonist as Chris's "revenge fantasy" against Tony. Carmela confronts Chris; he denies any similarities but is worried about what Tony might think.


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: Chris asks his screenwriter, J.T. Dolan, to tell Tony that the character was his idea. When J.T. refuses, Chris hits him over the head with a Humanitas Prize trophy. J.T. then visits the Bada Bing and tells Tony that he stole the characters and plot from the film "Born Yesterday". Tony seems to doubt J.T.'s account, but watches "Born Yesterday" at home. Later, he painfully admits to Dr. Melfi that he believes Christopher despises him, and that "Cleaver" illustrates his hatred. He recalls being a father figure to Christopher. Melfi asks Tony to cautiously evaluate if he is not "reading into things," but he replies that his sessions with her have taught him enough about the human subconscious.


title: Stage 5 (The Sopranos)

text: At the baptism of Christopher's daughter, Tony and Chris embrace closely, but their eyes belie the closeness.


title: Sabaton discography

text: Sabaton is a power metal band from Falun, Sweden. As of 2022 they have released ten studio albums, including "Carolus Rex", which was recorded in separate Swedish and English versions, certified gold in Poland and platinum in Sweden with 40,000 album sales, making it the "most successful Swedish heavy metal album ever" according to the band.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: Terence James O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley (born 17 March 1957) is a British economist best known for coining BRICs, the acronym that stands for Brazil, Russia, India, and China—the four once rapidly developing countries that were thought to challenge the global economic power of the developed G7 economies. He is also a former chairman of Goldman Sachs Asset Management and former Conservative government minister. As of January 2014, he is an Honorary Professor of Economics at the University of Manchester. He was appointed Commercial Secretary to the Treasury in the Second Cameron Ministry, a position he held until his resignation on 23 September 2016. He chaired the UK's Independent Review into Antimicrobial Resistance for two years, which completed its work in May 2016. Since 2008, he has written monthly columns for international media organization Project Syndicate. He is the current chairman of the Council of Chatham House, the Royal Institute of International Affairs.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: O'Neill obtained a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1977 and an Master of Arts (MA) degree in economics from Sheffield University in 1978. He subsequently earned his PhD degree from the University of Surrey in 1982, with a thesis titled "An empirical investigation into the OPEC surplus and its disposal". O'Neill began his career in finance working at Bank of America in 1982. In 1985 he joined Marine Midland Bank as Economist for their International Treasury Management Division. After Marine Midland was purchased by HSBC he joined Swiss Bank Corporation in 1988 where he was in charge of the fixed income research group, and he served as SBC's chief of global research. He joined Goldman Sachs in 1997 and he was appointed as the head of global economics research in 2001, which is also when he published the seminal BRIC paper. Jan Hatzius replaced O'Neill as chief economist after O'Neill moved to Goldman Sachs Asset Management.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: In 2010, he was named chairman of Goldman Sachs's Division of Asset Management, a newly created position in which O'Neill managed over $800 billion in assets by "leverag[ing]" his "global perspective on world markets". He continues to publish research regarding the global economy, in addition to coming up with innovative investment strategies for clients. His new appointment was regarded as a symbol of Goldman's "efforts to reposition itself for Wall Street's post-crisis era", one in which Goldman Sachs is "bullish" about the fact that emerging markets are "the future". In 2011, he was included in the 50 Most Influential ranking of "Bloomberg Markets" magazine.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: He retired from the firm in 2013. He is a currently on the International Advisory Board of the Centre for Rising Powers at the University of Cambridge. O'Neill sits on the QFINANCE Strategic Advisory Board. He is also a member of the board of Bruegel, the European think tank for international economics. O'Neill is chairman of the Greater Manchester Local Enterprise Partnership Advisory Board, which advises on the growth of the Greater Manchester economy. On 2 July 2014, he was appointed by UK Prime Minister David Cameron to head an international commission to investigate global antimicrobial resistance. In 2014, O'Neill was awarded an Honorary Litt.D. degree by the University of Sheffield in recognition of his contribution to international economics. He has honorary degrees from the Institute of Education of the University of London, for his educational philanthropy, and from City University London for his services to banking and finance.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: In 2018, Lord O'Neill published the book "Superbugs: an Arms Race Against Bacteria" co-written with Anthony McDonnell and Will Hall, which tells the story of drug resistant infections and outlines the policy interventions he believes necessary to stop them.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: In 2015, he was created a Life Peer as Baron O'Neill of Gatley, "of Gatley in the County of Greater Manchester", and took up an unpaid post in HM Government as the Commercial Secretary to the Treasury. In this role O'Neill's primary role was to work on the Northern Powerhouse project and to help reinvigorate trade with China. Following the resignation of David Cameron as Prime Minister his successor, Theresa May, kept O'Neill in post. In 2016, O'Neill resigned over concerns that May was not committed to the Northern Powerhouse project, making him the first member of May's ministry to resign.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: O'Neill sat in the House of Lords as a Conservative life peer from 28 May 2015 to 23 September 2016. After leaving the Conservatives, he then sat as a non-affiliated member of the House of Lords 23 September 2016 to 9 October 2017, and he has sat as a member of the crossbenchers since 9 October 2017.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: O'Neill claims not to commit to a specific financial ideology; instead, he is known for his "pragmatic, long-term" vision of currency markets. He improves upon traditional models of data analysis by incorporating elements that ultimately make them more accurate.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: O'Neill coined the term "BRIC" in 2001 in "The World Needs Better Economic BRICs", a paper written for Goldman Sachs's "Global Economic Paper" series, on the four emerging "BRIC" economies Brazil, Russia, India, and China.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: O'Neill has been called a "currency guru"; he has been hailed as "the top foreign-exchange economist anywhere in the world in the past decade". For example, in 2004 he accurately predicted that the euro would rise from $1.25 to $1.30 a year later; he was also right about the yen's rise in the mid-1990s. He was previously head of global economic research and commodities and strategy research at Goldman Sachs.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: The Next Eleven (known also by the numeronym N-11) are the eleven countries – Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Turkey, and Vietnam – identified by Jim O'Neill in a research paper as having a high potential of becoming, along with the BRICS countries, among the world's largest economies in the 21st century. The bank chose these states, all with promising outlooks for investment and future growth, on 12 December 2005.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: The criteria used were macroeconomic stability, political maturity, openness of trade and investment policies, and the quality of education. The N-11 paper is a follow-up to the bank's 2003 paper on the four emerging "BRIC" economies.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: In 2011, O'Neill coined the term MIKT (MIST is also used) for the countries of Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea, and Turkey. The term has largely fallen out of use, having been replaced by MINT (see below).


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: In 2013, O'Neill also coined the term MINT—Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Turkey—in order to differentiate among the variety of emerging economies. He plans to group this quartet as "growth markets" within the overall BRIC nations. In January 2014, O'Neill presented a four-part documentary series on this subject for BBC Radio entitled "MINT: The Next Economic Giants".


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: O'Neill grew up in Gatley and attended Burnage Comprehensive and Sheffield University, where he studied economics. O'Neill is an enthusiastic football fan and played for the Bank of America's first team in London. He is a lifelong follower of Manchester United F.C. and served as a non-executive director from 2004 to 2005, before the club was returned to private ownership.


title: Jim O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of Gatley

text: On 2 March 2010, the Red Knights, a group of wealthy Manchester United fans believed to include O'Neill, confirmed interest in a possible takeover of the club.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Michael Polchlopek (born December 27, 1965) is an American retired professional wrestler and former mixed martial artist. He is best known for his appearances with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) from 1993 to 1999 under the ring names Bart Gunn and Bodacious Bart, as well as his appearances with All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) from 1998 to 2002 and with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) from 2002 to 2004 as Mike Barton.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Michael Polchlopek was born on December 27, 1965 in Titusville, Florida. He was a big fan of wrestling, often watching Florida Championship Wrestling and enjoyed seeing Eddie & Mike Graham and Jack & Gerald Brisco.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Polchlopek was trained to wrestle by Caesar Barraza, Blackjack Mulligan, Tim Parker and Boris Malenko. He made his debut in 1991.


title: Bart Gunn

text: In 1992, Polchlopek (wrestling as "Brett Colt") formed a tag team with Kip Winchester in the Tampa, Florida-based International Championship Wrestling Alliance known as "The Long Riders".


title: Bart Gunn

text: Polchlopek was perhaps most famous in the World Wrestling Federation as one-half of the tag team The Smoking Gunns with his kayfabe brother Billy Gunn. The team won the Tag Team Championship three times before breaking up and engaging in a brief feud in October 1996. Bart Gunn briefly went into solo competition, his most high-profile match occurring on "Monday Night Raw", in April 1996, which he lost to "Ringmaster" Steve Austin via the Million Dollar Dream.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Gunn feuded with Billy Gunn during the fall of 1996 which ended after he defeated Billy on the December 16th episode of Monday Night Raw. His most notable victory was scoring an upset victory over Triple H by disqualification on Superstars. He also participated in the 1997 Royal Rumble match. Gunn would later become a jobber in 1997 losing to the likes of Faarooq, Triple H, Ahmed Johnson and Vader. His final match in this run was on June 9, 1997, on an episode of Raw Is War against Rockabilly, where he was defeated. He disappeared from the roster afterwards.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Gunn would then have a brief stint in Pennsylvania Championship Wrestling where he won their championship from Lance Diamond on May 3, 1997. Then he would drop the title to Ace Darling on September 26, 1997.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Under his new manager Jim Cornette, Polchlopek recreated the Midnight Express tag team as "Bodacious Bart" with partner Bombastic Bob. The team had limited success, though they did hold the NWA World Tag Team Championship for a brief period in 1998.


title: Bart Gunn

text: In 1998, Bart Gunn participated in the WWF's shootfight tournament, the Brawl for All. Gunn faced tag partner Bob Holly in the first round, and was declared the winner on points. Gunn next defeated "Dr. Death" Steve Williams, with a surprising knockout. Utilizing his enormous brute strength, Gunn defeated The Godfather in the semi-finals, and Bradshaw in the finals to win the tournament.


title: Bart Gunn

text: According to his interview in the Dark Side of the Ring episode on Brawl For All, he sat home for months following this after being told by Vince Russo that WWF creative had nothing for him at the time. Despite this, while still under WWF contract Gunn would sign with All Japan Pro Wrestling in October 1998, wrestling there for three months up until January 1999.


title: Bart Gunn

text: After returning to WWF television in February 1999, the WWF sent him to be trained by Ray Rinaldi (notable for training Marc Mero) for a WrestleMania match against Eric "Butterbean" Esch. Gunn would then briefly feud with both Holly and Williams, both angry at having been beaten in the tournament, the latter masking himself and pushing Gunn off a stage to prevent him from winning the WWF Hardcore Championship from Holly. At WrestleMania XV, Esch brutally knocked out Gunn in 35 seconds. Polchlopek was soon after released by WWF.


title: Bart Gunn

text: While still under contract with the WWF, Polchlopek found success wrestling in Japan (due in part to his knockout of Steve Williams, who in Japan was a longtime main-eventer and held a strong reputation for his toughness). After signing with All Japan Pro Wrestling in October 1998, his debut would be announced on the November 1, 1998 edition of AJPW TV. His first in-ring match and appearance with the company was at a pay-per-view on November 14, going by his WWF ring name Bart Gunn. He would compete in the 1998 World Strongest Tag Determination League, teaming with Johnny Ace, and finishing in 4th place with 8 points. He became a member of Johnny Ace's gaijin (foreign wrestlers) stable, The Movement, and the two continued to team.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Both would regularly wrestle until January 22, 1999, when Gunn returned to the WWF to fulfil the rest of his WWF contractual obligations.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Upon being released from the WWF after WrestleMania XV, he would return to AJPW in May 1999, still maintaining fanfare and momentum even after the loss to Butterbean. On June 9, Gunn and Ace defeated Kenta Kobashi and Jun Akiyama to win the World Tag Team Championship. They held the title for a month and a half, before losing to No Fear on July 23. Following the title loss, Polchlopek stopped using the Bart Gunn name and became known as Mike Barton. In late 1999, Barton and Ace took part in the 1999 World's Strongest Tag Determination League, finishing in 5th place with 9 points.


title: Bart Gunn

text: In the spring of 2000, Barton entered the Champion Carnival, defeating Masao Inoue in the first round but losing to Takao Omori in the second. On June 9, Barton and Ace took part in a tournament for the vacant World Tag Team Championship, and lost in the first round to the eventual tournament winners, The Holy Demon Army. In the summer of 2000, Mitsuharu Misawa left All Japan to form Pro Wrestling Noah, taking most of the native talent with him. Barton, like many of the gaijin, remained in All Japan. Johnny Ace, however, left All Japan during the split and retired from wrestling, taking an office job in WCW and later the WWF.


title: Bart Gunn

text: In December 2000, a storyline started where "Dr. Death" Steve Williams crossed paths with Barton in a tag-team television match during the World's Strongest Tag Determination League 2000 tournament. They were on opposite teams and Williams sought to get even with Barton for his loss in the Brawl For All.


title: Bart Gunn

text: The feud with Williams would culminate into a revenge match on a January 28, 2001 pay-per-view main event, which Williams won. After this, Barton and Williams would regularly wrestle against each other throughout the first half of 2001, before the two would eventually team with each other later that year in October. Jim Steele and Mike Rotunda would join them in three-way or four-way tag team matches whenever the need arose.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Following the NOAH exodus, Barton formed a new tag team with Jim Steele. In October 2000, Barton entered a tournament for the vacant Triple Crown Heavyweight Championship, losing in the first round to Genichiro Tenryu. In November, Barton and Steele entered the 2000 World's Strongest Tag Determination League, finishing in 4th place with 10 points.


title: Bart Gunn

text: On January 2, 2001, Barton won the annual January 2 Korakuen Hall Battle Royal. In the spring, Barton entered the 2001 Champion Carnival, placing 5th with 13 points. By the end of 2001, Barton had begun making appearances in New Japan Pro-Wrestling as a member of the All Japan branch of Team 2000. In November 2001, Barton and Steele entered the 2001 G1 Tag League and made it to the finals, where they lost to Tencozy.


title: Bart Gunn

text: In the spring of 2002, Barton entered the 2002 Champion Carnival, making it to the finals but losing to Keiji Mutoh. On July 20, Barton and Steele won The Stan Hansen Cup Four Way against The Varsity Club, KroniK, and George Hines & Johnny Smith. On August 30, Barton and Steele challenged Kronik for the World Tag Team Championship, but lost. In the fall, Barton and Steele left All Japan. Their last match in AJPW was on October 27, 2002, where they teamed with George Hines to defeat Arashi, Nobukazu Hirai & Nobutaka Araya.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Polchlopek had a short stint in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling in 2003 only lasting a month where he wrestled one match where he lost to Perry Saturn.


title: Bart Gunn

text: After leaving All Japan, Barton and Steele signed with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). Barton entered the 2002 New Japan Triathlon Series in November, teaming with Steele and Yuji Nagata. The team made it to the finals, but lost to Manabu Nakanishi, Osamu Nishimura and Yutaka Yoshie. In February 2003, Barton and Steele entered a #1 Contenders tournament for the IWGP Tag Team Championship. They ultimately emerged victorious, defeating Makai Club members Tadao Yasuda and Kazunari Murakami in the finals, but an injury to Steele prevented them from getting the title match. After Steele recovered, he and Barton returned to teaming. In October 2003, they entered the 2003 G1 Tag League. During the tournament, on October 21, the two received a shot at the IWGP Tag Team Title against champions Hiroshi Tanahashi and Yutaka Yoshie, but came up short. Barton and Steele finished the tournament in 5th place with 6 points.


title: Bart Gunn

text: On September 15, 2006, Barton had his debut match in Muga World Pro Wrestling, which was a victory over Tatsutoshi Goto, then had another 4 matches in the company. His last match in the company was a victory over Katsushi Takemura on September 25, 2006. Afterwards, Barton left the company.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Wrestling as Mike Barton, he and Jim Steele would wrestle two tryout matches for World Wrestling Entertainment in December 2003, which were dark matches that never aired on television. They won both matches, although ultimately neither ended up signing with the WWE.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Polchlopek returned to the WWE as Bart Gunn for the December 10, 2007 edition of Raw, where he participated in the 15th Anniversary Battle Royal. He was eliminated from the match by Steve Blackman. Afterwards, he retired from professional wrestling.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Polchlopek made his mixed martial arts debut against UFC veteran Wesley Correira at "Rumble On The Rock: Beatdown" on June 17, 2006. He won his debut via TKO after the ringside doctor determined Correira was unable to continue fighting after suffering a large cut.


title: Bart Gunn

text: In his second and final fight, on November 5, 2006, he faced Ikuhisa Minowa at PRIDE Bushido 13, losing via unanimous decision.


title: Bart Gunn

text: Polchlopek was previously an electrician until 1993, and resumed work as an electrician 15 years later, in addition to doing home construction work. He is a grandfather.


title: Collective punishment

text: Collective punishment is a punishment or sanction imposed on a group for acts allegedly perpetrated by a member of that group, which could be an ethnic or political group, or just the family, friends and neighbors of the perpetrator. Because individuals who are not responsible for the wrong acts are targeted, collective punishment is not compatible with the basic principle of individual responsibility. The punished group may often have no direct association with the perpetrator other than living in the same area and can not be assumed to exercise control over the perpetrator's actions. Collective punishment is prohibited by treaty in both international and non-international armed conflicts, more specifically Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol II.


title: Collective punishment

text: When collective punishment has been imposed it has resulted in atrocities. Historically, occupying powers have used collective punishment against resistance movements. In some cases entire towns and villages believed to have harboured or aided such resistance movements have been destroyed. Occupying powers have claimed that collective punishment can be justified by necessity as a deterrent. Another view is that it is a retaliatory act prohibited under the laws of war.


title: Collective punishment

text: The Hague Conventions are often cited for guidelines concerning the limits and privileges of an occupiers rights with respect to the local (occupied) property. One of the restrictions on the occupier's use of natural resources is the Article 50 prohibition against collective punishment protecting private property. An exception exists allowing takings for military uses with the requirement that the property "must be restored and compensation fixed when peace is made".


title: Collective punishment

text: International law posits that no person may be punished for acts that he or she did not commit. It ensures that the collective punishment of a group of persons for a crime committed by an individual is forbidden...This is one of the fundamental guarantees established by the Geneva Conventions and their protocols. This guarantee is applicable not only to protected persons but to all individuals, no matter what their status, or to what category of persons they belong..."


title: Collective punishment

text: Modern legal systems usually limit criminal liability to individuals. An example of this is the prohibition on "Corruption of Blood" in the Treason Clause of the United States Constitution. The "ius commune" of late medieval Florence already held individual responsibility as a bright line rule. With few exceptions (such as treason) an individual could not be punished for a criminal offense they did not know about, even if it was committed by a member of their family. To preserve the Lombard law's historic mitigating impact on blood feuds an exception was made recognizing a collective responsibility for vendettas, in which case father, son and kinsmen were all held responsible.


title: Collective punishment

text: Rather than attempt to discover some "contra-causal free will", modern philosophers will usually use notions of intention to establish individual moral responsibility. This Kantian approach may not be the only way to assess responsibility, especially considering groups may need a unique approach to individuals. For instance, there is the problem is that consistent (not hypocritical) individuals may nevertheless experience a discursive dilemma when they try to act as a group.


title: Collective punishment

text: Philosopher Kenneth Shockley suggests we focus on group faults and the punishments that would bring change. Punishments, for a group, might include: full or partial disbanding, weakening bonds between members, or de-institutionalizing some of the group's norms. Neta Crawford says groups can be expected to change, but also apologize and make amends. That might mean groups must forfeit important parts of themselves. In this case, groups are being held responsible for organizing or incentivizing harmful behaviors. Shockley calls this the group's "coordinating control" over members. He says group responsibility can mitigate individual responsibility.


title: Collective punishment

text: Collective liability may be effective as a deterrent, if it creates the incentive for the group to monitor the activities of other members. This type of "indirect deterrence" or "delegated deterrence" has historically targeted boards of officials or those in a position to monitor and control others.


title: Collective punishment

text: A deterrent theory of collective punishment may be more attractive in the context of military occupation where punishing the innocent is not considered costly.


title: Collective punishment

text: Family punishment is a type of collective punishment based on kinship. Historically, it has been employed most often in the context of political crimes.


title: Collective punishment

text: Collective punishment as family sanction in Ancient Greece was connected with the concept of a ritual pollution that contaminated the entire group when one member committed an offense. An example of this type was the punishment imposed on the Alcmaeonidae for taking part in the Cylonian conspiracy.


title: Collective punishment

text: During the Qin dynasty of China (221–207 BC), emperor Qin Shi Huang upheld his rule by enforcing strict laws, with the most serious of crimes, such as treason, punishable by what is known as nine familial exterminations – this involved the execution of the perpetrator's entire families as well as the perpetrators themselves, where the members are categorized into nine groups. The process of familial extermination was carried on by subsequent Chinese dynasties for serious crimes, with a significant number of recorded sentences during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), until the punishment was officially repealed by the government of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) in 1905. During the Ming dynasty of China, 16 palace women attempted to assassinate the Jiajing Emperor. All were sentenced to death by slow slicing. Ten members of the women's families were also beheaded, while a further 20 were enslaved and gifted to ministers.


title: Collective punishment

text: It was called "Sippenhaft" in Nazi Germany, and was applied to the families of racially acceptable individuals who were accused of acting against the state, whether by desertion, cowardice, treason or more minor incidents of disobedience.


title: Collective punishment

text: Related to family punishment is the concept of corruption of blood, where the collective punishment of families may reflect primitive values that emphasize the importance of "inherited" bad character and the "purity" of hereditary bloodlines.


title: Collective punishment

text: A collective fine like the "weregild" may create incentives for a group to identify perpetrators where they might not do so otherwise. Richard Posner and others consider collective fines to be the most effective type of collective punishment for deterring bad behavior when they are sufficiently costly and target those in a position to identify perpetrators.


title: Collective punishment

text: When collective fines are imposed on select groups of elites it can create an incentive for them to identify perpetrators but the effectiveness declines with an increase in the size of the group and their relative wealth.


title: Collective punishment

text: The frankpledge system of enforcement was by the 12th century established throughout much of the English realm. Cnut had organized the conquered peoples of England into "hundreds" and tithings, "within a hundred and under surety". Scholars do not know if the surety of Cnut's time was a collective or individual liability, or whether collective punishment was a feature of Anglo-Saxon law, before the Norman Conquest and the 12th century frankpledge system applied collective punishment to the whole tithing. The 13th century Statute of Winchester (1285) stipulated "the whole hundred ... shall be answerable" for any theft or robbery.


title: Collective punishment

text: According to W. R. Connor "the importance of the "oikos" in ancient Greece, an importance that goes far beyond the needs for physical shelter and comfort, is well known". The destruction of homes is then "especially awesome and charged with symbolic as well as practical meaning."


title: Collective punishment

text: The practice of the "kataskaphai" of houses is attested to by several ancient Greek sources. According to Plutarch's account of the murder of Hesiod (found in the "Moralia") the house of the murderers was razed . When the Corinthians kill Cypselus they "razed the houses of the tyrants and confiscated their property", according to Nicholas of Damascus. Sources are inconsistent as to the razing of the Alcamaeonid houses. Of the many sources on the Cylonian conspiracy, only Isocrates mentions "kataskaphe".


title: Collective punishment

text: There have been a large number of home demolitions in Israel since 1967. The legal arguments center on Regulation 119(1) of the Defense Emergency Regulations, an emergency law that dates to the British occupation under the Mandate for Palestine, by which Israel claims the legal authority for home demolitions by the Israeli Defense Force (IDF). In "Alamarin v. IDF Commander in Gaza Strip" the Israeli High Court of Justice held that the homes of Palestinians who have committed violent acts may be demolished under the Defence (Emergency) Regulations, even if the residence has other inhabitants who are unconnected to the crime. The counterargument against the validity of the regulation is two-fold: firstly, that it should have been properly revoked by 1967 as an institution of the former colonial rule; secondly, that it is incompatible with Israel's modern treaty obligations.


title: Collective punishment

text: Some scholars consider the rape of German women by the Red Army during the Russian advance into Germany as a form of collective punishment. Women were also targeted as a collective punishment for collaboration in Vichy France where photographs were taken of women stripped and paraded through the streets of Paris. A prostitute accused of serving the Germans was kicked to death.


title: Collective punishment

text: Responding to the 2014 murder of three Israeli teenagers kidnapped near the settlement of Alon Shvut, Israeli professor Mordechai Kedar said:


title: Collective punishment

text: The only thing that can deter terrorists, like those who kidnapped the children and killed them, is the knowledge that their sister or their mother will be raped. It sounds very bad, but that's the Middle East.


title: Collective punishment

text: Women are frequently targeted in the Kashmir conflict "to punish and humiliate the entire community". Even in well publicized cases like the Kunan Poshpora mass rape no action has been taken against perpetrators.


title: Collective punishment

text: The principle of collective punishment was laid out by Union General William Tecumseh Sherman in his Special Field Order 120, November 9, 1864, which laid out the rules for his "March to the sea" in the American Civil War:


title: Collective punishment

text: V. To army corps commanders alone is entrusted the power to destroy mills, houses, cotton-gins, etc..., and for them this general principle is laid down: In districts and neighborhoods where the army is unmolested, no destruction of such property should be permitted; but should guerrillas or bushwhackers molest our march, or should the inhabitants burn bridges, obstruct roads, or otherwise manifest local hostility, then army commanders should order and enforce a devastation more or less relentless according to the measure of such hostility.


title: Collective punishment

text: The British (in the Second Boer War) and the Germans (in the Franco-Prussian War) justified such actions as being in accord with the laws of war then in force.


title: Collective punishment

text: The mass shootings of Nicholas Romanov's distant relatives after his abdication in 1917 and the shooting of the Romanov family themselves in July of the following year, 1918, was two such examples of this during World War I.


title: Collective punishment

text: During the Nazi occupation of Poland, the Germans applied collective responsibility: any kind of help given to a person of Jewish faith or origin was punishable by death, and that not only for the rescuers themselves but also for their families. This was widely publicized by the Germans. During the occupation, for every German killed by a Pole, 100–400 Poles were shot in retribution. Communities were held collectively responsible for the purported Polish counter-attacks against the invading German troops. Mass executions of roundup (pol: "łapanka") hostages were conducted every single day during the Wehrmacht advance across Poland in September 1939 and thereafter. Poland lost over 5 million citizens during the occupation by Nazi Germany, mostly civilians.


title: Collective punishment

text: Germany also applied collective punishment elsewhere. In the summer of 1941, Wehrmacht troops executed several hundred people in Kondomari, Alikianos, Kandanos and elsewhere in retaliation for the participation of Cretan civilians in the Battle of Crete. During its occupation by the Axis from 1941 to 1944, Greece suffered a remarkably high death toll due to reprisals against the support and involvement of the population in the Resistance. Large-scale massacres were carried out in places such as Domeniko, Kommeno, Viannos, Lyngiades, Kali Sykia, Drakeia, Kalavryta, Mesovouno, Damasta, Distomo, Kedros, Chortiatis and many others. Entire villages (e.g. Anogeia, Vorizia, Magarikari, Kamares, Lochria), were also pillaged and burnt.


title: Collective punishment

text: In Yugoslavia (now Serbia), Nazi troops killed 434 men in three villages near Kragujevac on October 19, 1941, as punishment for previous actions of the Serbian resistance movement. In the next two days, the Nazis also killed more than 13,000 people in Kraljevo, Kragujevac, and Sumarice, including 300 students from Kragujevac First High School. In 1942, the Germans destroyed the village of Lidice, Czechoslovakia (now the Czech Republic) killing 340 inhabitants as collective punishment or reprisal for that year's assassination of Reinhard Heydrich by nearby commandos (the village Ležáky was also destroyed in retribution). In the French village of Oradour-sur-Glane 642 of its inhabitants – men, women, and children – were slaughtered by the German Waffen-SS in 1944, as were 335 Italians in that same year's Ardeatine massacre in caves outside Rome. In the Dutch village of Putten and the Italian villages of Sant'Anna di Stazzema and Marzabotto, as well as in the Soviet village of Kortelisy (in what is now Ukraine), large-scale reprisal killings were carried out by the Germans. The Massacre of Borovë occurred on July 9, 1943, in the village of Borovë, in southeastern Albania. German forces killed 107 civilians as a reprisal for a partisan attack on a German convoy the days before. In Lithuania, on June 3, 1944, after attack of Soviet partisans on a group of Germans in a nearby forest, a punishment squadron burned alive 119 people (including 49 children under the age of 16) – almost all inhabitants of the village of Pirčiupiai.


title: Collective punishment

text: The expulsion of German speaking population groups after World War II by the Soviet Union, Poland and Czechoslovakia represent one of the greatest examples of collective punishment in terms of the number of victims. The goal was to punish the Germans; the Allies declared them collectively guilty of Nazi war crimes. In the US and UK the ideas of German collective guilt and collective punishment originated not with the American and British people, but on higher policy levels. Not until late in the war did the US public assign collective responsibility to the German people.


title: Collective punishment

text: Joseph Stalin's mass deportations of many nationalities of the USSR to remote regions (including the Chechens, Crimean Tatars, Volga Germans and many others) exemplifies officially orchestrated collective punishment.


title: Collective punishment

text: Stalin used the partial removal of potentially trouble-making ethnic groups as a technique consistently during his career: Poles (1939–1941 and 1944–45), Romanians (1941 and 1944–1953), Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians (1941 and 1945–1949), Volga Germans (1941), Chechens, and Ingushes (1944). Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin conducted a series of deportations on a huge scale which profoundly affected the ethnic map of the Soviet Union. Between 1941 and 1949 the Soviet authorities deported an estimated nearly 3.3 million people to Siberia and to the Central Asian republics.


title: Collective punishment

text: The deportations started with Poles from Belarus, Ukraine and European Russia (see Poles in the former Soviet Union) in the period 1932–1936. Koreans in the Russian Far East were deported in 1937 (see Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union). After the Soviet invasion of Poland (17 September 1939) following the corresponding German invasion (1 September 1939) that marked the start of World War II in Europe, the Soviet Union annexed eastern parts (the so-called "Kresy") of the Second Polish Republic. During 1939–1941 the Soviet regime deported 1.45 million people inhabitants of this area, of whom 63% were Poles and 7% were Jews. Similar events followed in the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania following their incorporation into the Soviet union in 1940. More than 200,000 people are estimated to have been deported from the Baltic in 1940–1953. 10% of the entire adult Baltic population was deported or sent to labor camps. (See June deportation, Operation Priboi, Soviet deportations from Estonia.) Volga Germans and seven (overwhelmingly Turkic or non-Slavic) nationalities of the Crimea and the northern Caucasus were deported: the Crimean Tatars, Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingush, Balkars, Karachays, and Meskhetian Turks. All Crimean Tatars were deported "en masse" in a form of collective punishment.


title: Collective punishment

text: About 14 million Germans () were moved out of territories formerly part of the East of Germany; up to three million of them died.


title: Collective punishment

text: The 1984 anti-Sikh riots or the 1984 Sikh Massacre was a riot directed against Sikhs in India, by anti-Sikh mobs, in response to the assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards. This caused more than 3000 deaths. The CBI is of the opinion that the acts of violence were well organized with support from the officials in the Delhi police and central government at the time, headed by Indira Gandhi's son, Rajiv Gandhi. Rajiv, a Congress party member who was sworn in as the Prime Minister after his mother's death, when asked about the riots said "When a big tree falls, the earth shakes".


title: Collective punishment

text: In several armed conflicts the United Kingdom engaged during the 1950s, collective punishment was utilized as a tactic to suppress various insurgencies such as the Malayan Emergency, the Mau Mau Uprising, and the Cyprus Emergency. In 1951, the British government announced plans which stipulated that non-combatants found supporting the Malayan National Liberation Army would be subject to 'collective punishment'. During the Mau Mau Uprising, the colonial administration also utilised collective punishment as a tactic against the Kenya Land and Freedom Army, while in Cyprus (during the Cyprus Emergency) the British authorities adopted a tactic of home evictions and business closures in regions where British personnel had been murdered in order to obtain information about the identities of the murderers.


title: Collective punishment

text: Black January was a massacre of civilians committed by the Red Army in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic in 1990. The Human Rights Watch report entitled "Black January in Azerbaijan" states: "Indeed, the violence used by the Soviet Army on the night of January 19–20 was so out of proportion to the resistance offered by Azerbaijanis as to constitute an exercise in collective punishment."