title: William Booth

text: Other accusations centred around the fact that Booth appointed his own children to posts for which others were better qualified, leading to claims that The Salvation Army was a Booth family-business. For example, he appointed his daughter Emma Booth as the Principal of the Officers' Training Home, The Salvation Army's first training school for women when she was just 19. While William Booth had once said to his children that "The Salvation Army does not belong to you, or to me, it belongs to the world" and was very wary of the leadership of the army becoming a dynasty, others believed that Booth was creating a dynasty, as was suggested by the fact that he insisted that his sons-in-law added 'Booth' to their own names (see Frederick Booth-Tucker and Arthur Booth-Clibborn). This was further borne out when Booth appointed his son, Bramwell Booth, as his successor as General in his will.


title: William Booth

text: The press was often hostile to Booth and The Salvation Army as well because their methods and message were widely misinterpreted. The army's motto "Blood & Fire", which had deep theological meaning representing the saving "blood of Jesus" and the sanctifying "fire of the Holy Spirit", was erroneously thought to mean the blood of sinners and the fire of hell. There was also suspicion about the army's motives, with Booth often portrayed as a charlatan only out to make money.


title: William Booth

text: The Church of England was at first also extremely hostile to the activities of Booth and The Salvation Army. The philanthropist, politician, and evangelist Lord Shaftesbury even went so far as to describe Booth as the "Anti-Christ". One of the main complaints against Booth was his "elevation of women to man's status". Many found him dictatorial and hard to work with. Some of his own children denounced him as their leader and turned their backs on The Salvation Army, including his daughter Kate Booth and his sons Herbert and Ballington Booth, the latter founding a separate organisation, the Volunteers of America with himself as "General". The evangelist Rodney "Gipsy" Smith left him because of his rigidity and D. L. Moody would not support him because he felt there was a threat to the local church. But no one could deny his compassion for the sufferings of his fellow man.


title: William Booth

text: Opinion of The Salvation Army and William Booth eventually changed to that of favour. In his later years, he was received in audience by kings, emperors and presidents, who were among his ardent admirers. Even the mass media began to use his title of 'General' with reverence.


title: William Booth

text: In 1899, Booth suffered from blindness in both eyes, but with a short rest, was able to recover his sight. In 1904 he took part in a "motorcade" when he was driven around Great Britain, stopping off in cities, towns and villages to preach to the assembled crowds from his open-top car. In 1906 Booth was made a Freeman of the City of London, and was granted an honorary degree from the University of Oxford. In 1902 he was invited to attend the coronation of King Edward VII.


title: William Booth

text: He made his last visit to North America in 1907, and in 1909 he embarked on a six-month motor tour of the United Kingdom. During this tour he discovered he was blind in his right eye and the sight in his left eye was dimmed by cataracts. The rest of the tour had to be cancelled. On 21 August 1909 a surgeon at Guy's Hospital removed his right eye. Despite this setback, in 1910 Booth campaigned in the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland and Italy. On his return to England, he embarked on his seventh and last motor tour.


title: William Booth

text: William Booth died at age 83 on 20 August 1912 (or, in Salvationist parlance, was Promoted to Glory) at his home in Hadley Wood, London. His body lay in state for three days at Clapton Congress Hall where 150,000 people filed past his casket. On 27 August 1912, Booth's funeral service was held at London's Olympia where 40,000 people attended, including Queen Mary, who sat almost unrecognised far to the rear of the great hall. In a letter to Bramwell Booth, King George V wrote: "The nation has lost a great organizer and the poor a whole-hearted and sincere friend." United States President William Taft wrote "[Booth's] long life and great talents were dedicated to the noble work of helping the poor and weak and giving them another chance to attain success and happiness." Media agencies around the world reported on Booth's death, including the Daily Express in the United Kingdom, The South African in South Africa, the Globe and Mail in Canada, and the New York Times in the United States.


title: William Booth

text: Booth's funeral procession began at the Salvation Army's international headquarters as 10,000 uniformed Salvationists fell in behind. Forty Salvation Army bands played the "Dead March" from Handel's "Saul" as the vast procession set off. He was buried with his wife Catherine Booth in the main London burial ground for 19th-century non-conformist ministers and tutors, the non-denominational Abney Park Cemetery in Stoke Newington.


title: William Booth

text: Upon Booth's death, his son, Bramwell Booth, became the 2nd General of The Salvation Army. It was William Booth's intention to have each general choose his successor. However, Generals of the Salvation Army are now elected by the High Council of The Salvation Army.


title: William Booth

text: In Booth's honour, Vachel Lindsay wrote the poem, "General William Booth Enters into Heaven". Charles Ives, who had been Evangeline Booth's neighbour, set the poem to music. In 1990 a diesel locomotive in the British Rail fleet was named 'The William Booth'.


title: William Booth

text: The William Booth rose, developed by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, was named in his honour. The William Booth Memorial Training College in Denmark Hill, London, the College for Officer Training of The Salvation Army in the United Kingdom, is named after him, as is the William Booth Primary School in his native Nottingham and William Booth Lane in central Birmingham. Many Salvation Army training colleges, schools, orphanages hospitals and other institutions around the world bear his name.


title: William Booth

text: Statues of each of the Booths by George Edward Wade were erected on Champion Hill in London, next to the Salvation Army's training college in London in 1929. Replicas of these statues stand in the Mile End Road, close to the site of the first Salvation Army meeting: that of William was unveiled in 1979, and that of Catherine in 2015.


title: William Booth

text: In his honour One Mile End, a brewery from East London created a craft beer called Salvation! Pale Ale. The beer is sold in a couple of pubs including the White Hart Brewpub, only a few meters away from the statue of William Booth on Mile End Road.


title: William Booth

text: William Booth and Catherine Mumford were married on 17 June 1855 at Stockwell New Chapel, at that time part of Surrey. They had eight children:


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: The Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary is a Marian litany originally approved in 1587 by Pope Sixtus V. It is also known as the Litany of Loreto (Latin: "Litaniæ lauretanæ"), after its first-known place of origin, the Shrine of Our Lady of Loreto (Italy), where its usage was recorded as early as 1558.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: The litany contains many of the titles used formally and informally for the Virgin Mary, and would often be recited as a call and response chant in a group setting. The Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary has also been set to music by composers such as Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (who composed two settings), Jan Dismas Zelenka, Joseph Auer, and Johannes Habert.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: In form, the Litany of Loreto is based on a fixed plan common to several Marian litanies already in existence during the second half of the 15th century, which in turn are connected to a notable series of Marian litanies that began to appear in the 12th century that multiplied in the 13th and 14th. The Loreto text had, however, the good fortune to be adopted in the famous shrine, and thus become known more than any other, to the many pilgrims who flocked there during the 16th century. The text was spread across Christendom, and finally received ecclesiastical sanction.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: Twelve invocations refer to Mary as Mother; six extol her as Virgin. Thirteen titles are derived from the Old Testament, followed by four calling on her as helper and advocate. The last thirteen name Mary as Queen. In June 2020, Pope Francis added three new invocations to the litany: "Mother of Mercy" (after Mother of the Church), "Mother of hope" (after Mother of Divine Grace), and "Solace of Migrants" (after Refuge of Sinners). This makes fourteen invocations referring to Mary as mother and five as advocate.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: A litany is prayed like this: first an invocation is said by the prayer leader followed by the response, "Pray for us".


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: Grant, we beseech Thee, O Lord God, that we Thy Servants may enjoy perpetual health of mind and body and by the glorious intercession of the Blessed Mary, ever Virgin, be delivered from present sorrow and enjoy eternal happiness. Through Christ Our Lord. Amen.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: There is a great lack of documentary evidence concerning the origin of the Litany of Loreto, the growth and development of the litany into the forms under which it is known, and as it was for the first time definitely approved by the Catholic Church in the year 1587. Some writers declare that they know nothing of its origin and history; others, on the contrary, trace it back to the translation of the Holy House (1294); others, to Pope Sergius I (687); others, again, to Gregory the Great or to the 5th century; while others go as far back as the Early Church, and even the Apostolic Age. Historical criticism posits it to have been composed during the early 16th century or the end of the 15th. Before that time, there were litanies of Mary - one in Gaelic, probably of the eighth century, and others of later date, in which the invocations were much longer than those in the Litany of Loreto.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: The oldest printed copy hitherto discovered is that of Dillingen in Germany, dating to 1558; it is fairly certain it is a copy of an earlier one, but thus far, the oldest known Italian copy dates from 1576.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: The litany was probably published and circulated in Germany by Saint Petrus Canisius. The Dillingen copy is entitled: "Letania Loretana. Ordnung der Letaney von unser lieben Frawen wie sie zu Loreto alle Samstag gehalten" ("Order of the Litany of Our Lady as said every Saturday at Loreto"). The text is just the same as we have it today, except that it has "Mater piissima" and "Mater mirabilis", where now are "Mater purissima" and "Mater admirabilis". Further, the invocations "Mater creatoris" and "Mater salvatoris" are wanting, though this must be due to some oversight of the editor, since they are found in every manuscript of this group; on the other hand, the "Auxilium christianorum" is introduced though it does not occur in the other texts. This title is found in a Litany of Loreto printed in 1558. Pope Pius V could not have introduced the invocation ""Auxilium christianorum" in 1571 after the Battle of Lepanto, as stated in the sixth lesson of the Roman Breviary for the feast of S. Maria Auxiliatrix (24 May); and to this conclusion the Dillingen text adds indisputable evidence.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: Pope Pius V by "Motu Proprio" of 20 March 1571, published 5 April, had suppressed all existing offices of the Virgin Mary, disapproving in general all the prayers therein, and substituting a new "Officium B. Virginis" without those prayers and consequently without any litany. It would seem that this action on the part of the pope led the clergy of Loreto to fear that the text of their litany was likewise prohibited. At all events, in order to keep the old custom of singing the litany every Saturday in honor of the Virgin, a new text was written containing praises drawn directly from Scriptures and usually applied to the Virgin in liturgies. This new litany was set to music by the choirmaster of the Basilica of Loreto, Costanzo Porta, and printed at Venice in 1575. It is the earliest setting to music of a Marian litany that we know of. In the following year (1576) these Scriptural litanies were printed for the use of pilgrims.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: On 5 February 1578, the archdeacon of Loreto, Giulio Candiotti, sent to Pope Gregory XIII the "New praises or litanies of the most holy Virgin, drawn from Sacred Scripture", with Porta's music, expressing the wish that the pope would cause it to be sung in Saint Peter's Basilica and in other churches as was the custom at Loreto. The pope's reply is unknown, but we have the opinion of the theologian to whom the matter was referred, in which the composition of the new litany is praised, but which does not judge it opportune to introduce it into Rome or into church use on the authority of the pope, all the more because Pius V "in reforming the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin completely abolished, among other things, some similar litanies of the Blessed Virgin which existed in the old office. The judgment concluded that the litany might be sung at Loreto as a devotion proper to this shrine, and if others wanted to adopt it they might do so by way of private devotion.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: This attempt having failed, the Scriptural litany straightway began to lose favor, and the Loreto text was revived. In another manual for pilgrims, published in 1578, the Scriptural litany is omitted, and the old Loreto text appears. The Loreto text was introduced elsewhere, and even reached Rome, when Pope Sixtus V, who had entertained a singular devotion for Loreto, by the Bull "Reddituri" of 11 July 1587, gave formal approval to it, as to the Litany of the Holy Name of Jesus, and recommended preachers everywhere to propagate its use among the faithful.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: On the strength of this impulse given to the Litany of Loreto, certain ascetical writers began to publish a great number of litanies in honour of the Saviour, the Virgin, and the saints, often ill-advised and containing expressions theologically heterodox, so Pope Clement VIII had promulgated (6 Sept., 1601) a severe decree of the Holy Office, which, while upholding the litanies contained in the liturgical books as well as the Litany of Loreto, banned the publication of new litanies, or use of those already published in public worship, without the approbation of the Congregation of Rites.


title: Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

text: In Rome, the Litany of Loreto was introduced into the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore by Cardinal Francesco Toledo in 1597; and in 1613, Pope Paul V ordered it to be sung in that church, morning and evening, on Saturdays and on vigils and feasts of the Madonna. As a result of this example, the Loreto Litany began to be used, and is still largely used, in all the churches of Rome. The Dominicans, in their general chapter held at Bologna in 1615, ordered its recitation in all the convents of their Order after the Office on Saturdays at the end of the customary ""Salve Regina"". The Litany of Loreto was first included in the "Rituale Romanum" in 1874, as an appendix.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Soldier of Fortune is a first-person shooter video game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision in 2000 for Microsoft Windows. It was later released for the PlayStation 2 (as Soldier of Fortune: Gold Edition), as well as the Dreamcast, while Loki Software also made a port for Linux. It was digitally re-released on GOG.com on October 2, 2018, along with its two successors. The player takes on the role of a U.S. mercenary as he trots around the globe hoping to halt a terrorist nuclear weapons plot.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: The game, which was built with the Quake II engine, is notable for its realistic depictions of violence, made possible by the GHOUL engine, including the dismemberment of human bodies. This was the game's stylistic attraction and it caused considerable controversy, especially in Canada and Germany, where it was classified as a restricted-rated film and listed on the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons, respectively. The technology creates 26 different zones on the bodies of enemies, allowing for vastly different reactions depending upon which one is targeted.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: The game sold well initially and critical reception was positive. Two sequels were released: "" (2002) and "" (2007). "Soldier of Fortune Online", a massively multiplayer online first-person shooter game, was published in Korea in 2010, but it servers were shut down shortly after its release.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: "Soldier of Fortune" is best known for its graphic depictions of firearms dismembering the human body. This graphic violence is the game's main stylistic attraction, much like the destructible environments of "Red Faction" or bullet time of "Max Payne". The GHOUL engine enables depiction of extreme graphic violence, in which character models are based on body parts that can each independently sustain damage (gore zones). There are 26 zones in total: a shot to the head with a powerful gun will often make the target's head explode, leaving nothing but the bloody stump of the neck remaining; a close-range shot to the stomach with a shotgun will leave an enemy's bowels in a bloody mess, and a shot to the nether regions will cause the victims to clutch their groin in agony for a few seconds before kneeling over dead. It is possible to shoot off an enemy's limbs (head, arms, legs) leaving nothing left but a bloody torso. In the last mission there is also a fictional microwave weapon, causing the enemies to fry or explode, depending on the firing mode. However, nonviolence is a possibility, if the player is a good shot it is possible to shoot an enemy's weapon out of their hand, causing them to cower on the floor to surrender. The game also came with password-protected options to disable all gore and there is even a version of the game with the extreme violence permanently locked-out, titled "Soldier of Fortune: Tactical Low-Violence Version".


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: In multiplayer mode, there are seven gametypes: Arsenal, Assassination, Capture the Flag, Conquer the Bunker, Control, Deathmatch and Realistic Deathmatch.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: The story involves the theft of nuclear weapons, and the main enemy turns out to be an Afrikaner neo-fascist group based in Germany, led by South African exile Sergei Dekker. At the beginning of the game, terrorists steal four nuclear weapons from a storage facility in Russia, and proceed to sell them to various nations. This is a prelude to the acquisition of advanced weapons of mass destruction by this terrorist group. John Mullins, working for a U.S.-based mercenary ("soldier of fortune") organization known only as "The Shop", and his partner, Aaron "Hawk" Parsons, are assigned to prevent the nukes from falling into the wrong hands, and stop the terrorists in their plans. His missions take him to New York City, Sudan, Siberia, Tokyo, Kosovo, Iraq, Uganda and finally Germany.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Raven Software acquired a license from the mercenary magazine "Soldier of Fortune" to produce a video game based on the publication. The game was built around a modified version of the "Quake II" game engine. It was the first game to utilize the GHOUL damage model engine developed by Raven Software. This introduced the ability to dismember enemies in combat, adding to the realism of the game. Upgraded versions of the GHOUL system were later used in other Raven titles, such as "" and "".


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: The game was originally supposed to be much more realistic, featuring mostly real weapons, and the players taking damage would impede their movement and dexterity, depending on where and how many times they were hit. In 1998 (prior to the Kosovo War) the game was also supposed to be partially based in Bosnia instead of Kosovo.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: The game is AMD Eyefinity validated. The game also made use of the Aureal Semiconductor A3D and Creative Labs EAX technology.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: The Dreamcast version and the "Gold Edition" received "mixed or average reviews" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Robert Howarth of "GameFan" wrote of the PC version, "for those adults looking for extreme action, "Soldier of Fortune" could be just what the doctor ordered." Howarth considered its story to be "on par" with many action movies; he also commented that the GHOUL damage model rendering system was "an amazing technology".


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Chris Kramer of "NextGen"s June 2000 issue wrote of the PC original, "Sure, it's not for kids, but it's as good an FPS as you could ever ask for." 15 issues later, Jim Preston called the Dreamcast version "An OK port of an OK game."


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Robert Mayer of "Computer Games Strategy Plus" gave the PC version four stars out of five, saying, "Raven Software set out to make a shooter, and they've made a damn fine one. Just be sure you're up to it before you dive in. It gets mighty bloody in there." "Edge" gave the same PC version seven out of ten, calling it "an above-average firstperson shooter. It doesn't bring much to the genre, save for its gory depiction of violence."


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Cal Nguyen of "AllGame" gave the PC version four-and-a-half stars out of five, saying, "If you're bent on eliminating terrorist threats by skinheads, Saddam Hussein's army, Russian mafias or even New York mobsters, then take a lesson from the "Soldier of Fortune" and tear open a new one." Later, J.C. Barnes gave the Dreamcast version three-and-a-half stars out of five, calling it "a solid shooter that doesn't break new ground in graphics, sound or artificial intelligence, but it's a solid shooter worth some attention. Aside from the tricky controls and lighting issues, FPS fans shouldn't be too disappointed with this single-player adventure."


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Nash Werner of "GamePro" said of the PC version, "With its well-written storyline and thought-provoking missions, "SoF"s singleplayer will keep you thrilled for hours, and you'll probably be playing the Assassin mode for months. Despite ridiculously long load times, "Soldier of Fortune" is recommended for everyone who appreciates a good FPS." Jake the Snake said of the Dreamcast version, "If you're longing for some over-the-top shooting with real weapons, "Soldier of Fortune" hits its mark with extreme prejudice, but less crazed gamers should steer clear." However, The D-Pad Destroyer said of the PlayStation 2 version, "with all its faults, "Fortune" is fairly fun for hardcore soldier types, but everyone else will just want to keep their membership in "Red Faction"." Nick Valentino of "GameZone" gave the same console version 6 out of 10, saying that it was "just another FPS trying to jump on the bandwagon of other successful titles and sorely misses the mark. With very little to offer in terms of design or new features, it fails to capture the right FPS feel which other games have effectively achieved. In other words, look someplace else."


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: According to PC Data, a firm that tracked sales in the U.S., the PC version sold 100,919 units by November 2000. NPD Techworld, which also covered the U.S., reported 298,563 units sold for said PC version by December 2002.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: In 2000, after receiving a complaint from a member of the public about the explicit content of the game, the British Columbia Film Classification Office investigated and decided the violence, gore and acts of torture were not suitable for persons under 18 years of age. In a controversial decision, the game was labeled an "adult motion picture" and was rated as a pornographic film. In Germany, the game was placed on the Index List of the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: Based on its success, Raven Software and Activision later published "" in 2002, based on the "Quake III: Team Arena" engine. Initially released for Windows, the sequel was later ported to the Xbox.


title: Soldier of Fortune (video game)

text: An MMOFPS based on the series, "Soldier of Fortune Online", was published in Korea by Dragonfly and went in Closed Beta on August 12, 2010 and ended on August 16, 2010.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Thomas Penson De Quincey (; 15 August 17858 December 1859) was an English writer, essayist, and literary critic, best known for his "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater" (1821). Many scholars suggest that in publishing this work De Quincey inaugurated the tradition of addiction literature in the West.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Thomas Penson De Quincey was born at 86 Cross Street, Manchester, Lancashire. His father, a successful merchant with an interest in literature, died when De Quincey was quite young. Soon after his birth, the family went to "The Farm" and then later to Greenheys, a larger country house in Chorlton-on-Medlock near Manchester. In 1796, three years after the death of his father, Thomas Quincey, his mother – the erstwhile Elizabeth Penson – took the name "De Quincey". That same year, De Quincey's mother moved to Bath and enrolled him at King Edward's School. He was a weak and sickly child. His youth was spent in solitude, and when his elder brother, William, came home, he wrought havoc in the quiet surroundings. De Quincey's mother was a woman of strong character and intelligence but seems to have inspired more awe than affection in her children. She brought them up strictly, taking De Quincey out of school after three years because she was afraid he would become big-headed, and sending him to an inferior school at Wingfield, Wiltshire.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Around this time, in 1799, De Quincey first read "Lyrical Ballads" by William Wordsworth and Coleridge. In 1800, De Quincey, aged 15, was ready for the University of Oxford; his scholarship was far in advance of his years. "That boy could harangue an Athenian mob better than you or I could address an English one", his master at Bath had said. He was sent to Manchester Grammar School, in order that after three years' stay he might obtain a scholarship to Brasenose College, Oxford, but he took flight after 19 months.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: His first plan had been to reach Wordsworth, whose "Lyrical Ballads" (1798) had consoled him in fits of depression and had awakened in him a deep reverence for the poet. But for that De Quincey was too timid, so he made his way to Chester, where his mother dwelt, in the hope of seeing a sister; he was caught by the older members of the family, but, through the efforts of his uncle, Colonel Penson, received the promise of a guinea (£1.05) a week to carry out his later project of a solitary tramp through Wales. While on his journey around Wales and Snowdon, he would avoid sleeping in inns to save what little money he had and instead went lodging with cottagers or slept in a tent he had made himself. He sustained himself by eating blackberries and rose hips; only rarely getting enough proper food from the goodwill of strangers. From July to November 1802, De Quincey lived as a wayfarer. He soon lost his guinea by ceasing to keep his family informed of his whereabouts and had difficulty making ends meet. Still, apparently fearing pursuit, he borrowed some money and travelled to London, where he tried to borrow more. Having failed, he lived close to starvation rather than return to his family.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Discovered by chance by his friends, De Quincey was brought home and finally allowed to go to Worcester College, Oxford, on a reduced income. Here, we are told, "he came to be looked upon as a strange being who associated with no one." In 1804, while at Oxford, he began the occasional use of opium. He completed his studies, but failed to take the oral examination leading to a degree; he left the university without graduating. He became an acquaintance of Coleridge and Wordsworth, having already sought out Charles Lamb in London. His acquaintance with Wordsworth led to his settling in 1809 at Grasmere, in the Lake District. He lived for ten years in Dove Cottage, which Wordsworth had occupied and which is now a popular tourist attraction, and for another five years at Foxghyll Country House, Ambleside. De Quincey was married in 1816, and soon after, having no money left, he took up literary work in earnest.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: His wife Margaret bore him eight children before her death in 1837. Three of De Quincey's daughters survived him. One of his sons, Paul Frederick de Quincey (1828–1894), emigrated to New Zealand.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: In July 1818 De Quincey became editor of "The Westmorland Gazette", a Tory newspaper published in Kendal, after its first editor had been dismissed. He was unreliable at meeting deadlines, and in June 1819 the proprietors complained about "their dissatisfaction with the lack of 'regular communication between the Editor and the Printer'", and he resigned in November 1819. De Quincey's political sympathies tended towards the right. He was "a champion of aristocratic privilege," reserved "Jacobin" as his highest term of opprobrium, held reactionary views on the Peterloo massacre and the Sepoy rebellion, on Catholic Emancipation and the enfranchisement of the common people.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: In 1821 he went to London to dispose of some translations from German authors, but was persuaded first to write and publish an account of his opium experiences, which that year appeared in "The London Magazine". This new sensation eclipsed Lamb's "Essays of Elia", which were then appearing in the same periodical. The "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater" were soon published in book form. De Quincey then made literary acquaintances. Thomas Hood found the shrinking author "at home in a German ocean of literature, in a storm, flooding all the floor, the tables and the chairs – billows of books …" De Quincey was famous for his conversation; Richard Woodhouse wrote of the "depth and "reality", as I may so call it, of his knowledge … His conversation appeared like the elaboration of a mine of results …"


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: From this time on, De Quincey maintained himself by contributing to various magazines. He soon exchanged London and the Lakes for Edinburgh, the nearby village of Polton, and Glasgow; he spent the remainder of his life in Scotland. In the 1830s he is listed as living at 1 Forres Street, a large townhouse on the edge of the Moray Estate in Edinburgh.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: "Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine" and its rival "Tait's Magazine" received numerous contributions. "Suspiria de Profundis" (1845) appeared in Blackwood's, as did "The English Mail-Coach" (1849). "Joan of Arc" (1847) was published in "Tait's". Between 1835 and 1849, "Tait's" published a series of De Quincey's reminiscences of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Robert Southey and other figures among the Lake Poets – a series that taken together constitutes one of his most important works.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Along with his opium addiction, debt was one of the primary constraints of De Quincey's adult life. De Quincey came into his patrimony at the age of 21, when he received £2,000 from his late father's estate. He was unwisely generous with his funds, making loans that could not or would not be repaid, including a £300 loan to Coleridge in 1807. After leaving Oxford without a degree, he made an attempt to study law, but desultorily and unsuccessfully; he had no steady income and spent large sums on books (he was a lifelong collector). By the 1820s he was constantly in financial difficulties. More than once in his later years, De Quincey was forced to seek protection from arrest in the debtors' sanctuary of Holyrood in Edinburgh. (At the time, Holyrood Park formed a debtors' sanctuary; people could not be arrested for debt within those bounds. The debtors who took sanctuary there could emerge only on Sundays, when arrests for debt were not allowed.) Yet De Quincey's money problems persisted; he got into further difficulties for debts he incurred within the sanctuary.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: His financial situation improved only later in his life. His mother's death in 1846 brought him an income of £200 per year. When his daughters matured, they managed his budget more responsibly than he ever had himself.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: De Quincey suffered neuralgic facial pain, "trigeminal neuralgia"  – "attacks of piercing pain in the face, of such severity that they sometimes drive the victim to suicide." He reports using opium first in 1804 to relieve his neuralgia. Thus, as with many addicts, De Quincey's opium addiction may have had a "self-medication" aspect for real physical illnesses, as well as a psychological aspect.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: By his own testimony, De Quincey first used opium in 1804 to relieve his neuralgia; he used it for pleasure, but no more than weekly, through 1812. It was in 1813 that he first commenced daily usage, in response to illness and his grief over the death of Wordsworth's young daughter Catherine. During 1813–1819 his daily dose was very high, and resulted in the sufferings recounted in the final sections of his "Confessions". For the rest of his life, his opium use fluctuated between extremes; he took "enormous doses" in 1843, but late in 1848 he went for 61 days with none at all. There are many theories surrounding the effects of opium on literary creation, and notably, his periods of low use were literarily unproductive.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: He died in his rooms on Lothian Street in south Edinburgh and is buried in St Cuthbert's Churchyard at the west end of Princes Street. His stone, in the southwest section of the churchyard on a west-facing wall, is plain and says nothing of his work.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: His residence on Lothian Street was demolished in the 1970s to make way for the Bristo Square landscaping and inner dual carriageway around the student centre.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: During the final decade of his life, De Quincey labored on a collected edition of his works. Ticknor and Fields, a Boston publishing house, first proposed such a collection and solicited De Quincey's approval and co-operation. It was only when De Quincey, a chronic procrastinator, failed to answer repeated letters from James Thomas Fields that the American publisher proceeded independently, reprinting the author's works from their original magazine appearances. Twenty-two volumes of "De Quincey's Writings" were issued from 1851 to 1859.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: The existence of the American edition prompted a corresponding British edition. Since the spring of 1850, De Quincey had been a regular contributor to an Edinburgh periodical called "Hogg's Weekly Instructor", whose publisher, James Hogg, undertook to publish "Selections Grave and Gay from Writings Published and Unpublished by Thomas De Quincey". De Quincey edited and revised his works for the Hogg edition; the 1856 second edition of the "Confessions" was prepared for inclusion in "Selections Grave and Gay…". The first volume of that edition appeared in May 1853, and the fourteenth and last in January 1860, a month after the author's death.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Both of these were multi-volume collections, yet made no pretense to be complete. Scholar and editor David Masson attempted a more definitive collection: "The Works of Thomas De Quincey" appeared in fourteen volumes in 1889 and 1890. Yet De Quincey's writings were so voluminous and widely dispersed that further collections followed: two volumes of "The Uncollected Writings" (1890), and two volumes of "Posthumous Works" (1891–93). De Quincey's 1803 diary was published in 1927. Another volume, "New Essays by De Quincey", appeared in 1966.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: His immediate influence extended to Edgar Allan Poe, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, Charles Baudelaire and Nikolai Gogol, but even major 20th-century writers such as Jorge Luis Borges admired and claimed to be partly influenced by his work. Berlioz also loosely based his "Symphonie fantastique" on "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater", drawing on the theme of the internal struggle with one's self.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Dario Argento used De Quincey's "Suspiria", particularly "Levana and Our Ladies of Sorrow", as an inspiration for his "Three Mothers" trilogy of films, which include "Suspiria", "Inferno" and "The Mother of Tears". This influence carried over into Luca Guadagnino's 2018 version of the film.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: Shelby Hughes created "Jynxies Natural Habitat", an online archive of stamp art on glassine heroin bags, under the pseudonym "Dequincey Jinxey", in reference to De Quincey. She also used the pseudonym in interviews related to the archive.


title: Thomas De Quincey

text: De Quincey's accomplished mastery of Greek was widely known and respected in the 1800s. Treadwell Walden, Episcopal priest and sometime rector of St. Paul's Church, Boston, quotes a letter from De Quincey's "Autobiographic Sketches" in support of his 1881 treatise about the mistranslation of the word metanoia into "repent" by most English translations of the Bible.


title: Renault R35

text: The Renault R35, an abbreviation of "Char léger Modèle 1935 R" or R 35, was a French light infantry tank of the Second World War.


title: Renault R35

text: Designed from 1933 onwards and produced from 1936, the type was intended as an infantry support light tank, equipping autonomous tank battalions, that would be allocated to individual infantry divisions to assist them in executing offensive operations. To this end it was relatively well-armoured but slow and lacking a good antitank-capacity, fitted with a short 37 mm gun. At the outbreak of the war, the antitank-role was more emphasized leading to the development and eventual production from April 1940 of a subtype with a more powerful longer gun, the Renault R40. It was planned to shift new production capacity to the manufacture of other, faster, types, but due to the defeat of France the R35/40 remained the most numerous French tank of the war, about 1685 vehicles having been produced by June 1940. At that moment it had also been exported to Poland, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia. For the remainder of the war Germany and its allies would use captured vehicles, some of them rebuilt into tank destroyers.


title: Renault R35

text: The development plan of 1926 foresaw the introduction of a "char d'accompagnement", a cheap mass-produced light tank to replace the Renault FT of World War I vintage, to make it possible for the standard infantry divisions to execute combined arms infiltration tactics, seen as the only viable method of modern offensive warfare left for non-motorised units. The French army did not have the means to motorise more than a few select divisions. In 1930 this plan was replaced by a new one, giving more precise specifications. The first tank to be developed to fulfil its requirements, the Char D1, proved to be neither cheap nor particularly light. In 1933, "Hotchkiss" offered an alternative solution, the later Hotchkiss H35. For political reasons this proposal was turned into the "Plan 1933" and the whole of French industry was in August 1933 invited to propose possible designs. Fourteen companies responded (among which "Delaunay-Belleville") and five submitted a prototype: "Hotchkiss" itself, the "Compagnie Général de Construction des Locomotives", APX, FCM and of course France's prime tank producer: Renault. Fearing that his rival Hotchkiss might well replace him as such, Louis Renault hurried to finish a vehicle; construction was soon in such an advanced stage that the changes in specification issued on 21 June 1934, to increase armour thickness from 30 to 40 mm, could not be implemented. On 20 December 1934 Renault was the first to deliver a prototype, with the project name of Renault ZM, to the "Commission de Vincennes".


title: Renault R35

text: In the spring of 1935 this vehicle was refitted with heavier armour and a standard APX turret, attached by the "Atelier de Rueil" between 18 and 25 April. The prototype was still being tested when international tensions increased due to German re-armament. This prompted an urgent demand for swifter modernisation of the French tank fleet. The ZM was to be put into production immediately. On 29 April 1935 an order of 300 was made, even before the final model could be finished, at a price of 190,000 French franc per hull (unarmed, without the engine and turret, the overall export price was ca. 1,400,000 francs in 1939, that is ca. 32,000 dollars by 1939 standards). The first series production vehicle was delivered on 4 June 1936 and had to be extensively tested again as it was different from the prototype.


title: Renault R35

text: To save time, Renault based the suspension and running gear on that of the AMR 35 that was designed for the cavalry. It had five wheels at each side, fitted with horizontal leaf springs, like the AMC 35.


title: Renault R35

text: The hull, with a length of 4.02 m, consisted of three cast modules, with a maximum armour thickness of 43 millimetres, that were bolted together. Total weight was 10.6 metric tonnes (9.8 tonnes without fuel and ammunition). The bottom module carried on each side an independently sprung front wheel, two bogies and the driving sprocket at the extreme front. The final drive and differentials were housed at the right in the nose module. It was steered through a Cletrac differential with five gears and by engaging the brakes. The driver was seated somewhat to the left and had two hatches. The Renault V-4 85 hp engine was to the right in the short rear with the self sealing 166 litre fuel tank at its left. It rendered a road speed of 20 km/h and a range of 130 km. Cross-country speed did not exceed 14 km/h and the fuel consumption totaled 212 litre/100 km. From 1940 onward they were fitted with AMX tails to help in trench crossing.


title: Renault R35

text: The cast APX hexagonal turret had a 30 mm thick domed rotatable cupola with vertical vision slits (the highest point of 2.13 m) and had to be either hand cranked or moved about by the weight of the commander, the only other crew member. There was sometimes unofficially a seat installed for him but he most often stood. The rear of the turret had a hatch that hinged down that could be used as a seat to improve observation. The earliest vehicles were fitted with the APX-R turret (with the L713 sight) mounting the short Puteaux 37 mm L/21 SA18 gun (the first batches were removed from Renault FT tanks which were then rebuilt as utility vehicles) and the 7.5 mm Châtellerault fortress machine gun. The cannon had a very poor armour penetration: only 12 mm at 500 metres. Afterwards the APX turret with the same cannon but the improved L739 sight and the standard Châtellerault 7.5 mm MAC31 Reibel machine gun was used because of delivery delays of the original weapon. There were also so many delays in the production of the turrets that after the first 380 hulls had been produced in 1936 and only 37 could be fitted with a turret, production was slowed down to 200 annually. The 7.5 mm machine gun's spent cartridges (from a total of 2,400) went down a chute through a hole in the floor. The tank carried 42 armour piercing and 58 high explosive rounds.


title: Renault R35

text: The R 35 at first had no radio, except for the second battalion of the "507e Régiment de Chars de Combat" (of Charles de Gaulle), but the R 40 had the ER 54 installed. However, this added to the already heavy task load of the commander, who also acted as gunner and loader.


title: Renault R35

text: In 1937 it had become obvious the original suspension system was unreliable and ineffective. After many trials it was replaced in the 1940 production run, after the 1540 vehicles had been built with the original design, by an AMX system using twelve wheels fitted with six vertical springs (AMX was the new name of the military division of Renault nationalised on 2 December 1936). About the same time the radio and a much more powerful gun were introduced. The long-barrelled L/35 37 mm SA38 in the adapted cast APX-R1 turret (with L767 sight) gave it an effective anti-tank capacity: 40 mm at 500 metres. The new combination was named the "Char léger modèle 1935 R modifié 1939" but is more commonly known as the Renault R40. It was delivered in time to equip one battalion of the Polish 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade of the Polish Army in France and the last two French tank battalions to be formed. It was intended to fit the R 40 with the welded FCM turret in the second half of 1940, while refitting all existing R 35s with the longer SA 38 gun and bringing R 40 production levels up to 120 per month for the duration of the war. From January 1940, the vehicles of light tank unit commanders were gradually uparmed with the longer gun; but as absolute priority was given to tanks serving in armoured divisions, which were of the Hotchkiss type, of the 273 platoon, company and battalion commanders eligible in Renault units, only a few if any received this "R 39". The only official possible exception to the rule that Hotchkiss tanks had to be modified first was made on 12 February 1940 when it was ordered to replace the turrets of 24 Infantry tanks, without specifying the type, present in depot or driver schools in order to obtain older turrets to be fitted on R 35 export vehicles. In the same period a crash programme was executed to produce 200,000 armour piercing rounds per month for the shorter gun, as there had been only minimal stocks of this ammunition type.


title: Renault R35

text: Several projects were based on the R 35 such as a number of fascine carriers: these had frames or other contraptions mounted over the hull or turret with a fascine in them that could be dropped to fill trenches.


title: Renault R35

text: The R35 was intended to replace the Renault FT as standard light infantry tank from the summer of 1936, but even by May 1940 not enough conscripts had been retrained and therefore eight battalions of the older tank had to be kept operational. On 1 September 1939, at the outbreak of war, 975 vehicles had been delivered out of 1070 produced; 765 were fielded by tank battalions in France, 49 used for drive training, 33 were in depot and 45 present in the colonies. Of a total order for 2,300 at least 1,601 had been produced until 1 June 1940 — the numbers for that month are lacking — of which 245 had been exported: to Poland (50), Turkey (100; two batches of fifty each in February and March 1940), Romania (41 from an order for 200), and Yugoslavia (54). It is likely that the tanks exported to Yugoslavia (in April 1940) are not included under the 1,601 total and that overall production was 1,685; serial numbers known to be actually used indicate a production of at least 1670 vehicles.


title: Renault R35

text: As the threat of war became apparent and the production rate of Polish 7TP tank was insufficient, it was decided to buy vehicles abroad. Poles were most interested in French SOMUA S35 tanks, but the proposal was refused by the French government. In 1938 the Polish Army bought one (according to other sources, two or three) R35 tank for testing. After a series of tests it was found that the design was disappointing: the engine was overheating, the suspension was tough, and armament insufficient. In April 1939 it was finally decided to buy a hundred R35 tanks as an emergency measure. The first shipment of fifty (other sources lower the number to 49) arrived in Poland in July 1939, along with three Hotchkiss H35 tanks bought for testing. In August they were mostly put into service with the Łuck-based 12th Armoured Battalion. At the beginning of the Invasion of Poland 45 (or 46) tanks formed the core of the newly created 21st Light Tank Battalion that was part of the general reserve of the Commander in Chief. The unit was to defend the Romanian Bridgehead, but was divided after the Soviet invasion of Poland of 17 September. Late September the unit was withdrawn to defend the Romanian Bridgehead. Subsequently, 34 tanks were withdrawn to Romania. Six tanks were attached to the 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade in Stanisławów (today Ivano-Frankivsk); they forced their way through Kolomyia and three vehicles crossed the Hungarian border. The remaining tanks - four R35s and three H35s - were put into service with the improvised "Dubno" Operational Group and took part in the battles of Krasne on 19 September (with the Soviets) and Kamionka Strumiłowa (with the Germans), during which all were destroyed. The second shipment of R35s did not reach Poland prior to the outbreak of World War II. They were diverted by the French to Syria.


title: Renault R35

text: As part of a rearmament program of the late 1930s, Romania sought to obtain a license for the local manufacture of two hundred French Renault R35 infantry tanks. By early 1938, negotiations for establishing a factory for the production of R35 tanks had reached an advanced state. By this time France's own demands for rearmament prohibited further development, however. In August and September 1939, as a stopgap measure, forty-one R35s were supplied to the Royal Romanian Army. These tanks served as the principal tank of the newly formed 2nd Armoured Regiment. At the end of September 1939, an additional thirty-four brand new R35s passed into Romanian hands when the Polish 21st Light Tank Battalion ("Batalion Czołgów Lekkich", or BCL) chose internment over capture following the German conquest of Poland and fled over the Romanian border. With seventy-five tanks on strength, the 2nd Armoured Regiment expanded into two battalions.


title: Renault R35

text: After the Battle of Stalingrad, the Romanians decided that the R 35s required significant improvement of their anti-tank capacity. At first, the turret of an R 35 of the 2nd Tank Regiment of the 1st Tank Division was swapped for the turret of a captured Soviet T-26. Ultimately, at the beginning of 1943, it was decided to keep the thicker armor of the French turret. Thus, the 45 mm gun of the T-26 was adopted as a replacement for the original 37 mm gun. The Soviet gun was attached to the French turret with the help of an extension which contained the recoil mechanism of the 45 mm piece. The downside to this was that, following these modifications, there was no longer enough space in the turret to keep the coaxial machine gun, which was thus removed. A Romanian-produced 47 mm Schneider gun was also proposed. The upgraded tanks were adopted as tank destroyers under the designation "Vânătorul de care R35" (VDC 35; meaning "R35 tank hunter"), with thirty R35s converted until June 1944 by the Leonida factory in Bucharest. The Soviet 45 mm guns were taken from captured T-26 and BT-7 tanks. They were refurbished at the Army Arsenal in Târgoviște while the new gun mounts containing the recoil mechanism were made at the Concordia Works in Ploiești. These vehicles served until the end of the war. A significant amount of the original French-made parts, from both the original and converted R35 tanks, was replaced by Romanian-produced spares in 1941-1942. Romanian factories produced drive sprockets, drive shafts, tracks, new metal-rimmed road wheels and cylinder heads. The wheels were designed locally to be ten times more durable. Added to these were the gun mounts for the 45 mm guns, added as turret extensions, which contained the recoil mechanism. Thus, the Romanian-converted R35 had significant Romanian-manufactured parts in its hull, transmission and turret.


title: Renault R35

text: There were sixty R35 tanks in the Romanian inventory on 19 July 1944, thirty of which had been rearmed with 45 mm guns.


title: Renault R35

text: On 10 May 1940, on the eve of the German invasion, in mainland France the R 35 equipped 21 battalions, each fielding 45 vehicles. This gave 945 R 35/R 40 tanks in the French front line units. Of these, 900 were originally allocated at Army level in "Groupements de Bataillons de Chars" consisting of several battalions:


title: Renault R35

text: These pure tank units had no organic infantry or artillery component and thus had to cooperate with infantry divisions. However, 135 R35s (2, 24 and the new 44 BCC) were allocated on 15 May to the provisional 4th DCR ("Division Cuirassée"). Two more new battalions, the 40th and 48th "Bataillion de Chars de Combat", though still not having completed training, were used to reinforce 2nd DCR, the first equipped with 15 R35s and 30 R40s, the second with 16 R35s and 29 R40s bringing the total organic strength to 1035. In addition the 1st and 2nd Tank Battalion of the Polish 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade, at first training with Renault FTs, were equipped with 17 R35s and about 24 R40s in late May; in June the R40s had been given back but replaced by 28 new ones. At the same time 1, 6, 25, 34 and 39 BCC were used to reconstitute 1DCR, 10 BCC reinforced 3DCR and 25 BCC was reconstituted with 21 R35s and 24 (ex-Polish) R40s. As about 300 tanks from the materiel reserve were issued to these units as well, around 800 of the 1440 available R35s ended up in armoured divisions after all.


title: Renault R35

text: Two R35 battalions (63 and 68 BCC) with 45 and 50 tanks respectively were in Syria, a French mandate territory, and 30 were in Morocco, 26 serving with 62 BCC and four in depot. The tanks in Syria would fight during the allied invasion of that mandate territory in 1941 and then partly be taken over by the Free French "1e CCC", those in North Africa during Operation Torch in November 1942.


title: Renault R35

text: The majority (843) of R35s fell into German hands; 131 were used as such as "Panzerkampfwagen 35R 731 (f)", issued to panzer units and mainly used for security duties or driver training, or used on armoured trains; most were later rebuilt as artillery tractors and ammunition carriers after removing the turret.


title: Renault R35

text: A considerable number, 174 according to some sources, were converted into a 47 mm tank destroyer to replace the Panzerjäger I: the "4,7 cm PaK(t) auf Panzerkampfwagen 35R(f) ohne Turm". The tank destroyer version had the turret replaced with an armoured superstructure mounting a 47mm kanon P.U.V. vz. 36 (Škoda A6) anti-tank gun. The vehicles were converted by Alkett between May to October 1941 to try and make an equivalent vehicle to the Panzerjäger I. The result was not as successful as the Panzerjäger I, mainly due to the slow speed of the R 35 and the overloaded chassis. A few were deployed in Operation Barbarossa, most were deployed in occupied territories, such as the Channel Islands, The Netherlands (with Pz.Jg.Abt.657, part of Pz Kompanie 224) and France. They fought in the battles for Normandy with "Schnelle Brigade 30" in 1944 (five attached to the 3rd company, "Schnelle Abteilung 517"), and around Arnhem with Pz.Jg.Abt. 657. Other possible users include 346 Inf. Div. in Normandy and 59th Inf. Div who fought the 101st Airborne during Operation Market Garden.


title: Renault R35

text: Some of the turrets removed from the tanks were used on defensive fighting positions known as "Tobruks". This gave the Tobruk enhanced firepower and the gunner protection from shrapnel and small arms.


title: Renault R35

text: Fourteen R 35 tanks, used to train tank drivers, equipped the "100. Panzer-Ersatz-Bataillon" (100th Panzer Replacement Battalion) in the German Seventh Army in 1944. On 6 June 1944, they were among the first "Armee-Reserve" units sent into combat near Sainte-Mère-Église to oppose the American airborne landings in Normandy. Supporting a counterattack by the 1057th Grenadier Regiment, R35s penetrated the command post of the U.S. 1st Battalion 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment before being destroyed by bazooka fire.


title: Renault R35

text: The Royal Italian Army received 124 R35s with which the 4th Tank Infantry Regiment formed two battalions. The two battalions were assigned to the 131st Tank Infantry Regiment, which was deployed in January 1942 to Sicily. There, the regiment's CI Tank Battalion "R35" was assigned to the XII Army Corps defending the island's West, while the regiment with the CII Tank Battalion "R35" joined the XVI Army Corps defending the island's South. It used some of its R35s in defence of Gela on Sicily against US Rangers. 5th Battalion, East Yorkshire Regiment was attacked by five R35s as it advanced towards Sortino; four were quickly knocked out but the fifth drove right through the battalion and carried on until it was knocked out by a 105 mm self-propelled gun near Floridia.


title: Renault R35

text: Some of the tanks that Germany captured were given or sold to Germany's allies: Bulgaria received about forty.


title: Renault R35

text: During the Syria-Lebanon Campaign, the Australian 2/6th Cavalry Commando Regiment's 'A' Squadron used four R35s that had been captured from the Vichy French.


title: Renault R35

text: After the German victory over Yugoslavia in 1941, the Independent State of Croatia took over some R35s that had not been destroyed when fighting "11. Panzerdivision" on 13 and 14 April.


title: Renault R35

text: The R 35 saw combat in Syrian hands when five R 35s took part in an unsuccessful Syrian Army attack on the Jewish kibbutz Degania Alef in the Galilee on 20 May 1948. The kibbutz defenders, armed with a 20 mm anti-tank gun and Molotov cocktails, managed to knock out three R 35s, causing the remaining forces to retreat. One of the disabled R 35s remains near the kibbutz today as a memorial of the 1947–1949 Palestine war. A 1991 IDF probe proved that this R35 had been knocked out by a PIAT round.


title: Renault R35

text: The Lebanese Army also incorporated a number of R 35s. Some of the Lebanese vehicles had been rebuilt with a British 40 mm Ordnance QF 2-pounder gun, seeing action in the 1958 Lebanon crisis.


title: Renault R35

text: Some R 35s served after the war in the Gendarmerie, as "R 39s" refitted with SA 38 guns. They were phased out from 1951 in favour of the Sherman tank.


title: Daisuke Hirakawa

text: He has done Japanese voice-overs for two of Orlando Bloom's characters, Will Turner from "Pirates of the Caribbean" and "Kingdom Hearts II", and Legolas from "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy.


title: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (video game)

text: Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith is an action video game based on the . It was released on May 4, 2005, for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and Symbian OS. For the Xbox 360's backwards compatible lineup, "Revenge of the Sith" is one out of the over 400 backwards compatible games for the 360. As part of the PlayStation 2 classics program, the PlayStation 2 version was re-released in Europe on the PlayStation Network on February 11, 2015, and in North America on April 28, 2015.


text: In single-player mode, the player alternates between playing as Anakin Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi, reliving various scenes from the film throughout the game's missions. There are 17 levels, interlaced with over 12 minutes of footage from the film as cutscenes. The game's combat system is heavily concentrated on lightsaber combat. Each of the playable characters (with the exception of the MagnaGuard) is equipped with at least one lightsaber. There are three basic attacks: fast attacks which do the least amount of damage, strong attacks which do more damage but are slower to execute, and slow but incredibly strong critical attacks. These attacks can be mixed to create combination attacks. Attacks can also be charged up for greater strength. One feature of the game is called a Saber Lock - a sequence in which the player's character clashes sabers with an opponent and must overpower them to avoid losing health.


text: The game features an experience system, whereby the player's character can upgrade attacks and gain new ones as they progress through the game. Each ability, with the exception of the Force Dash, can be upgraded to more powerful levels. In addition to offensive techniques, defensive techniques are also available. The player's character automatically deflects a percentage of blaster bolts, but other shots and attacks must be manually deflected. Aside from saber combat and force powers, each character has a number of physical attacks that can be incorporated into combos. Nearly all characters have a kick which can instantly floor opponents. A number of characters also have the ability to punch their opponents. The game environment is interactive, allowing, and in some cases requiring, the player to execute actions such as moving and destroying objects with the lightsaber or force powers.


text: The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of the game feature a multiplayer duel mode, in which two players face off against each other in a lightsaber battle. Players can choose Obi-Wan Kenobi, Anakin Skywalker, Count Dooku, General Grievous, Mace Windu, Cin Drallig or Jedi Padawan Serra Keto. Darth Vader and "Ben Kenobi", circa "Episode IV", can also be unlocked. Each battle can be won with the best of one, three or five rounds, depending on the options chosen. In addition, all characters have equal health and energy, with all status upgrades acquired by Anakin and Obi-Wan in the single-player mode eliminated. However, all of the upgraded techniques and Force Powers are available and each of the other characters has special abilities and maneuvers. In addition to the original costumes found throughout the single-player campaign, each character has a different costume that is used when both players choose the same character. Some of these costumes depict Sith versions of certain Jedi characters.


text: With the successful completion of certain missions in the single-player campaign, bonus scenarios can be unlocked. Each scenario features a different playable character: the MagnaGuard, General Grievous, Yoda, Anakin, or Darth Vader. In addition, there are four cooperative missions in which two players (or one player and a computer-controlled character) work together to defeat enemies. The first three team up Anakin and Obi-Wan for a number of offensive encounters with the Separatists' droid army, while the fourth has Jedi Master Cin Drallig and his favorite student, Serra Keto, teaming up to defeat the clone squadron bent on destroying the Jedi Temple in accordance with Order 66.


text: The handheld versions of the game are played as a 2.5D side-scrolling beat 'em up game, where players can freely choose to play as either Obi-Wan or Anakin, traversing across roughly a dozen levels to battle a variety of enemies and occasionally dodge deadly hazards, such as a laser trap or a missile launcher. Both characters have nearly identical attack moves, and can gain access to special unlockable moves that can be unleashed when a "fury" or "focus" gauge is filled up during battle. A few levels involve boss battles against characters with melee weapons, who usually can only be damaged after the player carefully recognizes and blocks an attack, and some other levels end with a miniboss fight against a vehicle or elite enemy. The Nintendo DS version also exclusively adds extra 3D space battle levels that require the player to shoot down a series of targets or enemies.


text: As with the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions, players are given a chance to upgrade their character's attacks and abilities, unlock new abilities and improve their stats after completing a level. Players purchase upgrades with "customization points", which are found during a level, collected from destroying small portions of the scenery or earned by finishing the level at a quicker pace or with good combat efficiency. Players must deflect all blaster bolts manually by pressing a button, while well-timed presses can allow the player to deflect them straight back.


text: The Game Boy Advance version of the game allows two players to link up and participate in exclusive co-op missions as Anakin and Obi-Wan, or have the two of them fight off endless waves of enemies and see who can survive the longest. The Nintendo DS version exclusively features 3D multiplayer space battles that take advantage of the DS' graphical capabilities and allow players to pilot and battle with iconic vehicles from both the prequel and original eras of "Star Wars", such as the "Millennium Falcon".


text: Anakin Skywalker and Obi-Wan Kenobi arrive on board the "Invisible Hand", the Separatist flagship of General Grievous, who has kidnapped Supreme Chancellor Palpatine above Coruscant. After battling droids in the main hangar bay and while ascending the elevators, the duo arrive at the general's quarters, where Palpatine is being held. However, the two are then confronted by Grievous' master Count Dooku and in the ensuing duel, Obi-Wan is knocked out and Anakin, in violation of Jedi teachings, brutally kills Dooku by running him through with his lightsaber. The pair then escape with Palpatine but are recaptured and brought before Grievous on the ship's bridge. They escape as the badly damaged ship capsizes in orbit and fight off Grievous' bodyguards while the general escapes. Anakin manages to save everyone by crashing the ship on Coruscant.


text: Obi-Wan journeys to Utapau in search of Grievous and confronts him after he dispatches the Separatist council to the planet of Mustafar for safety. Obi-Wan then duels Grievous as Republic Army clones invade and battle the droids. Grievous reaches the launch platform where his ship is situated, but Obi-Wan impales and kills him. Meanwhile, on Coruscant, Anakin discovers Jedi Master Mace Windu preparing to execute Palpatine, who is revealed to be the Sith lord Darth Sidious, in his office. Anakin, who believes Palpatine can help him, intervenes and duels Windu, who attempts to fight off Anakin before returning to finish off the chancellor. Anakin stabs him and throws him out a window to his death; Palpatine then takes Anakin under his wing, dubs him "Darth Vader", and orders him to wipe out all of the Jedi in the Jedi Temple. Darth Vader and an army of clone troopers make their way to the Temple, where he kills librarian Jocasta Nu, initiating the massacre. While the clones mop up the survivors, Vader confronts Serra Keto and crushes her with a pillar. He is then confronted by her master, Cin Drallig, whom he also duels. The two wind up outside of the temple, where Vader impales Drallig through the chest.


text: Across the galaxy, the clones, following orders from Palpatine, turn on their Jedi allies and murder them. Obi-Wan manages to escape from Utapau after being relentlessly hunted by both the droids and his own soldiers. Palpatine orders Vader to go to Mustafar and wipe out the Separatist leaders to eliminate all potential threats to his rule. After brutally cutting down their Neimoidian guards, Vader forces his way into the council chambers, killing Poggle the Lesser, Wat Tambor, and two others as Viceroy Nute Gunray flees for his life. Vader cuts down Gunray's lieutenant Rune Haako, and then catches Gunray trying to escape on his ship, which he destroys and tosses into the planet's lava. Meanwhile, on Coruscant, Obi-Wan & Master Yoda raid the ruins of the Jedi Temple, clearing it of clone soldiers and deactivating a beacon left by them as a trap for other Jedi. Desperate to know who was responsible, Obi-Wan discovers security recordings of Anakin becoming a Sith lord. The recording also reveal Vader's location, so Obi-Wan heads to Mustafar to confront him.


text: The two former friends engage in a ferocious lightsaber duel across the Mustafar facility, which is slowly being destroyed by lava. The two end up on a platform floating down a lava river; Obi-Wan jumps off and demands that his fallen apprentice surrender. An enraged Vader leaps over him, allowing Obi-Wan to slice off his legs and left arm. Vader slides towards the lava and catches on fire; Obi-Wan picks up his fallen lightsaber and leaves him for dead. Palpatine arrives and finds Vader badly injured, but still alive; he has him surgically reconstructed and builds him a special suit. The two oversee the construction of the Death Star as the Republic falls and the Empire is born.


text: In a break from the film's plot, the PS2 and Xbox versions also feature an alternate ending. In the final level, during the battle between Vader and Obi-Wan, the player is given the opportunity to play as Vader, and must defeat Obi-Wan. In this ending, Vader's ill-fated jump is successful and he kills Obi-Wan before kicking his body close to the edge of the lava river. After slaying his former master, Vader returns to Emperor Palpatine and obtains a new, red Sith lightsaber. As the Emperor congratulates him, Vader murders him and takes his place, having been thoroughly corrupted by his new power. This ending is not present in the GBA and DS versions, and the player is instead given the canonical narrative of Vader losing his duel against Obi-Wan and revived by Palpatine in a mechanical suit.


text: The game was aided in development by Nick Gillard, the stunt coordinator and lightsaber fight choreographer for the prequel trilogy films, who consulted on the game's lightsaber combat. In addition, lightsaber expert Cin Drallig, a character portrayed by Gillard, appears in the game as a boss and as a playable character, albeit with a different voice actor. Hayden Christensen also consulted on lightsaber combat and the character of Anakin despite not officially reprising his role in the game.


text: The game utilized many of the cast members of the 2003 animated series "". Additionally, stock footage of the actors from the films appeared in many of the game's cinematics. Alethea McGrath reprised her role as Jocasta Nu from "Attack of the Clones". She and Matthew Wood were the only actors from the films to do so. All other voice actors have either before or since provided voice work in the "Star Wars" universe. James Arnold Taylor, who later voices Obi-Wan Kenobi in the series, provides the voice of Obi-Wan. Mat Lucas provides the voice of Anakin Skywalker, having also doubled for Christensen in the video game and "" as well as in the 2003 "Clone Wars" series. Voice actor Corey Burton, primary talent for the animated version of Count Dooku, voices various minor characters as well as Dooku himself. General Grievous is voiced by Matthew Wood, who also provided his voice in the game's and the 2008 "Clone Wars" series. Terrence C. Carson voices Mace Windu and Nick Jameson voices Chancellor Palpatine/Darth Sidious and Ben Kenobi. Scott Lawrence, best known for his role as Sturgis Turner on the CBS series "JAG" provides the voice for Darth Vader. Yoda and Cin Drallig are both voiced by Tom Kane, who also provides additional voices. Finally, Serra Keto is voiced by Kari Wahlgren. A mobile port for phones running Symbian OS was released on April 2, 2005.


text: The game received mixed reviews upon release. GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 71.85% and 73 out of 100 for the DS version; 71.41% and 73 out of 100 for the Game Boy Advance version; 65.85% and 61 out of 100 for the Xbox version; and 64.53% and 60 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version.


text: Ivan Sullic of "IGN" rated the PS2 and Xbox versions 4.5 out of ten. He criticised the camera, the combo-system, the graphics, level design, AI and, most specifically, the implementation of the combat-based gameplay. GameSpy gave the game a better review, awarding the same versions 4 out of 5. "GameSpot" also rated the same versions of the game 6.3 out of 10.


text: "Maxim" gave the PS2 and Xbox versions a score of eight out of ten and stated that "Like the movie itself, the game's surprisingly good and full of decent action as you use Jedi skills in a barrage of lightsaber battles to win one for good or evil." However, "Detroit Free Press" gave the latter version a score of two stars out of four and said that "Flawed gameplay that borders on monotonous is this game's menace. While the lightsaber fighting scheme is actually fairly deep, especially when you mix in grapple attacks, force tricks and counterattacks on top of counterattacks, I rarely used most of these goodies." "The Sydney Morning Herald" also gave the former version a score of two-and-a-half stars out of five and stated that "the offensive moves cannot stop the game from feeling repetitive. Shield door "puzzles" are recycled, while brief turret-blasting interludes are dull."


text: The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of "Revenge of the Sith" received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 400,000 copies in PAL regions.


title: Echis carinatus

text: Echis carinatus, known as the saw-scaled viper, Indian saw-scaled viper, little Indian viper, and by other common names, is a viper species found in parts of the Middle East and Central Asia, and especially the Indian subcontinent. It is the smallest member of the "big four" Indian snakes that are responsible for causing the most snakebite cases and deaths, due to various factors including their frequent occurrence in highly populated regions, and their inconspicuous nature. Like all vipers, the species is venomous. Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.


title: Echis carinatus

text: Head distinct from neck, snout very short and rounded. The nostril between three shields, and head covered with small keeled scales, among which an enlarged supraocular is sometimes present. There are 9-14 interocular scales across the top of the head and 14-21 circumorbital scales. 1-3 rows of scales separate the eye from the supralabials. There are 10-12 supralabials, the fourth usually largest, and 10-13 sublabials.


title: Echis carinatus

text: Midbody there are 25-39 rows of dorsal scales that are keeled scales with apical pits; on the flanks, these have serrated keels. There are 143-189 ventral scales that are rounded and cover the full width of the belly. The subcaudals are undivided and number 21-52, and the anal scale is single.


title: Echis carinatus

text: The color-pattern consists of a pale buff, grayish, reddish, olive or pale brown ground color, overlaid middorsally with a series of variably colored, but mostly whitish spots, edged with dark brown, and separated by lighter interblotch patches. A series of white bows run dorsolaterally. The top of the head has a whitish cruciform or trident pattern and there is a faint stripe running from the eye to the angle of the jaw. The belly is whitish to pinkish, uniform in color or with brown dots that are either faint or distinct.


title: Echis carinatus

text: "Echis carinatus" is endemic to Asia. On the Indian subcontinent it is found in India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Pakistan (including Urak near Quetta and Astola Island off the coast of Makran). In the Middle East it is found in Oman, Masirah (Island), eastern United Arab Emirates, Iraq, and southwestern Iran. In Central Asia it is found in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan.


title: Echis carinatus

text: The type locality was not included in the original description by Schneider (1801). However a locality had been given as "Arni" (India) by Russell (1796:3).


title: Echis carinatus

text: "Echis carinatus" is found on a range of different substrates, including sand, rock, soft soil and in scrublands. Often found hiding under loose rocks. Specimens have also been found in Balochistan at altitudes of up to 1982 m.


title: Echis carinatus

text: "Echis carinatus" is mostly crepuscular and nocturnal, although there have been reports of activity during daylight hours. During the daytime they hide in various locations, such as deep mammal burrows, rock fissures and fallen rotted logs. In sandy environments, they may bury themselves leaving only the head exposed. Often, they are most active after rains or on humid nights. This species is often found climbing in bushes and shrubs, sometimes as much as 2 m above the ground. When it rains, up to 80% of the adult population will climb into bushes and trees. Once, it was observed that approximately 20 individuals had massed on top of a single cactus or small shrub.


title: Echis carinatus

text: "Echis carinatus" is one of the species responsible for causing the most snakebite cases due to their inconspicuous and extremely aggressive nature.


title: Echis carinatus

text: Its characteristic pose, a double coil with a figure of eight, with the head poised in the center, permits it to lash out like a released spring.


title: Echis carinatus

text: They move about mainly by sidewinding: a method at which they are considerably proficient and alarmingly quick. They are also capable of other forms of locomotion, but sidewinding seems to be best suited to moving about in their usual sandy habitats. It may also keep them from overheating too quickly, as there are only two points of contact with the hot surface in this form of locomotion.


title: Echis carinatus

text: "Echis carinatus" feeds on rodents, lizards, frogs, and a variety of arthropods, such as scorpions, centipedes and large insects. Diet may be varied according to availability of prey. High populations in some areas may be due to this generalist diet.


title: Echis carinatus

text: The population of "E. carinatus" in India is ovoviviparous. In northern India, mating takes place in the winter with live young being born from April through August. Occasionally, births have also been recorded in other months. A litter usually consists of 3 to 15 young that are 115–152 mm in length. Mallow "et al." (2003) mention a maximum litter size of 23.


title: Echis carinatus

text: "Echis carinatus" produces on average about 18 mg of dry venom by weight, with a recorded maximum of 72 mg. It may inject as much as 12 mg, whereas the lethal dose for an adult is estimated to be only 5 mg. Envenomation results in local symptoms as well as severe systemic symptoms that may prove fatal. Local symptoms include swelling and pain, which appear within minutes of a bite. In very bad cases the swelling may extend up the entire affected limb within 12–24 hours and blisters form on the skin. The venom yield from individual specimens varies considerably, as does the quantity injected per bite. The mortality rate from their bites is about 20%, and due to the availability of the anti-venom, deaths are currently quite rare.


title: Echis carinatus

text: Of the more dangerous systemic symptoms, hemorrhage and coagulation defects are the most striking. Hematemesis, melena, hemoptysis, hematuria and epistaxis also occur and may lead to hypovolemic shock. Almost all patients develop oliguria or anuria within a few hours to as late as 6 days post bite. In some cases, kidney dialysis is necessary due to acute kidney injury (AKI), but this is not often caused by hypotension. It is more often the result of intravascular hemolysis, which occurs in about half of all cases. In other cases, ARF is often caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation.


title: Echis carinatus

text: In any case, antivenin therapy and intravenous hydration within hours of the bite are vital for survival. At least eight different polyvalent and monovalent antivenins are available against bites from this species.


title: Echis carinatus

text: The venom from this species is used in the manufacture of several drugs. One is called "echistatin", which is an anticoagulant. Even though many other snake venoms contain similar toxins, "echistatin" is not only especially potent, but also simplistic in structure, which makes it easier to replicate. Indeed, it is obtained not only through the purification of whole venom, but also as a product of chemical synthesis. Another drug made from "E. carinatus" venom is called "ecarin" and is the primary reagent in the ecarin clotting time (ECT) test, which is used to monitor anticoagulation during treatment with hirudin. Yet another drug produced from "E. carinatus" venom is Aggrastat (Tirofiban).


title: Echis carinatus

text: As of November 2016, an antivenom is currently being developed by the Costa Rican Clodomiro Picado Institute, and clinical trial phase in Sri Lanka.


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: Hilary Hollis Rhoda (born April 6, 1987) is an American model. She is perhaps best known for her work with the brand Estée Lauder and her 2009, 2010 and 2011 appearances in the "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue".


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: Rhoda was born in Chevy Chase, Maryland, and raised there and in Rye, New York. She has Irish ancestry. As a high-school student at the Academy of the Holy Cross in Maryland she was on the field hockey and basketball teams as a three-year varsity athlete, and as a member of the Washington Catholic Athletic Conference championship team she earned honors and was awarded best offensive player. Recruited by several colleges to play field hockey, Rhoda deferred her college acceptances after she began a career in modeling during her sophomore year.


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: Rhoda was discovered at a ProScout event in Washington, D.C. She soon appeared in ads for Hollister and Abercrombie, before switching to Click Model Management and then to IMG Models, globally. She is currently represented by IMG Models in New York.


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: She was featured in the 2011 Max Mara AW campaign. She previously appeared in advertisements for Balenciaga, Valentino, Belstaff, Dolce & Gabbana, Givenchy, Donna Karan, Gucci, Gap, DSquared², Shiatzy Chen, Blumarine, and Ralph Lauren, and in Victoria's Secret catalogs. She has also appeared on the covers of American "Vogue", "Vogue Italia", "Vogue" Paris, British "Harper's Bazaar", "Time", "Numéro", and "W". In particular, for the May 2007 issue of American "Vogue", Rhoda was featured on the cover with fellow models Doutzen Kroes, Caroline Trentini, Raquel Zimmermann, Sasha Pivovarova, Agyness Deyn, Coco Rocha, Jessica Stam, Chanel Iman, and Lily Donaldson as the "World’s Next Top Models."


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: In January 2007, Rhoda signed an exclusive contract with Estée Lauder as their newest face. In July that year, earning at an estimated total of $2 million in the prior 12 months, "Forbes" named her 12th in their list of The World's 15 Top-Earning Supermodels. She is the current face of Via Spiga, St. John Knits (replacing Angelina Jolie), ERES Beachwear, and the Neiman Marcus spring/summer 2009 campaigns. 2009 also marked Rhoda's debut in "Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Edition".


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: Rhoda was selected to model the Hope Diamond in the Embrace Hope necklace on November 18, 2010, for the 50th anniversary on display at the Smithsonian. She also appeared in Victoria's Secret's Fashion Show 2012.


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: Rhoda dated former New York Jets quarterback Mark Sanchez for several years, including appearing with him in a GQ photo shoot showing the two in many intimate poses.


title: Hilary Rhoda

text: Rhoda announced on November 13, 2013, that she was engaged to former National Hockey League player Sean Avery. They were married at the Parrish Art Museum in New York on October 10, 2015. She announced she was expecting their first child in 2020. Their son, Nash Hollis Avery, was born on July 28, 2020.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain (; ; born 17 September 1953 in Karachi) is a British Pakistani politician who is known as the founder of the Muttahida Qaumi Movement. He holds United Kingdom citizenship and has been living in exile in the United Kingdom since the start of Operation Clean-up. Since 2015, he has been a fugitive from the Anti Terrorism Court of Pakistan on the charges of murder, targeted killings, treason, inciting violence and hate speeches. He is due to go on trial in the United Kingdom in January 2022 for promoting terrorism and unrest through hate speech in Pakistan. He fled the country in 1992 after a crackdown against his party was launched.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain was born on 17 September 1953 to Nazir Hussain and Khurseed Begum in Karachi. Before the independence of Pakistan, Hussain's parents resided at their ancestral home in Nai ki Mandi, Agra, U.P., British India. His father was an officer with the Indian Railways. His paternal grandfather Mohammad Ramazan was the Grand Mufti of Agra and his maternal grandfather Pir Haji Hafiz Rahim Bakhsh Qadri was a religious scholar. Hussain's siblings include four sisters and six brothers.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Following the partition of India in 1947, a wide-scale migration of Muslims ensued, mostly from the various states in the Dominion of India to the newly established Dominion of Pakistan. Hussain's parents were initially reluctant to leave everything behind in Agra to resettle in Pakistan but were later forced by Hussain's elder brother to reconsider. Upon emigrating to Pakistan, the family settled in Karachi. They were provided with government housing in Abyssinia Lines reserved for "muhajirs" (people and families migrating from the Dominion of India).


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Hussain's elder brother Nasir Hussain was later employed by the government and given a small quarter on Jehangir Road. The family subsequently left their government allotted residence and moved in with Nasir. The family later moved residence again in the 1970s to a small house in Azizabad, which later became the headquarters of Hussain's political party, the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM; Muhajir Qaumi Movement).


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Hussain received his early education from the Government Comprehensive School in Azizabad. He later enrolled in the Government Boys Secondary School to complete his matriculation in 1969. For the first year of his intermediate education in pre-medical sciences, he attended the National College Karachi. He later moved to City College Karachi for his second year.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: In 1974, Hussain graduated from the Islamia Science College with a Bachelor of Science. In 1979, he graduated from the University of Karachi with a Bachelor of Pharmacy. After graduating from the university, Hussain began his career as a trainee at the Seventh-day Adventist Hospital in Karachi while simultaneously working for a multinational pharmaceutical company.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: In 1970, General Yahya Khan introduced the National Service Cadet Scheme (NSCS), making it compulsory for higher secondary scholars to enlist with the army. According to the MQM, Altaf Hussain enlisted with the Pakistan Army through the NSCS and his services were assigned to the 57th Baloch Regiment as soldier number 2642671. Upon completion of his training, his regiment was assigned from Hyderabad to Karachi from where it was sent to East Pakistan via ships.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: After 1971 Indo-Pak war came to an end, Hussain returned to West Pakistan to join wilfully with the regular army. In the version of events told by the MQM, the selection officer rejected Hussain's selection because his parents were 'muhajirs' from India even when Hussain insisted he was born in Pakistan. This is quoted as one of the many instances that formulated Hussain's future political aspirations.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: The political strife of the All Pakistan Muhajir Students Organization (APMSO) bifurcated into the issue of stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh, and on 14 August 1979, Hussain participated in a demonstration at the Mazar-e-Quaid for the safe return of stranded Pakistanis, also called the Biharis. Following the demonstration, Hussain was arrested and sentenced on 2 October 1979 to 9 months imprisonment and flogging with five strokes. Hussain was later released on 28 April 1980 after he had served his sentence.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: The urban centres of Karachi and Hyderabad had increasingly become ethnically diverse and riots along ethnic lines were commonplace. In May 1985, a Pathan minivan driver struck and killed a muhajir schoolgirl, inciting the first Pathan-Muhajir ethnic riot. Later, following an unsuccessful raid on an Afghan heroin processing and distribution centre in Sohrab Goth by the army, Pathan and Afghan terrorists turned their ire on muhajir residents of Aligarh Colony.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: The Aligarh Colony massacre instigated the bloody riots of November–December 1986. These riots saw the popularity of MQM and its leader Altaf Hussain rise and the party's ideology was greatly influenced as a result.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Before October 1986, the urban city of Hyderabad was largely dominated by the Sindhi nationalist party Jeay Sindh Qaumi Mahaz (JSQM) founded by G. M. Syed, giving rise to the nationalist slogan "Sindhu Desh" ("Sindhi nation"). The only Muhajir political movement countering the JSQM were led by Syed Mubarak Ali Shah of the Moti Mahal family, Nawab Zahid Ali Khan and Nawab Muzaffar Hussain. After the death of these Muhajir stalwarts, the Urdu-speaking people of Hyderabad yearned for a charismatic Muhajir leadership.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: On 31 October 1986, Altaf Hussain gave his first public address in Hyderabad at the site of the historic Pacco Qillo, where he was greeted by throngs of crowds. After his address, his message was well received by the Urdu-speaking people of Hyderabad and Hussain was able to fill the void left by the deaths of Muhajir leaders. Hussain and a few of his companions were arrested by security personnel after his address, implicating him in several alleged criminal cases. His arrest enraged his supporters, who launched public movements for his release. The charges against Hussain and his companions were later dropped and they were released from the Central Prison Karachi on 24 February 1987.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: In 1987 the government began widespread arrests of Mutahidda Qaumi Movement workers all over Sindh. Altaf Hussain surrendered to law enforcement agencies on 30 August 1987 on the condition that the further arrests of his party's workers would be stopped immediately. During Hussain's imprisonment, MQM placed highly in the local bodies election of 1987, and there was pressure to release Hussain. He was released on 7 January 1988.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: In early 1987, Altaf Hussain issued MQM's Charter of Resolutions (Qarardad-i-Maqasid), which formed the basis for the party's ideology. The MQM charter was paramount in expressing many of the "long-standing grievances" of Sindhi nationalists, and a cooperative arrangement was worked out between the MQM and various Sindhi nationalist parties in early 1988. Apart from the points stipulated in the party's original resolution, Hussain also introduced the idea of Muhajir being a "fifth subnationality" alongside the Punjabis, Pathans, Baloch, Sindhis.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain revealed that while he was admitted in Abbasi Shaheed Hospital in 1988, Late Hameed Gul (ISI chief at the time) a sent briefcase full of money through Brigadier (R) Imtiaz Ahmed and tried to bribe him in joining Pakistan military establishment led IJI coalition which was against PPP but he rejected the offer. Later both Brigadier (R) Imtiaz and Hameed Gul also confirmed the statement.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: The 1988 general elections proved that the voting patterns in Sindh were based on ethnic lines, where the Pakistan People's Party and the MQM won almost all of the province's seats in the National Assembly. The PPP had derived its support from the Sindhi population in the province, and the MQM from the Muhajirs. At this point in time, in less than four years of its making, MQM emerged as the third-largest political party in Pakistan.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: PPP had been successful in Sindh but didn't fare quite well in the other provinces, therefore having to resort to forming a coalition government. Hussain and his party MQM offered their support, but insisted on a formal agreement between the PPP and the MQM. This 59-point MQM-PPP accord, known as the Karachi Declaration, was signed on 2 December 1988. It reiterated many of the points defined in the earlier MQM charter. However, when Benazir Bhutto came into power, she was unwilling or unable to commit to her part of the bargain. Her reluctance in this matter was largely interpreted by muhajirs as pro-Sindhi and rather anti-Muhajir. When the declaration was not implemented, violence erupted between APMSO and the PSF, the student wings of the MQM and the PPP.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Shunned by Bhutto's disavowal, Altaf Hussain approached Nawaz Sharif, leader of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI). The IJI was an opposition coalition eager to topple Bhutto's government. As a result of their meeting, a formal agreement between the MQM and the IJI came to pass. However, when Sharif later came into power, he couldn't honour those commitments either. Hussain became increasingly harsh and hostile in his opinions regarding the governing parties and would often accuse them of political hypocrisy. Seeing that striving for justice in a constitutional capacity was futile, ethnic militancy thrived. The gulf between Muhajirs and Sindhis widened, leading to several cases of "ethnic cleansing" in Hyderabad.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Hussain favours peace between India and Pakistan and has always been a vocal advocate of bridging gaps between the two neighbouring rivals.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain, while living in exile in the UK, has urged Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi to grant him and his colleagues asylum in India or at least some financial assistance to take his case to the International Court of Justice.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: On the issue of Kashmir, Hussain stated that Indo-Pak dialogue should be allowed to "proceed on the basis of mutual adjustment and agreement...[and] It should be clear to all concerned that there can be no military solution to any of the contentious issues, let alone the issue of Kashmir."


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Where much of the politics of Hussain's party MQM revolves around fighting for justice for the muhajir community in Pakistan, he claims that his party "[stands] for equal rights and opportunities for all irrespective of colour, creed, caste, sect, gender, ethnicity or religion". Hussain's party started out as a movement for the empowerment of muhajirs in Pakistan but later modified its underlying ideologies to reflect a more broader political scope by changing its name from "Muhajir Qaumi Movement" to "Muttahida Qaumi Movement".


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain has asked Muhajirs in Pakistan to contact their relatives in India and asked India to assist them.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: On 17 September 2000, Hussain stated that the partition of India was the "biggest blunder in history of mankind", and that by rejecting the "grouping formulae and greater autonomy for Muslim-majority Indian provinces", Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad forced Muhammad Ali Jinnah to demand a separate Pakistan, even when the founder of Pakistan was ready to accept a united India.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Hussain criticized the partition further, stating that the partition of India "was the division of blood, culture, brotherhood, relationships". The politician stated that the idea of Pakistan was "dead at its inception, when the majority of Muslims chose to stay back after partition."


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: He stated that the two-nation theory was concocted by the British Empire in order to destroy Hindu-Muslim unity. Hussain further criticized the two-nation theory as being un-Islamic: "When prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) started preaching Islam and people entered Islam, people used to live in tribes and each tribe had its own identity but they were all Muslims believing in the oneness of Allah, embraced Quran as the only divine book and hence they were never one nation."


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain has advocated for the government of Pakistan to assist those stranded Pakistanis, who are mostly of the Bihari ethnic group, to be safely repatriated to Pakistan.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: Altaf Hussain is a critic of the Taliban. Hussain, in 2008, warned against the Talibanisation of Karachi and stated that a "well planned conspiracy to intensify sectarian violence in the city, was being hatched."


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: The Pakistani government launched Operation Clean-up in 1992 and sent the military into Karachi to crack down on the MQM. Hussain escaped Karachi one month before the operation began, following an attack on his life on 21 December 1991. Hussain fled to London and applied for political asylum.


title: Altaf Hussain (Pakistani politician)

text: In the later months of 1995, the political killings of members from both parties sparked an outcry throughout the city. This involved the killing of the younger brother of PPP's Syed Abdullah Shah, the Chief Minister of Sindh, which subsequently led to the killing of Altaf Hussain's 62-year-old brother Nasir Hussain and 27-year-old nephew Arif Hussain.